Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels

Abstract: The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) defines carbon steel as follows: Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt, columbium [niobium], molybdenum, nic el, titanium, tun!sten, "anadium or #irconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloyin! effect$ when the specified minimum for copper does not e%ceed &'(& per cent$ or when the ma%imum content specified for any of the followin! elements does not e%ceed the percenta!es noted: man!anese )'*+, silicon &'*&, copper &'*&' Steels can be classified by a "ariety of different systems dependin! on: The composition, such as carbon, low,alloy or stainless steel' The manufacturin! methods, such as open hearth, basic o%y!en process, or electric furnace methods' The finishin! method, such as hot rollin! or cold rollin! The product form, such as bar plate, sheet, strip, tubin! or structural shape The deo%idation practice, such as illed, semi, illed, capped or rimmed steel The microstructure, such as ferritic, pearlitic and martensitic The required stren!th le"el, as specified in AST- standards The heat treatment, such as annealin!, quenchin! and temperin!, and thermomechanical processin! .uality descriptors, such as for!in! quality and commercial quality'

Carbon Steels The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) defines carbon steel as follows: Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt, columbium [niobium], molybdenum, nic el, titanium, tun!sten, "anadium or #irconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloyin! effect$ when the specified minimum for copper does not e%ceed &'(& per cent$ or when the ma%imum content specified for any of the followin! elements does not e%ceed the percenta!es noted: man!anese )'*+, silicon &'*&, copper &'*&' /arbon steel can be classified, accordin! to "arious deo%idation practices, as rimmed, capped, semi, illed, or illed steel' 0eo%idation practice and the steelma in! process will ha"e an effect on the properties of the steel' 1owe"er, "ariations in carbon ha"e the !reatest effect on mechanical properties, with increasin! carbon content leadin! to increased hardness and stren!th' As such, carbon steels are !enerally cate!ori#ed accordin! to their carbon content' 2enerally spea in!, carbon steels contain up to 34 total alloyin! elements and can be subdi"ided into low,carbon steels, medium,carbon steels, hi!h,carbon steels, and ultrahi!h, carbon steels$ each of these desi!nations is discussed below' As a !roup, carbon steels are by far the most frequently used steels' -ore than 5+4 of the steel produced and shipped in the 6nited States is carbon steel' Low-carbon steels contain up to &'7&4 /' The lar!est cate!ory of this class of steel is flat, rolled products (sheet or strip), usually in the cold,rolled and annealed condition' The carbon content for these hi!h,formability steels is "ery low, less than &')&4 /, with up to &'(4 -n' Typical uses are in automobile body panels, tin plate, and wire products' 8or rolled steel structural plates and sections, the carbon content may be increased to appro%imately &'7&4, with hi!her man!anese content up to )'+4' These materials may be used for stampin!s, for!in!s, seamless tubes, and boiler plate' Medium-carbon steels are similar to low,carbon steels e%cept that the carbon ran!es from &'7& to &'*&4 and the man!anese from &'*& to )'*+4' Increasin! the carbon content to appro%imately &'+4 with an accompanyin! increase in man!anese allows medium carbon steels to be used in the quenched and tempered condition' The uses of medium carbon, man!anese steels include shafts, a%les, !ears, cran shafts, couplin!s and for!in!s' Steels in the &'(& to &'*&4 / ran!e are also used for rails, railway wheels and rail a%les' 1i!h,carbon steels contain from &'*& to )'&&4 / with man!anese contents ran!in! from &'7& to &'9&4' 1i!h,carbon steels are used for sprin! materials and hi!h,stren!th wires' Ultrahigh-carbon steels are e%perimental alloys containin! )'3+ to 3'&4 /' These steels are thermomechanically processed to produce microstructures that consist of ultrafine, equia%ed !rains of spherical, discontinuous proeutectoid carbide particles' High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels 1i!h,stren!th low,alloy (1S:A) steels, or microalloyed steels, are desi!ned to pro"ide better mechanical properties and;or !reater resistance to atmospheric corrosion than con"entional carbon steels in the normal sense because they are desi!ned to meet specific mechanical properties rather than a chemical composition' The 1S:A steels ha"e low carbon contents (&'&+,&'3+4 /) in order to produce adequate formability and weldability, and they ha"e man!anese contents up to 3'&4' Small quantities of chromium, nic el, molybdenum, copper, nitro!en, "anadium, niobium, titanium and #irconium are used in "arious combinations' 1S:A /lassification:

Weathering steels, desi!nated to e%hibit superior atmospheric corrosion resistance Control-rolled steels, hot rolled accordin! to a predetermined rollin! schedule, desi!ned to de"elop a hi!hly deformed austenite structure that will transform to a "ery fine equia%ed ferrite structure on coolin! Pearlite-reduced steels, stren!thened by "ery fine,!rain ferrite and precipitation hardenin! but with low carbon content and therefore little or no pearlite in the microstructure Microalloyed steels, with "ery small additions of such elements as niobium, "anadium, and;or titanium for refinement of !rain si#e and;or precipitation hardenin! Acicular ferrite steel, "ery low carbon steels with sufficient hardenability to transform on coolin! to a "ery fine hi!h,stren!th acicular ferrite structure rather than the usual poly!onal ferrite structure
Dual-phase steels, processed to a micro,structure of ferrite containin! small uniformly distributed re!ions of hi!h,carbon martensite, resultin! in a product with low yield stren!th and a hi!h rate of wor hardenin!, thus pro"idin! a hi!h,stren!th steel of superior formability' The "arious types of 1S:A steels may also ha"e small additions of calcium, rare earth elements, or #irconium for sulfide inclusion shape control'

Low-alloy Steels
:ow,alloy steels constitute a cate!ory of ferrous materials that e%hibit mechanical properties superior to plain carbon steels as the result of additions of alloyin! elements such as nic el, chromium, and molybdenum' Total alloy content can ran!e from 3'&<4 up to le"els =ust below that of stainless steels, which contain a minimum of )&4 Cr' 8or many low,alloy steels, the primary function of the alloyin! elements is to increase hardenability in order to optimi#e mechanical properties and tou!hness after heat treatment' In some cases, howe"er, alloy additions are used to reduce en"ironmental de!radation under certain specified ser"ice conditions' As with steels in !eneral, low,alloy steels can be classified accordin! to:

Chemical composition, such as nic el steels, nic el,chromium steels, molybdenum steels, chromium, molybdenum steels Heat treatment, such as quenched and tempered, normali#ed and tempered, annealed' >ecause of the wide "ariety of chemical compositions possible and the fact that some steels are used in more than one heat,treated, condition, some o"erlap e%ists amon! the alloy steel classifications' In this article, four ma=or !roups of alloy steels are addressed: ()) low,carbon quenched and tempered (.T) steels, (3) medium, carbon ultrahi!h,stren!th steels, (7) bearin! steels, and (() heat,resistant chromium,molybdenum steels' Low-carbon quenched and tempered steels combine hi!h yield stren!th (from 7+& to )&7+ -?a) and hi!h tensile stren!th with !ood notch tou!hness, ductility, corrosion resistance, or weldability' The "arious steels ha"e different combinations of these characteristics based on their intended applications' 1owe"er, a few steels, such as 1@,5& and 1@,)&&, are co"ered by military specifications' The steels listed are used primarily as plate' Some of these steels, as well as other, similar steels, are produced as for!in!s or castin!s' Medium-carbon ultrahigh-strength steels are structural steels with yield stren!ths that can e%ceed )75& -?a' -any of these steels are co"ered by SAA;AISI desi!nations or are proprietary compositions' ?roduct forms include billet, bar, rod, for!in!s, sheet, tubin!, and weldin! wire' earing steels used for ball and roller bearin! applications are comprised of low carbon (&')& to &'3&4 C) case,hardened steels and hi!h carbon (,)'&4 /) throu!h,hardened steels' -any of these steels are co"ered by SAA;AISI desi!nations'

Chromium-molybdenum heat-resistant steels contain &'+ to 94 Cr and &'+ to )'&4 Mo' The carbon content is usually below &'34' The chromium pro"ides impro"ed o%idation and corrosion resistance, and the molybdenum increases stren!th at ele"ated temperatures' They are !enerally supplied in the normali#ed and tempered, quenched and tempered or annealed condition' /hromium,molybdenum steels are widely used in the oil and !as industries and in fossil fuel and nuclear power plants'

Classification of Stainless Steels

Abstract: Stainless steels are commonly di"ided into fi"e !roups: martensitic stainless steels, ferritic stainless steels, austenitic stainless steels, duple% (ferritic,austenitic) stainless steels, and precipitation,hardenin! stainless steels' Stainless steels are a"ailable in the form of plate, sheet, strip, foil, bar, wire, semi,finished products, pipes, tubes, and tubin!'

Stainless steels are iron,based alloys containin! at least )&'+4 Cr' 8ew stainless steels contain more than 7&4 Cr or less than +&4 !e' They achie"e their stainless characteristics throu!h the formation of an in"isible and adherent chromium,rich o%ide surface film' This o%ide forms itself in the presence of o%y!en' Bther elements added to impro"e characteristics include nic el, molybdenum, copper, titanium, aluminum, silicon, niobium, nitro!en, sulfur, and selenium' /arbon is normally present in amounts ran!in! from less than &'&74 to o"er )'&4 in certain martensitic !rades' The selection of stainless steels may be based on corrosion resistance, fabrication characteristics, a"ailability, mechanical properties in specific temperature ran!es and product cost' 1owe"er, corrosion resistance and mechanical properties are usually the most important factors in selectin! a !rade for a !i"en application' Stainless steels are commonly di"ided into fi"e !roups: martensitic stainless steels, ferritic stainless steels, austenitic stainless steels, duple% (ferritic,austenitic) stainless steels, and precipitation,hardenin! stainless steels' The de"elopment of precipitation-hardenable stainless steels was spearheaded by the successful production of Stainless C by 6'S' Steel in )9(+' The problem of obtainin! raw materials has been a real one, particularly in re!ard to nic el durin! )9+&s when ci"il wars ra!ed in Africa and Asia, prime sources of nic el, and /old Car politics played a role because Aastern,bloc nations were also prime sources of the element' This led to the de"elopment of a series of alloys (AISI 3&& type) in which man!anese and nitro!en are partially substituted for nic el' These stainless steels are still produced today' B"er the years, stainless steels ha"e become firmly established as materials for coo in! utensils, fasteners, cutlery, flatware, decorati"e architectural hardware, and equipment for use in chemical plants, dairy and food, processin! plants, health and sanitation applications, petroleum and petrochemical plants, te%tile plants, and the pharmaceutical and transportation industries' Some of these applications in"ol"e e%posure to either ele"ated or cryo!enic temperatures$ austenitic stainless steels are well suited to either type of ser"ice' -odifications in composition are sometimes made to facilitate production' 8or instance, basic compositions are altered to ma e it easier to produce stainless steel tubin! and castin!' Similar modifications are made for the manufacture of stainless steel weldin! electrodes$ here combinations of electrode coatin! and wire composition are used to produce desired compositions deposited weld metal' Martensitic stainless steels are essentially alloys of chromium and carbon that possess a distorted body, centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure (martensitic) in the hardened condition' They are ferroma!netic, hardenable by heat treatments, and are !enerally resistant to corrosion only to relati"ely mild en"ironments' /hromium content is !enerally in the ran!e of )&'+ to )54, and carbon content may e%ceed )'34' The chromium and carbon contents are balanced to ensure a martensitic structure after hardenin!' 2eneral corrosion is often much less serious than locali#ed forms such as stress corrosion crac in!, cre"ice corrosion in ti!ht spaces or under deposits, pittin! attac , and inter!ranular attac in sensiti#ed material such as weld heat,affected #ones (1AD)' Such locali#ed corrosion can cause une%pected and sometimes catastrophic failure while most of the structure remains unaffected, and therefore must be considered carefully in the desi!n and selection of the proper !rade of stainless steel' /orrosi"e attac can also be increased dramatically by seemin!ly minor impurities in the medium that may be difficult to anticipate but that can ha"e ma=or effects, e"en when present in only part,per,million concentrations$ by heat transfer throu!h the steel to or from the corrosi"e medium$ by contact trimmed only on the ends' Stainless steels are a"ailable in the form of plate, sheet, strip, foil, bar, wire, semi,finished products, pipes, tubes, and tubin!'

Sheet
Sheet is a flat,rolled product in coils or cut len!ths at least *)& mm wide and less than ('<* mm thic ' Stainless steel sheet is produced in nearly all types e%cept the free machinin! and certain martensitic !rades'

Sheet from the con"entional !rades is almost e%clusi"ely produced on continuous mills' 1and mill production is usually confined to alloys that cannot be produced economically on continuous mills, such as certain hi!h, temperature alloys' The steel is cast in in!ots, and the in!ots are rolled on a slabbin! mill or a bloomin! mill into slabs or sheet bars' The slabs or sheet bars are then conditioned prior to bein! hot rolled on a finishin! mill' Alternati"ely, the steel may be continuous cast directly into slabs that are ready for hot rollin! on a finishin! mill' The current trend worldwide is toward !reater production from continuous cast slabs' Sheet produced from slabs on continuous rollin! mills is coiled directly off the mill' After they are descaled, these hot bands are cold rolled to the required thic ness and coils off the cold mill are either annealed and descaled or bri!ht annealed' >elt !rindin! to remo"e surface defects is frequently required at hot bands or at an intermediate sta!e of processin!' 8ull coils or len!ths cut from coils may then be li!htly cold rolled on either dull or bri!ht rolls to produce the required finish' Sheet may be shipped in coils, or cut sheets may be produced by shearin! len!ths from a coil and flattenin! them by roller le"elin! or stretcher le"elin!'

Strip
Strip is a flat,rolled product, in coils or cut len!ths, less than *)& mm wide and &')7 to ('<* mm thic ' /old finished material &')7 mm thic and less than *)& mm wide fits the definitions of both strip and foil and may be referred to by either term' /old,rolled stainless steel strip is manufactured from hot,rolled, annealed, and pic led strip (or from slit sheet) by rollin! between polished rolls' 0ependin! on the desired thic ness, "arious numbers of cold rollin! passes throu!h the mill are required for effectin! the necessary reduction and securin! the desired surface characteristics and mechanical properties' 1ot,rolled stainless steel strip is a semi,finished product obtained by hot,rollin! slabs or billets and is produced for con"ersion to finished strip by cold rollin!' Heat "reatment# Strip of all types of stainless steel is usually either annealed or annealed and s in passed, dependin! on requirements' Chen se"ere formin!, bendin!, and drawin! operations are in"ol"ed, it is recommended that such requirements be indicated so that the producer will ha"e all the information necessary to ensure that he supplies the proper type and condition' Chen stretcher strains are ob=ectionable in ferritic stainless steels such as type (7&, they can be minimi#ed by specifyin! a Eo 3 finish' /old,rolled strip in types ()&, ()(, ()*, (3&, (7), ((&A, ((&>, and ((&/ can be produced in the hardened and tempered condition' A%perience in the use of stainless steels indicates that many factors can affect their corrosion resistance' Some of the more prominent factors are:

/hemical composition of the corrosi"e medium includin! impurities ?hysical state of the medium,liquid, !aseous, solid, or combinations thereof Temperature Temperature "ariations Aeration of the medium B%y!en content of the medium >acteria content of the medium Ioni#ation of the medium Fepeated formation and collapse of bubbles in the medium Felati"e motion of the medium with respect to the steel /hemical composition of the metal Eature and distribution of microstruc,tural constituents etc' Surface !inish# Bther characteristics in the stainless steel selection chec list are "ital for some speciali#ed applications but of little concern for many applications' Amon! these characteristics, surface finish is important more often than any other e%cept corrosion resistance' Stainless steels are sometimes selected because they are a"ailable in a "ariety of attracti"e finishes' Surface finish selection may be made on the basis of appearance, frictional characteristics, or sanitation'

$late
?late is a flat,rolled or for!ed product more than 3+& mm ()& in') in width and at least ('<* mm (&')5<+ in') in thic ness' A%ceptions include hi!hly alloyed ferritic stainless steels, some of the martensitic stainless steels, and a few of the free,machinin! !rades' ?late is usually produced by hot rollin! from slabs that ha"e been

directly cast or rolled from in!ots and that usually ha"e been conditioned to impro"e plat surface' Some plate may be produced by direct rollin! from in!ot' 8or strip, ed!e condition is often more important than it usually is for sheet' Strip can be furnished with "arious ed!e specifications:

-ill ed!e (as produced, condition unspecified) Eo') ed!e (ed!e rolled, rounded, or square) Eo'7 ed!e (as slit) Eo'+ ed!e (square ed!e produced by rollin! or filin! after slittin!)

!oil
8oil is a flat,rolled product, in coil form, up to &')7 mm thic and less than *)& mm wide' 8oil is produced in slit widths with ed!e conditions correspondin! to Eo'7 and Eo'+ ed!e conditions for strip' 8oil is made from types 3&), 3&3, 7&), 7&3, 7&(, 7&(:, 7&+, 7)*, 7)*:, 73), 7(<, (7&, and ((3, as well as from certain proprietary alloys' The finishes, tolerances, and mechanical properties of foil differ from those of strip because of limitations associated with the way in which foil is manufactured' Eomenclature for finishes, and for width and thic ness tolerances, "ary amon! producers' Mechanical $roperties# In !eneral, mechanical properties of foil "ary with thic ness' Tensile stren!th is increased somewhat, and ductility is lowered, by a decrease in thic ness'

ar
>ar is a product supplied in strai!ht len!ths$ it is either hot or cold finished and is a"ailable in "arious shapes, si#es, and surface finishes' This cate!ory includes small shapes whose dimensions do not e%ceed <+ mm and, second, hot,rolled flat stoc at least 7'3 mm thic and up to 3+& mm wide' 1ot,finished bar is commonly produced by hot rollin!, for!in!, or pressin! in!ots to blooms or billets of intermediate si#e, which are subsequently hot rolled, for!ed, or e%truded to final dimensions'