Contents

Preface Acknowledgments Nomenclature 1 Introduction to condition monitoring 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The need for monitoring 1.3 What and when to monitor 1.4 Scope of the text 1.5 References Construction, operation and failure modes of electrical machines 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Materials and temperature 2.3 Construction of electrical machines 2.3.1 General 2.3.2 Stator core and frame 2.3.3 Rotors 2.3.4 Windings 2.3.5 Enclosures 2.3.6 Connections 2.3.7 Summary 2.4 Structure of electrical machines and their types 2.5 Machine specification and failure modes 2.6 Insulation ageing mechanisms 2.6.1 General 2.6.2 Thermal ageing 2.6.3 Electrical ageing 2.6.4 Mechanical ageing 2.6.5 Environmental ageing 2.6.6 Synergism between ageing stresses 2.7 Insulation failure modes 2.7.1 General 2.7.2 Stator winding insulation 2.7.3 Stator winding faults

xiii xvii xix 1 1 4 7 9 10 13 13 14 16 16 18 18 18 20 26 26 26 33 35 35 36 36 37 38 39 39 39 40 45

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Condition monitoring of rotating electrical machines 2.7.4 Rotor winding faults Other failure modes 2.8.1 Stator core faults 2.8.2 Connection faults (high-voltage motors and generators) 2.8.3 Water coolant faults (all machines) 2.8.4 Bearing faults 2.8.5 Shaft voltages Conclusion References 50 54 54 54 56 56 56 59 59 61 61 61 63 65 65 65 66 66 69 71 75 76 79 79 81 88 88 89 91 92 94 97 100 102 104 106 106 109 109 110 115

2.8

2.9 2.10 3

Reliability of machines and typical failure rates 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Definition of terms 3.3 Failure sequence and effect on monitoring 3.4 Typical root causes and failure modes 3.4.1 General 3.4.2 Root causes 3.4.3 Failure modes 3.5 Reliability analysis 3.6 Machinery structure 3.7 Typical failure rates and MTBFs 3.8 Conclusion 3.9 References Instrumentation requirements 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Temperature measurement 4.3 Vibration measurement 4.3.1 General 4.3.2 Displacement transducers 4.3.3 Velocity transducers 4.3.4 Accelerometers 4.4 Force and torque measurement 4.5 Electrical and magnetic measurement 4.6 Wear and debris measurement 4.7 Signal conditioning 4.8 Data acquisition 4.9 Conclusion 4.10 References Signal processing requirements 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Spectral analysis 5.3 High-order spectral analysis

List of contents 5.4 5.5 Correlation analysis Signal processing for vibration 5.5.1 General 5.5.2 Cepstrum analysis 5.5.3 Time averaging and trend analysis Wavelet analysis Conclusion References

ix 116 118 118 118 120 121 125 125 127 127 127 132 132 134 134 137 137 137 138 142 142 146 148 149 152 153 153 153 154 155 157 157 159 159 159 159 161 164 167 168 168 171

5.6 5.7 5.8 6

Temperature monitoring 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Local temperature measurement 6.3 Hot-spot measurement and thermal images 6.4 Bulk measurement 6.5 Conclusion 6.6 References Chemical monitoring 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Insulation degradation 7.3 Factors that affect detection 7.4 Insulation degradation detection 7.4.1 Particulate detection: core monitors 7.4.2 Particulate detection: chemical analysis 7.4.3 Gas analysis off-line 7.4.4 Gas analysis on-line 7.5 Lubrication oil and bearing degradation 7.6 Oil degradation detection 7.7 Wear debris detection 7.7.1 General 7.7.2 Ferromagnetic techniques 7.7.3 Other wear debris detection techniques 7.8 Conclusion 7.9 References Vibration monitoring 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Stator core response 8.2.1 General 8.2.2 Calculation of natural modes 8.2.3 Stator electromagnetic force wave 8.3 Stator end-winding response 8.4 Rotor response 8.4.1 Transverse response 8.4.2 Torsional response

Condition monitoring of rotating electrical machines 8.5 Bearing response 8.5.1 General 8.5.2 Rolling element bearings 8.5.3 Sleeve bearings Monitoring techniques 8.6.1 Overall level monitoring 8.6.2 Frequency spectrum monitoring 8.6.3 Faults detectable from the stator force wave 8.6.4 Torsional oscillation monitoring 8.6.5 Shock pulse monitoring Conclusion References 173 173 173 175 176 177 179 182 183 187 189 189 193 193 193 193 193 194 194 194 194 195 196 204 207 207 207 207 210 212 212 213 217 217 219 221 221 224 224 229 229 229 231

8.6

8.7 8.8 9

Electrical techniques: current, flux and power monitoring 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Generator and motor stator faults 9.2.1 Generator stator winding fault detection 9.2.2 Stator current monitoring for stator faults 9.2.3 Brushgear fault detection 9.2.4 Rotor-mounted search coils 9.3 Generator rotor faults 9.3.1 General 9.3.2 Earth leakage faults on-line 9.3.3 Turn-to-turn faults on-line 9.3.4 Turn-to-turn and earth leakage faults off-line 9.4 Motor rotor faults 9.4.1 General 9.4.2 Airgap search coils 9.4.3 Stator current monitoring for rotor faults 9.4.4 Rotor current monitoring 9.5 Generator and motor comprehensive methods 9.5.1 General 9.5.2 Shaft flux 9.5.3 Stator current 9.5.4 Power 9.5.5 Shaft voltage or current 9.5.6 Mechanical and electrical interaction 9.6 Effects of variable speed operation 9.7 Conclusion 9.8 References Electrical techniques: discharge monitoring 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Background to discharge detection 10.3 Early discharge detection methods

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List of contents 10.3.1 RF coupling method 10.3.2 Earth loop transient method 10.3.3 Capacitive coupling method 10.3.4 Wideband RF method 10.3.5 Insulation remanent life Detection problems Modern discharge detection methods Conclusion References

xi 231 233 235 236 236 238 239 241 241 245 245 246 250 253 253 254 256 260 261 263 263 263 265 265 267 268

10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 11

Application of artificial intelligence techniques 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Expert systems 11.3 Fuzzy logic 11.4 Artificial neural networks 11.4.1 General 11.4.2 Supervised learning 11.4.3 Unsupervised learning 11.5 Conclusion 11.6 References Condition-based maintenance and asset management 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Condition-based maintenance 12.3 Life-cycle costing 12.4 Asset management 12.5 Conclusion 12.6 References

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Appendix Failure modes and root causes in rotating electrical machines Index

269 277