CIGRE 2010

Study Committee A2
GENERAL REPORT FOR SCA2 Transformers Chairman: Secretary: P. Boss (CH) C. Rajotte (CA)

Special Reporters: M. Kadowaki (JP) (PS1) P. Werle (DE) (PS2) F. Devaux (FR) (PS3) Discussion summary prepared by J. Aubin (CA), A.C. Hall (UK)
SESSION OPENING Pierre Boss, SC A2 Chairman, opened the session promptly at 09:00 with approximately 300 delegates attending. He welcomed attendees and then summarised SCA2 activities since the 2008 session. He announced four WG have finished their work and been disbanded; two are about to be disbanded for the same reasons; and four have been created. In total, nine WG's remain active. Mr Boss advised A2 is in liaison with SC D1, A3, B3 and C4 and also with IEC, IEEE, and ISO. Together with the support of D1, A2 has published seven Brochures since the last A2 session. He ended his remarks by confirming several international events supported by A2 in Poland, China, Croatia, Israel, India and Brazil. PREFERENTIAL SUBJECT 1: TRANSFORMER INCIDENTS IN SERVICE A total of 7 papers describing transformer incidents in service were selected by SC A2 for presentation on this subject. They can be classified as: Risk assessment incidents in substations originated by transformers Study of tank rupture caused by transformer incidents Risk mitigation measure taken for transformer design and manufacturing Proposal for substation design to avoid transformer fire and mitigate its effect PS1 - Keynote presentation by Mr. Marc Foata (CA) Mr. Foata reviewed briefly the work done at Hydro-Quebec to develop a requirement on transformer tank withstand to internal flashover. The basic principle of fire initiation and propagation were reviewed along with some statistic of tank rupture event. The typical failure mode of HV bushing, responsible for about 50% of all fires, was presented. The limited efficiency of pressure relief devices was reviewed with example for some typical cases. Mitigation measures to insure energy containment were presented. Field experience of 735 kV single-phase transformers indicate that tank rupture is likely to occurs when the arc energy reach a value between 4 and 8 MJ. Appreciable increase in containment capability can be achieved with tank design enhancements

The Special Reporter Mr. Makoto Kadowaki formulated the following questions to structure the contributions from delegates to the A2 Paris 2010 meeting. Question 1-1: Transformer fire is mainly introduced in papers in this subject as this is considered the most critical. What are other critical incidents revealing substation operation? Question 1-2: Transformer incidents have huge impact on reliability and safe operation of substation. Is there any significant experience which effect on the philosophy of substation design? Question 1-3: What is the most effective measure in tank design which should be considered in order to prevent transformer tank rupture after internal fault? Question 1-4: Accessories such as bushings, OLTCs, and cables are higher in rate of transformer fire. What is the most effective measure to mitigate risks by them? Question 1-5: In applying insulation medium with high flash point as alternative of mineral oil, what considerations should be taken for sufficient evaluation of characteristics? Is there any data or experience available? Question 1-6: Protection algorithm using mechanical and electrical protections can depend upon practices in each country and organization. What kind of philosophy is applied on reliable harmonics of transformer protection? Question 1-7: Which countermeasure is the most effective in substation design for the mitigation of fire risks? Is the method standardised? Question 1-8: Are there any experiences evaluating countermeasure of substation design against fire, from aspect of social and economical impacts? Question 1.1 Aside from fire damage, the Australian Cigre members have identified a number of other critical incidents that may affect substation operation: smoke and debris that result from explosive failure of other substation equipment, fire fighting water being used in the substation, deflagration and oil spills from oil filled transformers, and porcelain fragments from bushing failures. A contribution from Japan reviewed a number of transformer failures that did not lead to any fire: static electrification in aged transformer, winding displacement caused by seismic force, direct lighting stroke to the power line and resonance between power transformer and power cable induced by switching operation. No contribution was received to Question 1.2 Question 1.3 A contribution from France reported the occurrence 6 serious fire failures of 600MVA 400/225kV auto-transformers in 30 years. This represents a 0.015% failure rate due to this cause. Studies in partnership with the manufacturers involved have been made to understand the reason for the tank rupture that resulted from each of these events, in particular to determine the correlation between fault arc energy and tank internal pressure withstand capability, using the Hydro-Quebec model formula (ref. CIGRE - A2_102_2010 - CIGRE 2010 M. Foata; JB Dastous Hydro Quebec). It is shown that existing tanks have a 1-2 bar withstand capability with a maximum 3 bar withstand at some location around the tank e.g. in the vicinity of the main tank flange. The Hydro-Quebec model is

considered to be a realistic tool for use by both users and manufacturers. The Hydro-Quebec model calculations are now a requirement in transformer technical specifications and are used also to evaluate existing tanks. Transformer internal pressure withstands capability was the subject of another report from France. The finite-element-method (FEM) was used for example to study the tank design for a 735 kV 110 Mvar shunt reactor. Again the internal arc energy was calculated using Hydro-Quebec Specification (SN 14.1h, Part 1, Annex A, page 61), which also estimates the effects of tank volumetric flexibility. Volumetric flexibility is the ratio of tank volume to applied pressure and is expressed as m/kPa. The report contains several interesting FEM derived images of pressure and vacuum deformations studied. Question 1.4 A contribution from India reports on most effective measure to mitigate risks: use of RIP bushing in place of OIP bushing can mitigate the risk of transformer fire; several steps can be taken to reduce risk of failure of tap changers: regular monitoring of BDV and moisture content, use of DGA and localization of tap changer in a separate compartment. Other mitigation strategy such as nitrogen injection and shaped thank construction are also deployed. A further report from an Indian utility report the following actions that were deployed successfully to mitigate risk of failure of accessories: measurement of capacitance and tan delta on an annual basis and monitoring of trend with reference to the base value recorded at the time of installation; measurement of BDV value of oil in the OLTC chamber on half yearly basis and replacement of oil, if required; introduction of scheme to restrict the number of OLTC operations to five times in a day to minimize wear and probability of failure; and modification to cable box of the transformer to provide proper ventilation so that condensation of moisture does not take place inside the cable box. A contribution from Poland indicates that most bushing insulation failures are caused by ingress of moisture into the bushing core and would recommend that utilities operating older units should replace bushings that exceeded approximately 20 years of service. Diagnostic instruments based on dielectric polarization method provide information on the average moisture content in bushing insulation, but cannot detect local wet pockets in the bushing core. These can be detected by recording of partial discharges at regular time intervals, by continuous monitoring or by thermal analysis. A thermal model is proposed for this purpose. A contribution from Germany reports on measures that can be deployed to mitigate risk of fire on tap changers: first and preferred measure is to reduce the possibility for the occurrence of such a fault condition, moisture content in insulation continues to be a major cause of problems and should be eliminated, pressure-relief devices can also be applied and finally the use of less flammable liquids can be considered. A contribution from Croatia reports that mechanically rigid bushing connection to the switchyard can cause bushing failure. Visual inspection of burst bushings debris has often shown that the failure mechanism is connected with moisture ingress and/or test tap deterioration. A fast developing fault cannot be effectively prevented by periodic diagnostic testing. In that case a bushing monitoring system should be used. Question 1.5 A contribution from USA reports on the behaviour off pole-type transformers under internal fault condition. An oil filled unit would explode while the unit filled with natural ester would not. One of the main dielectric characteristics of ester fluids is the different impulse breakdown mechanism. Therefore, a different set of dielectric rules is required in design of esterfilled power transformers. A contribution from France also supports these findings. Dielectric properties and streamer propagation of ester are shown to compare favourably with mineral oil.

A contribution from Germany reports that the use of less-inflammable liquids for tap-changers minimizes the hazard of fire and explosion damage in the event of an electrical failure inside the equipment. Extensive tests on various tap-changer models have been carried out and it has been found that tap-changers with vacuum switching technology are more suitable for these purposes than conventional arc-breaking-in-oil tap-changers. The different arc-quenching behaviour impedes the unrestricted use of ester liquids in arc-breaking-in-oil tap-changers. A contribution from Japan reports on the combustion properties of natural ester oil and synthetic ester oil along with silicon oil. Results indicate that in term of heat release and smoke production, esters perform better than mineral oil but not as well as silicone liquid. A contribution from UK also addresses the issue of dielectric strength of ester as compared with mineral oil. The impulse strength was investigated to consider the mechanism leading to streamer initiation, propagation and breakdown. It was found that ester liquids have much lower breakdown voltage than mineral oil due to their low tolerance to fast streamer. Therefore a linkage between results under impulse testing and previously published empirical formula was developed to predict the breakdown voltage of esters at very large gaps. A contribution from France addresses the issue of gas-absorbing additives for transformer oils, as an economical solution to mitigate transformer incidents in service. Highly refined oils contain less aromatic compounds due to the hydrogenation process and as a consequence, the gassing tendency of today mineral oils becomes more and more positive. Using M/DBT as complement to mineral oils will restore the original performances of these insulating liquids. In addition, M/DBT will improve the dielectric strength of the insulating liquid. Question 1.6 A contribution from Sweden referred to aspects of current harmonics in relation to HVDC transformers and their significance for converter transformer protection, especially differential protection. It was reported this form of protection has to be evaluated for the effects of inrush and excitation current harmonic content. The evaluation must ensure the protection will be stable despite the presence of the harmonic frequencies and magnitude and take account of the effect of the extended tap-range normally adopted for HVDC transformers. Experience of existing HVDC transformer protection systems is good apparently and no changes are foreseen. The report also refers to differential protection fault clearance times. Here, studies indicate a 3-cycle fault clearance time would present a potential tank interruption risk. The report emphasizes there is the additional protection of the customary earth fault protection system as a backup. A contribution from Japan referred to work by the Japanese Electric Technology Research Association (ETRA) on behalf of utilities, manufacturers and academic organisations to study fault incident conditions, methods to improve tank strength, tank internal pressure rise and related protection systems. Results from these studies have been applied to the design of new transformers and to increase existing tank strengths. Factors such fault locations, arc current and arc voltage magnitudes and durations, tank flexibility and mechanical strength were considered. The rate rise of pressure as well as the attained peak pressure and duration needed to be evaluated and the tank intrinsic strength determined. Experimental and simulation derived data has been used to increase tank strength by as much as 60% without the need for tank reinforcement and has provided more assured safety margins. Question 1.7 A contribution from Spain said a major national utility, in its document MT 2.60.1, has introduced defined safety requirements against fire risk which apply now to all new substations and for upgrading modifications to existing ones. Both active and passive aspects are being instituted depending on the substation type and its location, whether rural, urban or inside or outside other buildings. Active fire

extinction methods adopted for each of these locations includes: gas, high/medium/or low expansion foams, and detection sensors such as, thermal/thermal kinetic, straight thermal or optical sensors. Passive protection methods include fire resistive materials for walls and doors, GIS insulated equipments, adequate and effective safety exit precautions, better protected cables and fire resistive paints etc. Discussion Several spontaneous contributions were raised from the floor on the topic of transformer incidents in services. Opinions were expressed on the limited efficiency of pressure relief devices in some applications. The specific problem of GSU directly connected to alternator was raised since in a case of internal failure, opening of the HV breaker do not prevent the circulation of a heavy short circuit current into the fault until the alternator voltage has decayed. Contributors were invited to provide a written version of their comments for inclusion in the session proceeding. PREFERENTIAL SUBJECT 2: TRANSFORMER LIFE This subject has raised much interest and 12 reports were selected for publication. Discussion of this subject was lead by the Special Reporter Peter Werle who had introduced 8 questions addressing specific aspects of transformer life duration. 24 prepared contributions were presented and are summarized below in sequence with the specific question laid down in the Special Report. PS2 - Keynote presentation by Paul Jarman (UK) Mr. Jarman reviewed the various transformer components that can determine the transformer life duration. Assessment of remaining life is important since regulatory and financial planning regimes demand replacement planning on a 2-20 year timescale. Moreover, there is a need to maintain network reliability, which means maintaining component reliability. There are many excellent condition assessment and diagnostic techniques for transformers, but they usually predict failure only a few months ahead. End of life is either a failure or a condition requiring replacement. All factors influencing life expectancy were reviewed. Transformers are failing randomly up to age 45 but more data is needed. Evidence from scrapped transformers indicates a very wide range of thermal lifetimes. Thermal modelling shows the main determinant of lifetime prediction is design. We still need a good indicator for ageing. Good standards and specifications are needed. Activities of IEC TC-14 were also reviewed as Mr. Jarman is the Chairman of TC-14. The Special Reporter Mr. Peter Werle, formulated the following questions to structure the contributions from delegates to the A2 Paris 2010 meeting. Ageing diagnosis based chemical indicators and DGA analysis Question 2-1: What is the best way to increase the efficiency of interpretation algorithms? Question 2-2: How important is a fast implementation of the standardized procedures in case of the application of chemical indicators like methanol? New methods and approaches for diagnosis, testing and fleet screening Question 2-3: What kind of the diagnostic measurements, tests and available interpretation tools has higher impact for the utilities and can help to improve service reliability?

Question 2-4: Which methods of evaluation are most efficient to provide the required feedback for the introduction of new solutions? Experiences with on-line monitoring and off-line diagnostic methods Question 2-5: Considering the wide range of the available condition assessment methods, what are the possibilities to optimise the maintenance strategy with focus on their efficiency and costs? Question 2-6: What is the best way to combine on-line and off-line diagnostic methods? Transformer life time estimation, failure rates and replacement issues Question 2-7: What is the most promising methodology for the estimation of the remaining life? Question 2-8: What kind of models can be helpful to improve the accuracy in the determination of the residual lifetime? Question 2.1 A contribution from Canada commented that in the case of a chemical indicator to evaluate solid insulation ageing, the important points to consider are: Laboratory validation of the sensitivity to paper aging, validation of the influence of the oil condition on the chemical indicator, validation of the longterm stability of the chemical indicator, validation of the repeatability of the test and field calibration of the relation between level of the chemical marker and degree of polymerization of paper samples. A contribution from Germany stressed the fact that, to this day, all practical DGA diagnoses have been made without considering any differences between seal type and free breathing transformers. A method is proposed, using the rate of absorption of nitrogen to determine a "transformer openness number" (TON). This would allow the oxygen consumption rate to be calculated from the oxygen concentration. A contribution from Japan reported on the persistent difficulty in the diagnosing of internal condition when gas level exceeds criteria. It was found that the gas concentration pattern differs significantly with the type and location of the faults. The gas generation pattern might also change as the internal abnormality progresses. The method of continuous recording of gas level is also supported by (UK) with regular observation of the gas signature. Question 2.2 A contribution from Sweden recalled the difficulty of relating the furan level to a DP level and identifies a new source of error: the introduction of Irgamet 39 passivator could actually reduce by a factor of 10, the amount of furans dissolved in oil. The methanol method is promising but the same problem remains: how can we distinguish a mild degradation of bulk cellulose from a severe degradation of conductor insulation in local hot spots or local hot areas. A contribution from Canada submitted that development of interpretation algorithms requires a significant number of samples to compare the level of the chemical indicator and the degree of polymerization, the procedures should be standardized in the earliest stages.

Question 2.3 A contribution from Sweden commented that no single diagnostic method or test can tell the complete picture of a unit. Conditions assessment is like a puzzle, one needs several pieces to see the whole picture. Dependent on the task, different methods will be needed: fleet screening, advanced survey on a selected group, assessment on individual transformer. Question 2.4 A contribution from Germany comments that a lot of methods for condition assessment are available (conventional and modern) and the art is to use them in combination and having evaluated new methods go back and review older ones. For instance recent data from on-line monitoring of DGA suggest that the CO2/CO ratio should not be related blindly to solid insulation aging. Question 2.5 A contribution from Germany described a tap changer monitoring system that is intended to reduce maintenance costs. It relies on temperature and motor torque monitoring along with contact wear calculation. A contribution from Mexico describes a transformer monitoring system that is expected to reduce maintenance cost and improve reliability in a nuclear plant. Question 2.6 A contribution from Australia reports on examples of application provided by Australian Cigre members. In one case, replacement of two old 200 MVA autotransformers was postponed by 5 years in spite of degraded HV winding insulation and HV bushings. Bushing monitoring was provided along with hydrogen and moisture monitoring of transformer oil. In another case, two 1125 MVA autotransformers with intermittent partial discharges were fitted with RF detectors, but the PD source has not been localised yet. A contribution from Mexico reported a case where an on-line monitoring malfunction prompted offline investigation to localise the source of the problem. Question 2.7 A contribution from Canada indicates that two methods are available. A statistical method as described in the recent report from Cigre WG C1.16. This report mentions that it is critically important to group as much as possible assets of the same type and also that care should be exercise with definitions of what constitutes effective end-of-life. A second method would be to use models as describes in IEEE and IEC loading guides. A contribution from Spain describes the philosophy applied at Iberdrola Distribucin Elctrica to develop an Health Index that is converted into a probability of failure and a Consequence Index related to energy not supplied. The product of these two components gives the Risk Index that allows a ranking on individual transformers. Health Index is based on 13 indicators mainly related to periodic tests (electrical and chemical), family risk and operating conditions on transformer and main accessories. A contribution from Japan reports on the method developed at TEPCO to optimise the life expectancy of transformers. Approximately 4500 transformers with 66-550 kV primary side voltages are in service. In order to maintain a very low failure rate in spite of equipment aging, the expected life duration and maintenance strategy has been studied in detail. As a part of these studies, twenty units

removed from service were examined to investigate transformers deterioration process by checking reduction of insulation capability, polymerization degree, and fastening strength of coils. The result of the study shows that the remaining life of some designs of transformers, all of which suffering from insufficient drying process and consequently containing more water in the insulating papers, lead to a decrease of the degree of polymerization. On the other hand, the expected lifetime of other units is determined by a decrease of the fastening strength of windings, and can be estimated to 65-75 years. A contribution from Zambia reports on the application of the furans test to estimate the degree of polymerization. Although the correlation, between furans and DP is not very good, it was adequate for identifying the units that required closer attention and trigger an end-of-life strategy that would include the following: Increased vigilance in tracking deterioration, detection of incipient faults, mitigation of the impact of a failure and decision relative to renewal or refurbishment. Question 2.8 A contribution from France reports on the EDF methodology for the development of a transformer Thermal Ageing Signature. This method considers mainly design and manufacturing, qualification tests, thermal modelling, fleet screening, chemical indicators and on site monitoring. Methanol production has now been measured on 294 transformers. This promising young ageing tracer has to be considered as a new indicator to enhance the use of the traditional indicators (2FAL and CO/CO2). Discussion Several spontaneous contributions were raised from the floor on the topic of transformer life. Contributors were invited to provide a written version of their comments for inclusion in the session proceeding. PREFERENTIAL SUBJECT 3: TRANSFORMER MODELING This session was introduced by the Special Reporter; Francois Devaux (FR) who informed the audience that A2 selected 10 papers from the 18 that were offered in answer to the questions raised in the Special Report firstly transients which included the new situations that have arisen because of transformer-system interactions namely inrush current and switching effects and their protection measures. The selected papers contain references to the relevant new tools and techniques especially those for modelling transformers and include comparisons between the results obtained directly from transformers to those obtained by modelling. PS3 - Keynote presentation by Stefan Tenbohlen (DE) Mr Tenbohlen identified three active areas of transformer modelling developments: windings; 3D electromagnetic fields and thermal-hydraulic analysis using computer finite dynamics (CFD). The presentation was impressively supported for example, with computer generated video-like images of oil flows in modelled windings and winding sections with illustrations of the effects of inadequate or blocked oil channels in windings. Other techniques described included the application of finite integration techniques (FIT). The scope for applying all these new analytical tools was evident. Examples were given of calculated winding frequency response characteristics and internal voltage distributions; algorithms derived to optimise winding lumped parameters; determining winding oil flow quantities, oil velocities and oil thermal distributions using comprehensive thermal-hydraulic analysis tools. It was emphasised time and again that validation of these modelling tools is an absolute requirement. However, these various analytical tool developments clearly have extended transformer knowledge and insight and will not only provide better designs but have the potential to provide more accurate prediction of expected test results e.g. the thermal performances expected on temperature rise tests.

This Keynote Address was followed by contributed presentations in answer to the 8 questions posed in the Special Report. No contributions were submitted in reply to Questions 3.3 and 3.6. The Special Reporter Mr. Franois Devaux formulated the following questions to structure the contributions from delegates to the A2 Paris 2010 meeting. Transient modelling Question 3.1 - What are the limits of frequency for different modelling tools, what are the most acceptable tools to model high frequency phenomenon (from 500 kHz to several MHz) and how to include non-standard type of impulse including VFTO surges? Question 3-2: What can be reported on new failure experiences with transients, in GIS or air substation, and on their subsequent modelling investigations? Question 3-3: What are the experiences of HF transients using on-line measurement systems for field applications? Are there new examples of measurements of field HF transients and their comparisons with calculations? Question 3-4: Based on modelling analysis data, what should be the new test requirements and protection measures to address transient phenomena? Thermal modelling Question 3-5: What is the experience with applications (modelling and direct measurements) on other oil flow paths (without washers) and/or other type of cooling (ON)? Question 3-6: Can we get additional guidelines on how to use data obtained by direct measurement for modelling purposes and their application for operation and life management? Question 3-7: A lot of information is available on internal winding temperature analysis. Are there experiences and information on global hydro-thermal modelling or on modelling other parts of the transformer (other than the internal winding) and on their associated direct measurements? Question 3-8: Is there any information on the oil flow distribution between windings, associated with representative thermal conditions (modelling and direct measurements). Are there measurement sensors available for characteristics other than temperature measurements (oil flow, pressure) and what is their association with direct measurements on transformer? Question 3.1 A contribution from Japan answered to the question with presenting a simple electric model to simulate the interleaved windings to perform an analysis easily. Its applicability was evaluated by comparison with measurements of the winding model A contribution from France presented different numerical approaches and their frequency applications. The Lumped parameter model is well suited for the analysis of transients in power transformers, from power frequency to lightning or switching surge. It can account for frequency contain up to 500 kHz to 1MHz or more depending on the size of the transformer: The larger the transformer or electric element physical size, the lower the frequency. For the higher frequency contain transient over-voltages as those switching of GIS disconnectors would generate, distributed parameters model as MTL is advisable. Calculations in frequency domain allows to account for frequency dependency of parameters and can also handle both standard and non standard input waves when applying Lumped parameters or MTL models : Using FFT to find the spectrum of these waves, calculating frequency response of these waves and using reverse FFT to bring back these response to time domain

A contribution, submitted by Sweden, explained the frequency ranges of transformer models. Transformer models are often lumped, e.g. disc pair models, and cover frequencies up to 200-300 kHz. The same type of models resolving individual turns cover frequencies that in theory range to around 1 MHz. Frequencies above one MHz would require highly resolved models. Some problems: numerically heavy, frequency dependent conductor impedance, proximity effect, skin depth, verification by experiment problematic. It was pointed out that risk for transformer decreases with frequency. Question 3.2 A contribution from Brazil suggested more accurate evaluation of switching transient phenomena on transformers and power systems requires wideband frequency modelling studies. Using examples of voltage transient studies it was concluded guidelines are required for modelling transmission lines, busbars, switching equipments and transformers. A second presentation from Brazil described the circumstances in which 3 single-phase 525kV 150MVA COPEL transformers failed in service between November 2007 and February 2008. Research suggested the existence of VFT overvoltages possibly having rise times of tens of nanoseconds and amplitude of 2.5 p.u. It was claimed detecting these faults by classical monitoring techniques is not effective. It was suggested improved transformer design and testing standards are required. As a result of this experience, it was said COPEL have increased the transformer voltage withstand requirements to include for example 2 p.u. peak to peak test voltage levels having wavefronts of 10 50 nanoseconds. No contribution was received to Question 3.3 Question 3.4 A contribution from France reported EdF is actively pursuing core saturation, overvoltage and inrush current studies. The transformer air-core reactance characteristic is believed important in the study of temporary overvoltages at transformer terminals when energised. Data from manufacturers supporting this study is required to improve understanding of the phenomena involved and to ensure better operating conditions for transformers. A second contribution from France concerned the harmonic temporary overvoltages that can arise under inrush current effects. It was said overvoltages of up to 2.5 p.u can occur for between 0.1 to 10 seconds duration and that the present IEC recommended AC voltage tests do not adequately cover these transient overvoltage (TOV) occurrences. A contribution from Sweden reported VFT can result in voltage stresses in bushings increasing as much as 2.4 p.u. when test circuit resonances coincide with bushing internal resonances. They consider the frequency of bushing failure due to VFT in GIS installations is low. It was recommended Cigre should collect and analyse information to substantiate claims that the interaction between bushings and GIS circuits is an important factor. This concluded the contributions on transients and transformers interaction considerations. The following contributions all relate to the thermal modelling aspects of transformers.

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Question 3.5 A contribution from France referred to the findings obtained from thermal studies involving an ONAN disc winding without oil guidance internal washers. The numerical analysis of the winding thermal and hydraulic aspects was performed using computational fluids dynamics (CFD) methods and took into account radial oil channel height, additional pressure loss and additional heat loss up the winding. Account was also taken of the winding and external cooling system gravity centre effect. Four cases were studied: varying the radial oil flows by between 20% - 200% of the typical value; simulating reduction of the radial oil duct height from 6mm to 5mm; reducing the thermal gravity centre by 0.5m; confirming mass oil flow increases as temperature increases. The conclusions were that winding temperature is directly mass oil flow dependent and local winding temperatures are influenced the natural convection induced radial oil flow. No contribution was received to Question 3.6 Question 3.7 A contribution from Finland described the results of studies and measurements of the thermal conditions outside the winding i.e. in the metal components influenced by the winding induced magnetic field. Representative 3D-models of these external winding parts were said to yield very good information However, the point was made some of the gained knowledge was not equally and readily measurable, despite details being shown of at least one attempt using thermocouples to validate the model derived data with the actual thermal values occurring in these metal parts. Simpler studies using 2D-models of different core and winding cross-sections were considered useful and were to be recommended. A contribution from Korea identified four thermal areas of transformer engineering that require further discussion and debate. They were: existing transformer cooling conceptions; cooling pipework arrangements; heat exchangers; plate fin-type designed heat exchangers. Factors such oil flow, oil flow rate and temperature distributions need more accurate and informed assessment. Unknown unsymmetrical oil distribution in windings can be detrimental therefore informed estimates of oil distribution in windings at the design stage is essential. Winding and oil temperatures were said to be greatly influenced by the hydraulic design aspects. It was recommended oil inlets and outlets are located diagonally opposite. Also, oil flow to windings can be regulated by sizing oil duct dimensions to each winding properly. Question 3.8 A contribution from Australia confirmed temperatures in distribution transformers were affected by oil flow rates. Studies using prototype transformers confirmed previous contributor's submissions that oil flow across the active part, end to end and bottom to top for example should a design target. It was concluded oil flow rate is the most vital factor. In the second of the three contributions received in answer to Question 3.8, France made the only contribution concerning thermal aspects of shell-type transformers. Studies of oil circulations in a shell-type transformer were made using CFD simulations and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) methods. The studies confirmed comparatively similar oil flow and velocity data were obtained between theoretical and measured data. The study was unusual to the extent of the care taken to model the porosity of the solid insulations of which there is a much greater amount in the shell-type transformers compared to conventional core-type units. Apparently very good correlation was obtained between the measured LV and HV winding average temperature rises and the simulation derived values.

A contribution from Japan closed this PS3 Session with a contribution to Question 3.8 detailing the application of an oil flow meter designed and sized to be placed within winding 11

bottom end insulation system to measure actual oil flows into the windings. The meter was said to be capable of measuring oil flows of between a few cm/second up to 100cm/second. The meter is plastic and the propeller diameter is 10mm. Studies using several of these meters have been made on a 3-phase OFAF 1500 MVA 500 kV auto-transformer. Measured results closely correlate to 3D-model derived fluid analysis.
CLOSING REMARKS In his closing address to A2, Chairman Pierre Boss began by summarising the trends and challenges facing A2 and the transformer industry, especially those aspects that should engage A2 generally such as the future power networks and power efficiency but specifically: Identification of weaknesses Aspects needing further development Better interpretation of diagnostic tools Acoustic emission and migration Better use of available monitors to improve maintenance Recommendations for tank design Studies to evaluate the impact of transient over-voltages on design, ageing of insulation etc Improved asset management Reactors Dynamic loading / improved asset Utilisation / better diagnostic skills More online monitoring / new sensors / better risk management possibly based on a probabilistic approach / safety / HVDC developments / transient overvoltage considerations, events frequency and new tests / improved customer specifications.

As regards power efficiency aspects, Mr. Boss emphasized the increasing aspect of carbon footprint considerations in the future including transformer replacement versus repair / reduction of shutdowns / improved designs / improved reliability. Mr. Boss recollected his task when he became A2 chairman in 2004, was envisaged as easy. Such was not experienced owing to the succeeding reorganization of Cigre, increased A2 activities worldwide. Mr. Boss thanked his predecessors A2 Chairmen Dennis Allan, Reinhart Baehr and Philippe Guuinic and other colleagues for their assistance and valued support. Finally he extended best wishes to C. Rajotte, the new A2 Chairman and to the SC A2 Committee. In reply, Claude Rajotte recounted Pierres involvement in Cigre activities since 1978. He expressed good wishes on behalf of everyone present to Pierre and presented him with a present. Mr. Boss drew this A2 2010 Paris Session to a close by confirming the next A2 meeting is the Colloquium being held in Kyoto Japan, on 11-16 September 2011. This is a joint meeting with SC D1 and the topics are: Maintenance monitoring diagnostics New materials Transient phenomena

The session was closed at 17.56.

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