Class IX Biology Chapter 01

English Sindh Text Book Board, Jamshoro.
Book arranged by www.mynoteslibrary.com 1

SECONDARY STAGE
BIOLOGY

BOOK ONE

FOR CLASS IX

For
Sindh Textbook Board, Jamshoro.

CONTENTS

SECTION 1 LIFE AND ITS ORIGIN 1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY 2

SECTION 2 ORGANIZATION OF LIFE

CHAPTER 2 STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF LIFE

SECTION 3 BIODIVERSITY

CHAPTER 3 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

CHAPTER 4 VIRUSES, BACTERIA AND CYANOBACTERIA

CHAPTER 5 FUNGI AND ALGAE

CHAPTER 6 BRYOPHYTES AND TRACHEOPHYTES

CHAPTER 7 INVERTEBRATA

CHAPTER 8 CHORD ATA AND VERTEBRATA

SECTION 4 MAINTENANCE OF LIFE

CHAPTER 9 FOOD AND NUTRITION

CHAPTER 10 RESPIRATION

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

Biology, the study of life is the most vital and challenging branch of science. Why?
Because it is concerned with and affects all the aspects of human life. This field is
ever growing, as old questions are answered and new questions are raised. When
and where living organisms originated? How do they grow? How did this diversity
of organism come into being? Who created it? This is just a glimpse of questions,
biologists are working upon right from the day one. They are using this acquired
knowledge of the basic natural processes for the welfare of mankind.

Learning objectives:

Definitions of biology and other branches of biology.
Relationship of biology with other sciences.
Biological methods of study.
Contribution of medieval are recent Muslim and other Biologists
Islamic and other views about origin of life on earth.

The word science is derived from a Latin word meaning "to know" Science is a
way of knowing. It emerges from our curiosity about ourselves, the world and the
universe.
Science helps human beings to understand the natural world and is concerned
solely with information gained by observing and testing that world. Natural world
cannot be understood with out asking questions, like how did variety of living
things evolve on earth? In what way they interact? What processes must occur in
each organism? Why living things differ from non-living? Common questions like
these form the basis of the science of biology.

1.1 WHAT IS BIOLOGY?
On your way across school campus take a moment to look around you. You will
notice a variety of organism around you, e.g. sparrows, squirrels trees, bushes,
grasses etc. In addition to the countless tiny ones. These all living things are
studied under the head of scientific discipline called Biology. The word biology is
composed of two Greek words bios meaning life and logos meaning discourse,
thought, and reasoning or in simply the study. It is a branch of natural science
that deals with organisms and different phenomena of life. Biology is further
divided into two main branches i.e. Botany and Zoology. Botany (Gr: Botane
means plants) is a branch of biology which deals with scientific study of plants
while Zoology (Gr: Zoo means animals) deals with the scientific study of
animals. According to the revised classification system all the small, usually,
microscopic organisms which were previously classified as plants or animals have
now been separated into independent groups. Study of these micro-organisms is
called Microbiology.

The study of biology provides information about:

1) Various kinds of living organism existing on earth.
2) Relation of existing organisms with extinct organisms.
3) Identification and grouping of living organisms on the basis of similarities,
dissimilarities and relationship.
4) Structure, function of an organism.
5) Inheritance of characters from one generation to next generation.
6) Relationships of organisms to their environment.
7) Harmful and beneficial effects produced by different living organisms etc

1.2 QURANIC TEACHING ABOUT ANIMALS AND PLANTS LIFE
Almighty Allah has conveyed a great knowledge about animals and plants through
our Holy book the Quran. A few of the Ayah are quoted as under:
It says about the origin of life that;

"We made every living thing of water. Will they not then believe?"
(Surah Al-Anbiya, Ayah 30)

"And Allah has created every animal of water. Of them is (a kind) that goes upon
its belly and (a kind) that goes upon two legs and (a kind) that goes upon four.
Allah creates what He will. Lo! Allah is able to do all things."
(Surah Al-Nur, Ayah 45)

An Egyptian mufassir, Allama Abdullah Yusuf Ali has symbolised water with the
protoplasm and thus explains that the protoplasm is the basis of all living matter
and "the vital power of protoplasm seems to depend on the constant presence of
water."

"He it is who sends down water from the sky and therewith we bring forth buds of
every kind; We bring forth the green blade from which we bring forth the thick-
clustered grain; and from the date-palm, from the pollen thereof, spring pendant
bunches; and (we bring forth) gardens of grapes, and the olive and the
pomegranate, alike and unlike. Look upon the fruit thereof, when they bear fruit,
and upon its ripening. Lo! Herein verily are portents for a people who believe."
(Surah Al-An'am, Ayah 100)

Holy Quran has explained the significance of water for plants and animals at
several places.

"Who has appointed the earth as a bed and has threaded roads for you therein
and has sent down water from the sky and thereby We have brought forth divers
kinds of vegetation."
(Surah Ta-ha, Ayah S3)

Glorious Quran has also revealed some facts about the growth and variety of
plants.

"And in the Earth are neighbouring tracts, vineyards and ploughed lands, and
date-palms, like and unlike which are watered with one water. And We have
made some of them to excel others in fruit. Lo! herein verily are portents for
people who have sense."
(Surah Al Ra'd, Ayah 4)

"Lo! Allah (it is) who splitteth the grain of corn and the date-stone (for sprouting).
He brings forth the living from the dead, and is the bringer-forth of the dead from
the living. Such is Allah. How then are you pervented?"
(Surah Al-An'am, Ayah 96)

Above passage refers to the wonderful act of production and also interaction of
living and dead.
Allah has also indicated the usefulness of some of the plants and animals to the
human welfare. The following Ayah can be quoted for reference.

"And Lo! In the cattle there is a lesson for you, We give you to drink of that which
is in their bellies, from betwixt the refuse and the blood, pure milk palatable to
the drinkers."
(Surah An-Nahal, Ayah 66)

"And the earth have We spread out and placed therein firm hills, and caused each
seemly thing to grow there in."
(Surah Al-Hijr, Ayah 19)

The Holy Quran also informs us about the mechanism of reproduction.

"Glory be to Him Who created all the sexual pairs, of that which the earth
groweth, and of themselves, and of that which they know not!"
(Surah Ya-sin, Ayah 36)

"And thy Lord inspired the bee, saying: choose thou habitations in the hills and in
the trees and in that which they hatch; then eat of all fruits, and follow the ways
of thy lord made smooth (for thee). There cometh forth from their bellies a drink
diverse of hues, wherein is healing for mankind Lo! Here is indeed a portent for
people who reflect."
(Surah Al-Nahal, Ayah 68-69)

1.3 BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
Nearly two million species (kinds-types) of plants and animals are known to the
world. Modern biology does not concern only with the recognition and
classification of these species but also deals with their structural and functional
aspects. Extensive research during the 20 century has led to the division of
biology into a large number of specialized branches. Some of the important
branches of biology common to botany and zoology are:

i) Morphology (Gr: Morphe = form): This branch deals with the study of
external structural characteristics of plants and animals.

ii) Anatomy (Gr: Ana = up, tome = to cut): It deals with the internal
structures or organs of an organism. In plants it deals with the
arrangement of different types of tissues in root, stem leaf etc.

iii) Histology: (Gr: Histos = web or tissues): It deals with the study of
tissues of plants and animals under a microscope.

iv) Cytology or Cell-Biology (Gr: Kytos = hollow vessel or cell): The
study of structure, function and composition of cell and cell organelles is
called cytology or cell-biology.

v) Physiology (Gr: Phusis = nature): It is the study of functions of
different parts of living organisms.

vi) Ecology (Gr: Oikos = home): It is the study of relationships of living
organisms with each other and with their non-living environment. It is also
called environmental biology.

vii) Embryology (Gr: Embryon = embryo) or developmental biology: It
is the study of progressive developmental changes which occur after
zygote formation upto an organism is formed.

viii) Taxonomy (Gr: Taxis = arrangement or grouping; Noms = laws
related to naming): It deals with the description; identification,
classification and scientific naming of living organisms, according to their
similarities and dissimilarities.

ix) Genetics (Gr: Genesis = origin): It deals with the study of inheritance
including transmission of hereditary characters from parents to their
offspring.

x) Palaeontology (Gr: Palaios = ancient, ontos = being organisms): It
is the study of animals and plants that lived in the remote past and are
now found as fossils in the rocks. It can be further divided into two
branches i.e. Palaeobotany; study of plant fossils, Palaeozoology, study
of animal fossils.

In the ancient past large quantities of dead organisms were fossilized and formed coal, oil and other
fossil fuel.

xi) Biochemistry: It deals with the chemistry and chemical aspects of the
living system.

xii) Microbiology (Micro = very small): It deals with the study of microscopic
organisms such as viruses, bacteria, etc.

xiii) Biotechnology: It is the manipulation of living things (animals, plants,
micro-organism) for the welfare of mankind. Recently methods of genetic
engineering have brought about a revolution in this field. By using these
techniques not only yoghurt, cheese, bread, insulin, antibiotics etc. Are
being produced but number of diseases are cured.

1.4 BIOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES
Biology is a multi dimensional science. It is linked with the knowledge of
chemistry, physics, mathematics, sociology, statistics etc. and these branches
which are related to biology are biochemistry, biophysics, biometry, etc. Some of
them are discussed below.

1. Biochemistry: A complete branch of chemistry which requires firm
knowledge of biology and chemistry to explain the synthesis of bio-
molecules, their requirement and the effect caused by the deficiency and
efficiency of different molecules on the organisms and their metabolism.

2. Biophysics: Branch of physics where we apply laws and techniques of
physics to explain the metabolism of living organism, to find out the age of
fossils etc. One of the sub-branch of biophysics is Radio-physics, where
radioactive isotopes are used to trace the translocation of different
material "in vivo", that is, within the living organism. Radio labeling and
carbon dating also show some uses of radio active isotopes in determining
the age of fossils. Use of sound waves as ultrasound and laser technology
show some relationship of physics with biology.

3. Biometry: It is branch of mathematics where data and measurements
related to living organisms are dealt with. Without knowledge of
mathematics and statistics no biological research and data analysis is
possible. All biologists conclude their results by using knowledge of
statistics and mathematics.

4. Behaviourial biology: Many of the facts of biology are reflected in the
study of behaviour it is an intersection of biochemistry, genetics,
physiology, evolutionary theory and ecology.

5. Biosociology: The study of behaviour, especially social behaviour, also
associates biology to the social sciences and humanities. Through the
study of life in general, we will learn more about ourselves.

Finally, we can say that biology is related with each branch of science.

1.5 BIOLOGICAL METHOD
A biological method is a scientific approach used to resolve a biological problem
related to or produced by a living organism. In order to resolve a specific
biological problem a biological method is adopted, which consists of following
steps.
(i) Observation (ii) Hypothesis (iii) Deduction
(iv) Experiment (v) Result (vi) Law or theory

1. Observation:
Most of the biological investigations start with an observation. After selecting,
specific biological problem, observations are made to collect relevant information.
For example; take the case of malaria. Malaria is a the greatest killer disease of
man for centuries. Malaria was the one among many other diseases for which a
cure was needed.
In 1878, a French physician, Laveran, studied the blood sample of malaria patient
under microscope and observed tiny creatures in it. These creatures were later
named Plasmodium.

2. Hypothesis:
In the light of observed facts and previously collected information (data)
biologists make 'intelligent guesses' as to what may be the possible answer to
this particular question. This intelligent guess in a form of a statement is called
hypothesis. So, the hypothesis is a statement made by scientists about a certain
phenomenon, on the basis of available information. For example, an observation
was made that Plasmodium is present in the blood of malaria patients. So a
question was raised, is Plasmodium the cause of malaria? It would be a good
guess to say 'yes' but it is only a guess which can be presented as a hypothesis
that:

"Plasmodium is the cause of malaria.

3. Deduction:
To test the hypothesis certain deductions that are logical prediction are made. In
other words deduction is the logical explanation of a hypothesis. It does not
require any type of experimentation. For example, to test the above hypothesis
the following deductions were made.
"If Plasmodium is the cause of malaria, then all the patient suffering from malaria
should have malarial parasite in their blood while healthy people should not have".
A number of deductions can be made to explain the hypothesis. These deductions
can be tested and verified by experiments.

4. Experiment:
The next step is to test each deduction (prediction) practically to find out whether
or not the hypothesis is correct. In testing the deduction we are actually testing a
hypothesis. This is where the scientist shows his skill as an experimenter. For this
purpose, scientist performs two types of test i.e. control and experimental groups.
Control group means a group of healthy people and experimental group means
group of malaria patients. Both groups were kept in identical conditions. In order
to find out the real cause of malarial, scientists examined the blood of about 100
malaria patients and also examined the blood of 100 healthy persons.

5. Result:
From above experiment it was found that all the malarial patients had
Plasmodium in their blood, where as the blood of healthy persons were free from
Plasmodium. These results verified the deduction and finally the hypothesis i.e.
"Plasmodium is the cause of malaria".

6. Theory:
It is not always possible to confirm a hypothesis immediately. The validity of a
hypothesis rests on a gradual accumulation of indirect evidences. As more and
more evidence come to hand, the hypothesis gain increasing acceptance and
eventually is promoted to the rank of a theory: A theory is a set of scientific
assumptions consistent with one another and supported by evidence, but not fully
proved e.g. theory of evolution
Thus a biologist studies a problem in a sequential manner through observations,
questions, hypothesis, deduction, testing or experimentation. A set of data taken
from experiment, proves or disproves the hypothesis. A cautious attitude
expressed in the form of criticism and further tests are performed until a
satisfactory answer is obtained.

The results of observations and experiments are published in scientific journals or presented in
conferences, where they can be examined by all. These results must be repeatable that is they should
be obtained by any one doing the same procedure.

1.6 HISTORY OF BIOLOGY
The history of biology goes back to the ancient and pre historic time. Very briefly,
perhaps the first noticeable development in our knowledge of biology occurred
during the Greek period. Individual like Aristotle (322-384 B.C) is remembered
even today. He wrote a book "Historia Animalia". Carolus Linnaeus founder of
biological classification, classified animals into two units i.e. genus and species.
The Phrastus, discovered sex in plants and described about five hundred plants
therefore, known as founder of Botany. Hardly any original addition to biological
knowledge was made by the Romans, who followed the Greeks. It was not until
the beginning of the Muslim period, nearly a thousand years later that
revolutionary developments occurred not only in biology but in the science in
general.
From the 8th to the 15th century, Muslims studied Greek and other literature,
translated books of Roman and Sanskrit into Arabic, wrote new books and opened
numerous centers of learning which encouraged original research and exchange
of ideas between different human societies. The most outstanding contribution of
Muslim scientists had been the use of experiments for the first time in scientific
study. This period was truly a period of progress in biology and medicine. The
following is a modest list of contributions by the Muslim and other scientists
between the 8th and 20th century.

Muslim and other Biologists:
Muslims have made important contributions in the field of biology in earlier ages.
Jabir-Bin-Hayan (722-817 A.D), wrote books named "Al-Nabatat" and "Al-
Haywan" on plants and animals respectively.

Abdul Malik Asmai (741 A.D), wrote books "Alkheil, Al-IbiL "Al-wahoosh", "As-
Sha" and "khalaqul Insan", describing structure and function of body parts of
horses, camels, sheep, wild animals and human being. "Khalaqul Insan" was
popular among the western experts in Zoology. He was regarded a specialist of
his time.
Ali bin Rabban Tubri (775-870 A.D), wrote book "Firdus-ul-Hikma" having
many illustrations and detailed articles on Philosophy, Zoology, Psychology and
Astronomy.

Abu-Usman Umer Aljahiz, wrote book "Al-Haywan" which described
characteristics of 350 species of animals especially, about life of ants.

Al-Farabi (870-950 A.D) and Abul-Qasim Al-Zahravi (936-1004 A.D). Both were
the renowned hakim and surgeon of the Islamic World. Al Farabi is the author of
two very well known books i.e. "Kitab-i-Nabatat" and "Kitab-ul-Haywanat" and
Zahravi was famous for the removal of urinary bladder stone.

Ibn-al Haitham (965-1039 A.D), wrote books like "Kitabul Manazir" and
"Mizanul-Hikma", He explained the phenomenon of vision and corrected the
Greek conception about vision.

Bu-Ali Sina (980 A.D), wrote books "Al-Qanoon" and "Fil Tib Al-Shifa", about
plants, animals and non-living things. He is considered as one of the founder of
medicine, acknowledged by the greatest expert of his time in medicines in east
and west.

Ziauddin Ibn-Baitar (13th century A.D) specialized in the study of plants. He
travelled to several countries, observed and studied many species of plants.
Ibn-al Nafees (13th century A.D) described the process of blood circulation in
human body.

Kamal-ud-Din al-Damiri (14th century A.D) compiled a book "Hayat-al-
Haywan" deals with the characteristics of 1000 kinds of animals.

Ali bin Isa was a well known eye-specialist of his time and worked on structure,
function and the diseases of the eye. He wrote three volumes on this subject in
which he described 130 diseases of the eye.

Abul Qasim Majreeti is especially known in Europe for his book on animal
species.

Other Biologists:
After 15th century, European and other biologists made important contribution in
the field of Biology.

William Harvey (1578-1657 A.D), described circulation of blood.

Galileo (1610) invented microscope to examine small organisms.

Robbert Hook (1665) discovered "cell" the basic unit of living organism.

Linnaeus (1707-1778 A.D), developed methods of classification for
organisms and gave nomenclature and therefore, called father of taxonomy.

Schleiden and Schawann (1839), worked on the detailed structures of plant
and animal cell, finally formulated cell theory.

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) discovered bacteria as causes of many diseases like
Tuberculosis.

J.Lister (1860), discovered antiseptics e.g. Iodine and carbolic acid.

E. Jennar (1896), discovered method of vaccination against small pox.

Charles Darwin (1859), wrote his famous book "origin of species" about
evolution of different species through Natural selection.

Gregor John Mendal (1822-1884) gave his famous laws of heredity and laid
foundation of Genetics.
Watson and Crick (1953) proposed double helix model of DNA to explain the
function of DNA as heredity material.

1.7 IMPACT OP BIOLOGICAL STUDIES ON HUMAN WELFARE
Biology has made an enormous impact on human welfare by improving quality of
life. It also helped in increasing food production and to improve health. New
discoveries in the field of biology are bringing revolution in medicine, public
health, agriculture, dentistry, veterinary medicine, animal husbandry, land-scape,
horticulture, pest control and other related fields.

1.7.1 Production of food:
Production of various kind of food especially crops like wheat, maize, rice and
barely is very active field of biology. Man grew different vegetables and fruits to
supplement his diet. With the advancement of biological techniques man has not
only improved the quality and yield of the existing varieties but also produced
many new varieties of crops. These successes have been achieved due to
biological researches in the fields of pest control, genetics and biotechnology. Man
also improved the quality and quantity of food products by developing dairy
farming, poultry farming, kettle farming etc, and wheat, rice, maize and other
plants. This helped to overcome the problem of food shortage. Incidence of
famine has declined and economic conditions for mankind have improved.

1.7.2 Improvement of health:
In the field of health, the discovery and development of new medicines, vaccines
and diagnostic medical equipment has been very helpful to man kind. This is only
possible due to research in biology. The discovery and development of antibiotics
by biologist has played a vital role in improving our general health conditions.
Many fatal and epidemic diseases such as smallpox, tetanus, diphtheria etc. can
be easily controlled because of" development of vaccines against these diseases.
This has resulted in a great reduction in infant mortality. Every day new drugs are
constantly being developed by biologists to fight against the pathogenic organism
enabling to solve the health problems of mankind.

1.7.3 Improvement of environment:
During the past few decades, rapid industrialization has resulted in pollution of
surroundings including air, land and water sources. As a result of this pollution
not only human beings but also animal and plant life is exposed to all kinds of
harmful effects. It is through biological research that we are finding out ways and
means to overcome and at last eliminate the pollutants, for providing and
maintaining healthy environment.

1.7.4 Genetic engineering:
A new methodology referred to as recombinant DNA technology or genetic
engineering has been developed. It is technique in which alteration of gene, DNA
of an organism is carried out to seek benefit for mankind. It provides a way by
which mammalian proteins can be produced in bacterial cells. Genes controlling
the synthesis of important drugs and hormones can be taken from the organisms
in which they occur naturally and placed in bacterium or other type of organism,
from which the product can be recovered conveniently and in large quantities.
Most noteworthy achievement is insulin production by adding human gene in
bacterial DNA which is helping to produce human insulin (Humalin) from bacteria
on commercial basis. This is very useful for treating diabetes. This is one example
along with many others like cloning, tissue culture etc, where genetic engineering
is being used.
Many inheritable diseases can now be diagnosed in a developing child before birth.
Recent research has led to the hope that cystic fibrosis (hereditary disease of
human being in which affected individual secrete thick mucus that clogs the air
ways of lungs / liver / pancreas) and other hereditary disease will soon be
treatable.

Although there are many side effects of these technologies yet no one of us wishes to go back to the
days in which large number of people died of epidemic diseases. As science has conquered one
disease after another, the world's death rate has fallen and the human population has exploded. Few
of us are willing to give up technology's gift of private automobile, though we are concerned about the
amount of air pollution that automobile generate.

1.8 ORIGIN OF LIFE

1.8.1 Islamic view about the Origin of life:
The Holy Quran throws adequate light on the origin of life. The most important
fact in the teachings of Quran is that Allah is the ultimate creator of every thing.
Living and non-living are both created by Him. There are several verses of Quran
in this regard. A few are quoted below:

"He is the Creator of the heavens and the earth".
(Surah Al'Ana'm, Ayah 102}

"That is Allah your Lord. There is no god but Him, the Creator of all things.
Therefore, serve Him. He is the Guardian of all things".
(Surah Al-Ana'm, Ayah 103)

The preceding verse explains that all living beings including insects and snakes
(which crawl), monkeys and grazers (four legged creatures) and birds and
humans (two legged creatures) were created ultimately from water. It is stated:

"We did create man from an essence of clay".
(Surah Al-mominoon, Ayah 12)

"He (Allah) who created all things in the best way. He first created man from clay,
then bred his offspring from a drop of paltry fluid. He then moulded him and
breathed into him of His spirit. He gave your eyes and ears, and hearts: yet you
are seldom thankful".
(Surah Al-Sajda, Ayah 7-9}

Once the life had been created, Allah implemented the process of reproduction for
the continuity of races of animals. The various stages of reproduction have been
described in Holy Quran in following way.

"Then fashioned we the drop a clot, then fashioned we the clot a little lump, then
fashioned we the little lump bones, then clothed the bones with flesh".
(Surah Al-mominoon, Ayah 14)

"Hath there come upon man (every) any period of time in which he was a
thing unremembered?"
(Surah Al-Dahar, Ayah 1)

A close study of above sermons reveals that all animals had common origin but
they gradually underwent changes afterwards and became different from each
other i.e. some developed crawling, some started walking on two legs and some
other had four. It seemed that animals of today are advanced forms of the past
animals who achieved this form after passing through many changes.

1.8.2 Concepts of Abiogenesis and Biogenesis:
Man had believed since ancient times that living organisms (both plants and
animals) arise from clay, earth and other non-living matter not from pre-existing
parents of their own kind. This was based on such observations as growth of
fungus on pieces of bread and the appearance of maggots on dead bodies of
animals. Aristotle believed that fishes, frogs and aquatic insects spontaneously
developed from mud. This old belief that living beings can spontaneously develop
from the non-living is termed as abiogenesis.
The idea of production of living from the non-living was experimentally analyzed.
The pioneer in such experiments was an Italian scientist named Redi. Through
several experiments he showed that all living organisms arise from their parents
and negated the idea of abiogenesis.
The view that living beings can develop only from other living being is called
biogenesis. The following are a few of the experiments which Redi performed and
which led to the concept of biogenesis.

Experiment No.1
Some dead snakes were placed in a box. It was noticed that flies gathered around
the dead snakes. After three days maggots appeared in their bodies. After about
eighteen days these maggots transformed into pupae. Some of these pupae were
then transferred to separated glass containers covered with a sheet of paper.
After eight days, a fly emerged from each pupa and all flies were similar to those
which visited the body of the dead snakes. From this it was concluded that
maggots were the offsprings of flies. The flies had laid eggs on the dead snakes.
These eggs gave rise to maggots which formed pupae and ultimately flies
emerged from them.

Experiment No.2
In another experiment Redi took eight bottles. He put dead snakes in two; pieces
of meat in other bottle and dead fishes in other bottle. He kept four bottles open
and four covered. After a few days, maggots appeared in the open bottles only.
No maggots appeared in the bottles kept covered. This showed that if the flies
were prevented from entering the bottles, the maggots did not appear.
Some workers, however, criticized this experiment and said that the maggots
failed to appear in the covered bottles because air being so essential for
abiogenesis could not enter these bottles. To test this, Redi performed another
experiment.

Experiment No.3
Some pieces of meat were put in a bottle whose mouth was covered with a gauze.
Thus, air could enter the bottle while flies remained out. Again no maggots
appeared on the piece of meat, even after many days inspite of the fact that
entry of air was possible.
These experiments provide evidence supporting the idea that only living beings
give rise to living beings. Thus, the concept of Biogenesis is correct and that of
Abiogenesis is wrong.

Needham's experiment:
In 1748, an English Scientist Needham, boiled meat in water, poured this gravy
in bottles and closed their mouth with cork. After a few days many micro-
organisms were produced in these covered bottles. This once again excited the
believers of Abiogenesis i.e. life from non-life (Fig: 1.3).

Pasture's experiment:
The argument on the issue of biogenesis and abiogenesis continued up to the
middle of nineteenth century, till Louis Pasture, a renowned French scientist
proved with experiments, that abiogenesis could not occur in the present
environment of earth.
In 1864, Pasture performed his experiment, in front of the commission formed of
noted biologists, to resolve this issue. He took flasks which had long curved S-
shaped necks (Fig. 1.4). He added fermentable infusion (yeast + sugar + water)
in bottles and left their mouth open.
The yeast infusions were boiled in the flasks and let steam released out of the
neck of each flask. Then flasks were allowed to cool. No life was produced even
after the lapse of several days; because micro-organisms entering along with
incoming air got stuck up in on the curved walls of the glass neck. To prove this
he broke up the curved necks, so that now contaminated air could reach directly
to the infusion. It was observed that micro-organisms were produced within 48
hours. This proved that if care was taken and no micro-organisms or their spores
were allowed to reach the infusion, no life could be produced. He rejected
spontaneous generation. Commission decided in favour of bio-genesis.

1.8.3 Concept of chemical and organic evolutional
The modern view of origin of life stresses upon the idea of chemical evolution and
ties its origin to the history of the earth and the primitive atmosphere.
How did it happen and what evidence supports this idea?
In the beginning, the universe was an intensely hot point where matter and
energy were indistinguishable. About 15 billion year ago, there was a Big Bang
(huge explosion). The universe started expanding and the temperature dropped
drastically. In time, about 4.6 billion years ago our earth and other planets
appeared as part of the solar system. The Primitive atmosphere of the earth was
rich in Hydrogen. Soon gases from the very hot and liquid core of the earth added
more elements to this atmosphere. It is believed that the earth's atmosphere at
this stage consisted carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, water
vapours and was exposed to intense radiation and electric spark. It hardly had
any free oxygen. With the passage of time, the atmospheric temperature
gradually dropped. This allowed condensation and heavy rains which caused
formation of oceans. Thunder and lightning sparks together with ultraviolet
radiation caused reactions of the atmospheric gases. This led to formation of
simple organic molecules. These molecules I came down with rain and
accumulated in the oceans, lakes, rivers and the soil over a very long period of
time. These molecules had enough chances to interact in this environment and
produce amino acids and proteins which are the building blocks of life. This
sequence of chemical evolution was demonstrated in the middle of the 20th
century by some clever laboratory experiments. Scientists were able to produce
amino acids and simple sugars from a mixture of methane, ammonia, hydrogen
and water by exposing it to electric sparks. More recent experiments using
electric sparks in laboratory chambers have successfully produced not only amino
acids and sugar but also the basic ingredients of fatty substances and DNA, all of
which are the constituents of life.

Life originated on earth more than 3.5 billion years ago. We do not know how life formed, although
the evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that it evolved spontaneously from chemicals. There is
considerable discussion among biologists about what the early stages of such an evolutionary process
might have been like.

What was the first life form like? The first life form, perhaps, was a sphere of
naked protein or RNA and was capable of making its copies (reproduction). At
some stage, a membrane assembled around the sphere giving rise to the first cell.
There is now general agreement that this first life form respired anaerobically
because the earth's atmosphere lacked free oxygen; it reproduced asexually. Our
present day knowledge of viruses, bacteria and how DNA makes its copies
provide enough hints in support of the above view. The first living organism may
have been like viruses.
The next step in this story was appearance of an autotrophic way of life, that is,
an organism capable of photosynthesis, adding free oxygen into the atmosphere.
This availability of free oxygen opened the way for an explosion of a variety of
organisms in times to come. Further improvement became possible as some of
the organisms achieved the capability, to reproduce sexually.

For at least the first 2 billion years of life on earth, all organisms were bacteria. About 1.5 billion years
ago, the first eukaryotes appeared.

The story of origin of life highlights change in matter. First inorganic molecules
interacted in a way that organic molecules came into existence. The latter formed
aggregates capable of making their copies and existed as naked spheres of
protein or nucleic acids (RNA or DNA). Ultimately there arose the first cell a unit
with a membrane. This tells us that life eventually arose by a slow process of
chemical changes or organic evolution. The basic underlying concept in this
process is that over a period of time (a very long period) one form gave rise to
another. The idea of organic evolution was supported by scientist like Lamarck
and Charles Darwin. They argued that new forms of life must have arisen from
older ones through variations and that it was something in the process of heredity
which was responsible for variations.

SUMMARY
Biology is the study of living things. It is further divided into three main
branches Botany, Zoology and Microbiology.
Biology can be divided further into a large number of branches like
morphology, anatomy, histology, cytology, physiology ecology, embryology,
taxonomy, genetics, paleontology, biochemistry, biotechnology, etc.
Biology and other natural and social sciences like chemistry, physics,
mathematics, sociology and statistics are inter-related.
The systematic process used in resolving a biological problem is called a
biological method.
Biological investigation starts with observations and collection of information
about the biological problems.
Hypothesis is a guess made by scientist about the solution of a certain
phenomenon.
Deduction is a logical explanation of hypothesis.
Experiment is the practical testing of hypothesis and deduction.
New discoveries in the field of biology are bringing revolution in the fields of
medicine, public health, agriculture, veterinary, landscape etc.
The old discarded belief that the living beings can spontaneously develop
from the non-living is termed as abiogenesis, and the view that only living
things can produce their own kind is called biogenesis.
Modern view of origin of life stresses upon the idea of chemical evolution and
ties it with the origin of earth and the primitive atmosphere.
Living organisms had a common origin but, with the passage of time, they
gradually changed and became different from one another.

1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms:

i) Linnaeus developed method of classification for organisms.
ii) Bu Ali Sina was considered as one of the founder of
medicine.
iii) Biology also provides information about relation of existing
organism with extinct organism.
iv) Sound waves, laser technology and use of radio-active isotopes
shows relationship of biology with physics.
v) Results verify the deduction and finally the hypothesis.

2. Write whether the statements are true or false:

i) Galileo discovered the first microscope. (True)
ii) Origin of species is written by Charles Darwin. (True)
iii) Study of tiny organism like virus, bacteria, etc is called parasitology.
(False)
iv) The living things spontaneously develop from mud and clay. (-----)
v) Redi was the pioneer scientist who gave the idea of biogenesis.
(True)

3. Encircle the appropriate answer:

i) Biology is the study of
(a) Life (b) Non-living things
(c) Space (d) Earth
ii) Study of structure, function and composition of cell is called
(a) Cell-Biology (b) Histology
(c) Anatomy (d) Genetic Engineering
iii) Developmental biology deals with the
(a) Growth of organism
(b) Functions performed by an organism
(c) Development of groups and classes
(d) Changes occurring in zygote
iv) The intelligent guess of a scientist in the form of a statement is
called.
(a) Deduction (b) Theory
(c) Hypothesis (d) Law
v) Alkheil, Al-Ibil, Al-wahoosh were written by
(a) Jabir-Bin-Hayan (b) Abdul Malik Asmai
(c) Ibn-al-Haitham (d) Zia-uddin Baitar

4. Write detailed answers of the following questions:
iv) Make a chart to show the steps of a scientific method.

ii) Write an essay on the contributions of various scientists in the field
of biology.
iii) Name some branches of biology. Also describe the relationship of
biology with other branches of science.
iv) What do you mean by biogenesis and abiogenesis? Also give some
experiments which explain the concept of biogenesis.
v) Write an essay on origin of life.

5. Define the following terms:
i) Physiology ii) Biochemistry
iii) Observation iv) Deduction
v) Genetic Engineering vi) Biogenesis

6. Distinguish between in tabulated form:
i) Biogenesis and abiogenesis
ii) Hypothesis and theory.

Class IX Biology Chapter 01

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