Indigenous Peoples, Democracy and a Revolution of the Fourth World

By Martin Edwin Andersen One always loses when, instead of defending something real, it is mythologized because as such it is useful. -- Editorial, Pukara (Bolivia),April/May 2009

Building sovereignty means building hope. John Merritt, In it (Es!i"o) #apiriit $anata"i e%e& tivei

It is impossible to awaken someone who is pretending to sleep. 'ava(o prover) As the re*ion !nown as +,atin A"eri&a- prepares to &ele)rate its )i&entennial "ar!in* independen&e .ro" /panish &olonialis", indi*eno s s&holars, a&tivists and others ta!e iss e with traditional non-Indian renditions o. who were in .a&t li)erators, a &lai" that has )een lon* the !nown property o. those tra&in* their own des&ent at least in part to /pain and other &o ntries o. E rope0 Indi*eno s peoples say the re*ional li)eration in 1210, .ro" whi&h 'ative A"eri&ans3 own .ore.athers did not tan*i)ly )ene.it, was nonetheless a heroi& wor! .or whi&h their an&estors are d e a lar*e "eas re o. &redit0 4istori&ally "ar*inali5ed even today, 'ative A"eri&ans in the 6estern 4e"isphere share a le*a&y o. &ent ries o. &oloni5ation, dis&ri"ination, poverty, and loss o. &ontrol over their lands, traditions and nat ral reso r&es0 #hey are part o. the esti"ated 270 "illion individ als )elon*in* to 7,000 distin&t indi*eno s &o"" nities in 80 nation-states aro nd the world0 As one h "an ri*hts *ro p noted9
+In "any &o ntries, Indi*eno s :eoples ran! hi*hest on s &h nderdevelop"ent indi&ators as the proportion o. people in (ail, the illitera&y rate, ne"ploy"ent rate, et&0 #hey .a&e dis&ri"ination in s&hools and are e%ploited in the wor!pla&e0 In "any &o ntries, they are not even allowed to st dy their own lan* a*es in s&hools0 /a&red lands and o)(e&ts are pl ndered .ro" the" thro *h n( st treaties0 'ational *overn"ents &ontin e to deny Indi*eno s :eoples the ri*ht to live in and "ana*e their traditional lands; o.ten i"ple"entin* poli&ies to e%ploit the lands that have s stained the" .or &ent ries0 In so"e &ases, *overn"ents have even en.or&ed poli&ies o. .or&ed assi"ilation in e..orts to eradi&ate Indi*eno s :eoples, & lt res, and traditions0 <ver and over, *overn"ents aro nd the world have displayed an tter la&! o. respe&t .or Indi*eno s val es, traditions and h "an ri*hts0- ii

At the sa"e ti"e, in the A"eri&as native peoples=also !nown as +indi*eno s peoples,- +Indians- or "e")ers o. +>irst 'ations-=have e"er*ed as !ey politi&al a&tors in several &o ntries in the re*ion as they see! to stren*then traditional & lt res, lan* a*es, *overn"ents and e&ono"ies, while ens rin* respe&t .or and &ontrol o. their lands and a&&ess to nat ral reso r&es0 A"on* the re*ion3s "ore than ?0 "illion indi*eno s peoples, the @nited 'ation3s3 E&ono"i& Ao""ission .or ,atin A"eri&a and the Aari))ean (EA,AA) has noted, +&ons&io sness is *rowin* that, in order to over&o"e poverty, states &an no lon*er sear&h .or .or" las )ased on traditional strate*ies, ) t they o *ht to re.or" late their histori& relationship with indi*eno s peoples0- iii Indi*eno s peoples3 in&reasin*ly a")itio s de"ands, Mi%te& Indian lawyer >ran&is&o ,Bpe5 BCr&enas s **ests, +reD ire a pro.o nd trans.or"ation o. national states and instit tions that wo ld pra&ti&ally lead s to a re-.o ndin* o. nation-states in ,atin A"eri&a0 E0 0 0 Indi*eno s peoples in ,atin A"eri&a str **le .or a tono"y )e&a se in the 21 st &ent ry, they still are &olonies0-iv As a res lt, D estions arise a)o t how the >irst 'ations o. the A"eri&as &an )e )ro *ht into new de"o&rati& &o"pa&ts that respe&t and &odi.y their ri*hts, while retainin* the re*ion3s relatively har"onio s nation-state )o ndaries (a +Fone o. :ea&e,- as so"e &all it)0 In the pro&ess, what &an )e done to ens re &ontin ed and i"proved respe&t .or individ al li)erties, now "ore than ever &riti&ally i"portant to &ivilianled r le o. lawG #his last D estion is not an errant one, parti& larly in ,atin A"eri&a0 /in&e the ti"e o. the /panish AonD est, relations )etween indi*eno s peoples and the nation-state has r n predo"inantly alon* a

"ilitari5ed a%is0 #he ar"ed .or&es have )een traditionally and lar*ely theone o. the pri"ary=i. not the "ost i"portant=representatives with who 'ative A"eri&ans saw and intera&ted o. the s ally re"ote &apital &ity0 6ith s &h a history, the e"er*en&e into view o. peoples who share an&estral, & lt ral, lan* a*e or reli*io s ties and &o""on identities, and the iss e o. their . ll and ( st in&orporation as &iti5ens, on their own ter"s, )e&o"es even "ore i"portant0 #i"e is r nnin* short9 In the .irst de&ade o. the twenty-.irst &ent ry, de"ands .or Indian sel.-deter"ination, and the possi)ilities o. ethno-se&tarian violen&e, are a dire&t threat to the se& rity poli&ies - =and th s the soverei*nty - =o. several nation-states o. +,atin- A"eri&a0 #he &hallen*e o. the politi&al str **le o. indi*eno s peoples in&l des so"e o. the &lassi& &hara&teristi&s .o nd in traditional politi&al develop"ent literat re0 #hese ran*e .ro" &rises o. participation (where +si5ea)le se*"ents o. the pop lation, hereto.ore e%&l ded .ro" the syste", de"and e..e&tive parti&ipation in the politi&al pro&ess-), legitimacy (where +si5a)le portions o. the politi&ally relevant pop lation &hallen*e or deny the nor"ative validity o. &lai"s to a thority "ade )y e%istin* leadership-), to distribution (in whi&h +si5a)le portions o. the politi&ally relevant pop lation de"and a redistri) tion o. so&ietal rewards and )ene.its, o.ten e&ono"i&-)0 v 'ot all indi*eno s "ove"ents have re"ained within the para"eters o. "erely pro"otin* their & lt ral val es and "ilitatin* .or . ll &iti5en ri*hts, ) t e%pli&itly re&o*ni5e the di..eren&es )etween Indian and non-Indian traditions, "ores and & sto"s, and de"and that these are also re&o*ni5ed )y non-Indians as well0 Ahas"s )etween & lt res, disp ted ideas over state and ethni&-*ro p )o ndaries, and &on.li&ts &on&ernin* politi&al ri*hts and &ivil li)erties, &arry with the" the seeds o. ethni& &on.li&t o. .o r types &ate*ori5ed )y politi&al s&ientists0 #hese &o"" nal &on.li&ts a"on* indi*eno s peoples and others ran*e .ro" - =either potential or real, in&hoate or . ll-)lown - =ethnic violence (two or "ore *ro ps involved in a**ressive a&ts a*ainst ea&h other) and rebellion (where one *ro p revolts a*ainst another to wrest &ontrol o. the politi&al syste"), to irredentism (the e..ort )y an ethni& *ro p to se&ede .ro" one state to (oin ethni& *ro p "e")ers in another state) and civil war (where one *ro p see!s to &reate new politi&al syste" )ased on ethni&ity0) vi #he &hallen*e o. ens rin* indi*eno s *ro ps3 ri*hts will )e respe&ted within a de"o&rati& .ra"ewor! reD ires .indin* ways that native peoples3 &on&eptions o. soverei*nty and se& rity &an . n&tion in &on&ert with those o. nation-states nder the . ll * arantee o. international or*ani5ations0 #he sear&h in&l des .indin* ways in whi&h &o-"ana*e"ent and traditional sel.-*overn"ent &an rein.or&e national &iti5enship ) t also o..er to those whose an&estors lived in the A"eri&as )e.ore Ahristopher Aol ") s3 arrival a *reater &ontrol over their lands and their lives, in&l din* the a)ility to preserve their way o. li.e and revitali5e their lan* a*es, as well as a &ontin in* voi&e over ( st what soverei*nty and se& rity &an and do "ean0 As the last vesti*es o. &olonialis" re&ede, iss es with stron* internal, do"esti& dyna"i&s s r*e to the .ore and de"and attention="oderni5ation, *lo)ali5ation, se&tarianis", ethnonationalis", and . nda"entalis"0 #hey also in&l de D estions a)o t soverei*nty, the r le o. law, and the i"portan&e o. environ"ental and h "an se& rity, the latter two whi&h need to )e elevated, at the tri)al, national and international levels, to the &ate*ory o. )asi& soverei*n ri*hts0 All these pose new &hallen*es, in&l din* D estions a)o t what "eans "i*ht )e sed to resolve &rises &olla)oratively, )ased on a new, " t ally a&&epta)le ta%ono"y, where soverei*nty and " t al dependen&e do not &ontradi&t0 In doin* so, as writer Barry /&ott Fellen o..ers in the &onte%t o. the pea&e. l and overwhel"in*ly s &&ess. l str **les o. the In it=the 'ative peoples in the Ar&ti&=new international arran*e"ents )ased on a .orward-thin!in* s ite o. &on&epts and ideas a)o t politi&al in&l sion, a&&o nta)ility and " t al respe&t "i*ht .ill the va& " le.t )y the evanes&ent international str &t res o. the Aold 6ar0vii #his paper will e%a"ine so"e o. the "ost innovative ways indi*eno s peoples, nation-states, and international and non-*overn"ental or*ani5ations are &on.rontin* & rrent &hallen*es )y o..erin* sol tions thro *h e%panded de"o&rati& "eans that de.end Indians3 & lt ral identity, prote&t their reso r&e patri"ony and land ri*hts, while in&reasin* nation-state soverei*nty )ased on the stren*thenin* o. their property ri*hts and sense o. &iti5enship0 In parti& lar, it will .o& s on the &riti&al iss e o. land and what it "eans to 'ative peoples; o..er a realisti& loo! at indi*eno s peoples3 possi)ilities and li"itations re*ardin* the nat ral environ"ent and its prote&tion, and e%a"ine @0/0 tri)al ad"inistration o. ( sti&e and other iss es as points o. &o"parison .or . t re de"o&rati& develop"ent0

It will also in&l de a loo! at the e%a"ple provided )y Aanada3s In it, the 'ative peoples o. the .ar north, who, as Fellen has noted, within the last *eneration have "ade +tre"endo s *ains- in in&reasin* their a tono"y and )roadenin* their politi&al power0 In part d e to a +shrewd and power. l- tri)al politi&al elite, and in part d e to +the toleran&e and en&o ra*e"ent and s pport o. the Aanadian *overn"ent,- the In it today en(oy +*reater a tono"y, *reater wealth, *reater politi&al power, and *reater environ"ental &ontrol than any &o"para)le indi*eno s "inority *ro p worldwide0- <r, as Aanadian historian /hela*h H0 Irant noted9 +Aonsiderin* that less than a hal.-&ent ry a*o the In it were still denied the )asi& ri*ht o. &iti5enship=the ri*ht to vote=their pro*ress in re*ainin* &ontrol over their lives, & lt re, lands and reso r&es has )een no less than pheno"enal0- A de&ade early John A"a*oali!, an In it a&tivist and &hair"an o. the &o""ittee overseein* the &reation o. new territory o. ' nav t a&ross the eastern hal. o. Aanada3s r **ed north, "ore prosai&ally e%pressed the pra&ti&al i"port o. the de&ision to &reate the .irst . ll-.led*ed politi&al re*ion in 'orth A"eri&a *overned )y 'ative A"eri&ans, de&larin*9 +It won3t solve all o r pro)le"s overni*ht0 B t people will have a *overn"ent they &an relate to=a *overn"ent that spea!s and nderstands their lan* a*e0-viii #he solidity o. the 6estphalian nation-state syste"=territorially or*ani5ed states operatin* in anar&hi& s rro ndin*s=has )een oversold as a "odel, li"itin* the .ran&hise .or or*ani5in* power and & r)in* the a)ility to or*ani5e re*ionally, whi&h is i"portant .or Indian national &o"" nities that span nation-state )orders0 As le*al e%pert Ernst-@lri&h :eters"ann has noted9 +#he 6estphalian syste" o. international law a"on* soverei*n states=)ased on internal soverei*nty (as de.ined )y &onstit tional law) and e%ternal soverei*nty (as de.ined )y state-&entered international law)=was power-oriented and la&!ed de"o&rati& le*iti"a&y, as ill strated )y &olonialis" and i"perial wars0- i% At the sa"e ti"e, that sa"e arran*e"ent has )een inadeD ate to tas! o. "eetin* se& rity &hallen*es now .a&ed )y those sa"e nationstates0 As Ho *las A0 ,ovela&e, Jr0, dire&tor o. the /trate*i& /t dies Instit te, has noted9 +@nprote&ted )orders are a serio s threat to the se& rity o. a n ")er o. states aro nd the *lo)e0 Indeed, the &o")ination o. wea! states, n*overned spa&e, terroris", and international &ri"inal networ!s "a!e a "o&!ery o. the 6estphalian syste" o. international order0-% :arti& larly in the #hird 6orld, .or "ost o. the past &ent ry the 6estphalian syste" served as the or*ani5in* prin&iple that "arshaled the e%&l sive a thority to *overn within de.ined )orders, its "yriad &ontraventions lar*ely o)s& red d rin* the Aold 6ar )y the lo*i& o. s perpower-en.or&ed )i-polarity0 'ow, two de&ades a.ter the .all o. the Berlin 6all, *lo)ali5ation has "eant that national *overn"ents have lost part o. their a thority and presti*e to )oth s )-national and international instit tions, those +spheres o. a thority- that in&l de pro.essional so&ieties, advo&a&y *ro ps, non-*overn"ental or*ani5ations, and &orporate networ!s0%i

Most Important Indigenous Populations, Ranked by Countries !otal "umbers of "ative #mericans, in $atin #merica
Country Me%i&o :er Bolivia I ate"ala E& ador Ar*entina Ahile Aolo")ia 8 !housands of Indians 12,000 9,K00 7,L00 7,K00 ?,100 1,000 992 ?? % of population 1?01J ?L07 2102 LL02 ?K02 K01J 100KJ 202J

J4i*h re*ional &on&entrations o. indi*eno s pop lations0 'ote9 Ar*entina in&l ded )e&a se o. the Map &he &onne&tion; Aolo")ia )e&a se o. the Andean &onne&tion0

Sources !stimates based, for most countries, on data from the early "##$s used by the Inter%&merican 'evelopment Bank, the Pan%&merican (ealth Organization, and the !conomic )ommission for *atin &merican and the )aribbean. +he percentages of population are based on population at the time the data was compiled.
From& $atin #merican "e'sletters, Latin American Special Report, (uly )**+

Even on the <ld Aontinent, the )irthpla&e o. the 6estphalian statehood paradi*", the E ropean @nion leads the way in o..erin* "ore dyna"i& approa&hes to a&&o""odatin* diversity, trendin* away .ro" &entrali5ed national *overn"ents in .avor o. a "odel o. +" lti-level *overnan&e MthatN allows de&ision "a!ers to ad( st the s&ale o. *overnan&e to re.le&t hetero*eneity-=in other words, new types o. or*ani5ations that do not reD ire sa"eness as a pri&e o. e..e&tive ad"ission0 #he &han*es, swaddled in hi*h-"inded rhetori&, re.le&t )aseline realis"0 As two politi&al s&ientists at the @niversity o. 'orth Aarolina at Ahapel 4ill have noted, ( risdi&tions that span lar*e territories +have the virt e o. e%ploitin* e&ono"ies o. s&ale in the provision o. p )li& *oods, internali5in* poli&y e%ternalities, allowin* .or "ore e..i&ient ta%ation, .a&ilitatin* "ore e..i&ient redistri) tion, and enlar*in* the territorial s&ope o. se& rity and "ar!et e%&han*e0 ,ar*e ( risdi&tions are )ad when they i"pose a sin*le poli&y on diverse e&olo*i&al syste"s or territorially hetero*eneo s pop lations0- %ii In an arti&le on the independen&e o. $osovo and the li)eration o. +a s"all, poor, landlo&!ed territory o. two "illion people, riven )y ethni& hatreds and "e"ories o. atro&ities,- +he ,ew -ork +imes pointed to the e%a"ples o. Estonia, /lovenia and /lova!ia, as well as Ireland, as s"all states livin* in the +shadow o. ethni& rivals- ) t thrivin*0 #hese s &&esses showed that i. its "e")ers relinD ished so"e soverei*nty to a &ontinent-wide a thority that &o ld n rt re and shield even s"all nations, E rope "i*ht .inally have a way to e%tra&t the poison o. re*ional &on.li&t and allow the s"all to &o-e%ist &on.idently alon*side the lar*e00 E 'ow &o"es $osovo, even "ore .rail, and so the idea *oes a step . rther9 that E rope3s identi.i&ation as a &ontinent has )e&o"e stron* eno *h to rewrite the de.inition o. nationhood itsel.0 'ow, perhaps, the &ontinent as a whole &an prote&t at least the sel.-*overnan&e o. national *ro ps too s"all and wea! to .or" sel.-s ..i&ient states o. their own0%iii #he e%a"ple o. the E ropean @nion, and in parti& lar, the e..orts "ade in the Bal!ans, where in the 1990s tra*i& &on.li&t showed how ethno-nationalis" was not de.initively or even ne&essarily &ontained within states, o..ers a se. l point o. &o"parison to the real and potential ethno-national &on.li&t in Aentral and /o th A"eri&a and Me%i&o0 #he de)ate in E rope over &hallen*es to 6estphalian notions o. statehood rever)erates even "ore stron*ly in nation-states lo&ated even .arther=and not ( st *eo*raphi&ally=.ro" older, E ropean politi&al ideals0 'ew ideas a)o t .ederalis", how *overn"ents interrelate at vario s levels, and what sho ld )e the "ost advanta*eo s distri) tion o. a thority .or ea&h, are D estions today are )ein* played o t, .or *ood or .or ill, a&ross the A"eri&as0 At )otto" are interrelated D estions o. soverei*nty, se& rity, de"o&rati& le*iti"a&y and &iti5enship0 #oday Me%i&o, Aentral and /o th A"eri&a are in&reasin*ly .a&ed with a n ")er o. +inter"esti&iss es havin* )oth international and do"esti& &hara&teristi&s0 #hese &hallen*es reD ire poli&y"a!ers to +thin! o tside the )o%- in ways that in&l de the possi)ility o. "ore ro) st roles .or )oth s )-national and international )odies0 At the sa"e ti"e, politi&al realis" is also reD ired, a &ondition that in the E ropean &onte%t Hr0 Oowan 6illia"s, the ar&h)ishop o. Aanter) ry, see"ed to i*nore when he s **ested that sharia, or Isla"i& law, )e re&o*ni5ed in Britain0 #he res ltin* o t&ry .ro" .ellow &ler*y"en led hi" to )eat a hasty retreat, &lai"in* he had ( st wanted to +tease o t so"e o. the )roader iss es aro nd the ri*hts o. reli*io s *ro ps within a se& lar state- )y sin* sharia as an e%a"ple0 :ra*"atis" and pra&ti&ality are the wat&hwords here0%iv 'evertheless it is i"portant to !eep in "ind what Aolo")ian indi*eno s ri*hts pioneer Ire*orio 4ernande5 de Al)a noted at the &lose o. 6orld 6ar II, when the international syste" was a*ain in the pro&ess o. re&on.i* ration0 #he shared & lt ral traits o. 'ative A"eri&ans thro *ho t the he"isphere, he said, "i*ht a&t ally serve to in&rease nity in the A"eri&as0 +6hen tellin* what is Indian, we e%press what is A"eri&an0 6hen loo!in* down on what is Indian, we s&orn what sho ld )e nitin* o r &o ntries0-%v More re&ently, ,Bpe5 BCr&enas wrote9

#he str **le .or the installation o. a tono"o s indi*eno s *overn"ents represents an e..ort )y indi*eno s peoples the"selves to &onstr &t politi&al re*i"es di..erent .ro" the & rrent ones, where they and the &o"" nities that .or" the" &an or*ani5e their own *overn"ents, with spe&i.i& .a& lties and &o"peten&ies re*ardin* their internal li.e0 #he de&entrali5ation we are tal!in* a)o t, the one that indi*eno s peoples and &o"" nities advan&in* toward a tono"y are showin* s, in&l des the &reation o. parale*al .or"s to e%er&ise power that are di..erent .ro" *overn"ent entities, where &o"" nities &an stren*then the"selves and "a!e their own de&isions0%vi

#he e"er*en&e o. a new indi*eno s &ons&io sness in the "id-1980s, and its de"and .or politi&al, e&ono"i&, reli*io s, & lt ral and territorial possi)ilities, &arries with it the possi)ility o. avoidin* the dar! le*a&y o. past &ent ries, providin* an opport nity to &reate a new &o"pa&t )etween ra&es and & lt res in the A"eri&as0 It &a"e at a ti"e when, as I ate"ala indi*eno s leader He"etrio Ao(tP A %il o)served, in a la"ent that "i*ht have e%tended the len*th and )readth o. ,atin A"eri&a, +6e have to ad"it that ntil now the pro)le" o. nationalities has not )een resolved )y any revol tion or &o nterrevol tion, )y any re.or" or &o nterre.or", )y any independen&e or anne%ation, )y a &o p or &o nter&o p0-%vii A.ter "ore than de&ade o. in&reased e..orts to parti&ipate in ele&toral de"o&ra&y, 'ative peoples have seen the possi)ilities o..ered, parti& larly at the lo&al level0 4owever a thoritarian politi&al traditions and &lientelisti& pra&ti&es re"ain stron*, li"itin* de"o&rati& potential0 As "any native peoples in E& ador have reali5ed, stron* *overn"ents witho t &he&!s and )alan&es, and the politi&s o. &ooptation )y those who &lai" to a&t on their )ehal., have o.ten not wor!ed to their )ene.it, and have le.t their "ove"ent wea!er, disoriented, and witho t the l ster o. its initial pro"ise0 %viii Altho *h one possi)ility is .or indi*eno s peoples to re"ain at the "ar*ins o. politi&al parties, press rin* the" )y "eans o. so&ial or*ani5ation to respe&t their ri*hts and the pro"ises "ade at ele&tion ti"e, e%perien&e shows that Indian &o"" nities &an also )e divided, and their . nda"ental de"ands i*nored, with &lientelisti& politi&s lon* sed to p rpose. l e..e&t )y non-Indian politi&ians to *arner votes0 #h s while there are dan*ers )oth to Indian nity and p rpose in parti&ipatin* in ele&toral politi&s, there are also dan*ers in not parti&ipatin*, as others will li!ely do so on their own despite so&ial san&tion, and see! to win the )est a&&o""odation they &an .or personal or narrowly se&tarian needs0%i% Aare. l st dy o. the indi*eno s a*enda, and positive e%a"ples o. Indian s rvival i. not prosperity, s **est that the prospe&t o. nre"ittin* ethni& &on.li&t &an )est )e avoided )y re&o*nition o. the pl rinational &hara&ter o. the state and re&o*nition o. *ro p ri*hts and e..e&tive &iti5enship that allows .or sel.-deter"ination, in&l din* &o""on territory, & lt re and lan* a*e0 (<n the latter, h "an ri*hts a&tivist /teven M0 # ll)er* has noted, +Hon3t .or*et that Oo"ans&h is one o. the .o r o..i&ial lan* a*es o. /wit5erland0 Oespe&tin* the lan* a*e o. a s"all "inority is not a &ra5y idea0-) %% / &h ri*hts, it sho ld )e pointed o t, do not ne&essarily &hallen*e nation-state soverei*nty, ) t opposition to the" does, in theory and in .a&t, "ean the &ontin ed e..e&tive a)sen&e o. the state itsel.=what Hir! $r i(t and $ees $oonin* &all +*overnan&e voids-=in "isna"ed + n*overned spa&es,- or the &ontin ed erosion o. the a)ility and desire o. state o..i&ials to a)ide )y the r le o. law the"selves, as eviden&ed )y h "an ri*hts violations and the pl nder o. Indian lands and reso r&es0 %%i #he r*en&y is ( st not one pertainin* to the &olle&tive .ate o. only a sin*le or parti& lar nation-state, ) t also to re*ional sta)ility itsel. and, to the e%tent that the & rrent la&! o. ri*hts "eans that i. the e%tre"e o t-"i*ration in several &o ntries o. i"poverished Indian peoples loo!in* .or wor! &ontin es, these &an )e threats to re*ional e&ono"i& well )ein*0 %%ii #he sear&h .or new and "ore e..e&tive .or"s o. in&orporation o. indi*eno s peoples in nation-states " st ne&essarily )e li"ited )y adheren&e to de"o&rati& pra&ti&e and the standards o. international h "an ri*hts0 At the sa"e ti"e, perspe&tive, histori&al and otherwise, is needed0 >or e%a"ple, Be&!er re"inds that E& adorian Indians +*ained stren*th )y or*ani5in* on a &orporatist "odel that e"phasi5ed their *ro p ri*hts- )e&a se their ri*hts were e..e&tively li"ited in other areas, in&l din* the .a&t that ntil 1982 the E& adorian &onstit tion denied the" &iti5enship0
Be*innin* with the 1929 &onstit tion, the &on&erns o. the QIndi*eno s ra&e3 were to )e represented in &on*ress )y an nele&ted Q. n&tional representation03 #he ri*hts o. vario s *ro ps to representation in &on*ress were "aintained thro *ho t "ost o. the twentieth &ent ry0 &lthough there were battles over who would have the rights to this representation, on occasion indigenous activists could manipulate it to their benefit. (Itali&s added)%%iii

#h s, while s &h e%a"ples &onveniently retreat into the re&esses o. the "inds o. non-Indian so&iety, E& adorian and other 'ative A"eri&ans "i*ht .ro" that sad history lo*i&ally draw the &on&l sions that do"inant so&iety &han*es the r les o. the *a"e as a "eans o. atte"ptin* to "aintain that do"inan&e0 And also, that *ro p ri*hts as de.ined )y international de&larations and other instr "ents, and already ad"itted in other &o ntries, have their own pre&edent in E& adorian and si"ilar "odels0 #he &hallen*es posed )y the e..e&tive in&orporation o. indi*eno s peoples on their own ter"s in nation-states, while in&l din* aspe&ts parti& lar to the de"ands o. 'ative peoples )oth *eneral and spe&i.i&, also re.le&t "ore than a &ent ry o. &on.li&t )etween what historian Oo)ert 6hitney &alls the &ontrast )etween +the evolvin* theoreti&al ideas o. li)eral de"o&ra&y with the politi&al reality o. "ass "o)ili5ation0- Altho *h 6hitney &hroni&led the &lash )etween +li)eral de"o&rati& dis&o rse- and the +need to pro"ote &apitalist relations o. prod &tion- in E rope and in his st dy o. pre-Aastro A )a, a ne% s e%ists with today3s Indian D estion, as now, li!e then, +the pro)le" was that the s )ordinate &lasses did not always wait to )e Qli)erated3 )y those who &lai"ed to spea! on their )ehal.0- Indeed, )oth the r*en&y and the s )stan&e o. the de"and .or respe&t )y and .or native peoples reD ire nderstandin* that paternalisti& and van* ard attit des )y non-Indians are ne&essarily nwel&o"e and nwise0 6hitney3s &hara&teri5ation o. the elite attit des o. i"perial E rope and oli*ar&hi& A )a rin* tr e as the type o. paternalis" heard even now, .ro" on&e- n&hallen*ed non-Indian elites as well as those politi&ians who are not indi*eno s peoples ) t &lai" to a&t in the interests o. 'ative A"eri&ans9 +#he Q"asses3 0 0 0 &o ld not )e relied pon to )e responsi)le &iti5ens, at least in the short ter"0 #he people needed the .ir" hand o. the state to * ide the", willin*ly or not, into the "odern world-%%iv #he )ar .or the reali5ation o. &onstr &tive en*a*e"ent )y nation-states and their native peoples is hi*h, in no s"all part )e&a se these on&e s )ordinate indi*eno s peoples are no lon*er waitin* .or others to +li)erate- the"0 It is also a di..i& lt test o. de"o&rati& will )e&a se the reD ire"ents .or real pl ralis" de"and . nda"ental &han*e0 In her analysis o. e..orts to i"ple"ent &onstit tionally "andated le*al pl ralis" in Bolivia and Aolo")ia, politi&al s&ientist Honna ,ee Ran Aott .o nd the pra&ti&al reali5ation o. those re*i"es shared several i"portant .a&tors0 #hese in&l ded +the &apa&ity o. the politi&al syste", the le*al tradition and so&iety to tolerate nor"ative diversity; the *eo*raphi& isolation and & lt ral alienation o. indi*eno s &o"" nities; the de*ree o. internal division within indi*eno s &o"" nities and "ove"ents re*ardin* le*al pl ralis" in *eneral and in spe&i.i& &ases that have arisen, and the availa)ility o. e..e&tive le*al "e&hanis"s to indi*eno s &o"" nities see!in* to prote&t those ri*hts0- %%v

$and
#he str **le .or land ri*hts is one o. the )i**est &hallen*es Indian peoples .a&e today and re"ains one o. the "ost i"portant roots o. &on.li&t in ,atin A"eri&a today0 At iss e are not only the &on&ept o. land, or property, and its val e, ) t also its se. lness, & lt ral as well as *ro p and individ al ri*hts, and lti"ately, who is in &ontrol0 >or "ost 'ative A"eri&ans a&&ess to and ownership o. land is not li"ited to its se as a &o""odity to )e leased or sold=the 6estern &on&ept o. property ownership=) t rather as an inheritan&e that .or"s part o. their & lt ral identity0 It o..ers nat ral reso r&es whose tili5ation reD ires )oth respe&t and "aintenan&e as in tr st .or . t re *enerations, so"ethin* that is enhan&ed )oth )y spirit al &on&erns and )e&a se o. Indians3 niD e !nowled*e o. lo&al e&osyste"s0 It is no a&&ident the na"e Map &he, the 'ative &o"" nity in Ahile and Ar*entina, "eans +people o. the Earth,- si*ni.yin* the nity o. h "ans with the environ"ent=land and li.e are synony"o s0 Ao"" nal ownership and &o"" nity "ana*e"ent o. nat ral reso r&es are &o""on, and o.ten pre.erred, spar!in* &riti&is" .ro" those .or who" &o""on tenan&y and enterprise s **ests so&ialis", or at very least violates the &on&ept o. private property as nderstood )y "any non-Indians0 Beyond D estions o. ten re se& rity, Hanish develop"ent e%pert /Sren 4val!o. has noted, whi&h is + ndo )tedly a very i"portant aspe&t o. any r ral develop"ent pro&essand a s )(e&t that the &enter o. n "ero s so&ial &on.li&ts sin&e the A"eri&as .ell to /panish AonD est, it is the . n&tion o. the &o"" nity that is trans&endent here0 +#he indi*eno s &o"" nity is the only so&ial instit tion that &an and will * arantee the ri*hts and a&&ess to land and reso r&es o. its "e")ers,- 4val!o. added0 +#he &o"" nity itsel. is the so&ial se& rity syste" o. the r ral poor0- %%vi

Altho *h " &h ri&her and "ore &o"ple% a pheno"enon, &ontendin* .or&es thro *ho t the re*ion &an )e seen as arrayin* into two &a"ps=those o. *reed and those o. *rievan&e, the +loot see!in*- and the +( sti&e see!in*-=whi&h in the worst o. all &ases &an res lt in serio s violen&e, or even &ivil war0 As seen re&ently in )oth :er and Ahile, ten re iss es re"ain the prin&iple &a se o. violen&e )etween indi*eno s peoples and their nei*h)ors thro *ho t the re*ion0 %%vii #he le*al *ray area shro din* land and reso r&es where indi*eno s people live, and have lived .or &ent ries, still &ontri) tes to an an%io s at"osphere where i""ediate *ain is o.ten so *ht )y o tsiders who .ear a&&ess "ay )e .ore&losed in the . t re0 >or &ent ries, ra&ial and ethni& dis&ri"ination paired with a la&! o. nderstandin* o. and respe&t .or indi*eno s land ten re syste"s to prod &e laws and poli&ies desi*ned to ta!e Indian property while .or&in* native peoples towards assi"ilation and the disappearan&e o. their way o. li.e0 More re&ently, this land and reso r&e lar&eny has *iven way to new &onstit tions and laws thro *ho t ,atin A"eri&a that, on paper at least, re&o*ni5e the pl ri& lt ral nat re o. the nation-states, with " &h o. the land still nder indi*eno s &ontrols re&o*ni5ed, a*ain on paper, as inaliena)le territories nder their &olle&tive ownership0 #hro *ho t the re*ion, Indians nonetheless .a&e i"portant o)sta&les to the e..e&tive re&o*nition o. their land ri*hts0 'ot only is their territorial se& rity is threatened, with politi&al and e&ono"i& interests o.ten nder"inin* with destr &tive land se that does not in&l de priority &ons ltation and &onsent o. 'ative holders0 Altho *h international or*ani5ations have rallied in s pport o. land-titlin* e..orts "eant to solidi.y Indians3 tenan&y, as well as the de"ar&ation o. disp ted territories that )oth le*ally and histori&ally )elon* to their 'ative residents, there are "any instan&es o. .ail re as well as s &&esses0 Aases o. indi*eno s &o"" nities en(oyin* the "ost se& re land ten re and the *reatest a&&ess and &ontrol o. its nat ral reso r&es are ( %taposed with those in whi&h o tside .or&es=o.ten with &orporate headD arters o tside the re*ion=have not only despoiled the environ"ent and pl nder its wealth, ) t also have le.t .ar too "any Indians dead .or tryin* to de.end their territories, in so"e &ases p ttin* whole tri)es and peoples at ris!0 In a re*ion where the la&! o. prote&tion o. private property is seen )y "any analysts as a !ey to &ontin ed e&ono"i& nderdevelop"ent, a la&! o. politi&al will, ine..e&tive en.or&e"ent o. laws and a*ree"ents a)o t Indian lands, as well as poor ad"inistration=so"eti"es )y indi*eno s peoples the"selves="ean those lands and nat ral reso r&es, to*ether with the & lt res they s pport, re"ain part o. the pro)le", rather than part o. a lastin* sol tion0 6hat s &&ess. l land de"ar&ation and titlin* &an "ean to indi*eno s peoples &an )e seen in the e%a"ple o. the /h ar >ederation in eastern E& ador, one o. the oldest Indian or*ani5ations in ,atin A"eri&a0 #he /h ar s &&ess. lly petitioned the &entral *overn"ent in the late 19L0s and 1980s .or &olle&tive title .or the land inha)ited )y its widely dispersed &o"" nities0 #he land &a"pai*n itsel. helped the /h ar to esta)lish the )onds that per"itted the tri)es to i"ple"ent a n ")er o. spin-o.. pro*ra"s, in&l din* a )ilin* al distan&e-learnin* e..ort as well as an e..ort to & r) &attle .ar"in* so as to ste" de.orestation0 #oday, the /ha r, .ir"ly *ro nded in their an&estral lands, re"ain an i"portant politi&al a&tor in the national politi&s o. their &o ntry0 <ne o. the !ey st ")lin* )lo&!s to s &&ess. l prote&tion o. Indian lands and nat ral reso r&es is the very re"oteness o. "any indi*eno s &o"" nities, whose distan&e .ro" national &apitals p ts the" at *reater ris! .ro" ille*al a&tivities ran*in* .ro" lo**in*, "inin* and ran&hin*, to * errilla ins r*en&y and nar&o-terroris"0 Another is the insisten&e )y so"e nation-states that 'ative peoples " st re*ister with the *overn"ent as a le*al entity )e.ore ( ridi&al de"ar&ation and titlin* o&& r0 :ro&ed ral reD ire"ents s &h as these rest neasily on peoples n.a"iliar with ) rea &rati& re* lation or, in "any &ases, te&hni&al le*erde"ain wielded a*ainst the", threatenin* the lon*-ter" se& rity o. their title0 #he pro"otion o. indi*eno s land ten re in national plans and poli&ies is a !ey ele"ent to s &&ess. l de"ar&ation and titlin*, and *oes )eyond the"0 #hese plans and poli&ies need to in&l de, in a &oherent way, *reater parti&ipatory roles in pro(e&t plannin* in enterprises that a..e&t their lands and reso r&es0 #hey reD ire )oth trainin* and te&hni&al assistan&e in areas r nnin* .ro" the law to the possi)ilities o. pro.ita)le inter.a&e in "ar!et e&ono"ies=all in order to isolate indi*eno s peoples .ro" o..i&ial &orr ption and li)erate the" .ro" the $a.!aesD e ) rea &rati& reD ire"ents that are le*end in "ost, tho *h not all, ,atin A"eri&an &o ntries0 In !eepin* with international law and &onvention, the ri*ht o. 'ative peoples to set their own develop"ent priorities needs to )e prote&ted, their land &lai"s e%pediently resolved, and a&&ess

to nat ral reso r&es respe&ted, and=so"ethin* parti& larly i"portant in &ases o. "inin* and other e%tra&tive ind stries=to )e &ons lted a)o t the e%er&ise o. s )-s r.a&e ri*hts held )y the nation-state0 /in&e the )e*innin* o. the twenty-.irst &ent ry two &ases in ,atin A"eri&a have helped &reate international le*al pre&edents that have i"pli&ations .or indi*eno s peoples aro nd the world0 #he Awas #in*ni, one o. "any / "o indi*eno s &o"" nities on the Atlanti& Aoast re*ion in 'i&ara* a, so *ht the pea&e. l title o. their traditional lands0 +he )ase of the .ayagna /Sumo0 &was +ingni )ommunity v. ,icaragua, de&ided on A * st K1, 2001, )y the Inter-A"eri&an Ao rt o. 4 "an Oi*hts (IAA4O), was the .irst le*ally )indin* de&ision )y a re&o*ni5ed international tri) nal to phold indi*eno s peoples3 &olle&tive land and reso r&e ri*hts when a state .ailed to do so0 #he &o rt .o nd that the international h "an ri*ht o. en(oy"ent o. property )ene.its, as a..ir"ed in the A"eri&an Aonvention on 4 "an Oi*hts, in&l ded the ri*ht o. indi*eno s peoples to the prote&tion o. their & sto"ary land and the ten re o. their reso r&es0 #he &o rt .o nd . rther that the /tate o. 'i&ara* a was in . rther violation )y *rantin* a lo**in* &on&ession to a .orei*n &o"pany with the &o"" nity3s traditional lands, and )y otherwise .ailin* to o..er adeD ate a&!nowled*e"ent and prote&tion o. its & sto"ary ten re0 #he &o rt said that it was ins ..i&ient that the 'i&ara* an &onstit tion and laws o..ered *eneral re&o*nition o. the ri*hts o. 'ative peoples to land they traditionally sed and live on0 It re) !ed 'i&ara* a, sayin* that the state " st se& re the e..e&tive en(oy"ent o. those ri*hts=so"ethin* it had not done .or the vast "a(ority o. indi*eno s &o"" nities on the Atlanti& Aoast, who li!e the Awas #in*ni did not have spe&i.i& *overn"ent re&o*nition o. their traditional lands in the .or" o. a land title or another o..i&ial do& "ent0 A)sent s &h spe&i.i& *overn"ent re&o*nition, 'i&ara* an a thorities went on to treat s )stantial ntitled traditional indi*eno s lands as state lands, and th s *ranted &on&essions .or lo**in*0 #he Ao rt ordered 'i&ara* a to de"ar&ate and title the Awas #in*ni3s traditional lands in a&&ord with their & sto"ary land and reso r&e ten re patterns0 It also told the" to re.rain .ro" any a&tion that "i*ht nder"ine &o"" nity interests in those lands, and to esta)lish an adeD ate "e&hanis" to se& re the land ri*hts o. all o. the &o ntry3s native &o"" nities0 A se&ond &ase, de&ided in 2008 )y the IAA4O, involved the /ara"a!a, a *ro p o. Maroons= des&endants o. . *itive slaves=livin* in &entral / rina"e who protested "ilitary s pported Ahinese lo**in* &o"panies that so *ht in the late 1990s to se their lands witho t the tri)e3s per"ission0 Already nearly hal. o. their lands had )een in ndated in the 19L0s, when a hydroele&tri& da" was ) ilt to power an al "in " .a&tory0 >earin* that the lo**in* &o"panies not only threatened individ al villa*es ) t all o. the /ara"a!a nation, they .or"ed an asso&iation to represent so"e K0,000 /ara"a!a livin* in LK villa*es, and sed Ilo)al :ositionin* /yste" te&hnolo*y to do& "ent the ti")er poa&hers on their lands, even tho *h they were threatened )y i"prison"ent i. they disr pted the o tsiders3 wor!0 A.ter the asso&iation .iled a petition with the IAA4O in 2000, the )ody reD ested the / rina"ese *overn"ent to s spend all develop"ent a&tivities on the &o"" nities3 lands pendin* an investi*ation0 'onetheless, so"e T11 "illion in tropi&al hardwoods were & t down and e%ported0 A niD e people and & lt re, the /ara"a!a .eared that, )y losin* "ore territory, they were at s )stantial ris! o. irrepara)le har" to )oth their persons, their s rvival as a people and their & lt ral inte*rity0 #he IAA4O in 'ove")er 2008 r led that / rina"e had +violated, to the detri"ent o. the "e")ers o. the /ara"a!a people, the ri*ht to property- and ordered the *overn"ent to "odi.y the lo**in* &on&essions to preserve their s rvival0 #he &o rt also de"anded that / rina"e *rant the /ara"a!a +.ree in.or"ed, and prior &onsent- .or any . t re develop"ent or invest"ent pro(e&ts a..e&tin* their territory, whi&h wo ld also tri**er the provision o. reasona)le )ene.it sharin* and proper environ"ental and so&ial i"pa&t assess"ents0 Altho *h the de&ision was the .irst international r lin* to hold that a non-indi*eno s "inority *ro p has le*al ri*hts to the nat ral reso r&es within their territory=a pre&edent that "ay pers ade other re*ional )odies or national &o rts &onsiderin* si"ilar land disp tes, the r lin* will help indi*eno s peoples as well0 #he &o rt3s r lin* nders&ored the .a&t that land is not only a physi&al asset with e&ono"i& and .inan&ial val e, ) t an intrinsi& di"ension and part o. peoples3 lives and )elie. syste"s0 It .o nd that a people3s identity had )een developed spe&i.i&ally in relation to a spe&i.i& territory, whose & lt re was held to )e shaped and in.or"ed )y it, and that they &o ld not "aintain that their & lt ral &hara&ter i. they were "oved to another site0

,nvironment

'ot only do indi*eno s peoples see! re&o*nition o. their &olle&tive ri*hts over an&estral lands, in&l din* territorial and politi&al a tono"y, ) t they also see! to har"oni5e se o. that land with their own sense o. stewardship o. the earth0 International &orporate interests have )orne the )r nt o. indi*eno s protests a)o t se o. these lands, and news reports have shown how .orei*n &o"panies have o.ten en*a*ed in destr &tive pra&ti&es that have not only despoiled the land, ) t also poisoned those livin* on it0 4owever, pop list leaders also see!in* to e%ploit the land .or "inin*, reso r&e e%tra&tion and the &onstr &tion o. oil pipelines, have )een si"ilarly )itterly &riti&i5ed )y indi*eno s peoples, o.ten wor!in* in tande" with environ"ental and other so&ial a&tivist or*ani5ations0 #wo Andean &o ntries, in response, have even e"ployed heavyhanded "ilitary te&hniD es, s &h as arrestin* s&ores o. Indians protestin* oil e%tra&tion and havin* the" &har*ed with sa)ota*e and terroris"0%%viii $ey to the &reation o. a new &o"pa&t .or the peoples o. the A"eri&as is a &o""on .orward approa&h that re&o*ni5es )oth ri*hts and " t al o)li*ations0 #he near-per.e&t overlay o. "aps showin* where Indians live and where the he"isphere3s last ne%ploited nat ral reso r&es are ro *hly parallels the tra&! )etween 'ative A"eri&an &o"" nities and what &apital-)ased elites &alled + n*overned areas0- As Jose del Ral, dire&tor o. the Me%i&o M lti& lt ral 'ation @niversity :ro*ra" (:@MA) and a .or"er dire&tor o. the Inter-A"eri&an Indi*eno s Instit te9
If we compare a map of the region that shows where indigenous people live with another that shows the planet1s last une2ploited natural resources, it turns out that they fully coincide 0 #hat is the reality and the tra*edy0 0 0 0 6hat sho ld happen over the ne%t de&ade is re&o*nition o. the .a&t that the reso r&es .o nd in indi*eno s territories )elon* to the indi*eno s people0 #h s, i. the state and transnational &orporations want to do ) siness, they have to )e&o"e partners with the indi*eno s &o"" nities0 B t this isn3t happenin* anywhere0 %%i% (Itali&s added0)

<ne idea that has )een *iven in&reasin* & rren&y is that o. en*a*in* indi*eno s peoples in e..orts to prote&t the environ"ent, on ter"s that sa.e* ard their own ri*hts0 #here has )een so"e resistan&e to the idea o. 'ative A"eri&ans as +innate- stewards o. .orest and other nat ral reso r&es )oth )y non-Indians and Indians ali!e, with the .or"er .reD ently po!in* . n at the idea and the latter worryin* a)o t the hidden desi*ns o. non-Indians, who "i*ht )e tryin* to se the environ"ental iss e as a way o. &ontin in* to have a say a)o t Indians lands0 +A re& rrin* idea a)o t indi*eno s peoples (A"eri&an, in this &ase) is to see the" as the prote&tors o. 'at re,- noted an arti&le in Pukara, an online p )li&ation in /panish dedi&ated to the +& lt re, so&iety and politi&s o. ori*inal peoples0A &loser loo! reveals the paternalis" o. s &h a &on&ept and the *reen-tinted neo- &olonial strate*ies that are at wor! nderneath0 0 0 0 #he indi*eno s, in *eneral, are seen as *ro ps who=.ro5en in a !ind o. Eden=live in har"ony with their nat ral and & lt ral environs and that, aware o. their !nowled*e and their .ra*ility, .i*ht .or the de.ense o. s &h s rro ndin*s0 0 0 0 #he .i* re o. the indi*eno s as *ood sava*es is ere&ted as an i&on whose s pposed al"ost nat ral wisdo" &onverts hi" into a * ardian o. the an&estral, )oth nat ral and & lt ral0 0 0 0 #o &onsider the indi*eno s to )e * ardians o. the e&osyste" is to &har*e the" with a responsi)ility that "odern so&iety has a rope to *ra) onto to delay e&o-&ide0 0 0 0 In times past, they tried to domesticate the Indian by means of religion, work or indigenista ideologies3 now the green doctrine can be the alibi for a new neo%colonialism. (Itali&s added0) 222

It is tr e that not all Indian &o"" nities pra&ti&e the sa"e stewardship over the environ"ent0 >or e%a"ple, altho *h a&tivists in Bolivia ( sti.y=as "any o. their indi*eno s peers in E& ador do not=the prod &tion o. the &o&a lea. on spirit al *ro nds datin* to the period o. pre-AonD est, it is also a .a&t that &o&aine prod &tion devastates the environ"ent, parti& larly in areas where indi*eno s peoples live0 As noted earlier, the pro&ess o. "an .a&t re in&l des s &h no%io s e..e&ts as de.orestation, pesti&ide se, water poll tion, the d "pin* o. pre& rsor &he"i&als, the pro"otion o. soil erosion and "ono-a*ri& lt re, and the loss o. traditional !nowled*e o. plant spe&ies and )io-diversity0 At the sa"e ti"e, environ"ental &on&ern is present in "ost o. the traditional & lt res that re"ain in the A"eri&as, and was "ost re&ently enshrined in the new E& adorian "a*na &arta9
#he &onstit tion also re&o*ni5es the nat re o. Pacha .ama, the Ioddess whose na"e in U e&h a si*ni.ies +Mother Earth- and is venerated )y Andean indi*eno s *ro ps, as a s )(e&t o. ri*hts de.enda)le )y law0 In

addition, sumac kawsay, whi&h translates as +the )alan&ed livin* &on&ept,- is now a ter" s pported in the very wordin* o. the &onstit tion0 Sumac kawsay, a"on* other thin*s, de.ends nat re3s ri*ht to "aintain and to re*enerate vital &y&les, prote&ts national diversity, and prohi)its the privati5ation o. nat ral reso r&es s &h as water0%%%i

Bolivian :resident Evo Morales s pported a de&laration iss ed )y representatives o. indi*eno s &o"" nities .ro" .ive &ontinents that &alled .or a national and international e..ort to prote&t the planet .ro" environ"ental destr &tion0 (In a /epte")er 2002 address to the @nited 'ations, Morales pro"ised to +respe&t :a&ha"ana,- and &lai"ed that Bolivia3s newly dra.ted &onstit tion +is to s pport a new pa&t with all h "anity and :a&ha"a"a, .ro" the heart o. the Andes, .ro" the /o th, .or all the world0-) %%%ii #he way the Map &he thin!, .or e%a"ple, +does not distin* ish the environ"ent .ro" the sel.0- In :er , Indians in the Andean re*ion have (oined those .ro" that o. the A"a5on to protest and prote&t &o"" nities devastated )y nat ral reso r&e e%tra&tive &o"panies that have &onta"inated the environ"ent where they live, in&l din* ille*al "aho*any lo**in* that has p t the very e%isten&e o. s"all tri)es at ris!0 ,oo!in* )ehind the Fapatista re)ellion in so thern Me%i&o that anno n&ed itsel. to the world on the 'ew Vear, 199?, +&lose st dy o. the e&olo*i&al history o. Ahiapas reveals that the pro&ess o. e&olo*i&al "ar*inali5ation also plays a si*ni.i&ant &a sal role0 #he riotin*, protestin*, h "an ri*hts violations, and ele&toral .ra d o. the past .i.ty years has o.ten )een over land ten re iss es and the "anip lation o. property ri*hts, .a&tors ste""in* .ro" and &o"pli&ated )y rapid pop lation *rowth, soil erosion in the Aentral 4i*hlands, and de.orestation in the Eastern ,owlands0- %%%iii As part o. the e..ort to in&rease &ooperation a&ross ethni&, state and re*ional lines, a n ")er o. &on&rete steps &an )e ta!en to "ainstrea" indi*eno s !nowled*e and innovation in order to inte*rate & lt ral diversity with )iolo*i&al diversity and to roll )a&! environ"ental devastation0 #here also needs to )e in&reased a&&ess to . ndin* and &apa&ity ) ildin* .or indi*eno s peoples )oth in the A"eri&as and aro nd the world .or their environ"ent and &onservation e..orts0 International or*ani5ations, s &h as the 6orld Ban! and the Inter-A"eri&an Hevelop"ent Ban!i, sho ld i"ple"ent )io& lt ral diversity i"pa&t assess"ents that *o )eyond so&ial i"pa&t and environ"ental assess"ent0 'ative A"eri&an traditional !nowled*e sho ld )e re&o*ni5ed and pro"oted as potentially innovative ways to &on.ront & rrent environ"ental and &li"ate &rises, )oth in the he"isphere and *lo)ally0 %%%iv #hat !nowled*e, it sho ld )e pointed o t, is ) ilt on e%perien&e and .a&t, not *a 5y ro"anti&is"0 /o"e indi*eno s peoples, noted one .ollower o. anthropolo*ist Ala de ,evi-/tra ss, re&o*ni5e +vast n ")ers o. .lora9 two h ndred and .i.ty are re&o*ni5ed )y a sin*le /e"inole, three h ndred and .i.ty )y the 4opi, and "ore than .ive h ndred )y a 'avaho0 (,evi-/tra ss) .inds the 'avaho a)le to re&o*ni5e .i.teen di..erent parts o. a stal! o. &orn; and with a" se"ent he tells o. the anthropolo*ist who &o ld not learn a &ertain a)ori*inal lan* a*e )e&a se the people atte"pted to tea&h her the na"es o. vario s plants they re&o*ni5ed, and while she was a)le to repeat their words, her powers o. o)servation were not s ..i&iently a& te to di..erentiate a"on* the vario s plants0- %%%v #he syner*y &reated a"on* se& rity interests, environ"ental prote&tion and the e..e&tive in&orporation o. indi*eno s ri*hts within the .ra"ewor! o. de"o&rati& e"power"ent &an potentially *enerate new ideas and new .ra"ewor!s that o..er )ene.it in the p rs it o. all three0

!he -./. Model of !ribal (ustice

#he a)ility o. the (@0/0) tri)al &o rt to interpret law to the Indian people and to interpret Indian & lt re to other le*al instit tions "ay )e the "ost i"portant o. all assets .lowin* .ro" the tri)al &o rt syste"0 In the a)sen&e o. an Indian &o rt syste", the re"ainin* vesti*es o. tri)al & lt re and val es "i*ht soon disappear, )ein* swallowed p )y the ever-en&roa&hin* nor"s and pro&ed res o. the do"inant (white) "a(ority within the &o ntry0 =Rine Heloria, Jr0, and Ali..ord M0 ,ytle, &merican Indians, &merican 4ustice %%%vi

#he ri*hts o. indi*eno s peoples to their own ( sti&e syste"s is one area in whi&h tri)al & lt re and val es "i*ht )e reinvi*orated and prote&ted .or . t re *enerations0 Vet atte"pts to do so in vario s &o ntries o. the re*ion have .allen pon si*ni.i&ant o)sta&les0 #he &ase o. Bolivia is parti& larly interestin*, *iven *overn"ent atte"pts to re&reate the ( sti&e syste" in that &o ntry that )etter re.le&ts the val es and & lt re o. its peoples, as well as the inevita)le "is nderstandin* arisin* .ro" s &h a")itio s plans0 In

Jan ary 2008, the Bolivian *overn"ent anno n&ed a new le*al re.or", in whi&h the e%tant syste" )ased on Oo"an law wo ld now &o-e%ist with Indian traditional law )ased in +&o"" nitarian- or tri)al ( sti&e instit tions in an e..ort to red &e the &o ntry3s le*endary &orr ption and ine..i&ien&y0 As s &h, de&isions "ade )y traditional 'ative a thorities wo ld )e e%e"pt .ro" review )y other ( di&ial or ad"inistrative a thorities0%%%vii In early 2002, the e..ort at ( di&ial re.or" &on.ronted a de"and )y the 'ew Vor!-)ased 4 "an Oi*hts >o ndation that Morales +i""ediately &ease the lyn&hin*s, tort res and i""olations o. people sin* Q&o"" nitarian ( sti&e3- pra&ti&es0 #he &hallen*e was not as &redi)le as its prima facie ar* "ent "i*ht s **est, however0 Haniel M0 Ioldstein, dire&tor o. the Aenter .or ,atin A"eri&an /t dies at O t*ers @niversity noted that the lyn&hin*s were not a res lt o. Morales &o"in* to power, the pheno"enon havin* lon* antedated his "ove"ent3s a&&ession to the presidential Palacio 5uemado (B rnt :ala&e)0 +'or are lyn&hin*s e%a"ples o. &o"" nity ( sti&e0 In its traditional .or" in indi*eno s Andean villa*es, &o"" nity ( sti&e e"phasi5es re&on&iliation and reha)ilitation0 Oather than violent tort re and e%e& tion, &o"" nity ( sti&e pro"otes the Qreed &ation3 o. &o"" nity "e")ers who violate &olle&tive nor"s and r les, and the re-in&orporation o. these o..enders )a&! into the &o"" nity0- %%%viii 6hat the Bolivian e%a"ple ill strates is the di..i& lty to reen*ineer ( di&ial syste"s alon* ethni& lines0 In this re*ard, the @0/0 "odel o. .ederal-tri)al relations, altho *h .ar .ro" per.e&t, %%%i% o..ers "yriad lessons learned on &riti&al iss es ran*in* .ro" sel.-deter"ination and the str **le .or & lt ral s rvival, to the prote&tion o. native lands and reso r&es=all within the .ra"ewor! o. de"o&rati& r le0 In an a*e when poli&y"a!ers .o& s on the need to drain +swa"ps- o. ne*le&t and despair aro nd the *lo)e that are potential )reedin* *ro nds .or terrorists and their s pporters, those areas o. disa..e&tion and radi&ali5ation &an )e &ontained, at least in part, in the words o. Indian ri*hts lawyer # ll)er*, +)y o..erin* the poorest and "ost ne*le&ted people a&&ess to le*al syste"s that re&o*ni5e their h "an ri*hts nder the r le o. law0- %l A le*iti"ate D estion "i*ht )e raised a)o t why, in those &o ntries o. the re*ion in whi&h 'ative A"eri&ans are either an o tri*ht "a(ority or a de"o*raphi&ally si*ni.i&ant "inority, the @0/0 e%perien&e provides i"portant insi*hts into the lar*er D estion o. Indian ri*hts, parti& larly )e&a se o. their relatively +s"all n ")ers, re"ote *eo*raphy MandN niD e history0- %li At the sa"e ti"e, it is no less &ertain that @0/0 Indians share with others in the re*ion not dissi"ilar aspirations .or & lt ral s rvival, e&ono"i& prosperity, se& rity and ( sti&e on their own ter"s, and that there have )een i"portant i"prove"ents in tri)al ( sti&e syste"s in the @nited /tates in a n ")er o. respe&ts in the last .o r de&ades0 <r, as a I ate"alan a")assador to the @nited 'ations re"ar!ed a.ter visitin* the Mes!wa!i tri)al settle"ent in Iowa in <&to)er 2008, +It is an eye-opener to .ind indi*eno s peoples in a di..erent state o. so&ial and politi&al develop"ent0-%lii >or >er* s M0 Bordewi&h, a thor o. 6illing the 7hite .an1s Indian3 8einventing ,ative &mericans at the !nd of the +wentieth )entury, p )lished in 199L, what was happenin* on the reservations in the @nited /tates was +an pheaval o. epi& proportions 0 0 0 a revol tion that had *one nnoti&ed )y a p )li& that still sees Indians "ainly thro *h the "ythi& veil o. "in*led ra&is" and ro"an&e0- #he sea &han*e, he said,
en&o"passed al"ost every aspe&t o. Indian li.e, .ro" the res s&itation o. "ori) nd tri)al & lt res and the res r*en&e o. traditional reli*ions, to the develop"ent o. a**ressive tri)al *overn"ents deter"ined to re"a!e the entire relationship )etween Indians and the @nited /tates0 In al"ost every respe&t, it was &hallen*in* the worn-o t theolo*y o. Indians as losers and vi&ti"s and was trans.or"in* tri)es into powers to )e re&!oned with .or a lon* ti"e to &o"e0 >or the .irst ti"e in *enerations, Indians were shapin* their own destinies lar*ely )eyond the &ontrol o. whites0 0 0 0 Inspired individ als were reinventin* Indian ed &ation, rewritin* tri)al histories, helpin* to )rin* a)o t a re"ar!a)le res r*en&e o. traditional reli*ions, and &o"in* to *rips with the al&oholis" and so&ial patholo*ies that )li*ht reservation &o"" nities0 %liii

At "ini" ", the @0/0 e%perien&e o..ers perspe&tives on how Indians atte"pt in a variety o. ways to enter "ainstrea" A"eri&an & lt re while "aintainin* a distin&tive identity, even while "any &riti&i5e their own tri)al *overn"ents as too rooted in the val es and ideas o. the do"inant so&iety0 Most @0/0 Indian tri)es have in the last hal. &ent ry s &&ess. lly resisted .ederal *overn"ent e..orts to .or&e the" to a&&ept assi"ilation, while so"e have developed strate*ies .or +t rnin* the ta)les on the oppressors- within a de"o&rati& &onte%t and "aintainin* a sense o. nationhood, lar*ely thro *h ed &ation and the "aintenan&e o. oral traditions0%liv A re&ent st dy on the . t re o. 'ava(o nationalis" notes that,

#he tri)al *overnan&e standards o. the past are not o)solete0 #hey are appropriate and have stood the test o. ti"e0 #hey were .o& sed on "aintainin* the health and wellness o. every "e")er o. the &o"" nity0 /a.ety, health, wellness, and prote&tion were .a&ilitated, not )y do"inan&e, &on.rontation, &on.li&t and &oer&ion, ) t )y ethi&s, &o"" ni&ation, &ooperation, and reveren&e .or the &reator and the laws o. nat re0 %lv

#he s &&ess. l e%a"ples o. indi*eno s 4awaiian so&ieties (Maori and $ana!a Maoli) &an also )e o. )ene.it .or those tri)es see!in* to help s stain their & lt ral identity )y "eans o. lan* a*e revitali5ation pro*ra"s, whether thro *h s&hools or in so&iety as a whole0 %lvi 4 "an ri*hts a&tivist # ll)er has noted that the Indian /el.-Heter"ination A&t adopted d rin* Oi&hard M0 'i%on3s presiden&y +o..ered renewed respe&t to tri)al so&ieties and tri)al *overn"ents, and tri)al soverei*nty was a*ain rea..ir"ed )y @0/0 *overn"ent o..i&ials0 0 0 0 #he /el.-Heter"ination Era=.ro" 1980 to the present=is the lon*est s stained period in 200 years d rin* whi&h the o..i&ial @0/0 Indian poli&y has not )een desi*ned to in.li&t syste"ati& h "an ri*hts a) ses on Indians )y denyin* their &olle&tive ri*hts as nations and tri)es0-%lvii #he sea-&han*e the 'i%on era le*islation si*ni.ied was nderlined )y :resident 'i%on hi"sel., who de&lared9 +#he ti"e has &o"e to )rea! de&isively with the past and to &reate the &onditions .or a new era in whi&h the Indian . t re is deter"ined )y Indian a&ts and Indian de&isions0-%lviii #his is i"portant .or the dis& ssion today in Aentral and /o th A"eri&a and Me%i&o, )e&a se altho *h a *rowin* n ")er o. indi*eno s "ove"ents +do not de"and a tono"ies ) t the re-.o ndin* o. nationstates )ased on indi*eno s & lt res,-%li% &learly the +vast "a(ority is de"andin* sel.-deter"ination and a tono"o s sel.-*overn"ent in their indi*eno s territories within le*al and politi&al .ra"ewor!s o. the states where they now live0 0 0 0 #he "ar&h .or indi*eno s ri*hts in the @nited /tates and elsewhere is nder the )anner o. sel.-deter"ination0-l <n @0/0 Indian reservations, a niD e syste" o. tri)al ( sti&e helps indi*eno s peoples in their rear* ard e..ort to prote&t and s stain their & lt res while also providin* e..e&tive ( sti&e .or )oth Indians and non-Indians ali!e, and th s provides a possi)le "odel .or dis& ssion )y and en*a*e"ent with indi*eno s peoples aro nd the re*ion0 In so doin*, s &h an e..ort &o ld enhan&e re*ional &olla)oration on de.ense and se& rity in *eneral, and=parti& larly in Bolivia, Ahile, E& ador, I ate"ala, Me%i&o, 'i&ara* a, :ana"a and :er =to help s stain initiatives on re*ional sta)ility and re&onstr &tion; i"prove se& rity in o tlyin* areas so"eti"es re.erred to as + n*overned spa&es,- and o..er &riti&al s pport to Indian peoples see!in* their pea&e. l ) t e..e&tive in&orporation into the politi&al pro&esses o. their own &o ntries0 #he role o. tri)al &o rts and tri)al poli&e .or&es in the @nited /tates has )e&o"e in&reasin*ly si*ni.i&ant, as Indians see! to e%er&ise &onstit tionally * aranteed soverei*nty and sel.-r le0 6hat "any ,atin A"eri&an indi*eno s peoples aspire to="eanin*. l in&l sion in their &o ntry3s le*al .ra"ewor!, prote&tin* their ri*hts and their &o"" nities, and *ivin* the" the &han&e to preserve their own & lt res=is already in pla&e, to varyin* de*rees, on @0/0 reservations0 Already, a D arter o. a &ent ry a*o, Indian le*al e%perts Rine Heloria, Jr0, and Ali..ord M0 ,ytle, &o ld write that the )ene.its o..ered )y the @0/0 tri)al &o rt syste" in&l ded an in&reasin*ly dedi&ated tri)al ( di&iary; relatively speedy a&&ess to a .air .or ", and the a)ility to )rid*e the *ap )etween law and Indian & lt re, as well as de.eren&e )y .ederal &o rts, and *rowin* s pport .ro" .ederal a*en&ies, tri)al leaders, and or*ani5ations0li In the @nited /tates, the )road de.eren&e .ederal &o rts *ive to tri)al &o rts in&l des=in appropriate &ases=)ein* *iven the .irst opport nity to deter"ine whether the tri)al &o rt has the power to e%er&ise ( risdi&tion over non-Indians0 lii Altho *h there are a wide variety o. approa&hes to tri)al ( sti&e a"on* the "ore than 700 .ederally re&o*ni5ed tri)es who s rvive in the @nited /tates today, &ertain . nda"ental r les and si"ilarities e%ist a"on* all o. the"0 In the last .o r de&ades, a n ")er o. tri)es, one o. the "ost s &&ess. l o. whi&h has )een the 'ava(o 'ation, have so *ht to &odi.y their traditional law (in /panish, derecho consuetudinario) into positive law0 #his in itsel. has helped to .orti.y tri)al identity and sel.deter"ination, while at the sa"e ti"e e%tendin* the e..e&tive rea&h o. the national ( sti&e syste" thro *h &ooperative e..orts in the ad"inistration o. ( sti&e0 As then Attorney Ieneral Janet Oeno o)served9

6hile the .ederal *overn"ent has a si*ni.i&ant responsi)ility .or law en.or&e"ent in " &h o. Indian &o ntry, tri)al ( sti&e syste"s are lti"ately the "ost appropriate instit tions .or "aintainin* order in tri)al &o"" nities. +hey are local institutions, closest to the people they serve. 7ith ade9uate resources and training, they are most capable of crime prevention and peace keeping. 0 0 0 #ri)al &o rts are essential "e&hanis"s .or resolvin* &ivil disp tes that arise on the reservation or otherwise a..e&t the interests o. the tri)e or its "e")ers0liii (Itali&s added)

In his se"inal wor!, (andbook of :ederal Indian *aw, >eli% Aohen des&ri)ed the nat re o. Indian tri)al powers0 J di&ial de&ision on the nat re o. tri)al powers, he wrote, is +"ar!ed )y three . nda"ental prin&iples9
(1) An Indian tri)e possesses, in the .irst instan&e, all the powers o. any soverei*n state0 (2) AonD est renders the tri)e s )(e&t to the le*islative power o. the @nited /tates and, in s )stan&e, ter"inates the e2ternal powers o. soverei*nty o. the tri)e, e0*0,its power to enter into treaties with .orei*n nations, ) t does not )y itsel. a..e&t the internal soverei*nty o. the tri)e, i0e0, its power o. lo&al *overn"ent0 (K) #hese powers are s )(e&t to D ali.i&ation )y treaties and )y e%press le*islation o. Aon*ress, ) t, save as th s e%pressly D ali.ied, . ll powers o. internal soverei*nty are vested in the Indian tri)es and in their d ly &onstit ted or*ans o. *overn"ent0 liv

#he ad"inistration o. ( sti&e on Indian reservations is * ided )y the Ma(or Ari"es A&t (/tat0 KL2, 227), whi&h ori*inally was "ade law )y the @0/0 Aon*ress in 1227 and in e..e&t too! .ro" Indian tri)es their ( risdi&tion over "a(or o..enses0 #h s, "a(or .elonies involvin* an Indian, whether as vi&ti" or a&& sed, are "atters .or .ederal prose& tion and on "ost o. the nearly K00 Indian reservations, the .ederal *overn"ent retains the sole a thority to prose& te .elony &ri"e0 #he / pre"e Ao rt has r led that, li!e all other .ederal re* lation o. Indian a..airs, the Ma(or Ari"es A&t is not )ased on ra&ial &lassi.i&ation, ) t rather +is rooted in the niD e stat s o. Indians as Qa separate people3 with their own politi&al instit tions0 >ederal re* lation o. Indian tri)es, there.ore, is *overnan&e o. on&e-soverei*n politi&al &o"" nities; it is not to )e viewed as le*islation o. a Qra&ial3 *ro p &onsistin* o. Indians0- lv Initially, the a&t &overed seven .elonies (&ri"es whi&h &arry a "a%i" " penalty o. "ore than one year i"prison"ent); today, their n ")er stands at 1L0 #he a"ended a&t reads9
Any Indian who &o""its a*ainst the person or property o. another Indian or other person any o. the .ollowin* o..enses, na"ely " rder, "ansla *hter, !idnappin*, rape, &arnal !nowled*e o. any .e"ale, not his wi.e, who has not attained the a*e o. 1L years, assa lt with a dan*ero s weapon, assa lt res ltin* in serio s )odily in( ry, arson, ) r*lary, ro))ery, and lar&eny within the Indian &o ntry, shall )e s )(e&ted to the sa"e laws and penalties as all other persons &o""ittin* any o. the a)ove o..enses, with the e%&l sive ( risdi&tion o. the @nited /tates0

#he investi*ation o. "a(or &ri"es, it sho ld )e noted, is not witho t serio s di..i& lties, with lines o. responsi)ility and a thority o.ten n&lear or ( ")led, and e..orts to resolve pro)le"s nder. nded, or n. nded0 Instead, as one (o rnalisti& investi*ation re&ently noted, +6ith several a*en&ies potentially involved=)oth tri)al and .ederal="a(or investi*ations o..er an opport nity .or )road " t al s pport0 Instead, they are ha"pered )y &ross-& ttin* ( risdi&tional lines, poor &o"" ni&ation, thin reso r&es and a vast la&! o. a&&o nta)ility0- lvi Ari"es &o""itted on Indian lands and not &overed )y the @0/0 Aode are within the ( risdi&tion o. the Indian &o rt syste"0 (A so-&alled +Montana r le- "eans that tri)es and their &o rts do not have a pres "ption o. &ivil ( risdi&tion over non-"e")ers nless the latter &onsent or nless it &an )e shown to all ) t threaten the &ontin in* e%isten&e o. the tri)e0 Indian poli&e o..i&ers also &annot arrest a non-Indian person on tri)al land0) Ienerally, @0/0 tri)al &o rts rese")le in so"e i"portant respe&ts those o. the An*lo-A"eri&an ( di&ial syste" .o nd at the lo&al, state and .ederal levels0 lvii As Heloria and ,ytle noted, +J d*es so"eti"es wear ro)es, witnesses are &alled to testi.y, atte"pts are "ade to !eep testi"ony relevant, the liti*ants are per"itted to have ( di&ial advo&ates, and tri)al &o rt de&isions are s )(e&t to appeal0- lviii 4owever, "any Indian ( d*es are not lawyers and, )e&a se there is s ally no pro.essional &o nsel present, ta!e an a&tive role in hearin*s and trials0 #ri)al &o rts are not s ally &o rts o. re&ord and rarely are written opinions handed down0 Many tri)al ( d*es a&t in a "anner "ore a!in to the head o. a .a"ily tryin* to "ediate a disp te, with the desired o t&o"e one in whi&h the entire &o"" nity is seen to )ene.it rather than one in whi&h an individ al o..ender is p nished0

#he *oal o. adversarial law in the An*lo-A"eri&an tradition, noted Oo)ert Va55ie, Ahie. J sti&e o. the 'ava(o 'ation Ao rt .ro" 1992-200K, +is to p nish wron*doers and tea&h the" a lesson0 Adversarial law and ad( di&ation o..er only a win-lose sol tion; it is a 5ero-s " *a"e0 'ava(o ( sti&e pre.ers a win-win sol tion0- 4e added9
'ava(os do not thin! o. eD ality as treatin* people as eD al before the law; they are eD al in the law0 A*ain, o r 'ava(o lan* a*e points this o t in pra&ti&al ter"s9 6hen a 'ava(o is &har*ed with a &ri"e, in the verti&al syste" o. ( sti&e the ( d*e as!s (in En*lish), +Are yo * ilty or not * iltyG- A 'ava(o &annot respond )e&a se there is no pre&ise ter" .or +* ilty- in the 'ava(o lan* a*e0 #he word +* ilt- i"plies a "oral .a lt whi&h de"ands p nish"ent0 It is a nonsense word in 'ava(o law )e&a se o. the .o& s on healin*, inte*ration with the *ro p, and the end *oal o. no rishin* on*oin* relationships with the i""ediate and e%tended .a"ily, relatives, nei*h)ors, and &o"" nity0 li%

Altho *h in the @nited /tates the sele&tion pro&ess varies .ro" tri)e to tri)e, ( d*es are .reD ently people appointed )y the tri)al &o n&il d e to the respe&t with whi&h they are held in the &o"" nity0 <ther sele&tion "ethods in&l de )ein* &hosen )y &o"" nity reli*io s leaders or thro *h a *eneral ele&tion in whi&h all tri)al "e")ers parti&ipate0 In the 'ava(o 'ation, ( d*es are appointed .or a li.e ter" and, a.ter &o"pletin* a pro)ationary period, &an )e re"oved only .or &a se0 6hile .or"al ed &ation in non-Indian law is not a reD ire"ent=providin* as it does neither an nderstandin* o., nor an appre&iation .or, Indian & sto"s and traditions=.a"iliarity with tri)al & sto" is &onsidered an essential prereD isite .or )ein* sele&ted0 #he in.or"ality o. tri)al &o rts helps to reass re tri)al "e")ers that they are )ein* o..ered a .or " .or the resol tion o. disp tes a"on* tri)al "e")ers in a&&ordin* with their traditions, with the pri"ary *oal )ein* "ediation and &onsens al restit tion, rather than as&ertainin* * ilt then in.li&tin* p nish"ent pon the o..ender0 #he e"phasis on "ediation and resol tion o. disp tes rather than the adversarial syste" o. the An*loA"eri&an ( sti&e "eans that tri)al hearin*s are &onvened not to deter"ine * ilt or inno&en&e, ) t to ne*otiate so"e appropriate .or" o. restit tion0 (#e&hni&al * ilt or inno&en&e is not &onsidered s ..i&ient in Indian &o"" nities; i. an o..ender is de&lared inno&ent in an An*lo-A"eri&an &o rt )e&a se o. a te&hni&al violation, he or she will nonetheless )e sh nned )y the tri)e sin&e the trans*ressor has neither paid .or nor re.le&ted pon his/her a&tions0) 'ot only is the o..ender involved in the tri)al &o rt pro&ess, ) t also the vi&ti", the +elders- and/or .a"ily "e")ers0 6or!in* to*ether, these deter"ine what p nish"ent is appropriate and allows .or )oth restit tion and reha)ilitation0 +Aleansin* &ere"onies- are .reD ently held on&e restit tion has )een "ade and p nish"ent/re&on&iliation e..e&ted0 ,aw en.or&e"ent in Indian &o ntry &an )e &arried o t )y any one o. .o r types o. state a*ents, in&l din* tri)al poli&e, the B rea o. Indian A..airs (BIA) thro *h its Hivision o. ,aw En.or&e"ent /ervi&es, other .ederal law en.or&e"ent, and state and lo&al law a*en&ies, or a &o")ination o. any o. the a)ove0l% En.or&e"ent is handled )y "any tri)al *overn"ents thro *h the se o. poli&e o..i&ers &ontra&ted with .ederal . nds nder the Indian /el.-Heter"ination A&t o. 1987 and with appropriated . nds .ro" the tri)e itsel.0 #he ad"inistration o. ( sti&e on tri)al lands in the @nited /tates does, to )e s re, have "any i"per.e&tions, as a si%-"onth-lon* investi*ation )y the 'enver Post &ond &ted in 2008 showed, "any related to the relationship the tri)es have with the .ederal *overn"ent0 In +so"e o. the "ost violent and i"poverished pla&es in A"eri&a,- where dr *-related &ri"es are on the pswin*, the Post .o nd that +Indian reservations are also pla* ed )y a syste"ati& )rea!down in the delivery o. ( sti&e0- #he series &ited @0/0 attorneys and >BI investi*ators who .a&ed +h *e &hallen*es- in the .i*ht a*ainst reservation &ri"e0 /een as o tsiders not to )e tr sted, they wor! in re"ote lo&ations where al&ohol a) se is hi*h a"on* witnesses, as well as vi&ti"s and s spe&ts, "a!in* serio s &ri"es +very di..i& lt to prove0- At the sa"e ti"e, +instit tional resistan&e to sin* the hi*h-powered .ederal ( di&ial "a&hine to prose& te r n-o.-the"ill violent &ri"e- a&&o"panies on-*oin* ) d*et short.alls and &o"petin* .ederal priorities0 E..orts to in&rease the n ")er o. .ederal a*ents and "a*istrate ( d*es dealin* with reservation &ri"es ran into opposition .ro" so"e tri)es worried that s &h "eas res wo ld enhan&e .ederal power0 And )e&a se .elony &ri"e is the provin&e o. the .ederal *overn"ent, with the nearest prose& torial o..i&es so"eti"es h ndreds

o. "iles away, as "any as L7 per&ent o. all .elony &ases are de&lined .or prose& tion0 Rernon Ooanhorse, a 'ava(o tri)al prose& tor interviewed )y the newspaper said o. the .ederal ( sti&e syste" .latly9 +#hey3ve &reated a lawless land0-l%i 'onetheless, tri)al ad"inistration o. ( sti&e has wor!ed to stren*then the & lt ral identity and sel.deter"ination o. Indian peoples in the @nited /tates, while providin* indi*eno s peoples a&&ess to ( sti&e syste"s that re.le&t their needs and their desires0 @0/0 Indian leaders, and their &o nterparts within the @0/0 .ederal *overn"ent, &an "a!e an i"portant &ontri) tion to he"ispheri& se& rity and de"o&rati5ation )y pro-a&tively sharin* that !nowled*e with 'ative peoples in ,atin A"eri&a desiro s o. prote&tin* their lands, a&&ess to reso r&es and & lt ral inheritan&e thro *h a . lly representative de"o&rati& .ran&hise0

!he ,0ample of the Inuit 1,skimo2 People

Another e%a"ple o. parti& lar relevan&e to indi*eno s peoples in +,atin- A"eri&a is the &ase o. the In it people o. northern Aanada0 #here the evol tion o. land &lai"s poli&y=a &onstant in the e..orts o. Aanada3s 'ative peoples to "aintain their herita*e=also allowed the In it to )e&o"e politi&ally e"powered .or the .irst ti"e in "odern ti"es and to )e&o"e sta!eholders with voi&e and vote in a re*ion whose "oderni5ation s ddenly "oved into overdrive with the thawin* o. .ro5en lands asso&iated with *lo)al war"in* and an international r sh to &lai" land, water and reso r&es in a territory that is a &orn &opia o. all three0 In two re&ent wor!s=Breaking the Ice :rom *and )laims to +ribal Sovereignty in the &rctic and On +hin Ice +he Inuit, the State, and the )hallenge of &rctic Sovereignty =Barry /&ott Fellen has shown the ways in whi&h the In it e%a"ple o..ers a stri!in* &ontrast to the de&la"atory and divisive *oals o. ,atin A"eri&an pop lists, all the "ore so )e&a se in the Aanadian &ase they have )een so s &&ess. l0 #here se& rity iss es were )roadly de.ined, ta!in* advanta*e o. Aanada3s lon*-standin* view that environ"ental prote&tion was also a national se& rity D estion, to in&orporate lo&al and indi*eno s perspe&tives that re.le&ted their ri*hts, val es and perspe&tives0 #he arran*e"ent .or*ed )etween the In it and the national *overn"ent not only allows .or re"ediation and &o"pensation when a&tivities s &h as oil drillin* and "inin* s&ar the land or leave the environ"ent &onta"inated, +itsel. a )i* win .or the 'ative peoples who not too lon* a*o were neither &ons lted nor &o"pensated,- Fellen points o t0 B t in addition,
6ith the real politi&al *ains o. land &lai"s and the vario s sel.-*overn"ent pro&esses, 'atives are positioned to reap h *e rewards .ro" the &o"in* wave o. develop"ent0 #hey own "ost o. the &oastal land, have si*ni.i&ant re* latory powers and vario s &o-"ana*e"ent re*i"es that will ens re n "ero s )ene.its, .ro" trainin* and e"ploy"ent, in&l din* indi*eno s hirin* and tenderin* pre.eren&es, to royalties, &o"pensation, and re"ediation * arantees0 #he In it will .ind the"selves in a &entral role not nli!e that now en(oyed )y the /a di royal .a"ily0 l%ii

#he pro&ess, o. &o rse, has not solved all the In it3s pro)le"s=it &o ld not, espe&ially in a sin*le *eneration, and perhaps not in several *enerations0 #he Ar&ti& people still wrestle with steep learnin* & rves in &apitalis", the ways and "eans o. inter.a&in* with "odernity and *lo)ali5ation, as well as with their li"ited "ana*e"ent e%perien&e0 Ar shin* so&ial pro)le"s re"ain=s &h as poor ho sin* and ed &ation, hi*h s i&ide, in.ant "ortality and al&oholis" rates, and low li.e e%pe&tan&y=politi&al a&&o nta)ility "e&hanis"s re"ain wea! and, in lar*e "eas re a res lt o. this, &ronyis" and other &orr ptions a&&o"pany lar*e &ash settle"ents past, present and=perhaps=. t re0 B t .ew other 'ative peoples in the world e")ar! on this new (o rney with as "any thin*s in their .avor as the In it0 +#he ' nav t e%peri"ent, )lendin* an histori&, &o"prehensive land &lai" settle"ent with the &reation o. a new, predo"inantly In it territorial *overn"ent, &o ld .ail, despite its str &t ral innovations and paradi*"shi.tin* advan&es in sel.-*overn"ent,- Fellen noted0 +/ &&ess will reD ire &loser, and "ore &ontin o s attention, )y <ttawa, and "ore ti"e, e%perien&e, trainin*, and ed &ation will )e reD ired )y the In it0It sho ld )e pointed o t here that other, "ore n "ero s, indi*eno s peoples in Aanada do not share the In it3s & rrent and prospe&tive *ood .ort ne0 +Aanadians are lar*ely i*norant o. the e%tent to whi&h we e%perien&e paternalis", a)s rd irony and very real oppression,- 40 >reddy /weet*rass, a #oronto-)ased <(i)wa writer wrote re&ently0 +#he Indian A..airs Minister and sta.. are never Indian0 And yet they, as part o. an i""i*rant *overn"ent, de&ide who is and who is not indi*eno s to the land, *rantin* Qstat s3 where Qappli&a)le03 0 0 0 #he Indian A&t 0 0 0 MtNhis Hra&onian and dis&ri"inatory pie&e o. le*islation treats natives

as wards o. the state, as &hildren, &ontrollin* nearly every aspe&t o. their lives0 It has allowed the the.t o. Indian lands that were too &lose to pop lo s towns, the deposin* o. traditional *overn"ents in pla&e o. &orr pt )and &o n&ils and their e%&l sion .ro" e&ono"i& li.e 0 0 0- 'oted :hil >ontaine, national &hie. o. the Asse")ly o. >irst 'ations9 +:overty a"on* Aanada3s .irst nations peoples rivals #hird 6orld &onditions0 It3s this &o ntry3s dirty little se&ret0- >or his part Fellen, nders&ores +the e"er*en&e o. a shrewd and power. l politi&al elite that has helped the In it "a!e h *e politi&al *ains, parti& larly in &o"parison with the " &h lar*er Indian pop lation to their so th, who in "any respe&ts s ..ered "ore, and yet have won .ar .ewer &on&essions .ro" the state0- l%iii #he .ate o. the In it "i*ht have )een di..erent had native land ri*hts not "oved into the national spotli*ht in a way not too di..erent .ro" "yriad e%perien&es in ,atin A"eri&a0 In 1990, the s"all town o. <!a was the site o. a violent showdown )etween 'ative peoples=in this &ase the Mohaw!=the Aanadian poli&e and, later, the Aanadian ar"y0 A U W)e& poli&e o..i&er &har*in* the )arri&ades ere&ted )y a "ilitant Mohaw! .a&tion d rin* a 82-day ar"ed stando.. was shot and !illed0 #he spe&ter o. indi*eno s ar"ed &on.li&t, Fellen wrote, +paraly5ed the nation, and hinted at the dan*ers that wo ld ens e sho ld the path o. "ilitan&y and ar"ed resistan&e, and an ar"ed response )y the state, )e &hosen0- l%iv 'ot only did the &risis help to in&rease the p )li& awareness o. the &on&erns o. Aanada3s indi*eno s &iti5ens, who rode a way o. p )li& sy"pathy .or An*lo-Aanadians0 It also led to a hi*hly visi)le Ooyal Ao""ission that in 199L iss ed a len*thy report on its .indin*s0 >or the Aanadian *overn"ent, the violen&e ass red it wo ld honor the ' nav t ,and Alai"s A*ree"ent o. 199K, whi&h set the sta*e .or the &reation o. the lar*est and newest .ederal territory in Aanada, 880,000 sD are "iles in all, the ho"e to the &o ntry3s K0,000 In it0 #he land &lai"s ne*otiations, an ela)orate pro&ess o. ne*otiation )etween non-Indians and In it, &reated )oth &orporate str &t res and &o-"ana*e"ent syste"s that ena)led the latter to en(oy an n s al de*ree o. sel.-*overn"ent allowin* the 'ative people "ore than a se")lan&e o. &ontrol not only o. their lands, ) t also the terrain pon whi&h indi*eno s & lt re inter.a&ed with "yriad .or"s o. "odernity and *lo)ali5ation0 #he tal!s, &ond &ted in a de"o&rati& .ra"ewor! o. " t al respe&t, helped )oth sides nderstand the &o ntervailin* interests within their own .or&es, addin* to the i"pet s .or a s &&ess. l &on&l sion to the ne*otiations0 +By lettin* *o, &entral a thorities were in .a&t stren*thenin* their hand, *ainin* *reater politi&al le*iti"a&y thro *h their new &olla)oration, &o-"ana*e"ent, and devol tionary poli&ies,- Fellen noted0 #he settle"ent o. land &lai"s, he added, has allowed the In it to "ove on to those &hallen*es havin* to do with restorin* sel.-*overn"ent0 #heir relative &ontrol over the environ"ental i"pa&t on their ho"eland o. e%ternal develop"ent e..orts have *iven the In it a potential +ha""er- to assert their val es; the environ"ental assess"ents )e&o"in* +e%tre"ely i"portant- as a way .or the indi*eno s *ro p +to stand at the &rossroads o. the on*oin* de)ate )etween develop"ent and &onservation0- / &h independen&e is i"portant not only vis-X-vis the .ederal *overn"ent0 As historian /hela*h H0 Irant o)served9 +Most environ"ental a&tivists tho *ht their e..orts to halt . rther develop"ent in the Ar&ti& wo ld )e wel&o"ed, .ailin* to nderstand that a pristine wilderness &o ld not provide a via)le e&ono"y s ..i&ient to s stain the In it people0-l%v A&ross the nation-state )order, in the @nited /tates, respe&t .or de"o&rati& r les and pro&ed res have also res lted in positive res lts0 +Even in pla&es li!e Alas!a, where stron* state interests have )een pitted a*ainst the 'ative &o"" nity in a lon* )attle over who &ontrols the reso r&e wealth e%tra&ted .ro" the land, the sit ation )etween state and tri)e is .ar "ore har"onio s than )etween state and tri)e in other parts o. the world, where ethni& violen&e and &ivil war.are have er pted in response to the sa"e &entri. *al .or&es,- Fellen said0 #he )lendin* )y the tri)e and the state o. &onte"porary &onstit tional, e&ono"i& and politi&al instit tions, he added, +de.ines the very essen&e o. neotri)alis"=neither a s rrender to the .or&es o. assi"ilation, &olonialis", or even i"perial o&& pation; nor a re(e&tion o. the "odern state o tri*ht0 0 0 0 #he trans.or"ation o. the land &lai"s "odel .ro" )ein* a tool o. assi"ilation, wielded )y state a*ainst peripheral and interior tri)es, into a tool o. e"power"ent wielded )y the tri)e a*ainst those very .or&es o. assi"ilation ind &ed )y the &ontin ed penetration o. the "odern state into its .rontier re*ion 0 0 0 s **ests the potential .or a synthesis to the lon* &on.li&t )etween state and tri)e sin&e the "odern era o. nationstates )e*an0-l%vi

U oted in Barry /&ott Fellen, On +hin Ice (.orth&o"in*), p0 1K00 @niversity o. Minnesota 4 "an Oi*hts Aenter, Study ;uide +he 8ights of Indigenous Peoples (200K)0 iii AE:A, Ao" ni&ado de :rensa, 2000, +/it a&ion de indP*enas y a.ro a"eri&anos en A"eri&a ,atina y el Aari)e,- J ly 12, 2000, Y http9//www0e&la&0or*/&*i-)in/*et:rod0aspG %"lZ/prensa/noti&ias/&o" ni&ados/8/88/:880%"l[%slZ/prensa/tpl/pL.0%sl[)aseZ/prensa/tpl/top-)otto"0%sl0 iv ,Bpe5 BCr&enas, +Indi*eno s Move"ents in the A"eri&as9 >ro" He"and .or Oe&o*nition to B ildin* A tono"ies,- translated .ro" +A tono"ias IndP*enas en A"eri&a9 de la de"anda de re&ono&i"iento a s &onstr &&iBn,- Aenter .or International :oli&y, >e)r ary 2L, 20020 v :eter 40 /"ith, &rgentina and the :ailure of 'emocracy, )onflict among Political !lites, "#$<%"#==, ( (Madison9 @niversity o. 6is&onsin :ress, 198?), p0 290 vi Ja"es H0 >earon and Havid H0 ,aitin, +E%plainin* Interethni& Aooperation,- &merican Political Science 8eview, 199L, p0 8180 vii Fellen, op0 &it, pp0 17-1L0 viii Fellen, op0 &it, pp0 ?L-?8, 70; Havid Arary, +Ao ntdown )e*ins .or Aanada3s new territory,- &ssociated Press>4uneau !mpire Online, Mar&h 29, 1992, Y http9//www0( nea e"pire0&o"/stories/0K2992/&anada0ht"l0 i% Ernst-@lri&h :eters"ann, +/tate /overei*nty, :op lar, /overei*nty and Individ al /overei*nty9 .ro" Aonstit tional 'ationalis" to M ltilevel Aonstit tionalis" in International E&ono"i& ,aw ?@ !AI 7orking Papers, *aw ,o. B$$C><=, E ropean @niversity Instit te0 % In Ia)riel Mar&ella, +6ar 6itho t Borders9 #he Aolo")ia-E& ador Arisis o. 2002,- /trate*i& /t dies Instit te, He&e")er 20020 %i <n this point, see Ja"es Oosena , &long the 'omestic%:oreign :rontier. !2ploring ;overnance in a +urbulent 7orld, ( (Aa")rid*e9 Aa")rid*e @niversity :ress, 1998)0 %ii ,ies)et 4oo*he and Iary Mar!s, +@nravelin* the Aentral /tate, ) t 4owG #ypes o. M lti-,evel Iovernan&e,- +he &merican Political Science 8eview, Rol0 98, 'o0 20 ("ay, 200K), p02KL0 %iii Iraha" Bowley, +He&larin* /o"ethin* a ,ot ,i!e Hependen&e,- +he ,ew -ork +imes, Mar&h 2, 20020 %iv +Bishops3 )a&!lash as Ar&h)ishop o. Aanter) ry de.ends &alls .or sharia law,- +hisis*ondon, >e)r ary 2, 2002; see also, Ieneive A)do, +Isla"i& He"o&ra&y; #wo law pro.essors o..er very di..erent assess"ents o. sharia,- +he 7ashington Post, J ly 28, 20020 %v #royan, +Ire*orio 4ernande5 de Al)a (190?-198K)9 #he ,e*i"iti5ation o. Indi*eno s Ethni& :oliti&s in Aolo")ia,- !uropean 8eview of *atin &merican and )aribbean Studies, Rol0 22, April 2008, p0 97 %vi ,Bpe5 BCr&enas, op0 &it0 %vii Ao(tP A %il )onfiguraciDn del Pensamiento PolEtico del Pueblo .aya, (U et5altenan*o, I ate"ala9 Aso&ia&iBn de Es&ritores Mayan&es de I ate"ala, 1991), p0 1K0 %viii Be&!er, +E& ador9 Indi*eno s /tr **les and the A")i* ities o. /tate :ower,- in +he 8esurgence of *atin &merican 8adicalism Between )racks in the !mpire and an Iz9uierda Permitida, Je.. 6e))er and Barry Aarr (eds0), (,anha", MH9 Oow"an and ,ittle.ield : )lishers, .orth&o"in*)0pp0 2, 2K, 27, 280 +Be&a se o. the stron* power o. so&ial "ove"ents, &onservatives &loa!ed the"selves in a pro*ressive dis&o rse in order to win ele&tions, ) t only to r le on )ehal. o. the oli*ar&hy on&e in o..i&e,- Be&!er o)served0 +A)adala B &ara" (199L-1998), Ja"il Mah ad (1992-2000), and , &io I tierre5 (200K-2007) had all &a"pai*ned with the s pport o. *rassroots "ove"ents )e.ore t rnin* on their )ases a.ter they had won an ele&tion-; Honna ,ee Ran Aott, +Indi*eno s Move"ents ,ose Mo"ent ",- )urrent (istory, >e)r ary 2009, pp0 27-220 %i% Be&!er, +E& ador9 Indi*eno s /tr **les and the A")i* ities o. /tate :ower,- in +he 8esurgence of *atin &merican 8adicalism Between )racks in the !mpire and an Iz9uierda Permitida, Je.. 6e))er and Barry Aarr (eds0), (,anha", MH9 Oow"an and ,ittle.ield : )lishers, .orth&o"in*), pp0 2, 2K, 27, 280 +Be&a se o. the stron* power o. so&ial "ove"ents, &onservatives &loa!ed the"selves in a pro*ressive dis&o rse in order to win ele&tions, ) t only to r le on )ehal. o. the oli*ar&hy on&e in o..i&e,- Be&!er o)served0 +A)adala B &ara" (199L-1998), Ja"il Mah ad (1992-2000), and , &io I tierre5 (200K-2007) had all &a"pai*ned with the s pport o. *rassroots "ove"ents )e.ore t rnin* on their )ases a.ter they had won an ele&tion-; Honna ,ee Ran Aott, +Indi*eno s Move"ents ,ose Mo"ent ",- )urrent (istory, >e)r ary 2009, pp0 27-220 %% :ersonal &o"" ni&ation with the a thor, Mar&h 1, 200L0 %%i $r i(t and $oonin*, &rmed &ctors, ( (,ondon9 Ma&Millan, 2007)0 %%ii /ee Be&!er, +E& ador9 Indi*eno s /tr **les and the A")i* ities o. /tate :ower,- op0 &it0, pp0 2?, 22; Mar*arita 'olas&o and Mi* el \n*el O )io, +,a Mi*ra&ion Indi*ena9 Aa sas y E.e&tos en la A lt ra, en la E&ono"ia y en la :o)la&ion,- online at9 F www0etno*ra.ia0inah0*o)0"%/pd./,inea70pd.3 and 3Ali&ia Ra&a&ela, 3,a "i*ra&iBn indP*ena,- BoletEn I))I%&8- 8imay, A]o ?, 'o0 ?1, a*osto del 2002, Y online at9 http9//i&&i0nativewe)0or*/)oletin/?1/va&a&ela0ht"l0 %%iii /ee Be&!er, +E& ador9 Indi*eno s /tr **les and the A")i* ities o. /tate :ower,- op0 &it0, pp0 2, 2L0 %%iv 6hitney, State and 8evolution in )uba3 .ass .obilization and Political )hange, "#B$%"#<$, ( (Ahapel 4ill, '0A09 #he @niversity o. 'orth Aarolina :ress, 2001), pp0 1K2-1K90 %%v Ran Aott, +A :oliti&al Analysis o. ,e*al :l ralis" in Bolivia and Aol ")ia,- 4ournal of *atin &merican Studies, Rol0 K2, 'o0 1, Andean Iss e, ( (>e)r ary 2000), pp0 208-2K?0 %%vi 4val!o., +:rivati5ation o. ,and and Indi*eno s Ao"" nities in ,atin A"eri&a9 #en re /e& rity or /o&ial /e& rity,- Hanish Instit te .or International /t dies (HII/) 7orking Paper ,o. B$$G>B", p0 12, online at www0diss0d!0 %%vii :a l Aollier and An!e 4oe..ler, ;reed and ;rievance in )ivil 7ar 0 :oli&y Oesear&h 6or!in* :aper 'o0 2K77, ( (6ashin*ton, H0A09 #he 6orld Ban!, 2001); Honna ,ee Ran Aott, =$$ -ears of )onfrontation Indigenous Peoples and Security Policy in *atin &merica, M&'air :aper ' ")er 7K (6ashin*ton, H0A09 Instit te .or 'ational /trate*i& /t dies, <&to)er 1, 199L)0 %%viii Be&!er, +E& ador9 Indi*eno s /tr **les and the A")i* ities o. /tate :ower,- op0 &it0, p0 K8; Ahris $ra l, +:er 3s indi*eno s people win one ro nd over developers,- *os &ngeles +imes, J ne 27, 20090
ii

%%i%

Hie*o Aevallos, +,atin A"eri&a9 /e&ond Ahan&e .or Indi*eno s :eople a.ter +,ost He&ade,- Inter%&merican Press, May 12,

20080
%%% +El rostro perverso del ) en salva(e e&olo*i&o9 ,a &onstr &&ion o&&idental de los "itos so)re el indi*ena,- Pukara, 'o0 28, He&e")er 8 to Jan ary 8, 2002, Y http9//www0periodi&op !ara0&o"/arti& lo-del-"es,php0 %%%i +E& ador3s new &onstit tion Qleaves the past )ehind,3- 4a)itat .or 4 "anity, /epte")er 22, 2002, Y http9//www0ha)itat0or*/la&^en*/newsroo"/2002/09^22^02^E& ador^en*0asp%0 %%%ii Ja"es Ao&!&ro.t, +4istori& Ahan*es A&ross ,atin A"eri&a; Indi*eno s :eople Oisin*,- )ounterpunch, 'ove")er 22-K0, 2002, Y www0&o nterp n&h0or*/&o&!&ro.t112220020ht"l %%%iii :hilip 4oward, +#he history o. e&olo*i&al "ar*inali5ation in Ahiapas,- !nvironmental (istory, J ly 1992, p0 1K0 %%%iv #hese are so"e o. the re&o""endations &ontained in the +dra.t re&o""endations- o. the 9th 'ational Aon.eren&e on /&ien&e, :oli&y and the Environ"ent9 Biodiversity in a 8apidly )hanging 7orld, He&e")er 2, 2002, Y http9//www0n&seonline0or*/Aon.eren&e/Biodiversity/Oe&o""endations/Brea!o t_20Oe&o""endations_201st_20edited_20dra.t0pd.0 %%%v Earl /horris, +he 'eath of the ;reat Spirit, 'ew Vor!9 /i"on and /&h ster, 1981, pp0 72-790 %%%vi Heloria and ,ytle, &merican Indians, A stin9 @niversity o. #e%as :ress, 192K, pp0 1KL-1K80 %%%vii +Morales darC X J sti`a indP*ena valor de J sti`a &o" ",- !:!, Jan ary ?, 20080

+A prop esta de Evo Morales, daran lati*a5os a los delin& entes en Bolivia,- 'iario !2terior, April 18, 20083 Ioldstein noted9 3#ypi&ally, the last resort .or this !ind o. &o"" nity ( sti&e wo ld )e to e%ile o..enders, prohi)itin* their ret rn to the &o"" nity where their .a"ily, lands, and all other si*ns o. their so&ial e%isten&e are lo&ated,- Ioldstein writes0 +/ &h p nish"ent has a power. l deterrent e..e&t on wo ld-)e &ri"inals, s &h that e%tre"e .or"s o. violent p nish"ent are rarely reD ired0 : nish"ents nder this syste" are not de&ided pon in an*er, ) t are the res lt o. a deli)erative pro&ess in whi&h ele&ted elders o. the &o"" nity parti&ipate and prono n&e ( d*"ent0 ,yn&hin*s li!e those des&ri)ed in the report .ro" Ayo Ayo to El Alto to the Ao&ha)a")a valley o)ey no .or" o. ad( di&ative pro&ess, ) t pro&eed .ro" the ra*e and v lnera)ility that poor, indi*eno s people .eel in the .a&e o. al"ost &ontin al and n&ontrolled &ri"e in their &o"" nities0 @na)le to rely on the state ( sti&e syste" or the national poli&e whi&h are nder. nded, ndersta..ed, and ina&&essi)le to the "a(ority o. poor and "ar*inal people &o"" nity residents resort to violen&e as the only possi)le "eans that they &an i"a*ine to &ontrol &ri"e and p nish the a&& sed0 ,yn&h "o)s .reD ently "isidenti.y the perpetrators o. &ri"es, and end p p nishin* the inno&ent0- In +Oesponse to the 4 "an Oi*hts >o ndation- Hon3t "ista!e lyn&hin* and other .or"s o. vi*ilante violen&e .or &o"" nity ( sti&e,- &ndean Information ,etwork, Jan ary 22, 2002; see also, 4elene OisSr, +#wenty 4an*in* Holls and a ,yn&hin*9 ,ivin* Inse& rity and Oe&o*ni5in* Han*ero sness in the Mar*ins o. the Bolivian /tate,- paper presented at the 2009 ,atin A"eri&an /t dies Asso&iation Aon*ress in Oio de Janeiro, J ne L, 20090 %%%i% /ee, .or e%a"ple, *ike a *oaded 7eapon +he 8ehn9uist )ourt, Indian 8ights and the *egal (istory of 8acism in &merica, )y @niversity o. Ari5ona law pro.essor Oo)ert A0 6illia"s (2007)0 %l Martin Edwin Andersen, +#han!. l .or renewed ri*hts; 'ative 'i&ara* ans needed prote&tion,- +he 7ashington +imes, 'ove")er 22, 20010 %li # ll)er*, +/e& rin* 4 "an Oi*hts o. A"eri&an Indians and <ther Indi*eno s :eoples @nder International ,aw,- op0 &it0, p0 L20 %lii A")0 Jor*e /!inner-$lee, D oted in Josh 'elson, +@0'0 A")assadors e%perien&e Mes!wa!i & lt re,- 7:))ourier.com, <&to)er 1L, 20080 %liii Bordewi&h, 6illing the 7hite .an1s Indian, ( ('ew Vor!9 An&hor/Ho )leday, 199L), pp0 10-110 %liv /ee He)orah 4o se, *anguage Shift among the ,avaHos Identity Politics and )ultural )ontinuity (# &son9 @niversity o. Ari5ona :ress, 2002), espe&ially &hapters K (+#he Oevitali5ation o. 'ava(o A lt re-), ? (+'arratives o. 'ava(o-ness-), and 7 (+'ava(o-i5ation o. /&hools-)0 %lv Aarol :erry and :atri&ia Anne Havis, +Hineh /overei*nty Is /pirit al E"power"ent and /el.-Identity- (p )li& hearin*, 6indow Oo&!, Ari5, A * st 1L, 2001, &ited in ,loyd ,0 ,ee, +#he > t re o. 'ava(o 'ationalis",- 7icazo Sa 8eview 2201 (2008), p0 L00 %lvi $a anoe $a"ana and 6illia" 40 6ilson, +4awaiian ,an* a*e :ro*ra"s,- 'ational Alearin*ho se .or En*lish ,an* a*e A&D istition and ,an* a*e Instr &tion Ed &ational :ro*ra"s, http9//www0n&ela0*w 0ed /p )s/sta)ili5e/additional/hawaiian0ht"l, &ited in ,ee, +#he > t re o. 'ava(o 'ationalis",- op0 &it0, p0 L70 >or an interestin* histori&al perspe&tive o. the si"ilarities and &ontrasts )etween 'ative A"eri&an and native 4awaiian e%perien&es, see ,inda /0 :ar!er, ,ative &merican !state +he Struggle over Indian and (awaiian *ands (4onol l 9 @niversity o. 4awaii :ress, 1929); :ar!er is a 6estern Ahero!ee0 %lvii # ll)er*, op0 &it0, p0 L70 %lviii :resident Oi&hard M0 'i%on, Special .essage to )ongress on Indian &ffairs, J ly 2, 19800 %li% ,Bpe5 BCr&enas, +Indi*eno s Move"ents in the A"eri&as9 >ro" He"and .or Oe&o*nition to B ildin* A tono"ies,- op0 &it0 l # ll)er*, op0 &it0, p0 7?0 li Heloria and ,ytle, op0 &it,, pp0 1KL-1K8, listed as +wea!nesses-, a"on* others, the &o rts3 +s s&epti)ility to politi&al in.l en&e,+s ""ary ( sti&e,- a +need .or D ali.ied personnel,- and +inadeD ate tri)al laws0lii ,at1l :armers Anion Ins. )ompanies v. )row +ribe of Indians , ?81 @0/0 2?7, 27L-78, 107 /0At0 2??8, 2?7?, 27 ,0Ed02d 212 (1927)0 liii Janet Oeno, aA .ederal &o""it"ent to tri)al ( sti&e syste"s,3 89 4udicature 11K, 11? (1997)0 liv Aohen, (andbook of :ederal Indian *aw, ( (6ashin*ton, H0A09 Iovern"ent :rintin* <..i&e, 19?2), pp0 122-12K0 lv Anited States v. &ntelope, ?K0 @0/0 L?1 (1988)0 lvi Mi&hael Oiley, +Indian J sti&e; 1227 law at root o. ( risdi&tional ( ")le,- +he 'enver Post, 'ove")er 11, 20080 lvii #he /tate o. ,o isiana, whose laws are )ased on the 'apoleoni& Aode, the >ren&h &ivil &ode ena&ted in 120?, is an e%&eption to this r le0

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Heloria and ,ytle, op0 &it0, p0 1120 Oo)ert Va55ie, +,i.e &o"es .ro" it9 'ava(o ( sti&e &on&epts,- B< ,ew .e2ico *aw 8eview, 199?0 l% M0 6esley Alar!, +En.or&in* Ari"inal ,aw on 'ative A"eri&an ,ands,- :BI *aw !nforcement Bulletin, April, 20070 l%i Mi&hael Oiley, +:ro"ises, ( sti&e )ro!en; A dys. n&tional syste" lets serio s reservation &ri"es *o np nished and p ts Indians at ris!,- +he 'enver Post, 'ove")er 11, 2008; Oiley, +J sti&e9 Ina&tion3s .atal pri&e9 Helays and "issteps in Indian Ao ntry &ri"inal &ases &an *ive o..enders a .ree pass0 #he &onseD en&es &an )e tra*i&,- +he 'enver Post, 'ove")er 12, 2008; Oiley, +:rin&iples, politi&s &ollide; /o"e @0/0 attorneys who e"phasi5e .i*htin* &ri"e on Indian lands have seen the"selves .all o t o. .avor in H0A0,- +he 'enver Post, 'ove")er 1K, 2008; Oiley, +:ath to ( sti&e n&lear; E"power the tri)es, or )ee. p the .ederal roleG Ea&h side has its own history o. .ail re,- +he 'enver Post, 'ove")er 1?, 2008; +Indian Ao ntry 4it #wi&e 6ith B d*et A ts,- A.S. :ederal ,ews Service, >e)0 8, 200L0 l%ii /a" Ra!nin, +Interview with Barry /&ott Fellen9 Ar&ti& ,essons,- ;lobal Politician, J ne 7, 2002, Y www0*lo)alpoliti&ian0&o"/2?2L2-environ"ent-interview0 l%iii Fellen, On +hin Ice (.orth&o"in*), pp0 ?8, 70; /weet*rass, +Ma!e Aanada see the oppression,- +he ;lobe and .ail, J ne 22, 2008; Mar*aret 6ente, +#rapped in the a)ori*inal narrative,- +he ;lobe and .ail, J ne 22, 20080 l%iv Fellen, On +hin Ice, op0 &it0, p0 ?70 l%v Ra!nin, +Interview with Barry /&ott Fellen,- op0 &it0; Fellen, On +hin Ice , op0 &it0, pp00 K1, K7, ?20 l%vi Fellen, On +hin Ice , op0 &it0, p0 ?7; Ra!nin, +Interview with Barry /&ott Fellen,- op0 &it0
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