Language Variation: General Language use varies primarily for geographical and social reasons, and is strongly connected

to identity factorshow so? Language variation is structured and systematic, not random All languages and dialects have, and probably should have, variation Everyone has a dialect and accent Dialect and Accent Dialect: a language variety that differs systematically from other varieties of the same language in terms of structural and grammatical features (not just slang) Accent: a language variety within a language that differs systematically from others exclusively in terms of its phonology and pronunciation NB: Such variations are systematic and typical: many speakers will make them much of the time; they arent idiosyncratic or errors Go through concrete examples on p. 348 Dialect vs. Language While different dialects are mutually intelligible with more or less difficulty, different languages are not; e.g., Southern/Black/Canadian English (dialects) vs. English/French/Japanese (langs) However, political issues (e.g., nationalism) can problematize this mutual intelligibility criterion; e.g., people in US who want to speak American, as different from British English Other criteria for distinguishing language or dialect might involve place where its used or its written form How do you know Amer. EN is a dialect and not a separate language? Might it become the Standard vs. Nonstandard Revisited The more or less recognized and implemented standard dialect of a language is the dialect privileged and promoted for non-linguistic reasons (e.g., schooling, media, government; cf. SE) Nonstandard dialects are systematic and linguistically equal (for communication, etc.) but socially unequal to standard dialects; are often stigmatized as inferior Both standard and nonstandard dialects can serve social, as well as linguistic and communicative, purposes; e.g., identity, personality, local pride, group membership; cf. hip-hop talk Dialectology Dialectology: the study and mapping of language variation, especially according to geographic boundaries that often represent linguistic boundaries (cf. isolation, migration, and language contact) Dialectologists map various linguistic features: phonological, grammatical, lexical, etc., not just accent or pronunciation Isogloss: line on a dialect map that separates more or less systematic language variation (among various features) across regions; majority not absolute (see 354-55)

 NB: Social language variation is not mainly geographical, but social and geographical Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics: studies language in use in social contexts; think of the name as society + language Somewhat different from dialectology, sociolinguistics looks at the personal and social factors, not the geographical ones, that account for language variations among populations or speech communities; e.g., gender, race, class, age, ethnicity (more on these factors next class) Again, these factors are systematic; and there are discernible connections between language use and speakers identity (e.g., age might specify media exposure which influenced linguistic choices); language asserts identity Sociolinguistics, cont. Sociolinguistics is empirical and studies real language performance and natural speech (contra Chomskys ideal competence) But there is the problem of the observers paradox, as in anthropology; methods are devised to elicit more natural speech Since it involves human subjects, sociolinguistics must be ethical in its methodology, variously responsible to individuals studied and the communities they belong to (cf. Genie) Focuses on speech communities who share language habits and attitudes accidentally, and perhaps a region or identity factor like race For Thur Read Ch 11 Language Variation, 360-76 Do Exercises 11.1, 11.2.2, 11.3.3, 11.3.4, 11.3.5 (do it yourself without asking others) Continue thinking about and working on Project #2 (topic due Nov 7, paper due Nov 19) THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 7, 2013 CH 11 LANGUAGE VARIATION, 360-76 Factors in Language Variation Age: speech of the young may help us see language change in progress or might just indicate youth speech; egs? Gender: paradoxically, women tend to use more conservative speech but also more innovative speech Class: language variation likely both marks class difference and results from it Race and Ethnicity: contribute to formation of ethnic dialects which often also have historical causes

Social Networks: our social interactions and relationships also result in language variation; involve density (your friends and contacts Language Contact and its Effects Contact among languages may increase or reduce language variation Dialect contact: can introduce linguistic variety into a population and change the language speakers use and how they use identify with it; conversely, can reduce variety by making everyone speak more similarly Language contact: can introduce linguistic compromise or result in multilingualism (incl. code switching) or linguistic imperialism Pidgins and creoles may also result from language contact; creoles exist on a continuum of proximity to the lexifier language Speaker Attitudes to Language Variation We all, unconsciously and consciously, judge others for how they speak as well as what they say We all locate and judge standard and nonstandard dialects, and other language varieties, more or less differently (perceptual dialectology) Look at pp. 369-70 Code switching (whether between languages, dialects, or speech styles or registers) may be judged positively or negatively depending on the context A Few Questions for Discussion Should we preserve endangered dialects and languages? Why or why not? How? Should bilingual or multilingual education be mandatory in the US? Are Southern American English or African American English dialects or accents? In the context of sociolinguistics, can different dialects or language varieties ever be linguistically equal? Chapter 11 Questions Exercises 11.1, 11.2.2, 11.3.3, 11.3.4, 11.3.5