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Biodiesel Development and Characterization for Use As a Fuel in Compression p Ignition g Engine g

Avinash Kumar Agarwal

Assistant Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India

What are Biofuels ?

Renewable fuels from bio sources Include

Ethanol Biodiesel Bio-hydrogen Bio hydrogen Biogases

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WHY BIOFUELS?

SUSTAINABILITY POLLUTION THREAT REDUCTION OF GREEN HOUSE GAS EMISSIONS REGIONAL (RURAL) DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL STRUCTURE & AGRICULTURE SECURITY OF SUPPLY

FIRST USE OF PEANUT OIL IN 1895 BY DR RUDOLF DIESEL

oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today. today . But such oils may become in course of time as important as petroleum and the coal p tar products of the present time."

The use of vegetable

(1858 1913)

1912

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WORLD EXPERIENCE ON BIODIESEL

BIODIESEL IN EUROPE

Biodiesel has been p produced on an industrial scale in EU since 1992, largely in response to positive signals from the EU institutions. In 2001, it is estimated that some twenty plants produced around 1 million tonnes, mainly in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden.

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Total biodiesel production in 2000 (mt) France Germany Italy Austria Belgium Total 328,000 246,000 78,000 27,600 20,000 700,600

The German biodiesel sector saw the biggest production increase of the five countries in 2000. Its growth rate was 31% with total production of 246,000mt compared with 171,000mt in 1999.

EU TARGETS FOR BIOFUEL

Biofuel Biodiesel Biodiesel Biodiesel Biodiesel Ethanol Ethanol Year 2003 2010 2000 2007 2003 2010 Market 2.3MMT 8.3MMT 504 M$ 2.4 B$ 8.3 MMT 9 7MMT 9.7MMT

Biodiesel growth : 25%/ Year Germany/Austria-no tax, UK 20% lower tax Other Countries 0-10% of diesel Tax

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US Lead A Senate Report

Analyze the agricultural sector and macroeconomic impacts of

the Hagel-Johnson renewable energy bill (S.1006)

Requires a minimum percentage of motor vehicle fuel sold in the

U.S. must be renewable fuel.

0.8% in 2002 to 5% by 2012 ( NOW MAY BE 8% ) Renewable fuels are biodiesel, ethanol or other fuel produced
from biomass and biogas.

JMU-07/01

Biodiesel Production
1,000 1 000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 Soybeans 2009 2011 2013 2015

Mil gal

Other Oils

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What US people pay for in a gallon of diesel (Dec, 2002) Retail Price: $1.29 / gallon Retail Price Rs.16.85 / L

BIODIESEL vs OTHER ALTERNATE FUELS

DIESEL CNG LNG METHANOL ETHANOL BIODIESEL ___________________________________________________________________________ Vehicle cost 10 5 5 5 5 10 Infrastructure 10 2 5 5 5 10 Safety 7 4 3 1 3 8 Operating range 10 5 10 10 10 10 Operating cost 10 5 7 5 5 7 Reliability 10 7 5 3 3 10 Customer acceptance 5 8 8 8 9 8 F di Funding assistance 1 10 2 0 2 2 Training cost 10 5 5 5 5 10 Fuel availability 10 10 5 5 5 6 Fuel quality 9 5 10 8 8 9 Fuel price stability 6 8 8 6 6 6 TOTAL 98 74 73 61 66 96 __

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WHAT IS BIODIESEL ?
Biodiesel is vegetable oil processed to resemble Diesel Fuel

High Cetane High lubricity Comparable BTU content y mixes with diesel Readily Ready to use in diesel run engines

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIESEL

Environment friendly Clean burning Renewable fuel No engine modification Increase in engine life Biodegradable and non-toxic Easy to handle and store

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BIODIESEL

Made by y chemically y combining g any y natural oil or fat with an alcohol Most of the oils, edible & non-edible are suitable Selection of feed stock based on * Availability * Price * Policy France Germany & Italy currently the leaders France,Germany

RAW MATERIALS

Rapeseed, p , the major j source (>80%) ( ) Sunflower oil (10%, Italy and Southern France) Soybean oil (USA & Brazil) Palm oil (Malaysia) Linseed olive oils (Spain) Linseed, Cottonseed oil (Greece) Beef tallow (Ireland), lard, used frying oil (Austria), Jatropha (Nicaragua & South Americas), Guang-Pi (China)

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BASIC REACTION
CH2COOR | CHCOOR 3 ROH | CH2COOR g 60 Kg Oil 6.78 Kg g Alcohol CH2OH | Catalyst CHOH | CH2OH 0.60Kg g NaOH 6.5 Kg g Glycerin R'COOR + R''COOR + R'''COOR 58 Kg g Biodiesel

BIODIESEL SPECIFICATIONS
PROPERTIES Density Carbon Residue (100%) Ash Content Total Sulfur Cetane No. Flash Point Copper Corrosion Vi Viscosity, i 40 0C Neutralization Value Free Glycerin Total Glycerin CFPP UNIT g/cm3 % mass % mass % mass -0C

DIN 51606 (1997) 0.875-0.90 Max 0.05 Max 0.02 Max 0.01 Min 49 Min 110 1 3550 3.5-5.0 Max 0.5 Max 0.02 Max 0.25 (0C) Max 0.0 Max -15

ASTM (2001)6751 -Max 0.050 Max 0.020 Max 0.05 Min 40 Min 100 No. 3b max 1960 1.9-6.0 Max 0.8 Max 0.02 Max 0.24 ---

degree mm2/s / ( (cSt) S) mg % mass % mass Summer Winter (0C)

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BIODIESEL-Why Lower Emissions ?

Biodiesel has high cetane In built Oxygen content Burns fully Has no Sulphur No Aromatics Complete CO2 cycle

Emissions Reductions
B20 emissions reductions compared to petroleum di diesel: l Carbon monoxide -20% Unburned hydrocarbons -30% Particulate matter -22% Sulfates -20% NPAH -50% Mutagenicity -20%

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Environmental Concerns Emissions by combustion engine (100B)

Emission CO HC PM SOOT PAH CO2 NOX S Reduction (%) 67 30 68 50 85 100 +/-2--6 80-100

PETRO-DIESEL CO2 CYCLE

13 pounds of fossil CO2 released per gallon burned

Fossil CO2 Release to Atmosphere

Refining

Use in Cars and Trucks Exploration

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BIODIESEL CO2 CYCLE

No fossil CO2 Released ; No global warming

Renewable CO2

Oil Crops

Use in Cars and Trucks

Biodiesel Production

WIDE ACCEPTANCE

By diesel vehicle industry Audi BMW Deutz Iseki Massey-Ferguson Puegot Renault Skoda Steyr Volvo Case John Deere Mercedes-Benz Same Valmet Claas Kubota Nissan Seat Volkswagen

By the fuel trade; e.g, e g ELF, ELF Texaco, Texaco Shell, Shell Total By the end-user bus companies, taxi fleets, forestry enterprises,railroad, boat owners A total of 128 production sites (capacity 500-120,000 tons/annum)

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LUBRICITY-Major Benefit

LONG TERM ENGINE WEAR EXTENSIVELY STUDIED IN EUROPE & THE US

EXXON STUDY B20 PROVIDE, SIGNIFICANT, QUANTIFIABLE IMPROVEMENTS IN WEAR FILM FORMING ABILITY 93% FILM (B20); 32% FILM (DIESEL)

EPA RULE (JAN. 2001) TO BRING DOWN SULFUR CONTENT IN DIESEL FROM 500 ppm TO 15 ppm BY 2006 LUBRICITY TEST HAVE SHOWN THAT UPTO 2% OF BIODIESEL IS ENOUGH TO MAKE ANY DISTILLATE FUEL FULLY LUBRICIOUS;

FUEL CONSUMPTION

Biodiesel contains ~10% 10% oxygen Brake-specific fuel consumption figures Petrodiesel 0.43 lb/HP-hr B20 0.44

B100

0.50

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BIODIESEL IS REALITY NOW

Large g number of surveys y done Variety of feed stocks tested Transesterification developed on commercial scale Biodiesel specs. By ASTM & others About 40 million mile testing Approval by auto OEMs Tax structure in place in several countries Future projections firmed up Legalisations in place in many countries

INDIA HAS TROPICAL ADVANTAGE ENORMOUS WASTE LANDS & CHEAP FARM LABOUR BIODIESEL IN INDIA CAN BE SUCCESS STORY

US RAILROAD BIODIESEL

Sierra Railroad in California, California oldest company First to use biodiesel as fuel 1500 locos to be converted Need 30 million gallon of Biofuels/Year 3.5 lac acres of land farm 3000 additional jobs Shall meet EPA norms for 2006

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RAIL ROAD TEST PROGRAM ON BIODIESEL (1999)

4000 HP (2984 KW) gas turbine powered passenger locomotive Several Biofuels tested (REE, SME, etc.) Turbine maintenance cost compared Energy content, compatibilities, emission, cost compared to diesel Emission data studies Cost/Km/Unit energy (power) calculated Biodiesel holds future in railroad applications
Remarkable reduction in emission ; Report at www.nrbp.org

BIODIESEL AND ECONOMY

An increase of $1 p per barrel of crude oil prices p adds $425 million to our oil import bill Oil import constitutes a major part of our trade deficit and has an enormous impact on our economy and creation of new jobs The US dept of Energy estimates that each $billion of trade deficit costs the US 27,000 jobs Developing a strong market for biodiesel would have tremendous economic benefits Investments in biodiesel technology may ensure that we have transportation fuel options and we will not be so vulnerable

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THE INDIAN SCENE

Annual growth rate ~6% compared to world average of 2% Oil pool deficit & Subsidies Rs 16,000 crores , Rs 18,440 crores (1996-97) Current per capita usage of petroleum is absymmaly low (0.1 ton/year) against 4.0 in Germany or 1.5 tons in Malaysia Even Malaysias y figure g would be beyond y our p paying y g capacity p y Our domestic production would meet only 33% of demand at the end of 10th plan and only 27% by 2010-11 INVESTMENT IN BIOFUELS MAKE STRONG ECONOMIC SENSE

CAN BIODIESEL WORK IN INDIA?

India with j just 2.4% of global g area supports pp more than 16% of the human population and 17% of the cattle population India is one of the largest importers of edible oil Where do we find the oil for biodiesel? A sustainable source of vegetable oil is to be found before we can think of biodiesel

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JATROPHA MAY BE THE ANSWER?

According g to the Economic Survey y (1995-96), ( ), Govt of India, , of the cultivable land area about 100-150 million hectares are classified as waste or degraded land Jatropha (Jatropha curcas, Ratanjyot, wild castor) thrives on any type of soil

Needs minimal inputs or management Has no insect ,pests& not browsed by cattle or sheep Can survive long periods of drought Propagation is easy Yield e d from o the t e 3rd yea year o onwards a ds a and d co continues t ues for o 25-30 5 30 yea years s 25% oil from seeds by expelling; 30% by solvent extraction The meal after extraction an excellent organic manure (38% protein, N:P:K ratio 2.7:1.2:1)

Jatropha Plantation
Study by Agro-Forestry Federation Maharashtra (1991)

Jatropha is a hardy plant. Well adopted to arid, semi-arid conditions. Low fertility and moisture demand. Grow on stony, shallow or even calcareous soil. Propagated through seed or cuttings. Tolerate to scanty to heavy rainfall.

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Jatropha Plantation

5-6Kg seed / hectare, 2500 plants / hectare EXPECTED YIELDS Expected yield per ha. Expected yield per ha. Rainfed Crop (Kg.) Irrigated Crop (Kg.) -250 1000 2000 3000 4000 250 1000 2500 5000 8000 12000

Year after planting 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th & onwards

BIODIESEL FROM JATROPHA

IF

10 MILLION HECATRES OF WASTE LAND IS BROUGHT UNDER JATROPHA CULTIVATION Can yield 15 million tons of seed (@1.5 Tons / Hectare ) 4.0 million tons of oil An equivalent amount of biodiesel, almost one tenth requirement of diesel in the country Enormous employment generation potential in rural areas

If only 1 person/family is employed per 5 hectares for jatropha cultivation, additional 2 million new jobs 200 new extraction units of 250 tpd capacity to crush the seeds

11 Million tons of excellent organic manure 0.4 million tons of technical grade glycerol

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Effect on Rural Economy

Seed price Rs Rs. 4/Kg 4/Kg. Seed yield 3000Kg / hectare. 5 hectare plantation / family. 60,000 Rs / year income. Additionally : Waste lands converted to p productive national assets. Creation of jobs in downstream processing. GAINFUL employment in rural sector. Contribution to national energy pool.

INDIAN INITIATIVE ON BIODIESEL

Indian Govt Govt. has taken a serious note of Biodiesel Planning Commission has set up committees on ; Product development Engine studies Legal regulations Plantations S Specifications ifi ti Marketing Environmental issues

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Diesel Like Substances From Bio-origin, More

Specifically Vegetable Oil Derivatives
World is presently confronted with the twin crisis of fossil fuel depletion and environmental degradation

Biodiesel

Objective To develop an alternative fuel for compression ignition engines from bio-origin Develop an alternative fuel, which has a harmonious correlation with sustainable development, energy conservation, management, efficiency and environmental preservation

Environmental Implications of Using Fossil Fuels

Reduction in underground based carbon energy sources Serious modifications in earths surface layer Subsidence of surface ground after extraction of minerals Increase in CO2 levels in atmosphere from 280 PPM pre-industrial era to 350 PPM now in p CO2 levels are still climbing as a function of fuel burnt Green house effect Acid rains, smog and change of climate

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Advantage of Vegetable Oils As Fuels

Liquid fuels from renewable sources Dont D t overburden b d th the environment i t with ith emissions i i Potential for making marginal lands productive Lesser energy input in production Higher energy content than other energy crops Cleaner emission spectra Simpler processing technology But Not economically feasible yet Need further R & D work for development of on-farm processing technology

Alternative Fuel Factors

Modifications in the existing engine hardware Investment costs for developing infrastructure for processing alternative fuels Environmental compatibility compared to conventional fuels Additi Additional l cost t to t the th user in i terms t of f routine ti maintenance, engine wear and lubricating oil life

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Problems in Using Vegetable Oils

Operational problems Starting St ti ability bilit Ignition Combustion parameters Performance parameters Durability problems Deposit D it f formation ti Carbonization of injector tip Piston ring sticking Lube oil dilution Fuel filter plugging These problems are These problems can be attributed to handled by High viscosity Heating Extremely low volatility Blending Polyunsaturated character Transesterification

How High Viscosity Affects?

Viscosity affects the handling of the fuels by pump and injector system Shape of fuel spray, poor atomization, larger droplets, and high jet penetration Jet tends to be a solid stream instead of spray of small droplets hence the fuel doesnt get mixed with air required for burning Poor combustion and loss of power and economy In small engines, the fuel spray may even impinge upon the cylinder walls, washing away the lubricating oil film and causing the dilution of crank case oil leading to excessive wear

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Vegetable Oil and Diesel Fuel: A Comparison

Ideal Id l diesel di l fuel f l molecules l l are saturated t t d nonbranched hydrocarbon molecules with carbon number ranging between 12 to 18 Vegetable oil molecules are triglycerides generally with no branched chains, of different lengths and different degrees of Saturation Vegetable oils also contain substantial amount of Oxygen in their molecular structure

Fuel Properties

Physical properties: Viscosity, Density, Pour point, Flash point, Boiling range, Freezing point, Refractive index Chemical properties: Chemical structure, Acid value, Saponification value, Iodine value, Peroxide value, Hydroxyl value, Acetyl value, Overall heating value, Ash and Sulfur content, Sulfur and copper corrosion, Water and sediment residue, residue Oxidation resistance, resistance Ignitability and thermal degradation products. Thermal properties: Distillation temperature, Thermal degradation point, Carbon residue, Specific heating content and thermal conductivity.

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Linseed oil
Essentially non-edible non edible in nature and available in plenty in India Obtained from dried ripe seed of flex plant Linum

usitaissimum

Viscosity is lower than many vegetable oils High linoleic acid content [C17H29COOH] Three double bonds at 9-10, 12-13, and 15-16 carbon locations Highly unsaturated in nature

Comparison of Properties of Linseed Oil With Diesel Oil

Properties Specific gravity Net calorific value (MJ/Kg) Kinematic viscosity at 37.8C (cSt) Colour Stoichiometric air fuel ratio Diesel oil 0.835 45.158 39 3.9 Light brown 14.9 Linseed oil 0.935 39.75 29 3 29.3 Pale yellow 12.08

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Transesterification

Ester formation eliminates all the problems associated with vegetable oils Catalysts: NaOH, KOH and their alkoxides Reaction mixture is stirred continuously at 70C Saponification reaction also takes place simultaneously Soap formation is not a major problem if presence of water is less than 1% Excess of alcohol is required to force the reaction to completion

Process of Transesterification
O CH2-O-C-R1 O CH-O-C-R2 + 3R4OH O CH2-O-CR3 Triglyceride Alcohol

CH2-OH O O O CH-OH + R4-O-CR1 + R4-O-CR2 + R4-O-CR3 CH2-OH Glycerol Esters

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Base Catalyzed Transesterification

Low temperature [70C] and pressure processing High conversion [98%] with minimal side reactions and reaction times Direct conversion of methyl ester with no intermediate steps Exotic materials of construction are not necessary Excess of alcohol (5:1) to force this equilibrium reaction in forward direction Phase separation of precious by-product Glycerol Very cheap catalyst like NaOH and KOH

Engine Selection

Indian economy is largely based on agriculture E l Employs about b 10 million illi diesel di l pump sets, which hi h consume 20-25% of total diesel output Irrigation is bound to increase with population and liberalization Electricity finds better use in industry Majority j y of engines g used in agriculture g pump p p sets and farm machinery such as tractors, thrashers, are single cylinder, direct injection, compression ignition type Its extremely unwise to discard millions of diesel engines and initiate design effort for a biodiesel specific system

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Engine Specifications

Manufacturers Model

Perry Engines Ltd, India Single vertical cylinder, water cooled, DI engine BHP 6.5 hp Displacement 661.7 cm3 Bore 87.5 mm Stroke 110 mm Weight 165 kg Rated speed 1500 rpm Maximum speed 2000 rpm Minimum speed 1200 rpm Nozzle pressure 200 bar Compression ratio 17: 1 Electrical dynamometer [4KW] coupled to it.

Biodiesel Characterization
Properties Linseed oil Density 0.935 API 19.833 Gravity Viscosity y 23.93 (40C) Viscosity 6.00 (100C) Diesel oil 0.855 33.99 3.06 1.05 LOME Biodiesel 0.874 30.399 3.59 1.32 Biodiesel blend(20%) 0.85 33.226 3.20 1.16

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Biodiesel Characterization

Properties Flash point (C) Pour point (C) Aniline Point Cetane number Calorific Value [MJ/Kg]

Linseed Diesel LOME Biodiesel oil oil Biodiesel blend(20%) 186 76 172 128 -----16 69 50 43.8 -15 83 52 40.37 -16 73 51 43.2

Important Observations

Drastic change in density of linseed oil Bi di Biodiesel l is i totally t t ll miscible i ibl with ith diesel di l oil il in i any proportion Biodiesel viscosity comes very close to diesel oil hence no handling problems in existing fuel system Flash point gets lowered after esterification Cetane number gets improved after esterification Even lower concentrations of biodiesel act as cetane number improver for diesel fuel Calorific value of biodiesel is also very close to diesel oil

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Engine Tests
Performance and emission test

Using diesel and biodiesel blends as test fuels at 1500 RPM Biodiesel blend concentration varies from 5% to 100% Data analysis for power output, thermal efficiency, torque, specific fuel consumption, specific energy consumption Smoke opacity and NOx emission Selection of optimum blend based on maximum thermal efficiency and smoke opacity

Thermal Efficiency Vs BMEP for Lower Concentrations of Biodiesel

30

Therm mal efficiency (% )

20

Diesel Oil 5% Biodiesel 10%Biodiesel 15% Biodiesel 20% Biodiesel 25% Biodiesel
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

10

BMEP (10 N/M )

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BSEC Vs. BMEP for Lower Concentrations of Biodiesel

30

BS SEC (MJ/kWh)

20

Diesel Oil 5% Biodiesel 10%Biodiesel 15% Biodiesel 20% Biodiesel 25% Biodiesel

10

0 0 1 2 3
4

4
2

BMEP (10 N/M )

BSFC Vs. BMEP for lower concentrations of biodiesel blend

0.7 0.6

BS SFC (kg/kwh)

0.5 0.4 0.3 02 0.2 0.1 0 0 1 2 3

4
Diesel Oil 5% Biodiesel 10%Biodiesel 15% Biodiesel 20% Biodiesel 25% Biodiesel

4
2

BMEP (10 N/M )

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Smoke Opacity Vs. BMEP for Lower Concentrations of Biodiesel Blend

80

Smok ke opacity (HSU)

Diesel Oil

60

5% Biodiesel 10%Biodiesel 15% Biodiesel 20% Biodiesel 25% Biodiesel

40 20 0 0

3
4

4
2

BMEP (10 N/M )

Exhaust Temperatures Vs. BMEP for Lower Concentrations of Biodiesel

Exhaust temperature (C)

550
Diesel Oil

450 350 250 150 0

5% Biodiesel 10%Biodiesel 15% Biodiesel 20% Biodiesel 25% Biodiesel

3
4

4
2

BMEP (10 N/M )

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Thermal Efficiency Vs. BMEP for Higher Concentrations of Biodiesel Blend

Therma al efficiency (% )

30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
Diesel Oil 30% Biodiesel 40% Biodiesel 50% Biodiesel 75% Biodiesel !00% Biodiesel

BMEP (104N/M 2)

BSEC Vs. BMEP for Higher Concentrations of Biodiesel Blend

BSE EC (MJ/kWh)

30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4
4 2

Diesel Oil 30% Biodiesel 40% Biodiesel 50% Biodiesel 75% Biodiesel !00% Biodiesel

BMEP (10 N/M )

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BSFC Vs. BMEP for Higher Concentration of Biodiesel Blend

0.8

BSF FC (kg/kWh)

0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 2 3

4
Diesel Oil 30% Biodiesel 40% Biodiesel 50% Biodiesel 75% Biodiesel !00% Biodiesel

4
2

BMEP (10 N/M )

Smoke Opacity Vs. BMEP for Higher Concentrations of Biodiesel Blend

80

Smok ke opacity (HSU)

Diesel Oil 30% Biodiesel 40%Biodiesel 50% Biodiesel 75% Biodiesel 100% Biodiesel

60 40 20 0 0

3
4

4
2

BMEP (10 N/M )

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Smoke Temperature Vs. BMEP for Higher Concentrations of Biodiesel Blend

Exhaus st temperature (C)

650 550 450 350 250 150 0

Diesel Oil 30% Biodiesel 40% Biodiesel 50% Biodiesel 75% Biodiesel !00% Biodiesel

3
4

4
2

BMEP (10 N/M )

Typical Observations

Thermal efficiency generally improved Cooling losses & Exhaust gas temperature increased Smoke opacity generally gets lowered for biodiesel blends Possible reason may be additional lubricity properties of the biodiesel; ; hence reduced FHP The energy thus saved goes in increases thermal efficiency, cooling losses and exhaust losses The thermal efficiency start reducing after a certain extent

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Peak Thermal Efficiency Vs. Concentration of Biodiesel Blend

Peak e efficiency (% )

30 28 26 24 22 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Biodiesel in fuel (% )

Concentration of Oxides of Nitrogen Vs. BMEP

Oxides s of Nitrogen (ppm)

1200 800 400 0 0 1

Diesel Oil 20% Biodiesel

BMEP (104*N/M 2)

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Biodiesel Engine Lube Oil Tribology

Motivation Most of the short term engine tests conducted on alternative fuels suggest that these fuels are environment friendly and can be adopted readily however these fuels fail to meet the expectations, while used for long-duration engine operations. Any fuel, which is efficient at the cost of engine hardware can not be acceptable acceptable. Hence the effect of fuel chemistry on wear of moving parts becomes an important area of investigation, while recommending any new alternative fuel.

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Objective
Biodiesel prepared from linseed oil and methanol is subjected to long duration engine tests. The optimum blend of 20% biodiesel and neat biodiesel fuels are used to run two identical diesel engines under similar operating conditions. The effect of both fuels on the deposit formations on piston, cylinder head and injector was investigated. Physical wear of both the engine parts were measured. The wear debris generated by wear gets accumulated in lube oil sump. Oil samples drawn from both engines i after ft a fixed fi d interval i t l are subjected bj t d t to atomic t i absorption b ti spectroscopy. The effect of fuel chemistry on the physical wear of various engine components and material compatibility of the fuel was also investigated.

Engine Tests

Performance and Emission test Long-Term Endurance Test Procedure Followed [IS:10000-1980] Wear Measurements

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Preliminary Run

To make the new engines trouble free To subject the moving parts to run-in period Seven non-stop cycles of seven hours each Test Cycle y
Load (% of rated load) Running time (Hours) 25 1.5 50 2 75 1.5 100 2

Fuel Consumption Test

to certify that both engines performed exactly similar Same fuel consumption pattern Both engines were subjected to same fuel. Specific fuel consumption observed at no load, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, full load and 10% overload conditions

Performance and Emission Test

To select the optimum blend concentration for best performance and emission characteristics Several blends ranging from 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 75% and 100% biodiesel were investigated Performance data analyzed for power output, thermal efficiency, torque, specific fuel consumption, smoke density etc. for all blends. 20% blend was found optimum based on maximum thermal efficiency ffi i and d smoke k opacity it considerations. id ti

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Long-Term Endurance Test

to find out the material compatibility and long-term suitability of the new fuel with the existing engine hardware Completely disassembly and inspection before starting the test Dimensioning of various moving parts e.g. cylinder head, cylinder bore, piston, rings, gudgeon pin, valves, valve seats, valve springs, con rod, bearings, camshaft etc. Assembly and run for 12 hours Lube oil replacement with fresh SAE 30 oil Long-term test with different fuels for both the engines 32 Cycles of 16 Hours each were executed

Long-Term Endurance Test Loading Cycle

Load (% of rated load) 100 50 110 No load (Idling) 100 50 Running time (Hours) 4 4 1 0.5 3 3.5

Quantities of lube oil consumed were recorded

After completion of test, the engines were completely disassembled again g for p physical y inspection p of condition of various p parts and carbon deposits. The dimensions of these parts were again measured to find out about the physical wear taken place during the long-term endurance test. Carbon deposits on various parts like piston, cylinder head, injector etc. were inspected

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Fig 1: Carbon deposits on the diesel cylinder head

Fig 2: Carbon deposits on the biodiesel cylinder head

Fig 3: Carbon deposits on the diesel piston top

Fig 4: Carbon deposits on the biodiesel piston top

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Fig 5: Carbon deposits on the diesel injector tip

Fig 6: Carbon deposits on the biodiesel injector tip

Carbon deposits on the cylinder head of biodiesel operated engines are substantially lower and piston top Injector coking was substantially lower for biodiesel injector (After 512 hours of operation) ( p ) compared p to diesel injector j ( (200 hours of operation) Similar observation were also noticed for piston ring grooves, intake and exhaust valves. Problem of carbon deposition and injector coking completely disappeared after transesterification of vegetable oil Pressure_Crank angle diagram followed almost similar trend of cylinder pressure variation except that the biodiesel-fuelled engine showed slightly lower peak pressure and rate of combustion suggesting relatively smoother operation

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Wear Measurement

Sliding contact between metallic parts in any mechanical system leads to wear Wear debris generates in the process in lubricated system, y , debris g get washed away y by y lube oil and remain suspended in the oil By analysing the lubricating oil for wear debris composition, sufficient information about wear rates, source of metallic species and engine conditions can be predicted Both B th engines i were operated t d under d identical id ti l operating ti conditions diti with ith the only difference in fuel. Any marked difference in wear pattern is expected to be because of different fuel chemistry. Physical wear = Initial - Final dimensions

Physical Wear Measurement

Figure of the moving part

Dimensions Distance of valve head from mounting flange face

% lower wear for biodiesel 30

Diameter of piston at position

33

Measurements of cylinder bore/ cylinder liner

31

Measurements for piston rings Measurements 0f gudgeon pin, pin bore, and small end bush of connecting rod

34

40

Measurements of connecting rod bearing b bore

36

Measurements of big end bearing (crank pin diameter

35

Measurements of end float 25 Table 4: Comparative physical wear measurements of vital parts for 20% biodiesel-fuelled engine vis--vis dieselfuelled engine parts

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Wear Debris Transport and Analysis

Oil used for lubrication picks up the wear debris from their origin and carry them to the lube oil sump. Quantitative evaluation of wear metals present in the oil gives the indication about the engine components deterioration Literature Lit t review i reveals l about b t source components t of f various i wear metals Element Typical sources

Aluminum (Al) Chromium (Cr) Cobalt (Co) C Copper ( ) (cu) Iron (Fe) Lead (Pb) Magnesium (Mg) Zinc (Zn)

Pistons, Bearings, Dirt, Additives, Turbo chargers Compression rings, Coolant, Crankshaft, Gears, Bearings, Plating of cylinder liner Bearings B i Bearings, B Bronze b hi bushings Cylinder liner, Piston, Rings, Valves, Valve guides, Gears, Shafts, Anti-friction bearings, Rust, Crankshaft. Bearings, Greases, and Paint Bearings, Additives, Supercharger, Gear box Additives, Bearings, Plating, Brass components, Neoprene seals

Ash Content

Lube oil samples drawn after a fixed interval of 128 hours were burnt in furnace at 450C for 4 hours and then at 600C for 2 hours. Residual ash contains the wear metals primarily y
1.2

A s h c ontent [w t. % ]

0.8

0.6

Biodies el Dies el

0.4 0 100 200 300 Hours of lube oil us age 400 500 600

Ash content was found to be approximately 15% lower for biodiesel operated engine

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Atomic absorption Spectroscopy

AAS is used for quantitative and qualitative analysis of wear debris. AAS works on the principal of absorption interaction. The ash prepared in furnace was acid digested and their solutions were ere made. made Standard solution of various metals to be investigated were also prepared [5-20 PPM]. The data can be correlated with the extent of wear of engine parts

CHOPPER FLAME HOLLOW CATHODE LAMP OXIDANT

DETECTOR

READOUT

MONOCHROMATOR FUEL SAMPLE

AMPLIFIER

AAS was done to evaluate the concentration of various metals present in lubricating oil samples. The metals investigated were F, Cu, Zn, Cr, Mg, Co, and Pb The experimental results are shown graphically.

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Iron
40 0 30 0 Fe Co onc . [P PM ]

20 0

10 0
Die s e l B io d ie s e l

0 0 10 0 200 300 400 5 00 6 00

H o urs o f lub e o il us a ge

Source: Cylinder liner, Piston, Rings, Valve guides, Gears, Shafts, Bearings, Rust, Crankshaft etc. I increased Iron i d at t a higher hi h rate t upto t first fi t 128 hours h followed f ll d by b a slower increase. Oil from the biodiesel fuelled engine indicated lower increase in iron concentration hence lower wear of all these components. Results supporting physical wear measurements

Copper
100 Cu Conc c. [PPM] 80 60 40 20 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Hours of lube oil usage
Diesel Biodiesel

Source: Bearings, and Bushings etc. For both systems, Cu concentration increases at a constant rate. Cu Concentration was approximately 25% lower for biodiesel-fuelled engine

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Zinc
28 Zn n Conc. [PPM] 27

26

25

Diesel Biodiesel

24 0 100 200 300 Hours of lube oil usage 400 500 600

Source: Additive depletion, Bearings, Brass components, Neoprene seals etc. I Increases at t a slower l rate t iinitially iti ll followed f ll d by b a faster f t increase, i in i case of diesel-fuelled system, while biodiesel-fuelled system showed steady rate of increase. Rate of Zn concentration increase was 65% lower for biodieselfuelled engine. Suggests lower lube oil consumption

Chromium
25 20 15 10 5 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Die s e l B io d ie s e l

Cr Co onc . [P P M ]

H o u rs o f lu b e o il u s a g e

Source: Cylinder liner, Compression rings, Crankshaft and Bearings etc. Cr concentration was detected after 128 hours for diesel fuelled system, while it was detected after 256 hours for biodiesel fuelled engine. Approximately 20% lower Cr Concentration for biodiesel-fuelled engine system.

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Magnesium
30 25 Mg C Conc. [P P M ] 20 15 10 5 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Die s e l B io d ie s e l

H o u rs o f lu b e o il u s a g e

Source: Additive depletion, Bearings, Gear box housing etc. For both systems, Mg concentration increases at a higher rate up to 128 hours followed by a slow increase Approximately 10% lower Mg concentration for biodiesel operated system

Cobalt
30 25 Co Con nc . [P PM ] 20 15 10 5 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Dies e l Biodies el

Hours of lube oil us age

Source: Bearings For both systems, Co concentration increases at a steady rate Approximately 40% lower increase in Cobalt concentration for biodiesel operated engine system

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Lead
60 P b Con c . [P P M ]

40

20
Die s e l B io d ie s e l

0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

H o u rs o f lu b e o il u s a g e

Source: Bearings, Paint, Grease addition etc. For both systems, Lead concentration increases at a steady rate Approximately 50% lower increase in Pb concentration for biodiesel operated engine system

Conclusions

Esterification is an effective process to alter the molecular l l structure t t of f vegetable t bl oils il Effective process for viscosity reduction flash point, density, pour point, cetane number , calorific value of the biodiesel comes in very close range to that of mineral diesel oil Diesel engine can perform satisfactory for long run on biodiesel without any hardware modifications 20% biodiesel: optimum concentration for biodiesel blend with improved performance

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Conclusions
2.5% improvement in peak thermal efficiency substantial reduction in smoke opacity opacity, BSEC etc. etc Increase in exhaust temperature, leading to increased NOx emissions Exhaust gas temperature increased as a function of biodiesel concentration Esterification is found to be an effective process for eliminating l the h long-term l problems bl associated d with h utilisation of vegetable oils Biodiesel proved to be potential candidate for partial substitution of mineral diesel oil

Conclusions

Biodiesel can be adopted readily as an alternative fuel for the existing diesel engines Biodiesel is a suitable fuel for long term engine operation without ith t any hardware h d modifications difi ti in i the th engines i Esterification has been found to be an effective technique of eliminating all the long term problems associated with vegetable oils as diesel fuel No undesirable combustion features were observed for biodiesel combustion Physical wear measurements suggested up to 30% lower wear for biodiesel fuelled engine system Ash content was found to be about 15% lower for biodiesel system

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AAS tests suggest that various wear metals had lower concentrations for biodiesel operated engine system, confirming results of physical wear measurements This suggest about inherent additional lubricity properties present in the biodiesel fuels, which needs further investigations. Based on all these observations, it can be concluded that biodiesel fuels are superior in wear performance and do not add to the global warming and environmental pollution. They can be adopted readily as a substitute for the existing system hardware.

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