United States v.

Gallaher: The Ninth Circuits Disingenuous Deference to Native American Sovereignty

Erin E. Odell
I. INTRODUCTION In April 1991, James H. Gallaher, Jr. shared a home wi h he mo her o! his in!an da"#h er, Jenni!er Clar$, and a !riend, Edwin %ooler. 1 One da& %ooler arri'ed a he shared home dr"n$ and "rina ed on he !loor, splashin# "rine on o Clar$(s da"#h er. ) Clar$ old Gallaher a*o" hese e'en s and Gallaher !o"nd %ooler a a near*& *ar where he wo men en#a#ed in a hea ed ar#"men . + %ooler e'en "all& le! he *ar o re "rn o he ho"se, and shor l& herea! er Gallaher old one o! %ooler(s !riends ha he was also re "rnin# o he ho"se , o a$e -are o! he pro*lem.. / Gallaher arri'ed *a-$ a he shared ho"se and ordered Clar$ o" . 0 1hen she re "rned a shor ime la er, she saw ha Gallaher had %ooler in a ,ne-$ hold. and here was *lood aro"nd %ooler(s mo" h. 2 Gallaher old Clar$ o lea'e a#ain.3 4a er, Gallaher !o"nd Clar$ a a nei#h*orin# home and demanded o *orrow her -ar.5 1hile he was here, Gallaher old %ooler(s !riend, who had wi nessed he earlier -on!ron a ion a he *ar, ha he had *ro$en %ooler(s ne-$ and $illed him. 9 Gallaher also old he !riend ha he had o help #e rid o! %ooler(s *od& or ,he(d *e ne6 .. 17 The& le! he *od& in he woods and la er Gallaher re "rned alone se'eral imes o mo'e he *od&. 11 In De-em*er )770, nearl& !i! een &ears la er, Gallaher was indi- ed on !or he m"rder o! Edwin %ooler(s.1) Gallaher mo'ed !or dismissal o! he indi- men d"e o he e6pira ion o!
1 ) + / 0 2 3 5 9 17 11 1)

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Uni ed 8 a es '. Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d 9+/, 9+3 :9 h Cir. )717;. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id.

+0

+2 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT <=ol. +5>)91 he s a " e o! limi a ions.1+ %"rs"an o !ederal law, a !i'e?&ear s a " e o! limi a ions applies o an o!!ense ha is ,no -api al,. 1/ while an "nlimi ed s a " e o! limi a ions applies o an o!!ense ha is ,p"nisha*le *& dea h.. 10 Gallaher ar#"ed ha he !i'e?&ear s a " e o! limi a ions applied o his indi- men *e-a"se his -rime was ,no -api al..12 Two !a- s were -en ral o his ar#"men > :1; Gallaher is Na i'e Ameri-an, 13 and :); he e'en s o! April 1991 oo$ pla-e on he Col'ille Indian Reser'a ion in eas ern 1ashin# on 8 a e.15 In s"ppor o! his ar#"men , Gallaher poin ed o he 9ederal Dea h %enal & A- , whi-h a*olished he dea h penal & !or indi'id"als s"*@e- o he -riminal @"risdi- ion o! a Na i'e Ameri-an ri*al #o'ernmen !or -er ain -rimes -ommi ed in ,Indian -o"n r&,. 19 a s a " or& erm o! ar de!ined o in-l"de Indian reser'a ions. )7 The 9ederal Dea h %enal & A- -on ained an ,op in. pro'ision ha permi ed a ri*e(s #o'ernin# *od& o ele- o ha'e he dea h penal & applied o i s land and people "nder i s -riminal @"risdi- ion. )1 Howe'er, he Con!edera ed Tri*es o! he Col'ille Reser'a ion had no ,op ed in. o ma$e -api al p"nishmen a'aila*le !or -rimes -ommi ed on i s land. )) There!ore, Gallaher ar#"ed ha he #o'ernmen was no en i led o he *ene!i o! an "nlimi ed s a " e o! limi a ions *e-a"se he -rime he alle#edl& -ommi ed was no , e-hni-all& spea$in#, ,p"nisha*le *& dea h..)+ The Uni ed 8 a es Dis ri- Co"r !or he Eas ern Dis ri- o! 1ashin# on denied Gallaher(s mo ion !or dismissal and he appealed o he Nin h Cir-"i .)/ In i s opinion, he Nin h Cir-"i wen o #rea len# hs o dis-"ss he de!eren-e d"e o Na i'e Ameri-an ri*es in he #o'ernan-e o! heir lands and people,)0 *" hen swi! l& a!!irmed he dis ri- -o"r (s de-ision, !indin# ha an "nlimi ed s a " e o! limi a ions was appli-a*le o he -har#es *ro"#h a#ains Gallaher.)2 This Commen ar#"es ha here was no need !or he Nin h Cir-"i o pa& lip ser'i-e o, and hen "l ima el& disre#ard, Na i'e Ameri-an so'erei#n & when ma$in# i s de-ision in United States v. Gallaher. Ra her, he -o"r
1+ 1/

. Id. . 15 U.8.C. A +)5):a; :)772;. 10 . A +)51. 12 . Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9+3. 13 . Dependin# "pon he -on e6 , he erms ,Indian. and ,Na i'e Ameri-an. will *e "sed in er-han#ea*l& hro"#ho" his Commen . 15 . Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9+3. 19 . 15 U.8.C. A +095. )7 . A 1101. )1 . A +095. )) . Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9+9. )+ . Id. a 9+3. )/ . Id. )0 . Id. a 9+3?+9. )2 . Id. a 9/).

)71)B NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE +3 sho"ld ha'e relied "pon a simple dis in- ion *e ween -ases in'ol'in# he appli-a ion o! par i-"lar s a " es a! er he dea h penal & has *een de-lared "n-ons i " ional and he appli-a ion o! par i-"lar s a " es a! er Con#ress has elimina ed he dea h penal & as an a'aila*le p"nishmen . %ar II e6amines he his or& o! he !ederal #o'ernmen (s @"risdi- ion in Na i'e Ameri-an erri or&. %ar III -ri i-all& e6amines he Nin h Cir-"i (s @"s i!i-a ions !or i s de-ision. And !inall&, %ar I= s"##es s ha he dis in- ion *e ween hose -ases where he dea h penal & has *een de-lared "n-ons i " ional and hose -ases where Con#ress has elimina ed he dea h penal & wo"ld ha'e permi ed he Nin h Cir-"i o -orre- l& -on-l"de ha he !i'e?&ear s a " e o! limi a ions applied o Gallaher(s indi- men . II. THE HI8TORC O9 THE 9EDERA4 GO=ERNDENT(8 JURI8DICTION IN NATI=E ADERICAN TERRITORC A. Earl& Trea ies The newl& !ormed Uni ed 8 a es #o'ernmen E"i-$l& *e#an ne#o ia in# rea ies wi h Na i'e Ameri-an ri*es, he !irs o! whi-h was en ered in o wi h he Delaware Na ion on 8ep em*er 13, 1335. )3 E'en his !irs rea & dire- l& addressed he iss"e o! -rimes -ommi ed *& he -i iFens o! ei her na ion, pro'idin# ha nei her wo"ld p"nish he o her(s -i iFens "n il ,a !air and impar ial rial <-o"ldB *e had *& @"d#es or @"ries o! *o h par ies, as near as <-o"ldB *e o he laws, -"s oms and "sa#es o! he -on ra- in# par ies and na "ral @"s i-e..)5 8"-h lan#"a#e demons ra ed he !ederal #o'ernmen (s in en ion o rea he Na i'e Ameri-an ri*es as !"ll& so'erei#n na ions, par i-"larl& in he realm o! -riminal @"risdi- ion. )9 The rea ies ha !ollowed o'er he ne6 wen & &ears -on in"ed o re-o#niFe he ri*es as so'erei#ns wi h he a*ili & o en!or-e heir own -riminal laws, and he na ions o! en a#reed o sol'e pro*lems o! -riminal @"risdi- ion *ased on he perpe ra or(s or he 'i- im(s -i iFenship. +7 Howe'er, man& o! hese earl& rea ies also -on ained lan#"a#e e6hi*i in# he *e#innin# o! he !ederal #o'ernmen (s in er!eren-e wi h Na i'e Ameri-an so'erei#n & *& allowin#
)3

. Trea & wi h he Delawares, 8ep . 13, 1335, 3 8 a . 1+G Ro*er N. Clin on, Devel !"ent # Cri"inal $%risdi&ti n Over Indian Lands' The Hist ri&al (ers!e&tive , 13 ARIH. 4. RE=. 901, 90+ :1930;. )5 . Trea & wi h he Delawares, ar . I=, 8ep . 13, 1335, 3 8 a . 1/G Clin on, s%!ra no e )3, a 90+. )9 . Clin on, s%!ra no e )3, a 90+. +7 . Id.G see) e.*., Trea & wi h he 1&ando s, Delawares, 8hawanoes, O awas, Chipewas, %" awa imes, Diamis, Eel?ri'er, 1eea(s, Ii-$apoos, %ian$ashaws, and Ias$as$ias, ar . =I, A"#. +, 1390, 3 8 a . 0)G Trea & wi h he Chero$ees, ar . =III, J"l& ), 1391, 3 8 a . /7G Trea & wi h he Cree$s, ar . =I, A"#. 3, 1397, 3 8 a . +2G Trea & wi h he 8hawnees, ar . =II, Jan. +1, 1352, 3 8 a . )3G Trea & wi h he Chi-$asaws, ar . I=, Jan. 17, 1352, 3 8 a . )0G Trea & wi h he Cho- aws, ar . I=, Jan. +, 1352, 3 8 a . ))G Trea & wi h he Chero$ees, ar . =, No'. )5, 1350, 3 8 a . 19G Trea & wi h he 1&ando s, Delawares, Chippawas, and O awas, ar . =, Jan. )1, 1350, 3 8 a . 13.

+5 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT <=ol. +5>)91 he !ederal #o'ernmen o prose-" e Na i'e Ameri-ans i! he& -ommi ed -er ain -rimes a#ains non?Na i'e Ameri-ans. +1 9or e6ample, he Trea & wi h he Chero$ees en ered in o on J"l& ), 1391 s a ed>
I! an& Chero$ee Indian or Indians, or person residin# amon# hem, or who shall a$e re!"#e in heir na ion, shall s eal a horse !rom, or -ommi ro**er& or m"rder, or o her -api al -rime, on an& -i iFens or inha*i an s o! he Uni ed 8 a es, he Chero$ee na ion shall *e *o"nd o deli'er him or hem "p, o *e p"nished a--ordin# o he laws o! he Uni ed 8 a es.+)

This lan#"a#e was ar#"a*l& in ended o appl& onl& o -rimes ha were -ommi ed *& Na i'e Ameri-ans a#ains non?Na i'e Ameri-ans o" side o! Na i'e Ameri-an erri or&, e'en i! i did no e6pressl& s a e so. ++ Howe'er, some rea ies did -on ain e6pli-i lan#"a#e *&passin# Na i'e Ameri-an so'erei#n & in !a'or o! !ederal @"risdi- ionG !or e6ample, he Jan"ar& 9, 1359 rea & wi h 1iando , Delaware, O awa, Chippewa, %a awa ima, and 8a- na ions limi ed he ri*es( a*ili & o r& and p"nish non?Na i'e Ameri-ans who -ommi ed -rimes in Na i'e Ameri-an erri or&. +/ Ar i-le = o! he rea & pro'ided>
I is a#reed ha i! an& Indian or Indians o! he na ions *e!ore men ioned, shall -ommi a m"rder or ro**er& on an& o! he -i iFens o! he Uni ed 8 a es, he na ion or ri*e o whi-h he o!!ender *elon#s, on -omplain *ein# made, shall deli'er "p he person or persons -omplained o!, a he neares pos o! he Uni ed 8 a esG o he end, ha he or he& ma& *e ried, and i! !o"nd #"il &, p"nished a--ordin# o he laws es a*lished in ha erri or& o! he Uni ed 8 a es nor h?wes o! he ri'er Ohio, !or he p"nishmen o! s"-h o!!en-es, i! he same shall ha'e *een -ommi ed wi hin he said erri or&G or a--ordin# o he laws o! he 8 a e where he o!!en-e ma& ha'e *een -ommi ed, i! he same has happened in an& o! he Uni ed 8 a es. In li$e manner, i! an& s"*@e- or -i iFen o! he Uni ed 8 a es shall -ommi m"rder or ro**er& on an& Indian or Indians o! he said na ions, "pon -omplain *ein# made hereo!, he or he& shall *e arres ed, ried and p"nished a#reea*le o he laws o! he s a e or o! he erri or& wherein he o!!ense was -ommi edG ha no hin# ma& in err"p he pea-e and harmon& now es a*lished *e ween he Uni ed 8 a es and said na ions.+0
+1

. Clin on, s%!ra no e )3, a 90/G see) e.*., Trea & wi h he Chero$ees, ar . J, J"l& ), 1391, 3 8 a . /7G Trea & wi h he Cree$s, ar . =III, A"#. 3, 1397, 3 8 a . +3G Trea & wi h he Chi-$asaws, ar . =, Jan. 17, 1352, 3 8 a . )0G Trea & wi h he Cho- aws, ar . =, Jan. +, 1352, 3 8 a . ))G Trea & wi h he Chero$ees, ar . =I, No'. )5, 1350, 3 8 a . 19G Trea & wi h he 1&ando s, Delawares, Chippawas, and O awas, ar . IJ, Jan. )1, 1350, 3 8 a . 13. +) . Trea & wi h he Chero$ees, ar . J, J"l& ), 1391, 3 8 a . /7. ++ . Clin on, s%!ra no e )3, a 90/. +/ . Trea & wi h he 1iando , Delaware, O awa, Chippewa, %a awa ima, and 8a-, ar . =, Jan. 5, 1359, 3 8 a . )5G Clin on, s%!ra no e )3, a 90/. +0 . Trea & wi h he 1iando , Delaware, O awa, Chippewa, %a awa ima, and 8a-, s%!ra no e +/.

)71)B NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE K. E+ (arte Crow Do#

+9

In he mids o! his lon# period o! re-o#ni ion o! he Na i'e Ameri-an so'erei#n & wi h respe- o -riminal @"risdi- ion, he -ase o! E+ (arte Cr , D * -ame *e!ore he Uni ed 8 a es 8"preme Co"r in 155+. +2 The de!endan was a Kr"le 8io"6 Na i'e Ameri-an a--"sed o! m"rderin# ano her mem*er o! his ri*e in Na i'e Ameri-an erri or&. +3 Crow Do# was ried, -on'i- ed, and sen en-ed o dea h in he !ederal -o"r s. +5 He s"*seE"en l& !iled a wri o! ha*eas -orp"s alle#in# ha his imprisonmen was ille#al *e-a"se he !ederal #o'ernmen did no ha'e @"risdi- ion o r& him.+9 The Co"r a#reed, and in !indin# ha he !ederal -o"r s did no ha'e @"risdi- ion o'er Crow Do#, poin ed o he !ederal #o'ernmen (s lon# his or& o! Na i'e Ameri-an @"risdi- ion o'er in ra?Na i'e Ameri-an -rimes./7 In !"r her s"ppor o! i s de-ision, he Co"r no ed ha i! he !ederal #o'ernmen were permi ed o e6er-ise @"risdi- ion o'er in ra? Na i'e Ameri-an -rimes, i wo"ld r& Na i'e Ameri-ans>
<NBo *& heir peers, nor *& he -"s oms o! heir people, nor he law o! heir land, *" *& s"periors o! a di!!eren ra-e, a--ordin# o he law o! a so-ial s a e o! whi-h he& ha'e an imper!e- -on-ep ion, and whi-h is opposed o he radi ions o! heir his or&, o he ha*i s o! heir li'es, o he s ron#es pre@"di-es o! heir sa'a#e na "reG one whi-h meas"res he red man(s re'en#e *& he ma6ims o! he whi e man(s morali &. /1

C. The Da@or Crimes AThe Da@or Crimes A- ,/) ena- ed in 1550, dire- l& res"l ed !rom he p"*li- o" -r& !ollowin# he E+ (arte Cr , D * de-ision./+ The Da@or Crimes A- pro'ides ha Na i'e Ameri-ans who -ommi -er ain spe-i!ied -rimes in Indian -o"n r& ,shall *e s"*@e- o he same law and penal ies as all o her persons. who -ommi he same o!!enses. // J"s one &ear a! er he Da@or Crimes A- was ena- ed, he 8"preme Co"r de-ided United States v. -a*a"a./0 The Co"r "pheld he -ons i " ionali & o! he Da@or Crimes A- !indin# ha Ia#ama -o"ld *e ried *& he !ederal #o'ernmen !or he m"rder o! ano her Na i'e Ameri-an on he Hoopa =alle& Reser'a ion. /2 9ederal -riminal @"risdi- ion in Indian -o"n r& is *ols ered *& ano her
+2 +3 +5 +9 /7 /1 /) /+ // /0 /2

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E+ !arte Crow Do#, 179 U.8. 002 :155+;. Id. a 003. Id. Id. Id. a 005?37. Id. a 031. 15 U.8.C. A 110+ :)772;. Clin on, s%!ra no e )3, a 92). A 110+. Uni ed 8 a es '. Ia#ama, 115 U.8. +30 :1552;. Id. a +5/?50.

/7 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT <=ol. +5>)91 !ederal s a " e, he General Crimes A- , whi-h allows !or !ederal prose-" ion o! non?ma@or -rimes -ommi ed *& Indians a#ains non?Indians in Indian -o"n r&. /3 D. 9ederal J"risdi- ion in O her Areas o! Na i'e Ameri-an 4aw 1hile he !ederal #o'ernmen (s in!rin#emen on Na i'e Ameri-an so'erei#n & has pro#ressi'el& #rown more per'asi'e in he area o! -riminal @"risdi- ion, in o her areas o! law he !ederal #o'ernmen has *e-ome in-reasin#l& willin# o re-o#niFe he ri*es( so'erei#n &. /5 In Jan"ar& 1930, Con#ress ena- ed he Indian 8el!?De ermina ion and Ed"-a ion Assis an-e A- :The 8el!?De ermina ion A- ;. /9 The 8el!? De ermina ion A- pa'ed he wa& !or ri*al poli-e depar men s o pla& an in-reased role in poli-in# heir reser'a ions despi e he !ederal #o'ernmen (s @"risdi- ion o'er he mos serio"s -rimes p"rs"an o he Da@or Crimes A- .07 In .hite M %ntain A!a&he Tri/e v. 0ra&1er , he U.8. 8"preme Co"r -onsidered he appli-a ion o! s a e a6es o lo##in# a- i'i ies -ond"- ed e6-l"si'el& wi hin he reser'a ion and ha"lin# ha o--"rred on K"rea" o! Indian A!!airs and ri*al roads.01 In i s de-ision, he Co"r re-o#niFed he dan#ers inheren in a emp in# o rea ri*al reser'a ions li$e s a es *e-a"se o! *o h he na "re and !orm o! heir so'erei#n &. 0) Kased on he !ederal #o'ernmen (s -ommi men o promo in# he ri*es( sel!?s"!!i-ien-& and e-onomi- de'elopmen , he Co"r !o"nd ha am*i#"i ies in !ederal law sho"ld *e ,-ons r"ed #enero"sl& in order o -ompor wi h hese radi ional no ions o! so'erei#n & and wi h he !ederal poli-& o! en-o"ra#in# ri*al independen-e..0+ The Nin h Cir-"i i sel! had o--asion o -onsider he rela ionship
/3 /5

15 U.8.C. A 110). Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9+5. /9 Indian 8el!?De ermina ion and Ed"-a ion Assis an-e A- o! 1930, )0 U.8.C. AA /07?/05***?) :)772;. 07 . Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9+5 :-i in# 8TE1ART 1AIE4ING ET A4, NAT(4 IN8T. O9 JU8TICE, %O4ICING ON ADERICAN INDIAN RE8ER=ATION8 3, 9, 11 :)771;;. 01 . 1hi e Do"n ain Apa-he Tri*e '. Kra-$er, //5 U.8. 1+2, 1+9?/7 :1957;. 0) . See id. a 1/+. The "niE"e his ori-al ori#ins o! ri*al so'erei#n & ma$e i #enerall& "nhelp!"l o appl& o !ederal ena- men s re#"la in# Indian ri*es hose s andards o! pre? emp ion ha ha'e emer#ed in o her areas o! he law. Tri*al reser'a ions are no 8 a es, and he di!!eren-es in he !orm and na "re o! heir so'erei#n & ma$e i rea-hero"s o impor o one no ions o! pre?emp ion ha are properl& applied o he o her. The radi ion o! Indian so'erei#n & o'er he reser'a ion and ri*al mem*ers m"s in!orm he de ermina ion whe her he e6er-ise o! s a e a" hori & has *een pre?emp ed *& opera ion o! !ederal law. Id.
0+

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Id. a 1/+?//.

)71)B NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE /1 *e ween !ederal -riminal @"risdi- ion and he ri*es( so'erei#n & in United States v. Err l D.) $r..0/ There, he -o"r was -alled "pon o -onsider he appli-a ion o! he Da@or Crimes A- o a @"'enile(s he! !rom a K"rea" o! Indian A!!airs *"ildin#.00 In !indin# ha he !ederal dis ri- -o"r la-$ed he @"risdi- ion o r& he &o"n# man, he -o"r held ha al ho"#h Con#ress( in r"sion on he ri*es( so'erei#n & *& wa& o! he Da@or Crimes A- mi#h *e warran ed *& i s ,#"ardianship. powers, an& pro'isions o! he Da@or Crimes A- ha are am*i#"o"s ,m"s *e in erpre ed in !a'or o! he ri*es..02 III. THE NINTH CIRCUIT(8 JU8TI9ICATION8 9OR IT8 DECI8ION 9ollowin# i s rela i'el& len# h& dis-"ssion o! he his or& o! he !ederal #o'ernmen (s @"risdi- ion in Na i'e Ameri-an erri or& and he de!eren-e d"e o he ri*es in he #o'ernan-e o! heir lands and people, 03 he Nin h Cir-"i pro-eeded o e6plain he reasonin# in s"ppor o! i s de-ision ha an "nlimi ed s a " e o! limi a ions was appli-a*le o he -har#es *ro"#h a#ains Gallaher.05 In eres in#l&, he Nin h Cir-"i (s reasonin# *ore li le rela ion o i s e6posi ion on Na i'e Ameri-an law. 09 Ins ead, he -o"r relied on pre-eden -on-ernin# he elimina ion o! -api al p"nishmen 27 and he in erpre a ion o! am*i#"i ies in !ederal laws. 21 In addi ion, he -o"r asser ed ha he 9ederal Dea h %enal & A- i sel!, whi-h was mean o pla-e he ri*es on eE"al !oo in# wi h he s a es, s"ppor ed i s de-ision. 2) 9inall&, he -o"r de ermined ha he r"le o! leni & was no appli-a*le o he -har#es *ro"#h a#ains Gallaher.2+ A. The F%r"an Cases The Nin h Cir-"i (s opinion in Gallaher poin s o he F%r"an v. Ge r*ia2/ line o! -ases as pre-eden !or he !ederal #o'ernmen elimina in# -api al p"nishmen wi ho" amendin# he s a " es ha de!ine and p"nish indi'id"al -rimes.20 In he landmar$ -ase o! F%r"an v. Ge r*ia, he 8"preme Co"r was -alled "pon o de-ide whe her he s a es( "se o! he dea h penal & -ons i " ed -r"el and "n"s"al p"nishmen in 'iola ion o! he
0/ 00 02 03 05 09 27 21 2) 2+ 2/ 20

. . . . . . . . . . . .

Uni ed 8 a es '. Errol D., Jr., )9) 9.+d 1109, 112) :9 h Cir. )77);. Id. a 1121. Id. a 112/. Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9+3?+9. Id. a 9+9?/). See id. Id. a 9+9?/1. Id. a 9/1?/). Id. a 9+9?/1. Id. a 9/1. 9"rman '. Geor#ia, /75 U.8. )+5 :193);. Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9+9?/7.

/) CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT <=ol. +5>)91 Ei#h h and 9o"r een h Amendmen s. 22 The Co"r !o"nd ha in he -ases in'ol'ed, he dea h penal & did in !a- -ons i " e -r"el and "n"s"al p"nishmen ,23 and he Co"r (s de-ision s"*seE"en l& res"l ed in a de !a- o mora ori"m on e6e-" ions.25 In he wa$e o! F%r"an and d"rin# he res"l in# mora ori"m on e6e-" ions, he Nin h Cir-"i de-ided United States v. -enned2, in whi-h he -o"r -onsidered he e!!e- o! F%r"an v. Ge r*ia on a s a " e #o'ernin# he #ran o! *ail in -ases where he de!endan was ,-har#ed wi h an o!!ense p"nisha*le *& dea h..29 The Nin h Cir-"i de ermined ha s a " es s"-h as he one a iss"e were *ased on he na "re o! he -rimes ha were p"nisha*le *& dea h and no he !a- ha he a'aila*le p"nishmen !or he -rime was dea h.37 The -o"r wen on o hold ha , ,<iB! he s a " e(s p"rpose deri'es !rom he na "re o! he o!!ense wi h whi-h he de!endan is -har#ed and no !rom he po en ial se'eri & o! he p"nishmen , i remains in e!!e- .. 31 K"ildin# on his idea, in Gallaher, he Nin h Cir-"i -on-l"ded ha al ho"#h Con#ress elimina ed he dea h penal & !or Na i'e Ameri-ans !or -er ain o!!enses -ommi ed in Indian -o"n r&, he -o"r s -o"ld s ill emplo& he s a " e o! limi a ions ha is appli-a*le o -rimes ,p"nisha*le *& dea h. o he prose-" ion o! Na i'e Ameri-an de!endan s. 3) The Nin h Cir-"i (s relian-e on he F%r"an line o! -ases in Gallaher i#nored a !"ndamen al di!!eren-e *e ween he dis in- &pes o! -ases in'ol'ed. The F%r"an -ases in'ol'ed he -o"r s( in erpre a ion o! he appli-a ion o! par i-"lar s a " es a! er he dea h penal & had *een de-lared "n-ons i " ional.3+ In -on ras , Gallaher in'ol'ed he -o"r s( in erpre a ion o! he appli-a ion o! par i-"lar s a " es a! er Con#ress elimina ed he dea h penal & as an a'aila*le p"nishmen !or a -er ain -lass o! indi'id"als. 3/ K. In erpre a ion o! Am*i#"i ies 9ollowin# a rela i'el& len# h& dis-"ssion o! he de!eren-e d"e o Na i'e Ameri-an so'erei#n & when in erpre in# am*i#"i ies in !ederal law, 30 he
22 23 25 29

. . . . . . . .

F%r"an, /75 U.8. a )+9. Id. a )+9?/7. Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9+9. Uni ed 8 a es '. Ienned&, 215 9.)d 003, 003 :9 h Cir. 1957; :per Id. a 009. Id. a 005 :-i in# Uni ed 8 a es '. 1a son, /92 9.)d 11)0, 11)5 :/ h Cir. Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9/7?/1. See *enerall2 F%r"an, /75 U.8. a )+5 :per -"riam;G -enned2, 215 9.)d

-"riam;.
37 31

193+;;.
3) 3+

a 003.
3/

. See *enerall2 Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d 9+/. This dis in- ion is dis-"ssed in !"r her de ail in#ra %ar I=. 30 . Id. a 9+3?+9 :-i in# .hite M %ntain A!a&he Tri/e, //5 U.8. a 1/+?// :reE"irin# ,am*i#"i ies in !ederal law *e -ons r"ed #enero"sl& in order o -ompor wi h

)71)B NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE /+ Nin h Cir-"i E"i-$l& dismissed an& -on-erns a*o" i s de-ision(s in-onsis en-& wi h ha prin-iple *& -i in# Ne* ns tt v. Sa"%els.32 Ne* ns tt held ha he reE"iremen ha he -o"r s in erpre am*i#"i ies in !ederal laws in !a'or o! he ri*es onl& reE"ires ha he am*i#"i ies *e in erpre ed in !a'or o! he ri*al #o'ernmen , and does no reE"ire ha he am*i#"i ies *e in erpre ed in !a'or o! indi'id"al ri*al mem*ers. 33 The -o"r did no dis-"ss how i s holdin# in Gallaher : ha an "nlimi ed s a " e o! limi a ions is appli-a*le o -rimes ha are no in !a- ,p"nisha*le *& dea h.; *ene!i s he ri*al #o'ernmen as opposed o indi'id"al ri*al mem*ers.35 C. The ,EE"al 9oo in#. Ar#"men In !"r her s"ppor o! i s de-ision, he Nin h Cir-"i asser ed, ,The 9ederal Dea h %enal & A- pla-es Na i'e Ameri-an ri*es on an eE"al !oo in# wi h s a es> he& ma& de-ide whe her or no ordinar& !irs de#ree m"rder -ommi ed wi hin heir @"risdi- ion is p"nisha*le *& dea h, e'en i! !irs de#ree m"rders in Indian -o"n r& are prose-" ed in !ederal -o"r .. 39 Howe'er, i is -lear ha he 9ederal Dea h %enal & A- does no pla-e he ri*es on ,eE"al !oo in#. wi h he s a es in i s appli-a ion. 57 8"-h an ar#"men had si#ni!i-an wea$nesses e'en a he ime ha 15 U.8.C. A +095 was *ein# de*a ed *& Con#ress. 51 The proponen s o! he le#isla ion ar#"ed ha wi ho" he *ene!i o! his le#isla ion, i! a Na i'e Ameri-an $illed a Na i'e Ameri-an in Na i'e Ameri-an erri or&, hen he -o"ld !a-e he dea h penal & e'en i! he s a e in whi-h he reser'a ion was lo-a ed did no ha'e he dea h penal &, while a m"rder -ommi ed in ha same s a e o" side he reser'a ion wo"ld no *e eli#i*le !or he dea h penal &. 5) Howe'er, his line o! reasonin# also i#nored he !a- ha here were hir &?
hese radi ional no ions o! so'erei#n & and wi h he !ederal poli-& o! en-o"ra#in# ri*al independen-e.;;G Indian 8el!?De ermina ion and Ed"-a ion Assis an-e A- o! 1930, )0 U.8.C. AA /07?/05d :)772; :permi in# dis*"rsemen o! !"nds o allow ri*es o pla& an in-reased role in poli-in# heir reser'a ions;G Err l D.) $r., )9) 9.+d a 112/ :s a in# pro'isions o! he Da@or Crimes A- ha are am*i#"o"s ,m"s *e in erpre ed in !a'or o! he ri*es..;. 32 . Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9/1 :-i in# Ne#onso '. 8am"els, 073 U.8. 99, 117 :199+;;. 33 . Ne* ns tt, 073 U.8. a 117. 35 . See Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9+/. 39 . Id. a 9+9 :-i in# 1+3 CONG. REC. 85/55?7+, 85/91 :dail& ed. J"ne )/, 1991; :s a emen o! 8en. Domeni-i;. C "!are 1ash. Re'. Code A 17.90.7+7:); :)77); :pro'idin# !or imposi ion o! he dea h penal & in some -ases o! a##ra'a ed !irs de#ree m"rder;, ,ith DICH. CON8T. ar . /, A /2 :,No law shall *e ena- ed pro'idin# !or he penal & o! dea h..;;. 57 . 1+3 CONG. REC. 85/39, 85/9) :dail& ed. J"ne )/, 1991; :s a emen o! 8en. Th"rmond;. 51 . Id. 5) . Id.

// CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT <=ol. +5>)91 si6 s a es a ha ime whi-h a" horiFed he dea h penal &. 5+ This le#isla ion wo"ld permi a Na i'e Ameri-an, who m"rdered ano her Na i'e Ameri-an in Na i'e Ameri-an erri or&, o es-ape he imposi ion o! he dea h penal & e'en ho"#h he dea h penal & wo"ld ha'e applied o s"-h a m"rder -ommi ed o" side o! he reser'a ion. 5/ This presen ed he ri*es wi h an ill"sor& ,-hoi-e. a*o" whe her o ,op in. o he dea h penal &. In reali &, here was no -hoi-e. D. R"le o! 4eni &

Gallaher ar#"ed ha he r"le o! leni & reE"ired he -o"r o !ind ha he !i'e?&ear s a " e o! limi a ions !or -rimes ,no -api al. applied o his indi- men , ra her han he "nlimi ed s a " e o! limi a ions !or -rimes ,p"nisha*le *& dea h..50 The Nin h Cir-"i repea ed he wo ra ionales !or he r"le o! leni & as dis-"ssed *& he Uni ed 8 a es 8"preme Co"r >
9irs , a !air warnin# sho"ld *e #i'en o he world in lan#"a#e ha he -ommon world will "nders and, o! wha he law in ends o do i! a -er ain line is passed. To ma$e he warnin# !air, so !ar as possi*le he line sho"ld *e -lear. 8e-ond, *e-a"se o! he serio"sness o! -riminal penal ies, and *e-a"se -riminal p"nishmen "s"all& represen s he moral -ondemna ion o! he -omm"ni &, le#isla "res and no he -o"r s sho"ld de!ine -riminal a- i'i &.52

The Nin h Cir-"i held ha he no i-e ra ionale did no appl& o Gallaher(s -ase *e-a"se Edwin %ooler was m"rdered *e!ore he 9ederal Dea h %enal & A- was ena- ed.53 In United States v. (r ven3an , he Uni ed 8 a es Dis ri- Co"r !or he 8o" hern Dis ri- o! New Cor$ -onsidered he e!!e- o! Con#ress( remo'al o! !ederal $idnappin# !rom he lis o! -rimes eli#i*le !or he dea h penal &.55 1hen he $idnappin# oo$ pla-e, i was a dea h penal & -rime. 59
5+

. A he ime 15 U.8.C. A +095 was *ein# de*a ed *& Con#ress, he !ollowin# s a es allowed he dea h penal &> Ala*ama, AriFona, Ar$ansas, Cali!ornia, Colorado, Conne- i-" , Delaware, 9lorida, Geor#ia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Ien "-$&, 4o"isiana, Dar&land, Dississippi, Disso"ri, Don ana, Ne*ras$a, Ne'ada, New Hampshire, New Jerse&, New De6i-o, Nor h Carolina, Ohio, O$lahoma, Ore#on, %enns&l'ania, 8o" h Carolina, 8o" h Da$o a, Tennessee, Te6as, U ah, =ir#inia, 1ashin# on, and 1&omin#. DEATH %ENA4TC IN9O. CTR., State /2 State Data/ase, h p>LLwww.dea hpenal &in!o.or#Ls a eM*&Ms a e :)711;G see als 1+3 Con#. Re-. 85/39, 85/9) :dail& ed. J"ne )/, 1991; :s a emen o! 8en. Th"rmond;. 5/ . 1+3 CONG. REC. 85/39, 85/9) :dail& ed. J"ne )/, 1991; :s a emen o! 8en. Th"rmond;. 50 . Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d a 9/1. 52 . Id. :E"o in# Uni ed 8 a es '. Kass, /7/ U.8. ++2, +/5 :1931;;. 53 . Id. 55 . Uni ed 8 a es '. %ro'enFano, /)+ 9. 8"pp. 22) :8.D.N.C. 1932;. 59 . Id. a 22/.

)71)B NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE /0 Howe'er, ele'en &ears la er ha desi#na ion was remo'ed and he ma6im"m p"nishmen !or he -rime was li!e in prison. 97 The dis ri- -o"r !o"nd ha *e-a"se Con#ress did no a$e an& s eps o amend he o her pro'isions o! Ti le 15, he 9ederal R"les o! Criminal %ro-ed"re, or he s a " e o! limi a ions o demons ra e ha he& were s ill appli-a*le o he new s a " e, Con#ress had ,-learl& remo'ed $idnappin# !rom he -lassi!i-a ion o! N-api al o!!ense.(.91 I=. 8UGGE8TED 4INE O9 REA8ONING A. De-lara ions ha he Dea h %enal & is Un-ons i " ional =ers"s he Elimina ion o! he Dea h %enal & as an A'aila*le %"nishmen Ra her han p"rs"in# a line o! reasonin# ha p"rpor ed o pa& de!eren-e o Na i'e Ameri-an so'erei#n &, he Nin h Cir-"i had a m"-h simpler means o dispose o! he -aseO he simple dis in- ion *e ween de-lara ions ha he dea h penal & is "n-ons i " ional and he elimina ion o! he dea h penal & as an a'aila*le p"nishmen . 9) Gallaher !ell sE"arel& in o he la er -a e#or&. The -o"r was -alled "pon o in erpre he appli-a ion o! -er ain s a " es a! er Con#ress elimina ed he dea h penal & as an a'aila*le p"nishmen !or a -er ain -lass o! indi'id"als. 9+ In United States v. Mannin*, he Nin h Cir-"i -onsidered he de!endan (s -laim ha he !i'e?&ear s a " e o! limi a ions sho"ld ha'e *een applied o -har#es *ro"#h a#ains him "nder 15 U.8.C. A 1312 !or alle#edl& sendin# a mail *om* ha $illed he in ended re-ipien (s se-re ar&. 9/ The de!endan ar#"ed ha , *e-a"se he Nin h Cir-"i had !o"nd he dea h penal & "n-ons i " ional !or -rimes -ommi ed in 'iola ion o! 15 U.8.C. A 1312, he !i'e?&ear s a " e o! limi a ions !or non-api al -rimes sho"ld ha'e *een applied.90 The -o"r -on-l"ded ha , *e-a"se he "nlimi ed s a " e o! limi a ions -on ained in 15 U.8.C. A +)51 and he !i'e? &ear s a " e o! limi a ions -on ained in 15 U.8.C. A +)5) are lin$ed o he na "re o! he o!!ense -ommi ed ra her han he po en ial se'eri & o! he p"nishmen , he #o'ernmen was en i led o he *ene!i o! an "nlimi ed s a " e o! limi a ions.92 The -o"r (s reasonin# in Mannin* was *ased on i s pre'io"s de-ision in United States v. -enned2, whi-h relied on he 9o"r h
97 91

. Id. a 222. . Id. a 222?23. 9) . Gallaher(s -o"nsel s"##es ed s"-h a dis in- ion, whi-h is more horo"#hl& e6plored herein, ho"#h he Nin h Cir-"i -"rio"sl& disre#arded i . Openin# Krie! o! De!endan ?Appellan a 9, Uni ed 8 a es '. Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d 9+/ :9 h Cir. )717; :No. 79?+719+;, )779 14 +309920. 9+ . See *enerall2 Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d 9+/. 9/ . Uni ed 8 a es '. Dannin#, 02 9.+d 1155, 1190 :9 h Cir. 1990;. 90 . Id. 92 . Id. a 1192.

/2 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT <=ol. +5>)91 Cir-"i (s reasonin# in United States v. .ats n.93 In .ats n, he 9o"r h Cir-"i de-ided a -ase in'ol'in# he de!endan (s reE"es !or wo a orne&s o represen him when he was -har#ed wi h !irs ? de#ree m"rder.95 The -ase was de-ided in he wa$e o! F%r"an, so he -o"r was !a-ed wi h a s a " e ha allowed a de!endan -har#ed wi h a -api al -rime o *e en i led o wo a orne&s, *" here was a mora ori"m on e6e-" ions sin-e he 8"preme Co"r had !o"nd he dea h penal & "n-ons i " ional.99 In de-idin# ha he de!endan was indeed en i led o wo a orne&s !or his de!ense,177 he -o"r s a ed, ,In a 'er& li eral sense, he o!!ense de!ined in A 1111 is s ill a N-api al -rimeG( he stat%te s ill a" horiFes he imposi ion o! he dea h penal & and Con#ress has no repealed i ..171 This s a emen *& he 9o"r h Cir-"i se he s a#e !or a dis in- ion *e ween a -rime ha is li erall& p"nisha*le *& dea h, and here!ore a -api al -rime, and hose -rimes !or whi-h Con#ress has repealed he dea h penal &. Gallaher -learl& !alls in o he -a e#or& o! -rimes !or whi-h Con#ress has repealed he dea h penal &G 17) *& he e6press erms o! he 9ederal Dea h %enal & A- , Con#ress repealed he dea h penal & !or -rimes -ommi ed in Indian -o"n r& *& people who are s"*@e- o he -riminal @"risdi- ion o! a ri*al #o'ernmen . 17+ In United States v. Massin*ale, he de!endan s were -har#ed wi h $idnappin# !or whi-h he dea h penal & had *een elimina ed as an a'aila*le p"nishmen .17/ The de!endan s reE"es ed wen & peremp or& -hallen#es ha are a'aila*le o de!endan s -har#ed wi h a -api al -rime. 170 1hen he& were denied he "se o! wen & peremp or& -hallen#es, he& appealed o he 9o"r h Cir-"i .172 The -o"r s"mmaril& de-ided ha he de!endan s were no en i led o wen & peremp or& -hallen#es s a in#>
I! his -ase presen ed no hin# more han he de-lara ion o! he "n-ons i " ionali & o! he dea h penal & pro'ision o! se- ion 1)71 *& he Co"r in United States v. $a&1s n we wo"ld *e !a-ed wi h he dilemma whi-h has -on!ron ed he -o"r s in he wa$e o! F%r"an v. Ge r*ia . . . . Howe'er, he 193) amendmen o! 8e- ion 1)71 *& he Con#ress, whi-h elimina ed he dea h penal &, remo'ed $idnappin# !rom he -lassi!i-a ion o! a -api al o!!ense and, a--ordin#l&, he de!endan s were
93

. Id.G Uni ed 8 a es '. Ienned&, 215 9.)d 003 :9 h Cir. 1957; :-i in# Uni ed 8 a es '. 1a son, /92 9.)d 11)0 :/ h Cir. 193+;. 95 . .ats n, /92 9.)d a 11)0. 99 . Id. a 11)2. 177 . Id. a 11)0. 171 . Id. a 11)3. 17) . See *enerall2 Gallaher, 2)/ 9.+d 9+/. 17+ . 15 U.8.C. A +095. 17/ . Uni ed 8 a es '. Dassin#ale, 077 9.)d 1))/, 1))/ :/ h Cir. 193/; :per -"riam;. 170 . Id. 172 . Id.

)71)B

NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE

/3

no en i led o he *ene!i o! ei her he r"le or s a " or& se- ion "pon whi-h heir mo ion was *ased.173

These -ases ma$e a -lear dis in- ion *e ween he in erpre a ion -o"r s sho"ld appl& when he dea h penal & has *een de-lared "n-ons i " ional and he in erpre a ion -o"r s sho"ld appl& when Con#ress has elimina ed he dea h penal &. 1hen he proper in erpre a ion is applied o -ases where Con#ress has elimina ed he dea h penal & !or a par i-"lar -rime, he "nlimi ed s a " e o! limi a ions !or ha -rime is also elimina ed. 175 This in erpre a ion was " iliFed *& he Uni ed 8 a es Dis ri- Co"r !or he 8o" hern Dis ri- o! New Cor$ in he -ase o! United States v. (r ven3an . The (r ven3an -o"r -on-l"ded ha *e-a"se he dea h penal & pro'ision o! he !ederal $idnappin# s a " e had *een elimina ed *& Con#ress, Con#ress e!!e- i'el& remo'ed $idnappin# !rom he -lassi!i-a ion o! ,-api al o!!enses. and here!ore he !i'e?&ear s a " e o! limi a ions applied o he prose-" ion p"rs"an o 15 U.8.C. A +)5). 179 The -o"r s a ed, ,1here Con#ress has no a- ed o re-onsider rela ed s a " es, we ma& no in!er an in en o do so..117 The reasonin# o! (r ven3an was -i ed wi h appro'al as re-en l& as )775 *& he 9i! h Cir-"i .111 K. The 8 a " e o! 4imi a ions as a R"le, No a 8 andard There are some "n!a'ora*le -onseE"en-es o! " iliFin# a line o! reasonin# ha dis in#"ishes *e ween -ases where he dea h penal & has *een de-lared "n-ons i " ional and -ases where Con#ress has elimina ed he dea h penal & as an a'aila*le p"nishmen !or a par i-"lar -rime or !or a par i-"lar -lass o! indi'id"als. %rimar& amon# hose "n!a'ora*le -onseE"en-es is he possi*ili & ha dan#ero"s -riminals, perhaps some who ha'e e'en admi ed o he -rimes he& are a--"sed o!, will wal$ !ree d"e o wha some mi#h -lassi!& as a mere e-hni-ali &. Howe'er, his reason alone is no s"!!i-ien o @"s i!& he a*andonmen o! well?es a*lished pre-eden in he appli-a ion o! s a " es o! limi a ions. 8 a " es o! limi a ions represen r"les, no s andards. 11) R"les and s andards -an *e ho"#h o! as e6is in# on a -on in""m o! dis-re ion. 11+ A r"le ,*inds a de-isionma$er o respond in a de ermina e wa& o he presen-e o! delimi ed ri##erin# !a- s.. 11/ I en-ompasses he *a-$#ro"nd poli-& o! he s"*@e- ma er i re#"la es, so i s appli-a ion ma& res"l in
173 175

. Id. :-i a ions omi ed;. . See (r ven3an , /)+ 9. 8"pp. a 222?23. 179 . Id. 117 . Id. a 223. 111 . See Uni ed 8 a es '. 8eale, 0/) 9.+d 17++, 17+9 :0 h Cir. )775;. 11) . See Ia hleen D. 8"lli'an, F re, rd' The $%sti&es # R%les and Standards, 172 HAR=. 4. RE=. )), 03?09 :199);. 11+ . Id. a 03. 11/ . Id. a 05.

/5 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT <=ol. +5>)91 o'er? or "nder?in-l"si'eness.110 K" he de-isionma$er m"s !ollow a r"le e'en when a di!!eren res"l wo"ld o--"r i! he *a-$#ro"nd poli-& were dire- l& applied o he si "a ion.112 8 andards, on he o her hand, ,-ollapse de-isionma$in# *a-$ in o he dire- appli-a ion o! he *a-$#ro"nd prin-iple or poli-& o a !a- si "a ion.. 113 A s andard allows he de-isionma$er o a$e all o! he rele'an !a- ors in o a--o"n , *" res"l s in less "ni!ormi & !rom de-ision o de-ision.115 The appli-a ion o! he s a " e o! limi a ions m"s remain in he !orm o! a r"le, @"s as i has !or he pas se'eral -en "ries. O"r -riminal @"s i-e s&s em wo"ld *e -rippled i! @"d#es were pro'ided wi h he dis-re ion o rea a s a " e o! limi a ions as a s andard ra her han a r"le. Al ho"#h he appli-a ion o! a r"le mi#h prod"-e "n!a'ora*le res"l s a imes, i presen s a *e er sol" ion han a s andard ha res"l s in li le predi- a*ili &. =. CONC4U8ION In 199/, Con#ress -ondi ionall& elimina ed he dea h penal & !or -rimes -ommi ed *& indi'id"als who are s"*@e- o he -riminal @"risdi- ion o! a Na i'e Ameri-an ri*al #o'ernmen . In Gallaher, he Nin h Cir-"i was -on!ron ed wi h he E"es ion o! whe her he !irs ?de#ree m"rder -har#es *ro"#h a#ains he de!endan were s"*@e- o he !i'e?&ear s a " e o! limi a ions appli-a*le o non-api al -rimes, or he "nlimi ed s a " e o! limi a ions appli-a*le o -rimes p"nisha*le *& dea h. In -on-l"din# ha he "nlimi ed s a " e o! limi a ions was appli-a*le, he Nin h Cir-"i p"rs"ed a line o! reasonin# ha paid lip ser'i-e o o"r #o'ernmen (s lon#?es a*lished re-o#ni ion o! ri*al so'erei#n &, *" s"mmaril& disre#arded ha his or& in ma$in# i s de-ision. Ra her han #i'in# disin#en"o"s de!eren-e o he ri*es and heir so'erei#n &, and "l ima el& rea-hin# he wron# de-ision, he -o"r -o"ld ha'e relied on a simple dis in- ion *e ween -ases where he dea h penal & is de-lared "n-ons i " ional and -ases where Con#ress has elimina ed he dea h penal & as an a'aila*le p"nishmen . Had he -o"r re-o#niFed ha he -ase *e!ore i !ell sE"arel& in o he la er -a e#or& o! -ases, i -o"ld ha'e rea-hed he -orre- -on-l"sionO ha he !i'e?&ear s a " e o! limi a ions was appli-a*le o he -har#es *ro"#h a#ains he de!endan .

110 112 113 115

. . . .

Id. Id. Id. a 03. Id. a 05?09.