pressure but will not affect partial pressures from Daltons Law; c.

Changing the V of container: an increase in V will cause the rxn to shift to the side with more moles of gas so that pressures stay the same and equilibrium is maintained, so decreasing V would cause the reaction to shift towards less moles; 3. A change in temperature: you must know if it is endothermic or exothermic and then it can be treated as extra E. If it is exothermic and you increase T, K decreases (Rxn shifting left); If it is endothermic and you increase T, K increases and rxn shifts right; If endothermic, E is in the reactant; Higher K favors the forward reaction; How can you make a rxn shift right? 1. Add gaseous reactant (increase concentration); 2. Take away gaseous product (lower concentration); 3. Decrease T; Ka= aciddissociation constant; ([H+][A-])/[HA]; Kb= base-dissociation constant= ([BH+][OH])/[B] ; Ka is # of moles of acid that dissociates per mole; the strength of a conj acid/base is the opposite of its relative acid/base; Strong acids have a large Ka; Strong Bases: 1. NaOH; 2. KOH; pH=-log[H+]; 10^-pH=[H+]; pH+pOH=14; [OH-]=10^-pOH; pOH=-log[OH-]; Autoionization of Water: H20(l)<->H+OH; Kw=[H+][OH-]=1.0*10^-14; bigger Ka=stronger acid; Kw=Ka*Kb; For a mixture of acids, H+ production is dominated by the strongest acid, and weaker acids can be disregarded; 5% Rule: (x/[HA])<5% (this is the same method for percent ionization, but %ionization is not restricted by <5%); E quivalence point when moles of H+ and OH- are equal, totally neutralizing each other, and (if it is strong w/strong) the pH is 7; the most rapid change occurs near the equivalence point; An indicator indicates the endpoint by changing colors based on [H+] or [OH-]; most common is phenolphthalein; Want an indicator with pKa nearest the equivalence point; an indicator is essentially a weak acid; Indicators change over a range of pKa1; Henderson-Hasslebach equation: pKa+log([A-]/[HA])=pH; WEAK ACID OR BASE: just equilibrium (ICE Table) STRONG ACID OR BASE: Use concentration of acid/base for [OH-] or [H+] STRONG WITH WEAK BUT NOT AT THE EQUIVALENCE POINT: do LR stoichiometry first, and you are left with conj acid/base and left over weak acid/base. Use Henderson-Hasslebach; AT THE EQUIVALENCE POINT STRONG W/ STRONG: pH is 7 and there is no leftover conjugate acids/bases; AT THE EQUIVALENCE POINT BUT NOT STRONG W/ STRONG: do LR stoichiometry first, then leftover weak conj acid/base reacts with H2O to make the weak acid/base and OH-. The pH is controlled by the conj acid/base; If you titrate a weak acid with a strong base, the pH at the equivalence point will be basic. If you titrate strong base with weak acid, pH at equivalence point will be acidic, and past the equivalence point the pH is dominated by excess OH-/H+; When adding strong acid/base, it would completely dissociate and then reach equilibrium; Adding a ton of H+, H+ will work stoichiometrically first, and then work towards equilibrium.

Solute is dissolved in the solvent. Dissolving=Dissociation: spreading out of particles; Dipole moments occur because charges point in angles and dont cancel out and make a molecule polar; Ionic compound pos/negative ions; For a molecule to dissolve in water, it has to have enough polarity to break the compound; Electrolytes- ions/particles that allow a solution to conduct electrical charge; Nonelectrolytes- poor/nonconductors of e-; strong electrolytes- almost completely dissociate in soln and makes lots of ions; Weak electrolytes dont dissolve as well as strong electrolytes; Ionic compounds are polar; Alcohols (such as ethanol) are good at cleaning because of a polar and non-polar end; When dissolving: ionic compounds (salts) break into ions and covalent compounds separate from each other; Metals are good conductors because they only have outer shell e- as well as a full d-block and core e- that lower the effective nuclear charge; Arrhenius acid- makes H+ in soln; Arrhenius basemakes OH- in soln; Strong acids almost completely dissociate in water; Weak acids form few ions; Six Strong Acids: H2SO4, HCl, HNO3, HBr, HI, HClO4; Super Acid- acid with acidity>100% H2SO4; H2O is amphoteric(neutral); Strong bases almost completely dissociate in water, weak bases form few ions; molarity=moles solute/L solution; In a dilution, moles of solute before=moles of solute after; stock soln- known concentration (AKA std soln); MV=MV; Solubility Rules: 1. Nitrates (NO3) are soluble; 2. Alkali salts are soluble (includes Ammonium salts); 3. Most halide salts are soluble except for silver, lead (ii), and mercury (i); 4. Most sulfate salts are soluble except for barium, calcium, lead (ii), and mercury (i); 5. Most hydroxides are insoluble except for sodium, potassium, barium, strontium and calcium; 6. Sulfides (S2-), carbonates (CO3(2-)), chromates (CrO4(2-)), and phosphates (PO4(3-)) are insoluble. If a formed compound is insoluble, it is the precipitate; To neutralize, moles of OH- and H+ must be equal; Bronsted-Lowry acid: proton donor, BL base: proton acceptor; Any compound with a positive end can be an acid; for balance, strong acids have weak conj bases (and vice versa); Buret graduated tube with valve that can measure to the nearest .1mL; Titrations find the concentration of an unknown by titration to a certain point; Indicator- changing color; Phenolphthalein: no color in acid, pink in base; Steps to balancing a Redox Reaction: 1. (After splitting Ox/Red Rxns) Balance everything but H and O; 2. Add H20 to balance O; 3. Add H+ to balance H b/c in acidic soln; 4. Balance charges by adding e-; 5. Multiply to cancel e-; Pressure collision of atoms w/ surfaces, measured in force per unit area; Pascal (Pa)=Newton/(meter^2); Newton (N)=kg*m/(s^2); 1 atm= 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa= 760mmHg=760 torr; Pressure is never negative; The gas laws work only for ideal gases, and fail to account for mass of gases and particle/particle collision; Boyles Law: PV=K (inversely related), also used as a proportion: PV=PV; Boyles Law takes place at a constant T; Charles Law (constant P) V/T = b (directly related)As a proportion: V /T=V /T with T in Kelvin ; Avogadros Law (constant T and P) V/n =a (directly related) As a proportion: : V /n=V/n ; Ideal Gas Law: PV=nRT (commonly using R=0.08206atmL/molK); An ideal gas takes up a V of 22.4 L per mol @ STP; STP=25C and 1atm; The higher the molar mass, the more dense the gas: density=(MP)/(RT); Daltons Law of Partial Pressures: For a mixture of ideal gases, the total P = sum of individual pressures; Since gases occupy the same V @ the same T, P(total)=n(total)*(RT/V); The partial pressure of a gas is some fraction of the total ( mole fraction) P(partial)=X(total P) and X= n(partial)/n(total); Partial pressure is proportional to # moles/total moles; Collecting a gas over water: when a gas is collected over water, the vapor pressure of water is factored into the total pressure of the gas bc a small amount of water molecules escape the surface as a gas and stay above the liquid; Rate of vaporization(evaporation)=rate of condensation ; Kinetic Molecular Theory: Assumptions- 1. Individual particles dont have mass (cant collide w/ ea other); 2. Consta nt random motion (bounce off walls); 3. Particle exert no forces on ea other (would transfer energy as electromagnetic force); 4. Avg Kinetic E (KE) is directly proportional to Kelvin temp (everything is spaced out evenly); KMT explains certain relationships: 1. P & T (const. V & n) as T increases, particles speed up (as KE rises) and hit walls more often, increasing P; 2. V & T (const. P & n) as T increases and particles speed up, V must increase for the rate of particle/wall collisions to remain constant; 3. V & n (const. T & P) as # moles goes up, volume also increases so that T & P remain constant; Kelvin is absolute temp bc it starts @ 0; temp= how fast something moves (not neg); avg KE=(3/2)RT; KE= (1/2)*m*v^2; Velocity is in m/s; Avg KE is in J/mole; m and v are inversely related, so two gases with the same KE wont have same speed bc different masses; U is velocity of a gi ven particle, U(rms) is velocity root-mean-square; U(rms)= sqrt((3RT)/M); As molar mass goes up, velocity goes down; R = 8.3145 J/molK when dealing with E or R = 0.08206 atmL/molK; J = kg*(m^2/s^2); Energy- the ability to do work and produce heat; Law of Conservation of E- E is neither created nor destroyed; E can change forms; Kinetic E (KE)- particles that have motion (temperature); Potential E- position or composition (chemical E in bonds); Thermochemistry means energy flow; Internal E (IE)- kinetic and potential E in a system; IE is changed by: heat: E flow due to temperature difference, or work: force acting over a difference (change E by applying a force); First Law of Thermodynamics : the E of the universe is constant; E= q + w; pos q = system gaining heat = endothermic, meaning E of products is higher bc more E is stored in bonds; work=force*distance; F=PA, w = -P*V; if work is being done on the system, p is neg; expanding gas is doing work, compressed gas is being worked on; change in enthalpy (H) for a reaction= heat for rxn; enthalpy is change of E for heat; if H>0, heat in chemicals after is greatest, so its endothermic; if H<0, exothermic; Using Hesss Law, there are 2 ways to change rxns: 1. If a rxn is reversed, the sign is also changed; 2. Magnitude of H is directly proportional to the quantities of reactants/products. If the coefficients are multiplied, the value of H is multiplied by the same; Hf (heat of formation) uses ONE MOLE of a compound; Degree sign indicates STP; Heats of formation are formed from standard states of component elements @STP; H is always +1, O is always -2, Elemental form is 0, and Fluorine is 1; Hf is in kJ/mole (since its one mole); Hf = (n of products*Hf of products)- (n of reactants*Hf of reactants); H=E(final)-E(initial); Hf of an element in its std form is 0; heat capacity (c)= heat absorbed/increase in temp; specific heat capacity (s)= heat/ T*mass; (specific heat capacity is same as heat capacity, but per mole); molar heat capacity = heat/T*mol; 1 calorie=4.184J (this is the E needed to raise 1-g H20 by 1C); heat required = specific heat*mass*change in temp, or Q=smT; Heat of fusion- E needed to go from solid to liquid ( H fus is in kJ/mol); Heat of vaporization- E needed to go from liquid to gas ( H vap is in kJ/mol); Melting solid to liquid (occurs @ melting point); Freezing liquid to solid (-H fus); V aporization liquid to gas (H vap); Condensation gas to liquid (-H vap); Sublime change directly into vapor when heated, typically forming a solid deposit again on cooling; Sublimation directly from solid to gas; Heating Curve plot of T and time, with E added @ const. rate; Heat of Fusion the enthalpy change that occurs at the melting point when a solid melts, the std enthalpy of fusion is the amt of thermal E which must be absorbed or evolved for 1 mole of substance to change states from solid to liquid or vice versa; Normal melting point the temp when solid and liquids have same vapor pressure conditions and total P is 1 atm; Normal boiling point temp when vapor pressure is exactly 1 atm; Supercooled cooled below 0 Celsius and 1 atm and remaining liquid; Superheated raised to a temp>boiling point, esp. if heated rapidly; Phase diagram represents phases of a substance using T and P; Triple point T and P when solid, liquid, and gas phases coexist in equilibrium; Critical Temperature above which vapor cannot be liquefied no matter what P is applied; Critical Pressure required to produce liquefaction @ critical temp; Critical point critical temp and pressure; H fus and H vap show how long each plateau is, while specific heat shows the slope of the transition, with larger s=shallower slope; When melting, a crystal usually dips below the melting point and then comes back up to create seed crystal; Interesting property of waters phase diagram: You cannot go from gas liquidsolid by changing P @ const. T; Other substances can, and are more likely to be solid; Boiling point line ends at the critical point; Everything to the right of the critical point is gas or liquid-gas- stuff; Equilibrium rates of forward and reverse reactions are the same; the higher the concentrations of reactants/products, the faster the rate of forward/reverse rates (respectively); Law of Mass Action: the higher the concentration, the faster the rate of reaction; jA+kBlC+mD, equilibrium expression: ([C]^l[D]^m)/([A]^j[b]^k); Every reaction will have a unique equilibrium constant; equilibrium constant ratio of products:reactants at equilibrium; K for the reverse reaction is the reciprocal of K for the forward reaction; Kcconcentrations, Kp-pressures; Kp=Kc(RT)^ n; Q=reaction quotient; Q<K rxn shifts right; Q=K rxn is @ equilibrium; Q>K rxn shifts left; If Q<K, too much reactant; If Q>K, too much product; Subscript 0 means at time naught or initial; A small value for K means forward rxn isnt occurring much; Since K is s small, change is so little it can be disregarded; How will system react to: 1. A change in concentration: will shift according to reaction quotient Q; 2. A change in pressure by: a. Adding/Removing gaseous products or product, reaction will shift to compensate; b. Adding an inert gas will add