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THE

HOW AND WHY

WONDER

BOOK

OF

W r i t t e n by ROBERT l u s t r a t e d by DENNY McMAINS SCHARFF

Editorial Production D O N A L D D. W O L F

E d i t e d u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of Dr. P a u l E. B l a c k w o o d , U. S. O f f i c e o f E d u c a t i o n W a s h i n g t o n , D. C . T e x t a n d i l l u s t r a t i o n s a p p r o v e d by O a k e s A . W h i t e , B r o o k l y n C h i l d r e n ' s M u s e u m , B r o o k l y n , N. Y.

WONDER

BOOKS . NEW

YORK

N " i ' j

r j ! -" 1 * ; i\

Introduction E l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r s a r e helping usher m a n k i n d into the Space Age. W i t h o u t t h e m it would be impossible for scientists to quickly supply crucial answers regarding flights into o u t e r space. R o b o t s a n d a u t o m a t i c c o m p u t e r s are also helpful in p r a c t i c a l ways as w e learn in this How and Why Wonder Book of Robots and Electronic Brains. T h r o u g h pictures a n d n u m e r o u s examples, this b o o k gives the r e a d e r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of b o t h the practical a n d theoretical application of m o d e r n c o m p u t i n g devices. Scientists are interested in discovering a n d testing basic concepts a b o u t p h e n o m e n a a n d events in n a t u r e . M a t h e m a t i c i a n s develop m a t h e m a t i c a l ways of describing a n d predicting these events. T h e t w o g r o u p s s u p p o r t o n e a n o t h e r in m a k i n g discoveries a n d in solving problems. E l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r s offer a new basis for the c o o p e r a t i o n needed to solve problems. S o m e of these p r o b l e m s w o u l d not b e solved even in a lifetime without the assistance of c o m p u t e r s . T h e a d v e n t of electronic c o m p u t e r s a n d o t h e r forms of a u t o m a t i o n m a y result in social a n d e c o n o m i c c h a n g e s of great significance, s u c h as a shorter w o r k week. T o b e well informed today, o n e needs to k n o w a b o u t the uses a n d potential capacities o f - m o d e r n a u t o m a t i c devices. This How and Why Wonder Book of Robots and Electronic Brains will give a basis for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the m a n y uses of electronic c o m p u t e r s a n d will stimulate readers of all ages to t h i n k a b o u t the m a c h i n e s ' effect o n the future e c o n o m i c a n d scientific d e v e l o p m e n t s in o u r nation. Paul E. Blackwood U.S. Office of Education Washington, D. C.

0 1963, by Wonder Books, Inc. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. Published simultaneously in Canada. Printed in the United States of America.

C o n t e n t s page ROBOTS IN OUR W O R L D 4 What are robots? 5 W h e r e did r o b o t s originate? 5 W h a t d o r o b o t s look like? 6 H o w are r o b o t s used in o u t e r space? 7 H o w do robots work? 8 ROBOTS WITH ELECTRONIC BRAINS W h a t are computers? W h a t are the uses of c o m p u t e r s ? W h o invented c o m p u t e r s ? W h a t kinds of c o m p u t e r s are there? W h a t is a n a n a l o g u e c o m p u t e r ? W h a t is a digital c o m p u t e r ? HOW A COMPUTER WORKS W h a t is m e a n t b y i n p u t ? W h a t is m e a n t by processing? W h a t is m e a n t by o u t p u t ? W h a t is the c o m p u t e r ' s logic? W h a t d o you need to b u i l d a simple c o m p u t e r ? H o w will it w o r k ? H o w does the c o m p u t e r give the answers? THE ELEMENTS OF A MODERN COMPUTER W h e r e is the storage element? W h a t element does the c o m p u t a t i o n ? H o w d o all the elements w o r k together? H o w does a c o m p u t e r c o m p a r e with other m e t h o d s of solving a problem? A LANGUAGE FOR THE COMPUTER W h a t is the b i n a r y n u m b e r system? H o w d o you c o u n t in the b i n a r y system? H o w are decimal n u m b e r s c h a n g e d to b i n a r y symbols? C a n the b i n a r y system give o t h e r answers? C a n a n electronic b r a i n " t h i n k ? " page H o w are p r o b l e m s given t o a computer? 26 H o w c a n you b e c o m e a p r o g r a m m e r ? 2 8 PUTTING THE COMPUTER TO WORK H o w are c o m p u t e r s valuable for n a t i o n a l defense? H o w d o business a n d industry use computers? H o w are c o m p u t e r s used to aid air a n d sea travel? H o w can c o m p u t e r s help doctors? H o w does a c o m p u t e r b e c o m e a translator? D o e s a n electronic b r a i n ever fail? THE LEARNING MACHINE Can a robot learn? H o w does the learning m a c h i n e "learn?" H o w are learning m a c h i n e s used? THE TEACHING MACHINE W h a t does a teaching m a c h i n e look like? H o w does a teaching m a c h i n e "teach?" C a n m a c h i n e s replace teachers? ROBOTS TAKE OVER W h a t is a u t o m a t i o n ? W h a t is feedback? D o e s a u t o m a t i o n p u t people o u t of work? A U T O M A T I O N IN A C T I O N H o w is a u t o m a t i o n used in communications? H o w is a u t o m a t i o n used in transportation? H o w is a u t o m a t i o n used in industry? C a n r o b o t s d o tasks t h a t m a n could n o t do? W h a t is telemetry? H o w far c a n we go? COMPUTER TALK

28 29 30 30 31 32 33 34 34 34 36 37 37 38 39 39 39 39 40 42 42 42 43 45 46 46

9 9 10 10 11 11 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 17 18 19 19 20 21

21 22 22 22 23 24 25

R o b o t s

in

O u r

W o r l d

T h e w o r d " r o b o t " i n t h i s a g e of m o d e r n s c i e n c e still c a r r i e s w i t h it a f e e l i n g of b o t h h o p e a n d f e a r . T h e h o p e is t h a t m a c h i n e s b u i l t t o w o r k l i k e m e n w i l l m a k e life f o r t h e h u m a n r a c e m u c h p l e a s a n t e r a n d b e c o m e t h e m a s t e r s of a l l m a n k i n d . A f t e r y o u h a v e hope or should be feared. finished happier. T h e f e a r is t h a t r o b o t s m a y o n e d a y t a k e o v e r t h e w o r l d a n d t h a t t h e y m a y reading this b o o k , y o u s h o u l d b e a b l e t o m a k e u p y o u r m i n d a s t o w h e t h e r r o b o t s offer

Von Kempelen's Chessplayer, here shown contemplating a move, was a clever fake, and no robot at al The illustration below shows the midget who was an excellent chessplayer and who manipulated the automaton from his hiding place.

Scientists are finding many other uses for robot type devices. For example, a mechanized radio-controlled boat called MOBY-DIC (Motorized Observation Biotelemetry Yacht-Data Integration and Control) is employed as an unmanned on-the-spot observer of the social behavior of whales and porpoises in their natural habitat. This information not obtainable in captivity is picked up by the robot's ears and eyes and transmitted for analysis to an oceanographic mother ship several miles away. These members of the marine mammal family seem to ignore the unassuming robot as long as it makes no hostile moves. N o t everyone agrees about what a robot What are robots? "is," b u t m o s t dictionaries and encyclopedias define a it a s a p i e c e of m a c h i n e r y that does a job you would expect h u m a n being to do. T h e i d e a of b u i l d i n g a m a c h i n e t h a t c a n w o r k a n d t h i n k l i k e a m a n is n o t new. It has existed for centuries. M o s t early r o b o t stories, h o w e v e r , w e r e m o r e fable t h a n fact, like the chess player "automatic" German The word robot, or artificial comes Czech botnick, being, the roanlanfrom word an devised by the This robot was a fake; but recently s c i e n t i s t s h a v e b e e n a b l e t o b u i l d electronic ones t h a t really c a n play chess. These machines, once taught the game, can usually beat h u m a n same mistake twice. players, one besuch cause, unlike men, they never m a k e the And c h e s s - p l a y i n g r o b o t is s o w e l l - m a n n e r e d t h a t it p r i n t s o u t t h e f o l l o w i n g m e s s a g e after w i n n i n g a m a t c h : "Sorry, y o u lost. T h a n k y o u for a very interesting g a m e . "

W o l f g a n g v o n K e m p e l e n in 1768. T h i s man-like m a c h i n e h a d great success in p l a y i n g a g a i n s t t h e b e s t p l a y e r s of E u r o p e u n t i l it w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e r e was a midget inside the robot who p l a y e d t h e g a m e v e r y well.

Where did robots originate?

c i e n t n a m e g i v e n t o a serf o r s l a v e . I t was introduced into our modern

MOBOT, the gentle robot, is strong enough to bend iron bars, but can also handle laboratory glasses with ease.

g u a g e in 1 9 2 2 by a C z e c h writer, K a r e l C a p e k , i n h i s p l a y c a l l e d R.U.R. initials t h a t m a k e u p t h e play's s t a n d f o r Rossum's Universal The title Robots.

science-fiction writers. T o d a y , h o w e v e r , robots are no longer paper creations. chartR e a l robots are a m o n g us running factories, translating languages, i n g t h e p a t h s of r o c k e t s , a n d c a l c u l a t i n g or forecasting almost anything we wish to k n o w t h o u g h they are called m a n y different n a m e s . M o s t r o b o t s d o n o t look like the tin c a n What do robots look like? mechanical that comic we see strips, men in in

I n C a p e k ' s play, all t h e w o r k in t h e world was done by man-like machines the robots which Rossum thing went along very manuon as factured in very large numbers. Everysmoothly just e a r t h . A l l t h e n e e d s a n d p l e a s u r e s of m a n k i n d w e r e b e i n g fulfilled, l o n g a s t h e r o b o t s h a d n o f e e l i n g s of their own. T h e n , o n e day, the m a n a g e r of t h e f a c t o r y d e c i d e d t o m a k e s u p e r i o r r o b o t s t h a t h a d all t h e h u m a n feelings of h a p p i n e s s a n d p a i n . W h e n t h i s h a p pened, the robots revolted against their h u m a n m a s t e r s a n d d e s t r o y e d all m a n kind. Since Capek's play, the robot become a favorite character of has the

movies, or o n television. I n actual fact, o u r a m a z i n g n e w r o b o t s n o w b e i n g designed a n d b u i l t b e a r little likeness to m a n . I n their w o r k , however, they duplic a t e t h e skills p e r f o r m e d b y m e n often d o t h e m m u c h better. Y o u see r o b o t s at w o r k a r o u n d y o u r h o m e everyday although you may not and

h a v e c o n s i d e r e d t h e m as such. B u t , acc o r d i n g t o o n e definition, w a s h i n g m a chines, toasters, a u t o m a t i c coffeepots, all electric heaters, a n d so forth, are

A l l of t h e s a t e l l i t e s l a u n c h e d How are robots .. _ used in outer space? robots on board. United

by

the

States

i n t o o u t e r space have had

robots. They are machines that do the work that you would expect a h u m a n being to do. T h e r e are also robots doing jobs that are t o o d a n g e r o u s for m e n to do. Poss i b l y t h e b e s t k n o w n of t h e s e r o b o t s is "Mobot." This remote-control machine h a s six-foot l o n g a r m s w h i c h hands, wrists, elbows and contain shoulders.

These

robots

have

sent b a c k to their masters o n earth, by w a y of r a d i o , s u c h i m p o r t a n t information or d a t a on space as temperature, r a d i a t i o n , effects of g r a v i t y , a n d s o o n . F r o m t h e i r lofty p o s i t i o n in s p a c e t h e y h a v e e v e n t a k e n p h o t o g r a p h s of e a r t h a n d other nearby planets. W h e n t h e first s p a c e s h i p l a n d s o n t h e m o o n o r M a r s o r V e n u s , it w i l l p r o b a b l y have on board robots rather than h u m a n beings. R o b o t s , like M o b o t , c a n map t h e s u r f a c e of t h e m o o n ' s h i d d e n s i d e , m a k e n e c e s s a r y g e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s , exBefore sending a manned spaceship to the moon, the United States plans to explore the moon's surface with instruments. This robot-exploration will start with Ranger, an instrument capsule that is expected to land on the moon in the Ocean of Storms. It will be followed by the Surveyor, which will carry instruments and television cameras similar to those used by the weather satellite, Tiros. Surveyor will be followed by Prospector, which will be able to move along the surface of the moon like a tractor. All three are supposed to send back to earth vital data to be used to make a human landing less dangerous.

T w o t e l e v i s i o n c a m e r a s p l a c e d o n rising, j o i n t e d tentacles serve as eyes. E x cept for t h e a r m s a n d eyes, M o b o t l o o k s like a big m e t a l b o x m o u n t e d o n wheels. T h e wires c o n n e c t i n g this r o b o t w i t h its master carry m o r e t h a n 100 c o m m a n d channels a n d t w o television channels. Although designed to do the dangerous w o r k of h a n d l i n g r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s in research laboratories, M o b o t m a y b e used, at some future time, for undersea or outer space tasks.

Computers are used in many industries. In hours they solve mathematical problems that would take a man more than a lifetime. They are used in jet aircraft design, in missile control, in payroll make up, in calculations of the petroleum industry, and innumerable other applications.

plore u n k n o w n regions, and even build landing areas for future spaceships. T h e y w i l l h e l p t o m a k e it s a f e r f o r h u m a n s w h e n they arrive later. While other robots look a great How do robots work? their basic deal

f o r m a t i o n t o r e t u r n t o its o p e r a t o r . The robot may have grasping decan vices similar to h u m a n a r m s a n d hands. F o l l o w i n g instructions, the r o b o t pick u p a n d m o v e objects, just as a m a n m i g h t d o . T o d o t h i s , s o m e t y p e of a r r a n g e m e n t is u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y t o tell the operator how hard the hands tion. ( I n t h e c a s e of M o b o t , or claws are gripping, plus other informamicroSome tons phones on the wrists allow the operator to " h e a r " the h a n d s at w o r k . ) b a r s i n t o k n o t s a n d lift o v e r 2 0 r o b o t s a r e powerful e n o u g h t o tie iron of w e i g h t , a n d y e t t h e y a r e s o s e n s i t i v e t h a t they c a n m a k e cakes or p o u r glasses of w a t e r w i t h o u t a n y b r e a k a g e .

different f r o m M o b o t , operation is t h e s a m e . T h e m o s t

i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e i r o p e r a t i o n is t h e m a n w h o gives t h e m their instructions. T h e s e instructions are given to the machine t h r o u g h wires or by radio m a y b e s t o r e d in t h e r o b o t itself). (or To

m a k e t h e m a c h i n e f o l l o w its m a s t e r ' s wishes, p o w e r must be supplied either t h r o u g h o t h e r w i r e s o r f r o m a self-contained source such as a battery. T h e robot, equipped with instructions a n d p o w e r , m a y c o n t a i n s o m e t y p e of sensing device, w h i c h c o u l d b e a television camera, a radiation find (Geiger) other c o u n t e r , o r a m a g n e t o m e t e r ( a p i e c e of equipment used to oil a n d m i n e r a l s ) . T h e s e sensing devices c a n b e c o m p a r e d to the h u m a n ' s eyes a n d nose a n d a l l o w t h e r o b o t t o g a t h e r t h e in-

R o b o t s

with

Electronic

Brains electronic

O f all t h e r o b o t s t h a t a r e a m o n g u s t o d a y , t h o s e w i t h b r a i n s , c a l l e d computers,

p r o m i s e in the next few years t o revolutionize

o u r w a y of life. T h e s e r o b o t i s t i c d e v i c e s e l i m i n a t e t h e d r u d g e r y f r o m m a n y j o b s a n d offer a g r e a t d e a l m o r e l e i s u r e t i m e t o t h e i r h u m a n m a s t e r s . W h i l e t h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d t o a i d i n t h e s o l u t i o n of c e r t a i n scientific problems, c o m p u t e r s h a v e t u r n e d o u t t o b e so generally useful t h a t they a r e n o w b e i n g e m p l o y e d i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of w o r k .

If y o u w e r e t o l o o k u p t h e w o r d " c o m What are computers? that from solves small p u t e r " in a dictionary, you would fined as "a mathematical desk devices find it d e machine range "doing

altitude weather conditions a n d w a r n us of storms, tornadoes and hurricanes any probfaster a n d m o r e accurately t h a n Computers do mathematical

weather-forecasting device ever used. lems in hours that would take m o r e t h a n a m a n ' s lifetime t o solve with p a p e r a n d pencil. T h e y help m a j o r industry per-

problems." for

T o d a y , these amazing machines

s u m s " t o r o o m size u n i t s t h a t c a n solve c o m p l e x m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o b l e m s in less t i m e t h a n t h e t w i n k l i n g of a n e y e . While computers are sometimes called "thinking machines," or "robots that think," these names are misleading. N o m a c h i n e c a n r e a l l y think in t h e usual using matheguide sense, b u t these c o m p u t e r s d o m a n y important a n d exciting things. B y their ability to solve c o m p l e x dict the paths of satellities,

matical problems, c o m p u t e r s c a n preb a l l i s t i c s m i s s i l e s i n flight, o r s p o t h i g h The, industries shown on pages 8 and 9 are just a few examples of today's uses of computers. Innumerable other uses could be mentioned.

f o r m its m a n u f a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s b e t ter, for w i t h their aid, skilled m e n c a n c o n t r o l c o m p l e x c o m b i n a t i o n s of chines. ma-

e v e r y p r o d u c t of a d v a n c e d t e c h n o l o g y : jet aircraft, nuclear reactors, power plants, bridges, a n d chemical factories. F o r instance, at the Space Flight Center in Huntsville, A l a b a m a , two powerful e l e c t r o n i c b r a i n s , e a c h c a p a b l e of a d d ing n e a r l y 14 m i l l i o n figures a m i n u t e , are helping to design the huge Saturn s p a c e c r a f t . S a t u r n , d e s t i n e d f o r flights a r o u n d the m o o n a n d deep into space, w i l l b e " f l o w n " t h o u s a n d s of t i m e s o n t h e s e c o m p u t e r s b e f o r e it r e a c h e s launching pad. the

Computers

affect

our

lives

in

many

What are the uses of computers?

ways. Every day t h e y h a n d l e millions of pay are

checks and b a n k accounts. They

n o w b e i n g u s e d b y f a r m e r s t o tell t h e m w h e n t o p l a n t t h e i r c r o p s , w h a t t o feed,, t h e a n i m a l s , h o w m u c h w a t e r is n e e d e d by the crops, a n d m a n y other important facts. T h i s technological revolution in f a r m i n g offsets t h e i n c r e a s i n g f o o d d e m a n d s of o u r s k y r o c k e t i n g p o p u l a t i o n . S p e a k i n g of o u r r a p i d l y g r o w i n g p o p u l a t i o n , i t is c o m p u t e r s t h a t h e l p c o u n t of t h e n u m b e r of A m e r i c a n s . B u t c o m p u t e r s go far b e y o n d They influence the design of these almost uses t o o^her services less w e l l - k n o w n . the United States Census B u r e a u to keep

The

electronic

computer, foremost

among

the this

Who invented computers?

American

i n v e n t i o n s of

century, was not an o v e r n i g h t d i s c o v e r y . I t is t h e f r u i t of t h e p r a c t i c a l s c i e n c e of m a t h e m a t i c s h a s its r o o t s far in t h e p a s t . F r o m c o u n t i n g o n his fingers, man gradually progressed to pebbles on the g r o u n d . . . t o p e l l e t s of b r o n z e , s l i d i n g A principal target of the Saturn space vehicle is the execution of a flight around the moon to explore the other side of this heavenly body. The actual flights cost millions of dollars. For only several hundred dollars, a flight can be simulated mathematically on the IBM 7090 computer. Here, the calculation of a moon orbit is being studied at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. At left is a model of Saturn's powerful superbooster. and

*!'-;.,.;.-,

on a grooved board . . . to beads strung on framed wires . . . a n d to the abacus. ( S e e i l l u s t r a t i o n , p a g e s 1 2 - 1 3 ) T h e first adding machine, invented in 1642, was followed by a four-operation arithmetic m a c h i n e c o m p o s e d of a d i f f e r e n c e gine that performed calculations, a mechanical tabulator, lyzer. Although these ena

T h e r e a r e t w o b a s i c t y p e s of c o m p u t e r s W h a t kinds of .. _ computers are there? in and use t o d a Jy , analogue digital.

While they are very unlike in their construction, operation a n d use, b o t h determine a given a m o u n t or quantity. T h e a n a l o g u e t y p e d e t e r m i n e s its q u a n t i t y b y m e a s u r e m e n t of h o w m u c h w h i l e t h e d i g i t a l t y p e d e t e r m i n e s its q u a n t i t y b y counting how many. A n a n a l o g u e c o m p u t e r is u s u a l l y b u i l t W h a t is a n > a n a l o g u e computer? to be an gy , anal, . or a p h y s i , , of

punch-paper anain-

control system, a n d a differential inventions

creased c o m p u t a t i o n speeds, t h e y failed t o fulfill t h e n e e d s of o u r c o m p l e x w o r l d . M o r e than a century ago, Babbage, an English Charles mathematician, machine

designed an "analytical engine" which was an automatic computing as w e use t h e t e r m t o d a y . H i s idea w a s n o t c o m p l e t e l y fulfilled b e c a u s e n o o n e could m a k e the required mechanical parts with the needed accuracy. In 1936, a y o u n g H a r v a r d physicist, Professor Howard Aiken, happened u p o n s o m e of t h e w r i t i n g s of D r . B a b bage. Like Babbage, D r . Aiken saw the p o s s i b i l i t y of a r o b o t t h a t c o u l d d o t h e t h i n k i n g of h u n d r e d s of m e n i n a f r a c t i o n of t h e t i m e it t o o k a n y o n e of t h e m to work out routine mathematical probl e m s . A i k e n t e a m e d u p w i t h o t h e r researchers and, by 1944, they built the first w o r k a b l e c o m p u t e r . Two y e a r s l a t e r , t h e first generalpurpose, all-electronic c o m p u t e r , called t h e ENIAC c o m p u t e r ( f r o m E l e c t r i c N u merical Integrator and Calculator), was built. ENIAC w a s t h e g r a n d f a t h e r of t o d a y ' s electronic brains, room-size robots w h o a n s w e r t o t h e u n l i k e l y n a m e s a s UNIVAC, STRETCH, MANIAC, UNICALL, MINIVAC,
SEAC, a n d BIZMAC.

cal likeness It m a y work, however, with

t h e p r o b l e m t h a t i t is d e s i g n e d t o s o l v e . physical quantities far different f r o m t h o s e conn e c t e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m it is s o l v i n g . Usually the answers are recorded on a calibrated scale, traced o n a g r a p h b y a pen, indicated on a plotting board, or s h o w n o n a dial. A n a n a l o g u e c o m p u t e r is g e n e r a l l y d e s i g n e d t o s o l v e a s i n g l e p r o b l e m , o r a specific c l a s s of p r o b l e m s . There are many common uses for It the simple a n a l o g u e devices. O n e e x a m p l e is t h e a u t o m o b i l e s p e e d o m e t e r . changes the rate of turning of

w h e e l ' s a x l e i n t o a n u m e r i c a l v a l u e of s p e e d i n t e r m s of m i l e s p e r h o u r . A s w e know, the faster the automobile's axle turns, the higher the speed we read on the speedometer. I n this case, w e are i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s p e e d of t h e v e h i c l e r a t h e r t h a n h o w f a s t t h e a x l e is t u r n i n g . B u t , t h e a n a l o g y o r p h y s i c a l q u a n t i t y of this s p e e d is t h e a x l e t u r n i n g . Slide rules, t h e r m o m e t e r s , clocks, a n d weight scales a r e e x a m p l e s of t h i s t y p e of c o m p u t e r . 11

Many primitives, having advanced from fingercounting, used pebbles as counters. Peruvian Incas used knotted ropes called quipus for counting.

Before early man had any words or symbols for numbers, he used his fingers to count. While the abacus has had many shapes and different names, depending on when and where it was used, its basic operation remains unchanged. It has individual columns with beads or marbles. The columns are arranged in the numeral position or decimal system used in the ancient Near East. Let's look at the earliest, the counting board of the Babylonian traders: three rows of pebbles; no column can have more than 9 pebbles. Let's add 263 to 349. First set up the pebbles to indicate 263: 2 hundreds, 6 tens and 3 units. Now add pebbles to signify 349: 3 hundreds, 4 tens and 9 units. Since no column can have more than 9 pebbles, move the pebbles over from right to left and you have as result 6 hundreds, 1 ten and 2 units, or 612.

The early abacus was nothing but pebbles in grooves in the sand.

The Roman abacus was made of metal, and small balls were used in each column. 12

A few years ago, a Chinese-American bookkeeper with an abacus won a race against an electronic calculating machine.

The Pascal adding machine of 1642 (above) and Burrough's (below) were only steppingstones to the modern "miracles."

The beads above the crossbar on a Chinese abacus are called quints and count 5 each when pushed down to the bar; the beads below count 1 each when pushed up to the bar. Each wire strung with beads is called a column and represents one column of figures in the decimal system. The figure shown in the abacus above left is: 27,503,040.

"How far" and "How fast?" are two questions answered by two kinds of analogue computers in your car, the "odometer" that gives the mileage you have driven and the "speedometer" that gives the approximate speed you are driving. Their working is relatively easy: it is established how many turns the wheel of your car has to make to roll a mile and a special flexible shaft is installed to transmit the number of wheel revolutions to a counter on your dashboard. The counter, which is a series of little wheels with numbers from 0 to 9, is constructed in such a way that, when one little wheel turns around once completely, it clicks the neighboring wheel over one number. In this way all units of miles are registered. The speedometer works on the same flexible shaft as the odometer, only here the turning of the wheel of the car creates magnetic fields. As y o u ^ | f i i n j u j i illustration, the speedometer consists of a disk (mostly aluminum). A pointer is attached to the disk with a wirespring that tends to pull the. pointer towards zero. As we already said, a permanent magnet attached to the flexible shaft turns faster when the car goes faster, and creates a magnetic field in the aluminum disk, which will tend to turn the disk and pointer away from zero. The faster the car goes, the stronger the pull, and the farther the pointer will point away from zero.

M A G N E T

13

While these examples

of

analogue

Digital computers are the most widely

W h Q t i s a

computers are quite simple ones, this t y p e is a l s o u s e d f o r m a n y c o m p l e x p u r poses. The electronic kind, for ins t a n c e , is u s e d f o r n a v i g a t i o n , The latter, called gun director missile com,. . x , 0 digital computer?

used computing U + + A U r o b o t s t o d a y , be" cause they are a do not their our

g u i d a n c e a n d a n t i - a i r c r a f t fire c o n t r o l . p u t e r s , a r e u s e d t o a i m a n d fire g u n s a t h o s t i l e p l a n e s . If y o u h a v e e v e r t r i e d t o s h o o t a rifle a t a m o v i n g t a r g e t , y o u c a n i m a g i n e t h e c o m p l e x i t y of a c o m p u t e r r e q u i r e d t o a i m a g u n a n d h i t a* hostile p l a n e a b o v e 4 0 , 0 0 0 feet in t h e air a n d traveling at speeds better t h a n 6 0 0 miles per hour. N o h u m a n being c a n solve all t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s s p e e d of t h e w i n d , d i r e c t i o n of t h e p l a n e , h o w f a s t it is g o i n g , e t c . q u i c k l y e n o u g h to d o this job, b u t an electronic anal o g u e c o m p u t e r c a n d o it w i t h e a s e .

g r e a t d e a l m o r e a c c u r a t e a n d will types. T h e digital c o m p u t e r s do

m o r e t y p e s of w o r k t h a n t h e a n a l o g u e measure; they count. T h e y owe n a m e to the counting number on ten fingers o r digits.

Because we have

1 0 d i g i t s i n s t e a d of t w e l v e , o r six, o r e i g h t , m o s t c o m p u t a t i o n is b a s e d o n t h e f a m i l i a r decimal 6, 7 , 8, a n d 9. T h e simplest digital c o m p u t e r that w e h a v e is o u r fingers. P r o b l e m s c a n b e solved by counting them. A m o r e complex digital c o m p u t e r with which we are familiar is t h e desk calculator. This m a c h i n e c a n d o everything a d d , subs y s t e m : 0 , 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 ,

F U E L G A U G E

tract, multiply a n d divide. The processing modern system, automatic electronic datadigital c o m p u t e r , often called a

can carry out a long

F U E L 1 A N K

F L O A T ^n*.

s e r i e s of a r i t h m e t i c a l a n d l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s o n t h e b a s i s of i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n it a t t h e s t a r t of t h e p r o b l e m . L o g i c a l o p erations include such w o r k as sorting, selecting, c o m p a r i n g , a n d m a t c h i n g vari o u s k i n d s of i n f o r m a t i o n .

The fuel gauge of an automobile is another example of an analogue computer. It indicates what proportion of the tank is filled with gasoline.

H o w

C o m p u t e r

W o r k s

All m o d e r n digital c o m p u t e r s h a v e three basic steps in their operation. Information information processing. or data be must be fed into the c o m p u t e r input. in an orderly The must rearranged output. and solved way

T h e answer or solution m u s t b e fed b a c k to the inquirer in a n

understandable form 14

1_-

. * *' A

Our picture shows an IBM computer (in the background) which is fed with information prepared by a tape punch (center left). Samples of the punched tape are on top and bottom.

As with the other robots you read about What is meant by input? instructions earlier, a h u m a n being it must can give solve the any computer before complete

t a p e ( t h e m o s t p o p u l a r m e t h o d ) _ , o r 01$ p a p e r inscribed with special a scientific, c o m m e r c i a l , engineering nature. T h e p r o c e s s i n g o p e r a t i o n is c a r r i e d o n What is meant by processing? within the computer itself. By using its v a r i o u s p a r t s o r elements, the computer calculates, arrives at the desired p r o b l e m g i v e n it. W h i l e t h i s p r o c e s s i n g o p e r a t i o n is g o i n g o n , t h e e n t i r e p r o c e d u r e is c h e c k e d b y a m a n , c a l l e d t h e operator, at the c o m p u t e r ' s c o n t r o l p a n e l . I t is h i s d u t y t o m a k e s u r e t h a t t h e c o m p u t e r is f u n c 15 answer sorts, to the m a t c h e s , c o m p a r e s , a n d s e l e c t s u n t i l it magnetic i n k . T h e i n p u t i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e of statistical, or

p r o b l e m o r d o a n y w o r k . A s e t of s u c h i n s t r u c t i o n s is c a l l e d a program programmer. a n d is prepared by a m a n or w o m a n called a I t is h i s o r h e r j o b t o s t u d y the t h e g i v e n p r o b l e m , l a y o u t a p l a n f o r its solution, a n d present the plan to c o m p u t e r , t o g e t h e r w i t h all t h e necess a r y i n s t r u c t i o n s a s t o h o w t o u s e it. Without the programmer, the computer w o u l d b e useless. T h e p r o g r a m m a y b e fed into the i n p u t p o r t i o n of t h e c o m p u t e r i n s e v e r a l ways through punched or tab cards, punched or perforated tape, magnetic

t i o n i n g in t h e p r o p e r m a n n e r . H e l a t e its activity. H e c a n s e n d in

can new

m a k e o u r decision b a s e d o n these facts. W h i l e a c o m p u t e r c a n n o t think or reas o n a s w e d o , it r e a c h e s i t s l o g i c a l d e c i s i o n s f r o m t h e f a c t s g i v e n t o it b y i t s programmer. P o s s i b l y t h e s i m p l e s t e x a m p l e of computer-like system is t h e a ordinary

start a n d stop the computer a n d reguinstructions or corrections given to him b y the p r o g r a m m e r , a n d c a n test various p a r t s of t h e c o m p u t e r t o s e e if t h e y a r e working normally. A f t e r d o i n g its w o r k , t h e c o m p u t e r gives What is meant by output? its a n s w e r the back to be programmer.

light switch. T h e p r o b l e m in this case i s : W h e n t h e s w i t c h is c l o s e d , a r e a l l conditions present for the bulb to light? T h e conditions a r e such facts as w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t is o n , t h e light b u l b good, t h e r o o m properly w i r e d , e t c . If t h e a n s w e r is " y e s " t o a l l t h e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e b u l b will light w h e n t h e s w i t c h is t u r n e d o n . T h e c o m p u t e r s y s t e m , i n effect, w i l l b e g i v i n g i t s logical a n s w e r b a s e d o n t h e fact t h a t all conditions are present for the b u l b to l i g h t w h e n t h e s i g n a l is g i v e n . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e of a c o m p u t e r - t y p e d e v i c e is t h e a u t o m a t i c t o l l collector turnt h a t w e see o n m a n y p a r k w a y s , . O n e of t h e h a r d e s t p o i n t s t o u n d e r s t a n d about the operaWhat is the t i o n of a c o m p u t e r computer's logic? is h o w i t c a n m a k e a logical decision. W h e n we c o m e to a l o g i c a l d e c i s i o n of a p r o b l e m , w e d o s o b y a p r o c e s s of t h i n k i n g o r r e a s o n i n g . W e search our memories or look into b o o k s for the facts o n the subject a n d

T h e results m a y

punched into cards or tape, or recorded on m a g n e t i c t a p e like t h e t a p e used o n a h o m e recorder. T h e programmer can then translate the machine's answer to d a t a for all w h o a r e interested. Many of t h e n e w e r c o m p u t e r s h a v e p r i n t i n g devices that take the machine's o u t p u t a n d c h a n g e it i n t o a p r i n t e d r e p o r t f o r m easily u n d e r s t o o d b y all. T h e s e p r i n t e r s , as t h e y a r e called, m a k e it u n n e c e s s a r y for p r o g r a m m e r s to interpret c o m p u t e r answers.

The automatic toll collector is a computer-type device. It makes "logical decisions" as to whether the proper amount of money has been deposited. 16

pikes a n d bridges. This device has the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of m a k i n g a l o g i c a l d e c i sion as t o w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e p r o p e r a m o u n t of m o n e y h a s b e e n d e p o s i t e d b y t h e driver t o p a y t h e toll. L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t a 1 0 ^ t o l l is t o b e collected by the computer. This ment can be paid by depositing: dime; two nickels; one nickel a n d toll collector will receive its i n p u t payone five (the

A l t h o u g h m o s t digital c o m p u t e r s W h a t d o you .M .... n e e d to build a simple c o m p u t e r ?

cost

b u i l d

thousands of , dollars, you can , ,

o n e t h a t

will a n s w e r " y e s " o r " n o " t o s i m p l e q u e s t i o n s f o r less t h a n a d o l l a r . H e r e is w h a t y o u n e e d : mechanical switches, a tery, a flashlight flashlight two bat-

pennies; or ten pennies. T h e automatic c o i n s ) a n d p r o c e s s t h e m . I t will t h e n m a k e its logical d e c i s i o n b a s e d o n t h e fact as to whether or n o t the p a y m e n t b y t h e d r i v e r is sufficient. If t h e a n s w e r is " y e s , " t h e d e v i c e w i l l i n d i c a t e t o t h e driver that he m a y go ahead. However, if t h e c o m p u t e r r e a c h e s t h e l o g i c a l d e c i sion t h a t insufficient m o n e y h a s a n d will s o u n d a n a l a r m so t h a t negative decision. been the d e p o s i t e d , i t w i l l flash a " s t o p " s i g n a l g u a r d s a r e i m m e d i a t e l y n o t i f i e d of i t s

b u l b a n d some wire. surprise

R e m e m b e r , this is g o i n g t o b e a v e r y s i m p l e c o m p u t e r . B u t it m a y y o u all t h e s a m e .

You can build a simple computer that will help you to understand the difficult subject of the working of electronic brains. A s a c o m p u t e r designer, your p r o b l e m How w i l l it work? a recognizable necessary is this: with above, that when both the will of parts a give two You named computer signal conditions build

ttNCE

L A N E S

are fulfilled.

c a n consider the light b u l b as the o u t p u t of t h e c o m p u t e r , a n d t h e s w i t c h e s , e a c h of w h i c h y o u m a y o p e n o r c l o s e h a n d , as the inputs. 17 by

When

the parts are properly

con-

n e c t e d , t h e c o m p u t e r will c a u s e t h e b u l b to light up, signalling, "Yes, b o t h cond i t i o n s a r e fulfilled." W h e n t h e b u l b is d a r k , t h e c o m p u t e r is s a y i n g , " N o , b o t h c o n d i t i o n s a r e n o t fulfilled." Y o u have probably already How does the computer give the answers? X out. switches battery s h o w n in figured with bulb figure this the the as 1. I n

Connect and

this way, b o t h switches m u s t be closed for the b u l b to light up. W h e n only o n e s w i t c h is c l o s e d o r w h e n b o t h a r e o p e n , t h e b u l b will b e d a r k . S i m p l e ? Y e s . B u t w h e n you consider the logical are really quite impressive: It accepts information as input switches are open or closed). It m a k e s a decision based on the input ( a r e b o t h switches closed?). It takes action b a s e d o n this decision (either the b u l b lights or unlit). B y rearranging the switches, you c a n build a computer that will either decide of the automatically whether remains (the operations p e r f o r m e d by this c o m p u t e r , they q u e s t i o n s , t h e c o m p u t e r will g o o n t o decide: "If the answer to both of t h e s e q u e s t i o n s is ' y e s , ' l i g h t t h e b u l b . " Fig. 3 s h o w s h o w y o u w o u l d wire this computer. B y t h i s t i m e t h e c o m p u t e r is d o i n g a j o b of d e c i d i n g t h a t m i g h t a c t u a l l y b e useful, a n d d o i n g it a g o o d d e a l faster t h a n y o u c o u l d . If y o u d o n o t b e l i e v e this, b u i l d it a n d t r y t o b e a t it. Slightly m o r e complicated arrangem e n t s of s w i t c h e s c a n b e m a d e t o p r o d u c e a n o u t p u t o n l y w h e n o n e i n p u t is p r e s e n t a n d t h e o t h e r is n o t . I t is p o s sible, b y i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g circuits e a c h of w h i c h d o e s o n e l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n , t o c r e a t e a r r a n g e m e n t s c a p a b l e of a n s w e r i n g a l l s o r t s of difficult q u e s t i o n s . C o m p u t e r kits t h a t c o n t a i n all t h e p a r t s a n d drawings to m a k e such arrangements are available at r a d i o supply stores. I n s t e a d of m e c h a n i c a l s w i t c h e s a n d flashlight bulbs, the modern computer uses m u c h m o r e r a p i d electronic devices for switching a n d registering, such as v a c u u m tubes, transistors and magnetic c o r e s . B u t t h e i d e a is t h e s a m e a s t h e c o m p u t e r just described.

switches a r e closed, a n d will light t h e b u l b s i g n a l l i n g , " Y e s , a t l e a s t o n e of t h e two possible conditions has been filled." (Fig. 2.) ful-

B y c o m b i n i n g the t w o circuits or arrangements, you can make a computer that will have four inputs and one o u t p u t a n d will a n s w e r this q u e s t i o n : A r e i n p u t s o n e and t w o p r e s e n t ? If t h e y a r e , is either and found 18 input three or input four the answers to these two present?" Having examined the inputs

T h e

E l e m e n t s

of

M o d e r n

C o m p u t e r of

The modern

e l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r is n o t r e a l l y a s i n g l e p i e c e

e q u i p m e n t b u t a s e r i e s of five c l o s e l y r e l a t e d p a r t s o r e l e m e n t s , e a c h of which m u s t function smoothly with the other four for the system to b e u s e f u l . T h e s e five e l e m e n t s a r e : i n p u t , s t o r a g e , a r i t h m e t i c , c o n t r o l output. Y o u a r e a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r w i t h t w o of t h e s e e l e m e n t s , t h e input output. and the If y o u w e r e t o s e e a r e a l c o m p u t e r i n a c t i o n , y o u c o u l d w a t c h t h e and

input-output equipment functioning, carrying information to the system a n d a n s w e r s t o t h e p r o g r a m m e r . I n o u r s i m p l e c o m p u t e r , t h e i n p u t is a c t u a l l y s u p p l i e d b y t h e m o v e m e n t of y o u r h a n d , w h i c h o p e n s o r c l o s e s t h e t w o s w i t c h e s . O u t p u t is t h e flashlight b u l b t h a t lights u p t o signal " y e s , " s t a y s d a r k w h e n t h e a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n is " n o . "

T h e s w i t c h e s t h e m s e l v e s p e r f o r m a n exWhere is the storage element? tremely function computing important in the circuit. the

whenever desired. T h e data m e m o r i z e d by this element c a n b e original information, reference tables, or instructions.

T h e y s t o r e t h e i n p u t , m a k i n g it a v a i l able to the computer throughout P R O G R A M i I N P U T 1 C O N T R O L p r o c e s s of c o m p u t a t i o n . T h e y s t o r e t h e information as to whether or not they a r e c l o s e d , s i n c e o p e n m e a n s , " n o input," a n d closed means, "input." Y o u m a y n e v e r see t h e s t o r a g e u n i t in a r e a l c o m p u t e r s i n c e it is p l a c e d i n a m e t a l c a b i n e t . B u t its f u n c t i o n is e x a c t l y t h e s a m e : it s t o r e s i n p u t i n a f o r m usable t 1 ^ ^ S T O R A G E ( M E M O R Y ) w P R O C E S S I N G i + b y t h e c o m p u t e r , a n d h o l d s it r e a d y f o r i m m e d i a t e u s e a t a n y t i m e d u r i n g its operation. In modern information in t h e magnetic, computers, can by be the storage stored t O U T P U T 1 until or Parts of a digital computer and their functions. 19 element also serves as a " m e m o r y " a n d internally system electro-mechanical, is r e a d i l y

or electronic devices,

needed. Stored information

available, can b e referred to once

m a n y times, a n d can also be replaced

I N P U T O U T P U T AND S E C O N D A R YS T O R A G E

S T O R A G E AND P R O C E S S I N G A R I T H M E T I C E L E M E N T

I N P U T O U T P U T AND S E C O N D A R Y S T O R A G E / S O U T P U T

&m O U T P U T

wiwwr.

C O N T R O L \ I N P U T

Actual arrangement and location of the various vital parts of a digital computer. E a c h s t o r a g e l o c a t i o n is i d e n t i f i e d c a l l e d a n address. B y m e a n s of by T h e s p e e d of p r o c e s s i n g l a r g e l y d e p e n d s o n t h e access time t h e l e n g t h number of t i m e r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n a

a n i n d i v i d u a l l o c a t i o n n u m b e r w h i c h is these numerical addresses, the programmer

f r o m s t o r a g e a n d m a k e it a v a i l a b l e t o o t h e r e l e m e n t s of t h e c o m p u t e r s y s t e m . The element of the computer does the tation the arithmetic element. In is our that actual called commost eledi-

can locate information and instructions a s n e e d e d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of a p r o b lem. I n other words, w h e n the programm e r w i s h e s t o t a k e i n f o r m a t i o n o u t of t h e s t o r a g e e l e m e n t h e d o e s n o t specify t h e d a t a itself, b u t o n l y i t s a d d r e s s . H e k n o w s t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n h e w a n t s is stored at that address because he himself s t o r e d i t t h e r e e a r l i e r . A c t u a l l y t h e m e m o r y u n i t of t h e c o m puter can b e c o m p a r e d with a library, which stores books, just as the m e m o r y s t o r e s d a t a . E a c h b o o k i n t h e l i b r a r y is given a code n u m b e r , just as each bit of i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e m e m o r y e l e m e n t s receives a n u m b e r . T h e s e b o o k n u m b e r s p e r m i t t h e l i b r a r i a n t o q u i c k l y find a n y b o o k stored in t h e library without reading t h e titles o n t h e b o o k s , just as t h e a d d r e s s p e r m i t s t h e p r o g r a m m e r t o locate any d a t a in t h e m e m o r y unit. 20

What element does the computation?

w o r k of c o m p u -

p u t e r , t h i s e l e m e n t is c o m p o s e d of t h e switches, wires, a n d battery. I n useful computers, the arithmetic

m e n t can add, subtract, multiply,

vide, a n d c o m p a r e n u m b e r s in a m a n n e r similar t o a d e s k c a l c u l a t o r , b u t at lightning speed. C o m p l e x calculations erations. T h e arithmetic element are also a l w a y s c o m b i n a t i o n s of t h e s e b a s i c o p c a n m a k e logical or reasoning decisions. I n m o s t m o d e r n c o m p u t e r s , t h e stora g e u n i t is c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e arithmetic element, though connected t o it. B y s e n d i n g e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s b a c k

a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s , t h e s e elements are able to communicate; the storage sends information to the arithmetic element for processing, a n d the arithmetic unit sends b a c k essed i n f o r m a t i o n t o storage. T h e l i n e s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n between the proc-

matic

sequence

control

u n i t , is a n elec-

tronic device rather than a mechanical o n e a s it is i n t h e r a i l r o a d c o n t r o l t o w e r . N o w t h a t y o u k n o w t h e p u r p o s e of t h e various parts How does a computer compare with other methods of solving problems? ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ of a comp u t e r , let u s c o m p a r e their func-

the storage and How do all arithmetic elements the elements ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ work together? i n o u r m o d e l c o m p u t e r a r e fixed. I n m o r e complicated circuits or networks, however, there may be a number alternative paths between storage arithmetic elements: One path of and

tioning to the steps n e e d e d in solving a problem by paper a n d pencil methods. T h e input arithmetic function Storage answers. w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e inThe same element performs the as o u r m a n u a l formation given in t h e problem.

could

calculations.

lead to a n e t w o r k w h o s e sole function was to add two numbers; another to a network which did nothing but comp a r e t h e sizes of t w o n u m b e r s , a n d s o f o r t h . T o d e c i d e w h i c h of t h e s e p a t h s should be used each time a connection is m a d e b e t w e e n t h e s t o r a g e a n d a r i t h metic units, the c o m p u t e r has a control element. T h e control unit in t h e c o m p u t e r c a n be compared with a railroad yard control tower. There are possible directions that the switchmany

m a y be compared to the work A knowledge of arithmetic output.

papers on which we note intermediate r u l e s controls o u r h a n d l i n g of t h e p r o b -

lem and our answers provide an

The control unit of a computer is like a railroad control tower.

switching

engine c a n b e r o u t e d , b u t t h e m a n in t h e control tower pulls the p r o p e r levers to g e t it o n t h e p r o p e r t r a c k s o t h a t computer, the control element, instructions from the it r e a c h e s its desired d e s t i n a t i o n . I n t h e under programmer,

makes the necessary switch connections throughout the system so that the data c a n follow its p r o p e r p a t h t o r e a c h t h e desired the destination. Because in of the speed required in routing switching mechanism called computers, properly information, modern autothe

L a n g u a g e

for

the

C o m p u t e r

T h e g a p b e t w e e n m a n a n d m a c h i n e is b r i d g e d b y a l a n g u a g e t h a t is understandable to both. This language makes the operation of the c o m p u t e r possible. F o r t u n a t e l y for c o m p u t e r designers, a l a n g u a g e t h a t c o m b i n e s t h e u t m o s t s i m p l i c i t y of w r i t i n g w i t h c o m p l e t e g e n e r a l i t y of expression was already available when number system, the first large-scale, electronic binary c o m p u t e r was designed a n d built. T h e language, k n o w n as the

was originally used to represent a n d handle n u m b e r s only.

B u t d u r i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e t r u l y g e n e r a l p u r p o s e c o m p u t e r , it h a s b e e n e x p a n d e d s o t h a t it w i l l n o w h a n d l e l e t t e r s a n d s y m b o l s a s w e l l .

B i n a r y (bi

m e a n s t w o ) uses only two symbols, 0, r a t h e r the ten the 1 and than

example, the combination 1 0 can stand f o r " t w o . " " T h r e e " is 1 1. F o r becomes 1 0 1; " s i x " 1 1 0 ; "four," "seven," is w e m u s t use three digits: 1 0 0. " F i v e " 1 1 1 . W e m u s t a d d a f o u r t h digit for " e i g h t , " w h i c h is 1 0 0 0 . " N i n e " 1 0 0 1, a n d s o f o r t h . Whereas the binary system suits c o m p u t e r s , i t is n o t n e a r l y s o p r a c t i c a l for o r d i n a r y n u m e r i c a l p r o b l e m s as the d e c i m a l system b e c a u s e m o r e digits a r e required to express numbers. F o r example, t h e n u m b e r "thirty-nine" can be indicated in t h e decimal system b y only t w o digits: a 3 a n d 9. Six digits w o u l d b e n e e d e d in t h e b i n a r y s y s t e m : "thirtyn i n e " w o u l d b e w r i t t e n 1 0 0 1 1 1. T h e l a r g e n u m b e r 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 in t h e binary system stands for " o n e t h o u s a n d

What is the binary number system? numbers finds (09),

decimal machine

and

twenty-six

letters w e n o r m a l l y use. T h e

this system simple. Y o u will too.

A s y o u c a n see in t h e c h a r t o n p a g e 23, the decimal n u m b e r s are c o m p a r e d with the corresponding binary symbols. N o t i c e t h a t shifting a d e c i m a l n u m b e r o n e p l a c e t o t h e left m u l t i p l i e s i t s v a l u e by ten, w h e r e a s shifting a b i n a r y n u m b e r o n e p o s i t i o n t o t h e left m u l t i p l i e s i t s v a l u e b y t w o . T h u s , t h e s y m b o l 1 in t h e binary system can be used to represent one, two, four, eight, or sixteen, dependi n g o n its p o s i t i o n o r p l a c e .

L e t us use the binary system to do some How d o you count in the binary system? actual counting. T o represent zero in binary, the symbol 0 is used. "One" is DECIMAL SYSTEM THIS NUMBER-* 4 Q Z o 4x1000 4 a U Sl o z 3 X 4x100 4 TENS 4x10 4 ONES 4x1

s h o w n a s 1, a s i n t h e d e c i m a l s y s t e m . T o show "two," when both symbols already have been available used we

MEANS-* 4 , 0 0 0 -(- 4 0 0 + 4 0 + 4 == 4 , 4 4 4

u s e s o m e c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e t w o . F o r 22

BINARY SYS TEM r 23 2* F O U R S 2x2 4 2' T W O S 2 2 2 O N E S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 | O O 0 O 1 1 1 1 _ O 0 o 0 o 1 1 O 0 o o 1 O O 1 1 0 o 1 1 o 0 1 1 0 o 1 1 o o 1 o 1 5 o 6 1 7 o 1 o 1 o 1 o 1 o 1 o 1 0 8 9 10 11 12 j 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 j 20 t w e n t y - f o u r . " T h e s a m e n u m b e r in t h e decimal system is e x p r e s s e d by four many digits ( 1 , 0 2 4 ) . B u t , w i t h m o d e r n c o m p u t e r s , it d o e s n o t m a t t e r h o w I DECIMAL EQUIVALENT 1 2 3 4 i

digits a r e u s e d t o i n d i c a t e n u m b e r s bec a u s e of t h e l i g h t n i n g s p e e d a t w h i c h these machines operate. The modern computers can store m a n y digits in their m e m o r y units, too. E a r l y o n e s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d m a r v e l s if they h a d internal storage capacity 1,000 decimal digits. New for machines

S I X T E E N S E I G H T S 2x2x2x2 16 2x2x2 8

r o u t i n e l y s t o r e t h e e q u i v a l e n t of m o r e t h a n 3 2 0 , 0 0 0 decimal digits, while t h e m o r e powerful computers have provis i o n s f o r i n t e r n a l s t o r a g e of m o r e t h a n o n e a n d a half million d e c i m a l digits, each available on c o m m a n d from l i o n t h s of a s e c o n d . The programmer might be able to the p r o g r a m m e r in little m o r e t h a n 2 mil-

How a r e decimal . , numbers changed to b i n a r y s y m b o l s ?

change or trans, lf late the entire contents of a

p r o b l e m i n t o a bin a r y n o t a t i o n b y h a n d . B u t i t is a g o o d bet that he would have a headache when he was finished. Fortunately, machines decimal have been designed to accept binary system. T h e s e machines, which look a n d operate like o r d i n a r y typewriters, c a n also t r a n s l a t e t h e l e t t e r s of a n a l p h a b e t i n t o the binary system and they do the entire j o b a u t o m a t i c a l l y . A s fast as t h e inform a t i o n c a n b e t y p e d in o n t h e k e y b o a r d t h e k e y s of w h i c h a r e m a r k e d w i t h A r a b i c n u m e r a l s a n d English letters t h e m a c h i n e t r a n s l a t e s it i n t o a p a t t e r n of b i n a r y o n e s a n d z e r o s o n t o c a r d s o r t a p e , w h i c h is f e d i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r . I n addition t o being faster t h a n t h e "byh a n d " m e t h o d , it is a g o o d d e a l m o r e 23

numbers and can change them to the

accurate, since the a u t o m a t i c translator almost never makes a mistake. T h e answer from the computer's outp u t is a l s o r e c e i v e d o n c a r d s o r t a p e a n d fed through another translator that to will deliver t h e desired i n f o r m a t i o n the programmer in decimal

T h e b i n a r y system c a n b e m a d e t o corCan the binary system give other answers? respond to the cond i t i o n s of a n e l e c t r i c or electronic circuit on o r off. Using "on"

t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e s w i t c h , t h e

numbers

c o n d i t i o n m a y r e p r e s e n t " 1 , " a n d "off" m a y represent "0." T h e binary number 1 0 0 1 1 1, e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e d e c i m a l n u m b e r 39, would appear: on off off on on on

a n d English letters. S o m e t i m e s a unit c a l l e d a h i g h - s p e e d p r i n t e r is u s e d . T h i s s e n s e s a n d p r i n t s w h o l e l i n e s of i n f o r m a t i o n a t a t i m e , i n s t e a d of i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r s , w o r k i n g a t t h e r a t e of m o r e t h a n 1,000 lines a m i n u t e .

B e c a u s e electronic circuits are used, a

E L E C T R I C A L C O N T A C T T H R O U G H H O L E

S T R A N D E DC O P P E RW I R E B R U S H , -

\ H O L E S C A R R Y INFORMATION M E T A LR O L L E R WITH E L E C T R I C A L C U R R E N T

The earliest card punching machines were hand operated. Facts were punched into each card according to a definite pattern. A prearranged code assigned a particular meaning to each separate position of the hole in the card.

The punched holes in the card represent the information with which the computer has to work. The metal roller carries the electrical current. The electrical circuit is closed by the copper wire brushes when the punched hole is between the brush and roller.

Today, the Card Punch combines efficiency and speed with simplicity and ease of operation. A movable typewriter-like keyboard allows the operator to punch numerical and alphabetical data smoothly and rapidly. 24

All systems "go" was the command given by the computers for the launching of the astronauts. v a s t c h a i n of b i n a r y d i g i t s c a n b e expressed and tabulated at very, very great speeds. T h e binary numerals can also represent logical conditions such as (binary 1) or "wrong" (binary "yes" 0). (binary 1) or " n o " (binary 0 ) , "right" Hence, the modern computer, by using the binary, can m a k e simple decisions about flight, aboard complex questions. For example, in C o l o n e l G l e n n ' s m a n n e d orbital it w a s a c o m p u t e r t h a t g a v e t h e was of fine the during the launching "go" signal t h a t everything space capsule. F o r t h e c o m p u t e r t o r e a c h t h i s alli m p o r t a n t logical decision, the p r o g r a m m e r fed into the m a c h i n e and flight direction of the beforehand speed desired proper This being overrun such information as the p r o p e r rocket, Glenn's characteristics, C a n machines out-think the men Can an electronic brain "think?" possible who a b u i l d t h e m ? I s it for computer to come u p w i t h a n e w i d e a ? A r e w e i n d a n g e r of by electronic brains w h o s e actions m a y n o t d o as w e wish? If y o u b u i l d t h e c o m p u t e r d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r , y o u w i l l s e e t h a t it o p e r a t e s o n l y 25 element. T h e n when the actual launching t o o k place, all t h e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the rocket and about the condition were fed into the and compared with the data astronaut's computer already

s t o r e d t h e r e . I n less t h a n 3 0 s e c o n d s , t h e c o m p u t e r h a d t o m a k e its r e c o m m e n d a t i o n . N o m a n o r g r o u p of men could m a k e this i m p o r t a n t decision so fast; b u t t h e c o m p u t e r g a v e its a n s w e r b y simply causing a b u l b to light u p o n its f r o n t p a n e l , signalling, " Y e s , all cond i t i o n s a r e fulfilled f o r a s a f e l a u n c h i n g of t h e s p a c e c a p s u l e . "

breathing and heartbeat rate, plus over 4 0 , 0 0 0 o t h e r b i t s of v i t a l d a t a . information w a s stored in t h e m e m o r y

o n i n f o r m a t i o n y o u g i v e it. C o m p u t e r s can not "think." They do no more than y o u t e l l t h e m t o d o . If y o u f e e d y o u r s i n c o r r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n , it will give y o u incorrect answers. In addition, you must tell it e x a c t l y w h a t t o d o , s t e p b y s t e p . Bluntly, a computer does not have an o u n c e of i m a g i n a t i o n . A s you h a v e r e a d earlier, a p r o g r a m m e r How are problems given to a computer? must organize and the stand. diagrams. One technique used restate problem underproblock by or

u s e t h e theory plicated Carlo multiple simulation,

of probability such These matrix

a n d comas Monte and complex algebra,

techniques regression.

m a t h e m a t i c a l s o l u t i o n s a r e t o o difficult t o e x p l a i n i n t h i s b o o k . A s a m a t t e r of fact, m a n y m a t h e m a t i c i a n s did n o t use t h e m p r i o r t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of c o m puters because techniques. Programmers sometime develop m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s of r e a l s i t u a t i o n s o r p r o c e s s e s . H e r e is a n e x t r e m e l y s i m ple example: COST OF APPLES IN DOLLARS $ 0 . 1 0 X NUMBER OF APPLES T h i s e q u a t i o n is a " m o d e l " of a n a c t u a l b u y i n g s i t u a t i o n . I t p r e d i c t s t h e c o s t of a n y n u m b e r of a p p l e s . N o a p p l e s n e e d ever b e p u r c h a s e d in order to get ans w e r s . A l l a s p e c t s of t h i s l i m i t e d s i t u a tion can be explored without spending a cent. I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of mathematical models is a complex, It exacting, a n d time-consuming job. = of the time required these to solve p r o b l e m s by following

in terms t h a t a c o m p u t e r c a n g r a m m e r s is t o p r e p a r e flow

These diagrams arrange the another. precise

s t e p s of a p r o c e s s i n o r d e r a n d s h o w h o w the steps are related to one They aid memory and force

thinking. T h e y show the computer h o w to solve a problem. For instance, how do you get to s c h o o l i n t h e m o r n i n g ? A flow d i a g r a m of t h i s p r o b l e m m i g h t b e t h e o n e g i v e n i n F i g . 1. T h i s m a y b e e n o u g h f o r y o u , b u t it is n o t d e t a i l e d e n o u g h f o r a c o m puter. Y o u r mind makes connections r e a d i l y . I t fills i n g a p s f r o m p a s t e x p e r i ence. C o m p u t e r s n e e d a simple, stepby-step plan with complete instructions, s u c h as s h o w n h e r e in F i g . 2. P r o g r a m m e r s also use m a n y mathematical symbolic statements techniques. logic, logically b y One method, involves representing mathematical

requires a t h o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e a n d und e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o b l e m o r p r o c e s s u n d e r study. P r o g r a m m e r s often spend weeks, even months, observing and studying before they begin the mathem a t i c a l m o d e l f o r w h i c h a final p r o g r a m will b e p r e p a r e d .

e q u a t i o n s . T h i s s y s t e m m a k e s it p o s s i b l e t o c h a n g e logical s t a t e m e n t s in t h e s a m e way that you work with algebraic equat i o n s i n y o u r m a t h e m a t i c s c l a s s . I t is n a m e d Boolean Algebra a f t e r its i n v e n tor, G e o r g e Boole. C o m p u t e r m e n also 26

GET UP

GET READY

A flow diagram of "How do you get to school in the morning?" as stated above would be enough for you, but not for the machine. The flow diagram on page 27 would be more to the machine's "liking."

H O W T O GET T O SCHOOL I N THE S E T A L A R M

MORNING

N O T ET H A T IN THIS DIAGRAM R E C T A N G L E SA R EU S E D T O INDICATE E I T H E RC A L C U L A T I O N SO RT H ET R A N S F E RO F INFORMATION. DIAMONDS A R EU S E DF O RS I M P L E YES-NO DECISIONS. I N S T R U C T I O N SF O RT H E MACHINE A R EA L S O INCLUDED.

HAVING NO T E S T * TODAY? I Y E S P R E T E N D I L L N E S S NO CONVINCE M O T H E R ?

G E T B A C K IN B E D D E A D E N D

W A L K O U T D O O R

^ GO B A C K G E T B O O K S

F O R G E T B O O K S ? I NO G E T ON S C H O O L B U S I A R R I V E AT S C H O O L

Y E S

27

N o o n e c a n give y o u a g o o d a n s w e r t o this question. H o w can you rp,, r , . l h e protesr become a programmer? sion is so n e w , a n d is c h a n g i n g s o f a s t , t h a t t h e m o s t p r a c t i c a l a p p r o a c h is t o l o o k a t w h a t a p r o g r a m m e r m u s t be. First, he m u s t be a language expert. T h e l a n g u a g e s h e uses a r e n o t all spoken languages like English, F r e n c h , or Spanish. Some are universal languages, u n d e r s t o o d b y scientists a n d technical people the world over. T h e s e are mathe m a t i c s a n d t h e l a n g u a g e of r e a s o n i n g o r l o g i c . M a y b e y o u d o n o t t h i n k of m a t h e m a t i c s a s a l a n g u a g e , b u t i t is. I t i s o n e m e a n s u s e d b y m e n of science to communicate with each other. A programmer must k n o w these four languages: 1. 2. 3. 4. His native tongue. T h e l a n g u a g e of t h e flow o r b l o c k diagram. T h e l a n g u a g e of l o g i c o r r e a s o n . T h e l a n g u a g e of t h e specific c o m p u t e r w i t h w h i c h h e is w o r k i n g . T h i s i n c l u d e s t h e c o d e s of ters, b i n a r y digits, o r t i o n s of t h e m . letcombinaIn addition, the programmer must be able to study, analyze, and plan problems so t h a t h e can r e d u c e t h e m into the small, simple parts a c o m p u t e r can handle. T h u s , a person with a business or engineering college degree or a backg r o u n d in m a t h e m a t i c s m a y b e t h e m o s t successful candidate for a career in computer programming.

Putting

the

C o m p u t e r

to

W o r k

. T h o u g h c o m p u t e r s h a v e b e e n in u s e for o n l y a d e c a d e o r so, t h e y have already influenced t h e lives of m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e . It would be i m p o s s i b l e t o list a l l t h e j o b s t h a t w e a r e h a n d i n g o v e r t o t h i s m a r v e l o u s m a c h i n e . P r o g r a m m e r s a r e finding n e w a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r i t e a c h d a y . W h i l e m a n y uses h a v e already been given, here are a few m o r e ways to keep robots with electronic brains busy. 28

Computers are the "heart element" of the North American Air Defense Command.

h u m a n being could possibly w o r k with the speed a n d a c c u r a c y required by this complex operation. C o m p u t e r s a r e a l s o t h e " h e a r t eles

ment"

of

the

North

American

Air

Defense C o m m a n d .

These

computers

e v a l u a t e t h e g r e a t a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e flight p a t h s of all t h e a i r p l a n e s in t h e air a t o n e t i m e over the United > B A T T E R Y C O N T R O L C O M P U T E R N I K E Z E U S R A D A R NIKE-ZEUS L A U N C H States a n d Canada. W o r k i n g h a n d in h a n d with o u r r a d a r system, they k e e p t h e military services i n f o r m e d b y i m m e d i a t e l y identifying all planes and rockets that are in flight. T h i s , of c o u r s e , r e d u c e s t h e c h a n c e s of an attack by hostile aircraft a n d rockets.

Computers

are

the "brains" national

of

our

How are computers valuable for national defense?

defense in

system. A ballistics missile flight, for exam-

ple, m u s t b e in exactly t h e right position a t t h e p r o p e r s p e e d w h e n i t s m o t o r is t u r n e d off a n e r r o r of o n e f o o t p e r second in speed c a n c a u s e a several mile m i s s a t t h e p o i n t of i m p a c t . A s t h e m i s sile l e a v e s i t s l a u n c h i n g p a d , it s e n d s radio signals b a c k t o the c o m p u t e r o n t h e g r o u n d , i n f o r m i n g it a b o u t c h a n g e s i n w i n d , t e m p e r a t u r e , effect of g r a v i t y , a n d m a n y m o r e i m p o r t a n t facts. computer figures the effect of The these its Computers for payroll register: This horizontal row of 132 electronically timed hammers taps paperforms against an inked ribbon and a fast-moving endless chain of type in an output printer of a data processing system. It prints numbers and letters at a basic speed of 600 lines a minute and, if it is operated to print numbers alone, can do it at a rate of 1,285 lines a minute. * ** J * 0 ~lp _ 1 1 '^
B S
fc

m?

v a r y i n g f a c t o r s a n d i n s t a n t l y f l a s h e s instructions t o k e e p t h e missile o n p r o p e r c o u r s e . W h e n it r e a c h e s its c o r r e c t s p e e d , t h e c o m p u t e r t u r n s off t h e m o t o r a n d the missile coasts at a b o u t 1 4 , 0 0 0 miles a n h o u r t o its t a r g e t . N o

29

Computers

perform

numerous

jobs

help

instantly

if

ship

is

in

dis-

in t h e field of How do business business. They and industry have freed employuse computers? ees from the drudge r y of t h e r o u t i n e p a p e r work of a c c o u n t i n g , b i l l i n g , figuring o u t v a r i o u s taxes, making out pay checks, keeping inventories, etc. Publishing zine subscriptions. Business a n d industry also use comp u t e r s to h e l p in m a k i n g decisions. F o r example, an oil company deciding w h e r e to build service stations, c a n feed a c o m p u t e r all t h e factors i n v o l v e d in t h e d e c i s i o n , s u c h a s traffic flow a n d r e a l estate costs. T h e m a c h i n e will p r o d u c e a decision or the alternate decisions most w o r t h y of i n v e s t i g a t i o n . C o m p u t e r s a r e k e e p i n g t r a c k of t h o u How are computers used to aid sea and air travel? s a n d s of s h i p s i n the Atlantic and Pacific so oceans the rush t h a t companies u s e c o m p u t e r s t o k e e p t r a c k of m a g a -

tress. S h i p positions a r e stored o n t h e machines' Coast sels memory an sections, to select emergency enabling the veswithout Guardsmen nearest

c h a n g i n g t h e c o u r s e s of o t h e r s h i p s u n necessarily. T o a s s i s t w i t h t h e p l a n n i n g of a i r l i n e flights, a c o m p u t e r p r e p a r e s w h a t m i g h t b e c a l l e d " a m a s t e r flight p l a n " f o r e a c h flight. Weather information, informat i o n a s t o t h e n u m b e r of p a s s e n g e r s , fuel loads, take-off a n d l a n d i n g weights, a n d other d a t a are fed into the and calculates the ideal machine. data altiT h e c o m p u t e r t h e n a n a l y z e s all routes,

t u d e s , e t c . , i n t h e t e r m s of t h e s e c o n d i tions. I n this w a y pilots h a v e a "master p l a n " t o f o l l o w i n t h e i r final flight p l a n ning. U s i n g this i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e airline's c a p t a i n a n d dispatcher d e t e r m i n e t h e "final p l a n . " C o m p u t e r s are also being installed in s o m e of o u r g i a n t j e t a i r c r a f t . W i t h t h e u s e of s u c h p l a n e s , t h e m a r g i n of s a f e t y available to a pilot during a take-off h a s been decreased greatly. T h e a m o u n t

United States Coast G u a r d can 30

--. ^m *mm MM SSPi

Computers handle numerous jobs to ease the drudgery of officework, in aiding the safety of sea and air travel, and in giving help to the medical science and other fields.

of p o w e r a n d t h e i n c r e a s e d s p e e d requirements of take-off have greatly to reduced the time available for the pilot t o s t u d y his take-off p r o g r e s s a n d m a k e his decisions. T h u s , t h e c o m p u t e r o n b o a r d , w i t h its l i g h t n i n g a c t i o n , c a n b e very valuable t o the pilot during this critical operation. T h e r o l e of t h e c o m p u t e r i n t h e h o s p i t a l H o w can computers . . help our doctors? of t h e f u t u r e c a n , , . ^ be a big one. F o r instance, the Would you believe it, when you saw it in a science fiction picture? The data transmission unit above enables computers to hold direct two-way telegraph or telephone "conversations." Or, to put it a little more specifically: the computer can send business or scientific information any distance directly from its magnetic memory to the storage of another computer. Here the operator dials the office across the country to make a connection for data transmission.

S(JH"

computer can store a n d interpret medical k n o w l e d g e g a t h e r e d within t h e p a s t 50 years. M e d i c a l science has collected a t r e m e n d o u s a m o u n t a n d c o m p l e x i t y of p u b l i s h e d i n f o r m a t i o n . M o s t of t h i s is doomed to storage on some dusty l i b r a r y shelf u n l e s s a m e t h o d m o r e r a p i d t h a n h u m a n skill c a n m a k e it a v a i l a b l e for quick reference. B y using a centralized electronic b r a i n to store knowledge treatment, a doctor can existing and the on disease symptoms "feed"

symptoms into the computer and await an answer advising treatment. Regard31

less of t h e p o w e r s of t h e s e m a c h i n e s , h o w e v e r , d o c t o r s still w i l l b e a very n e c e s s a r y p a r t of t h e m e d i c a l d i a g n o s i s . S o m e patients a n d s o m e diseases just d o not respond to impersonal human need for personal treatment contact is from either a doctor or a machine. This w h a t m a k e s t h e p r a c t i c e of m e d i c i n e a n art as well as a profession. E a c h y e a r , millions of r e p o r t s o n scientific r e s e a r c h a r e How does a ,,. , , , . publisheda large computer become r a translator? p e r c e n t a g e of t h e m in foreign g u a g e s . I n t h i s m a s s of R u s s i a n , interplanetary flight, H-power, lanGer-

w e a r i n g a u t o tires, m o r e powerful batt e r i e s . T h e t r o u b l e is t h a t t o o f e w of o u r scientists a n d engineers r e a d foreign l a n g u a g e s . T o o v e r c o m e t h i s difficulty, c o m p u t e r s h a v e been p u t to w o r k transl a t i n g t h e s e scientific p u b l i c a t i o n s . T o d o translations, every w o r d in a s i z a b l e E n g l i s h d i c t i o n a r y is l i s t e d o n tape under a code n u m b e r or address. T h e F r e n c h , G e r m a n , or R u s s i a n equivalents for each w o r d are given the same n u m b e r or address. T h e n , to translate from French to English, for example, a t a p e w i t h t h e F r e n c h c o d e n u m b e r s is fed into the machine, which matches the numbers and prints out the English. Some h u m a n editing to rearrange awkw a r d w o r d s e q u e n c e s is n e e d e d , b u t a The electronic brains have made another dent in the "language barrier." Here (at left) sentences in Russian are punched into cards that will be fed into an electronic data processing machine for translation into English. The card (below) is punched with a sample Russian language sentence (as interpreted at the top of the card) in standard punched-card code. It is then accepted by the computer, converted into its own binary language and translated by means of stored dictionary programs into the English language equivalent, which is then printed.

m a n , D u t c h , a n d Italian data are clues to longer-

^mmWr~j

K f i C H Y E S T V O UGLYfi O P R Y E D Y E L Y ftYETSYA K S L O R Y I Y H O S T J Y U III I I I II I I I I I I I I I III I I III II I I III HUH I Hill I I I I III llllllll I I II lllllll I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II THE QUALITY CALORY CONTENT O F I I I I I I C O A L IS DETERMINED B Y

Above, specimen punched-card and, below it, a strip with translation.

32

The match made by a computer on a television program was not one of the "robot's" big successes. computer can make over a translations in a day. C o m p u t e r s are h e l p i n g t o b r e a k lang u a g e barriers i n o t h e r w a y s . Computo exof c o m p u t e r s w a s a failure. A t e l e v i s i o n quiz program used a computer to select t h e i d e a l w i f e f o r a c o n t e s t a n t . T o acc o m p l i s h this, t h e p r o g r a m m e r f e d i n t o t h e m a c h i n e all f a c t s k n o w n f o r a perfect marriage likes and dislikes, movies, of many interests in various hobbies, ters, f o r e x a m p l e , are r a p i d l y t r a n s l a t i n g English text into Braille in order rial f o r the blind. Recently, an s p e e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of r e a d i n g m a t e tremely accurate and thorough Concordance puter, w h i c h "read" t h e w h o l e through, sorted and cross-indexed Biblical Bible sethousand

was produced by a com-

m u s i c , f o o d , etc. W h e n t h e c o m p u t e r c o m p a r e d the qualifications w o m e n with those of the m a l e contest a n t , it r e c o m m e n d e d o n e a s i d e a l . B u t , w h e n the t w o got to k n o w each other, they decided they were mismatched and

lected key words, and printed out the results a u t o m a t i c a l l y a n entire b o o k written b y the computing system. A computer, of c o u r s e , gives if wrong given

should not marry e a c h other.

Whose

Does an electronic brain ever fail?

answers wrong

f a u l t w a s this? T h e m a c h i n e p r o g r a m m e r ' s ? P e r h a p s it o n l y p r o v e s t h a t e v e n a computer cannot understand a woman's mind. 33

informaability

t i o n . O n e experiment with the decision-making

T h e A science fiction

L e a r n i n g

M a c h i n e

s t o r y of s o m e y e a r s b a c k c o n c e r n e d a r o b o t t h a t to work. T h e reason, turned

r e v o l t e d a g a i n s t its h u m a n m a s t e r s a n d r e f u s e d

eventually discovered, w a s t h a t t h e m a c h i n e did n o t like being

off e a c h n i g h t i n effect, k i l l e d a s a r e w a r d f o r i t s h a r d d a y ' s l a b o r s . S o a f t e r t h a t , t h e e l e c t r i c w a l l p l u g w a s left i n a l l t h e t i m e a n d b o t h t h e r o b o t a n d m e n h u m m e d a l o n g merrily forever after.

A s y o u h a v e r e a d , t h e r e is n o m a c h i n e Can a robot learn? that can "think." But, there are are robots of that learncapable

s t o r a g e of n e w i d e a s . R e m e m b e r w h e n you learned the a l p h a b e t ? Y o u did so by repeating A , B, C, D, E , F . . . time a n d time again until you learned the complete alphabet correctly. This proc e d u r e of r e p e t i t i o n is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e learning machine to "learn," too. T h e l e a r n i n g r o b o t is n o t a How does the learning machine "learn?" and computer de-

i n g . L e a r n i n g , a s w e k n o w it, is t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h k n o w l e d g e o r a skill is a c q u i r e d , a p r o c e s s w h i c h often a trial-and-error requires A a t t e n t i o n a n d d i r e c t i o n of efforts. I t is method. teacher can speed up the learning process b y d i r e c t i n g t h e l e a r n i n g effort a n d t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g t h e n u m b e r of t r i a l s . T h e l e a r n i n g m a c h i n e m a t c h e s m a n y of the characteristics exhibited by the h u m a n learning process. F o r instance, t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i n m a n is k n o w n t o r e q u i r e r e p e t i t i o n i n o r d e r t o effect t h e

is n o t

signed to w o r k on speedy calculat i o n s o r w o r k log-

ically f r o m step-by-step f o r m u l a s fed in by programmers. for Instead, no it tackles is problems which formula

k n o w n . I t figures o u t i t s o w n m e t h o d of

The "robot-secretary" the computer at left is designed to recognize all American speech sounds and, when spoken to through a microphone, type out what it has "heard."

The learning machine above, if it does not catch on to new lessons, has its "goof" button pushed for "punishment." This causes the machine to re-evaluate decisions and change the "memory." The tapes in the background contain lessons on various subjects, including the quite complicated analysis of sonar and cardiograms.

35

attack, supplies the answer, a n d

can

e x p l a i n h o w it a r r i v e d a t t h e a n s w e r . T h e learning m a c h i n e w o r k s by trial a n d e r r o r . L i k e a h u m a n , it r e l a t e s n e w s i t u a t i o n s t o its p a s t " e x p e r i e n c e s , " gett i n g s m a r t e r all t h e t i m e in solving. Also like people, it problem learns

through pain and pleasure. ( W h e n you were younger, you learned by experience not to touch a hot stove by of doing something correctly by the the " p a i n " of a b u r n a n d l e a r n e d t h e r e w a r d " p l e a s u r e " of r e c e i v i n g c a n d y o r b e i n g praised.) W h e n the machine makes a m i s t a k e , its h u m a n teacher pushes a T h e l e a r n i n g m a c h i n e h a s p r o v e d its How are learning machines used? worth ing in analyzcardiograms " g o o f " b u t t o n , f o r c i n g it t o d o t l l e m o v e r . A s a " r e w a r d , " it is t^Qj^-ate uninterrupted. X

e l e c t r o n i c traci n g s of h e a r t b e a t s a n d r a d a r e c h o e s . I n the latter example, a critical p r o b l e m is t h e n e e d t o t r a i n r a d a r o p e r a t o r s t o tell t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t r u e t a r g e t echoes a n d false ones. T h u s , a coastal defense radar station needs to be able to distinguish instantly an enemy plane o r r o c k e t f r o m a flock of h o m e c o m i n g s e a g u l l s . N o r m a l l y it t a k e s m o n t h s f o r a h u m a n t o a c q u i r e t h e skill t o tell w h a t t h e different " b l i p s " o n t h e r a d a r screen mean. But the learning machine b e t a u g h t t h e j o b in a v e r y brief a n d will p e r f o r m like a v e t e r a n . A very simple application for this can time

r o b o t w o u l d b e t o t e a c h it t o s o r t a p ples. First, the m a c h i n e w o u l d b e t a u g h t While it is difficult for a human operator to distinguish between the blips caused by an airplane and those caused by birds, the learning machine, when once taught, will function flawlessly. 36 in m u c h the same w a y as the beginning apple sorter just hired. T h e drawing on t h i s p a g e s h o w s t h e p a r t s of t h e d e v i c e .

^.

GOOF BUTTON The apple-sorting machine, once properly taught, will perform to utter perfection.

E X P E R T T E A C H E R

tion.

(The

invariance

unit

is

used,

w h e r e possible, t o lessen t h e d a t a hand l i n g l o a d of t h e l e a r n i n g machine.) T h e apples are to be sorted into those for eating a n d t h o s e for a p p l e sauce. A s e a c h a p p l e is s c a n n e d , t h e l e a r n i n g m a c h i n e t a k e s a c t i o n a n d d u m p s it e i t h e r into the "eating" or "sauce" bins. C Y B E R T R O N (LEARNING UNIT) T H R E S H O L D S A U C E A P P L E S A n e x p e r t a p p l e s o r t e r i n t h i s c a s e is a " t e a c h e r " until the r o b o t learns his lessons well. E v e r y time t h e machine m a k e s a mistake he presses the "goof" button and the machine has to change T h e a p p l e s p a s s b y t h e scanners a moving belt w h e r e the as t o r e d n e s s , softness, f e d i n t o a n invariance (they on is its " m e m o r y " slightly to t a k e t h a t fact i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d c o r r e c t its f u t u r e action. After each error, the machine g e t s a l i t t l e b e t t e r a t t h e t a s k of s o r t i n g apples a n d after a short time, b e c o m e s almost perfect. T h e learning machine too. h a s m a n y o t h e r uses in factories, w o r k m u c h like television c a m e r a s ) size, e t c . ,

information

changed into electrical signals that are unit w h o s e j o b it is t o a r r a n g e t h e s e s i g n a l s a n d i n f o r m a -

T h e Machines mathematical play

T e a c h i n g compose have

M a c h i n e beautiful that music, they can do difficult from

chess, and

problems,

shown

learn

experience. W e also have machines that teach.

If y o u r s c h o o l d o e s n o t a l r e a d y What does a teaching machine look like? teaching chines,

have mayou T H E TEACHING MACHINE (TMI-GROLIER'S MIN./MAX.)

may not have seen one. T h e s e robots are r a t h e r simple looking and quite harmless. In most

c a s e s , t h e y a r e just m e t a l o r few knobs there. or p u s h b u t t o n s

plastic and

y o u h a v e a clean paper area t o write o n again. T h e teaching machine teaches you your lessons in the How does a teaching machine "teach?" same w a y w e teach a ma-

boxes with t w o w i n d o w s in them, and a here

T o operate most teaching machines, y o u p r e s s a b u t t o n a n d it b r i n g s y o u r first q u e s t i o n i n t o v i e w i n o n e of t h e windows. T h e n y o u write your answer o n the paper exposed by a small w i n d o w near the top of the machine. W h e n y o u press the button again t o get the correct answer, a shield covers your answer, m a k i n g it i m p o s s i b l e t o c h a n g e it. N o w , press the button again to get y o u r n e x t q u e s t i o n . A s it a p p e a r s , y o u r a n s w e r t o t h e p r e v i o u s q u e s t i o n slides out of view, the shield disappears, and

c h i n e t o learn. T h e p r o g r a m m e r ( y o u r teacher) puts a program (your lesson) into the machine (the input) and you (like the computer) process the mareach terial. Y o u s t u d y t h e q u e s t i o n , out with the correct

into your memory element, and come answer you hope. This, like the computer, is your output. B y h a v i n g the lesson fed to y o u rather slowly and well-planned, y o u learn by trial a n d error, just l i k e a m a c h i n e . If y o u m a k e a mistake, the teacher pushes tne "goof" button, but, unlike a mac h i n e , y o u r p u n i s h m e n t m a y b e t o stay

The square of 4 The square of 6

4 times 4 or 16 6 times 6 or 3<o

after s c h o o l .

Close-up of the part of the teaching machine that contains the question and at the lower righthand corner your answer. On the illustration below it you see the next question and your check of the answer for the previous one.

38

Teaching

machines

will

not

replace learn-

help to solve the teacher shortage ing these devices r e q u i r e little

by

Can machines replace teachers?

t e a c h e r s . B u t , programmed ing, a s t h i s t y p e of

a l l o w i n g l a r g e r classes. S i n c e p u p i l s ussupervision from the teacher, she has m o r e time to give special help or to d o other classroom tasks.

t e a c h i n g is c a l l e d , w i l l h e l p t h e t e a c h e r t o t e a c h b e t t e r . T h e s e m a c h i n e s will also

R o b o t s

T a k e

O v e r

R o b o t s a n d c o m p u t e r s , as w e h a v e seen, are taking over m o r e a n d m o r e j o b s f o r m e r l y d o n e b y m a n . T r u e , m e n c a n still d o e v e r y t h i n g t h a t t h e s e m a c h i n e s c a n d o . B u t it t a k e s a t h o u s a n d m e n w o r k i n g a l i f e t i m e t o c o m p u t e w h a t the latest electronic b r a i n c a n d o in a day.

No

book

on

robots would

and be

computers complete Gena

devices t h a t h a n d l e c e r t a i n r a p i d servic e s o r t h e m a s s p r o d u c t i o n of Because modern computers goods. selfare

What is automation?

without mentioning the w o r d automation.

regulating, they can be used to control assembly-line production electronically. T h e y can also be used to perform other factory jobs and run machinery. T o have automation, we must have machines and processes that t db v>
re

erally speaking, this t e r m refers to

c o m b i n a t i o n of m a c h i n e s a n d e l e c t r o n i c

ulate this,

themselves. feedback a

To is mafed

do

needed. Feedback provides a means by which information concerning c h i n e ' s o p e r a t i o n is c o n t i n u o u s l y t h e desired results. O n e f e e d b a c k device t h a t w e all a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h is t h e t h e r m o s t a t found in h o m e heating systems. L e t us a s s u m e t h a t t h e t h e r m o s t a t is s e t a t 7 2 d e g r e e s . W h e n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e r o o m is lower t h a n 7 2 degrees, the thermostat feeds b a c k t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e furnace. T h e furnace then turns on auto39

back to the machine and compared with

One operator on the control panel can work the complicated operation of this steel plant.

The working of the thermostat is a typical example of closed control, or an operation with feedback. The three components HEATING ROOM TEMPERATURE THERMOSTAT are connected in such a way, that any change in one component causes a change in the other component. You will easily understand how important this is if you visualize the same example with no feedback, with open control: You could have a circuit where the outside temperature causes the start and closing of the furnace. In this case, the thermometer outside "informs" the thermostat of the temperature. The thermostat just as before, will start the furnace when the outside temperature reaches a certain point, and it will turn off the furnace when the outside temperature has reached a certain degree above the starting point. The actual room temperature however, will not be fed back to the thermostat. This means: If it is cold outside for a few weeks, the furnace will work, even if you are roasting in the room. CLOSED CONTROL matically. It remains on until the

thermostat feeds b a c k the information that the room temperature has reached 7 2 d e g r e e s . T h i s t u r n s t h e f u r n a c e off. Since this process goes on continuously, it is c a l l e d closed most automation control. Today, the e l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r is t h e " b r a i n s " of operations. It feeds back information to the machines that d o t h e w o r k just as t h e t h e r m o s t a t feeds OPEN CONTROL O U T D O O R T E M P E R A T U R E b a c k t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d a t a t o t h e furn a c e in o u r h e a t i n g systems. While automation m a y do away with Does automation put people out of work? m a n y skilled unor work who

semi-skilled j o b s , it will p r o v i d e m a n y n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s . T h e a g e of will n e e d h i g h l y t r a i n e d w o r k e r s automation

can maintain and repair automatic ma40

chines. It will also m a k e n e w p r o f e s s i o n s such as c o m p u t e r o p e r a t o r s a n d that 170,000 era of computer robots programmers. Industry forecasters predict programmers and electronic and will b e n e e d e d in t h e n e x t 10 y e a r s . The should b r a i n s , l i k e t h e m a c h i n e a g e b e f o r e it, bring increased leisure

h i g h e r s t a n d a r d s of l i v i n g f o r a l l . T h i s m e a n s m o r e p e o p l e will b e n e e d e d as teachers, librarians, hotel keepers, r o a d builders. H o w can you p r e p a r e for these f a r - r e a c h i n g effects? T h e a n s w e r is n o t n e w . T h e a n s w e r is t o s t a y i n s c h o o l as long as you can a n d learn as m u c h as possible while y o u are there.

We use the word "thermostat" so easily, and we talk about how intricate its operations are, but do you know how it actually works? It is a thermometer of sorts in the first place. Based on the fact that different metals expand and contract at different temperatures, most thermostats have, as the illustration shows you, a curved metal strip which consists of copper on one side and chromium steel on the other side. The strip curls over in one direction when the temperature rises, and in the other direction when the temperature falls, because of the fact that copper and steel react differently to the change of temperature. The curling in one direction will close a circuit and throw a switch that will start the furnace. The moving in the other direction will break the circuit and throw the switch to stop the furnace-

Automation

in

Action

I n o u r w o r l d of s p e e d a n d a d v a n c e d t e c h n o l o g y , a u t o m a t i o n is n o longer just the most m o d e r n or money-saving way to do a job. In m a n y i n s t a n c e s , it is f a s t b e c o m i n g t h e o n l y p r a c t i c a l w a y t h a t j o b s c a n b e d o n e .

Computers

and

robots'

mechanical

If y o u w e r e t o t r a v e l a g r e a t d e a l , esHow is automation used in transportation? pecially by lines, y o u dening airwould

How is automation used in communications? system. I n former essary to place

h a n d s a r e essential t o o u r country's telephone communication necwith This time. ma-

k n o w of t h e m a d mixups Once

times, it w a s calls

a n d delays t h a t c a n o c c u r in getting a reservation aboard an airplane. y o u k n o w h o w t h e s y s t e m w o r k s , it is n o t difficult t o s e e h o w t h i s c o u l d o c c u r . If y o u w a l k i n t o a n a i r l i n e t i c k e t office a n y w h e r e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d desire a March seat o n a N e w York to Los on Angeles plane leaving at 6 : 3 0 P M

telephone

a n operator who, in turn, h a d to contact the p a r t y y o u were calling. s o m e t i m e s t o o k a g r e a t d e a l of B u t n o w , w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e s e

chines, over half the telephone users in the U n i t e d States can dial long distance n u m b e r s directly. M e s s a g e accounting t a p e s m a k e it p o s s i b l e t o r e c o r d a u t o m a t i c a l l y t h e t i m e of a c a l l , h o w l o n g it lasted, t h e calling n u m b e r a n d the n u m ber called. Without automation, our system would probably telephone down. enough

19th, h o w does a ticket agent

k n o w if a s e a t is a v a i l a b l e ? T h e m a n u a l p r o c e d u r e f o r finding o u t is r a t h e r a w k w a r d . T h e a g e n t h a s to call a central r e s e r v a t i o n office, w h e r e t h e a v a i l a b l e seats are recorded on a large black-

break

b o a r d . If t h e r e is a s e a t a v a i l a b l e , h e m a k e s the sale a n d informs the person i n c h a r g e of i n v e n t o r y c o n t r o l , w h o t h e n changes the blackboard's figures. Anyo n e w h o h a s e v e r b e e n left h o l d i n g t h e b a g b e c a u s e 8 9 seats w e r e sold o n a 88s e a t p l a n e f o u n d o u t t h a t t h i s s y s t e m is n o t entirely reliable. W i t h m o r e t h a n 50 million people

E v e n if c o m p a n i e s c o u l d h i r e

operators and chances are they could n o t t h e c o s t of u s i n g a p h o n e w o u l d b e so h i g h t h a t m o s t families c o u l d n o t afford one. O t h e r f o r m s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s u c h as radio are using a u t o m a t i o n devices to s p e e d u p t h e i r s e r v i c e s . T h e P o s t Office D e p a r t m e n t is i n s t a l l i n g a u t o m a t e d p o s t offices that handle over Wi million p i e c e s of m a i l d a i l y . The first subway train without a motorman had its tryout not long ago in New York City.

a year using scheduled airlanes, autom a t i o n is b e c o m i n g e s s e n t i a l t o a s p e e d y m a n a g e m e n t of p l a n e r e s e r v a t i o n s . M o s t

I l l l

G H B H E

( ? C E " E F

Q O H - r j n

American Airlines Magnetronic Reservisor enables the reservation agent to obtain immediately all data on requested flight reservations and even a number of possibilities for alternate suggestions. of t h e m a j o r a i r l a n e s a r e a l r e a d y u s i n g special p u r p o s e c o m p u t e r s to d o the j o b or are planning t o install them. Simply, the automatic reservation that s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of a b o x l i k e d e v i c e c o n nected to a central memory unit transmits and records flight informa-

Automatic

controls

have

largely

rein

How is automation used in industry?

placed men various

indus-

tries in w h i c h a b r e a k i n t h e flow of p r o d u c t i o n w o u l d ruin the product. Petroleum a n d chemical plants final are now completely autosmall to matic, from the basic raw materials to p a c k a g i n g for shipment. A g r o u p of e n g i n e e r s is still r e q u i r e d trol room. T h e n e e d for faster, c h e a p e r production in modern mass industry has created the greatest d e m a n d for autom a t i o n . E v e n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of c o m p l i cated high-precision items can be done by automated machines, in one smooth a n d continuous operation. S o m e industries, such as those using a t o m i c energy, 43

tion. B y placing a metal plate into the b o x a n d p u s h i n g a c o u p l e of b u t t o n s , t h e t i c k e t a g e n t c a n g e t swift a n d a c curate information a b o u t seat reservat i o n s . T h e b o x is e v e n e q u i p p e d w i t h a lamp that flashes o n if t h e electronic b r a i n d e c i d e s t h a t t h e h u m a n b r a i n is processing the question incorrectly. T h e b u s lines a n d r a i l r o a d s a r e also using similar ticket reservation systems. S o m e railroad a n d s u b w a y lines a r e n o w replacing h u m a n engineers with matic robot engineers. auto-

check the operation from a central con-

The automatic control f] equipment belongs to an analogue computer for the world's first fully automatic system for making ice cream mix. It calculates ice cream formulae and converts the information to coded punch cards. These in turn are translated through a batch-blending system to direct the flow of raw products from storage to blending tanks. Wouldn't it be a shame if the "robot" would develop a taste for ice cream and eat it up before it reaches you?

When people hear what the "Ice Cream Robot" can do, they may picture something like the illustration at the right. Actually, the robot is handling all of the operations, only it does not look like a tin man, but like a calculating machine. must use automatic machinery because h u m a n s cannot w o r k too near the nuc l e a r r e a c t o r s o n a c c o u n t of t h e d a n gerous radiations that accompany s p l i t t i n g of a t o m s . Many a u t o m a t i c r o b o t devices are of n o w so c o m m o n in o u r e v e r y d a y lives that few people even t a k e notice 44 the t h e m . P u b l i c b u i l d i n g s h a v e self-service e l e v a t o r s ; s o m e of t h e s e e v e n u s e t a p e recorded messages to instruct passengers w h o hold u p their progress. Central heating, automatically regulated by the t h e r m o s t a t , is a n o t h e r e x a m p l e .

The underwater MOBOT can function much better than human beings at great undersea depth.

L o c a t i o n a n d r e c o v e r y of o b j e c t s l o s t in t h e oceans. Underwater operations associated

During the past decade there has been Can robots do tasks that man can not do? an increased interest in t h e sea as a n imp o r t a n t a r e a for military expansion T h u s , a growing need for generated. Typical of t h e by and

w i t h oil well c o m p l e t i o n . Underwater mining operations. Underwater construction operations. A t t a c h i n g fines, c l e v i s e s , s l i n g s , e t c . , t o u n d e r w a t e r objects. U n d e r w a t e r g e o l o g i c a l a n d scientific explorations. Underwater farming. A s shown in the illustrations here, M o b o t c a n b e a d o p t e d t o m a n y of t h e s e u n d e r s e a j o b s . T h i s r o b o t c a n see, i t c a n h e a r , it c a n feel, i t c a n o p e r a t e d r i l l s , cutting torches, wrenches and other s p e c i a l t o o l s ; it w i l l p r o c e e d t o a specific d e s t i n a t i o n , r e p o r t t o its o p e r a t o r , perf o r m its functions, d e a l w i t h e m e r g e n cies, c a r r y o u t a l t e r n a t e d e c i s i o n s a l l 45

as a source for food a n d r a w materials. performing operations properly c o m p l e x u n d e r w a t e r o p e r a t i o n s is b e i n g which can be performed selected r o b o t units are: I n s t a l l a t i o n a n d a d j u s t m e n t of u n d e r w a t e r detection devices. Operation, inspection and mainten a n c e of s u b m e r g e d e q u i p m e n t . Exploration and sampling the ocean environment.

A n y m a n w o u l d b e b o l d indeed t o atHow far can we go? t e m p t t o spell o u t t o d a y w h a t r o b o t s a n d electronic brains may some day accomplish. T h e r e can scarcely be any doubt, however, that machines are doing m o r e a n d m o r e things better than people. We have long since become it used to t h a t fact, especially w h e n

comes to machines that supply physical m u s c l e ; a m a n w i t h a s h o v e l is n o m a t c h for a bulldozer in a n earth-moving contest. W e a r e beginning, too, t o realize that m a n can be equally outclassed by machines that supply power ordinarily considered unique to the h u m a n brain; a n electronic computer m a y complete to a p r o b l e m i n a n h o u r o r t w o t h a t it Telemetry control panel is used to control the underwater Mobot on page 45. at the command of t h e o p e r a t o r on would take a mathematician years solve with p a p e r a n d pencil. But we must remember that a mac h i n e c a n o n l y d o w h a t it is s p e c i f i c a l l y p r o g r a m m e d t o d o . A t b e s t , it c a n n e v e r d o m o r e t h a n t h a t ; it m a y d o less, if it Telemetry is t h e term given to the b l o w s a f u s e o r r u n s o u t of g a s . W h e n it c o m e s t o j u d g m e n t , c o m m o n sense, or w h a t e v e r y o u w a n t t o c a l l it, t h e m a c h i n e is o u t of t h e r u n n i n g . I t is n o t b y s o m e c o i n c i d e n c e people cannot can do things that do, a n d vice versa. I t is, that of machines p r o c e s s of d e t e c t i n g a n d gathering information at o n e location a n d relayi n g it t o a n o t h e r Many common employ everyday spot automatically. that we For see exthe the seat, devices b o a r d a surface vessel.

What is telemetry?

telemetry.

ample, the temperature gauge on d a s h b o a r d of a n a u t o m o b i l e t e l l s driver, sitting in the car's front

course, the reason that m a n m a d e the m a c h i n e s i n t h e first p l a c e . H e h a r n e s s e d p o w e r t o extend his strength a n d of u n d e s i r a b l e , r e p e t i t i v e t a s k s . A s technological progress continues in t h e f u t u r e , p r e s u m a b l y m a c h i n e s will c o n t i n u e t o d o m o r e a n d m o r e of o u r c h o r e s , b u t o n l y a s t h e t o o l s of t h e h u m a n beings that use them. T h e raadevised a u t o m a t i c controls t o rid himself

a b o u t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i n a d i f f e r e n t location inside the auto's engine. W h e n mechanical r o b o t s are used for telem e t e r purposes, in addition t o gathering data, they can also d o actual work. W e are n o w employing t h e m for b o t h undersea a n d outer space tasks. 46

chines

will supply

brawn

and

brain

comics notwithstanding, machines

are

m u s c l e ; p e o p l e will s u p p l y t h e intelligence, foresight, tact, drive, a n d other h u m a n qualities n e e d e d t o r u n a business. Science fiction stories and horror

not going to take over the world. In the business world, machines without people are as worthless a n d helpless as a h a m m e r o r s c r e w d r i v e r i s w h e n t h e r e is n o h a n d t o g u i d e it.

C o m p u t e r ACCESS TIME. The time it takes your computer to find a fact in its memory storage . . . also the time to find the spot to store it in the first place. ADDRESS (noun). A designation numbers, letters, or both that indicates where a specific piece of information can be found in the memory storage. ADDRESS (verb). To call a specific piece of information from the memory or to put it in. ANALOG COMPUTER. A computer (or calculating device) that operates by translating numbers into measurable quantities such as voltages, resistances, rotations, or vice versa. ARITHMETIC SECTION. This is the part of the processing unit that does the adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and makes the logical decisions. BINARY DIGITS. The kind of numbers that computers use internally. There are only two binary digits, 1 and 0, otherwise known as "on" and "off." CHANNEL. One-way traffic roads for the flow of information bit-by-bit, or word-by-word, either into the computer or to and from the storage. CODING (noun). A system of symbols and rules that tell the computer how to handle information . . . where to get it, what to do with it, where to put it, where to go for the next step, etc. (See Program) COMMON LANGUAGE. A technique that reduces all information to a form that is intelligible to the units in a data-processing system. This enables the units of the computer to "talk" to one another. COMPARE. To check information alphabetical, numerical or symbolic against ostensibly related information in order to determine whether it is identical, larger or smaller, or in sequence.

Talk COMPUTER WORD. A series of l's and 0's that are grouped into units. These words are intelligible to the computer and represent alphabetic, numeric and special characters. CONTROL SECTION. Nerve center of the electronic brain. It prescribes a chain of instructions (a program) for every bundle of facts that enters the system. It can send for stored data when it is needed during the program. It can examine the results of any step to select the following step or steps. When one bundle of facts has been processed, the control section usually issues orders to start all over again with the next one. DATA REDUCTION. The computer job of bringing large masses of raw data down to its simplest form, and organizing it in an ordered and useful manner. DIGITAL COMPUTER. A computer (or calculating device) that operates by using numbers to express all the quantities and variables of a problem. In most digital computers, the numbers, in turn, are expressed by electrical or electronic impulses. INPUT. Computer fodder in the form of bundles of new facts. INPUT-OUTPUT DEVICE. A unit that accepts new data, sends it into the computer for processing, receives the results and converts them into a usable form, like payroll checks, or bills. INPUT STORAGE. First stop for incoming information. Picks it up so that bundles of information can get into the system without waiting for the previous ones to come out the other end. Enables consecutive bundles to be compared with each other. INTERMEDIATE STORAGE. A sort of electronic scratch pad. As input is turned into 47

output, it usually goes through a series of changes. The intermediate memory storage holds each of the successive changes just as long as it is needed. INQUIRY UNIT. A device used to "talk" to the computer, usually to get quick answers to random questions like, "How many hammers do we have in stock?" or "When did we last order soap powder and in what quantity?" INSTRUCTION. A coded program step that tells the computer what to do for a single operation in a program. LOGICAL CHOICE. Making the correct deci^ sions where alternatives or even a variety of possibilities are open . . . whether to debit or credit. . . whether or not to issue a replacement order. MEMORY STORAGE. The computer's filing system. It holds standard or current facts such as rate tables, current inventories, balances, etc., and sometimes programming instructions. The memory storage can be internal, that is, a part of the computer itself, such as drums, cores or thin-film. It can also be external such as paper tape, magnetic tape or punched cards. MAGNETIC CORE STORAGE. A type of computer storage that employs a core of magnetic material, wound around with wire. The core can be charged to represent a binary 1 or 0. It provides for very fast access to and from system storage. MAGNETIC DRUM STORAGE. A metal cylinder, with a sensitized surface, which spins inside a jacket with reading-writing heads, address of every bit of data on the drum is known, so it is merely a matter of dropping it into its "cubbyhole" or fishing it out as it passes under the right head. 1 MAGNETIC TAPE STORAGE. Reels of metallic or plastic tape with sensitized surface. Much like paper tape, except, that instead of punchin

a hole, you charge up a spot. Data can be read, erased, entered or replaced by recording heads. Data is usually entered in sequence so that your computer handles the facts in logical order at breakneck speed. OUTPUT. Computer results such as answers to mathematical problems, statistical, analytical or accounting figures, production schedules . . . whatever you may desire. OUTPUT DEVICE. The unit that translates computer results into usable or final form. (See Input-Output Device) PRINTER. An output device for spelling out computer results as numbers, words or symbols. PROCESSING SECTION. The unit that does the actual changing of input into output. . . includes arithmetic section and intermediate storage. PROGRAM (noun). A set of instructions or steps that tells the computer exactly how to handle a complete problem whatever it is. Most programs include alternate steps or routines to take care of variations. Generally, program steps form a complete cycle. Each incoming bundle of facts (unit of information) sets off the whole cycle from start to finish; the succeeding unit sets it off again and so forth. PROGRAM (verb). To plan the whole operation from input to output and set the control section to handle it. PROGRAMMER. Person who arranges the program. REAL-TIME. A method of processing data so fast that there is virtually no passage of time uiry and result. REGISTER. A device in which information is placed for storage or other purposes. STORED PROGRAM. A set of instructions in the memory section that can run the computer or cut in to take over from the regular program when the occasion arises. Often used for alterutines.

Author's Note: I would like to thank the various manufacturers, especially the Sperry Rand Corporation, Hughes Aircraft Company, Lockheed California Company, International Business Machine Corporation, Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company, Humble Oil & Refining Company, and the Raytheon Company, who furnished a great deal of the technical information and photographs that have appeared in this book.

The robots on the title page are automatons built by General Electric for the World's Fair in New York in 1939. Operated by electronics, Electro could say 77 words and Sparko could bark.

48

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WHY

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