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INTO THE FOREST - SPECIAL ISSUE The New Scientist, 21 September 1 !, "#$ 1%1 N# 2&'(, pp 2!

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The Amazon
A *ew +e,rs ,-#, , .r,/i$i,n ,-r#n#mist, sittin- ,t Nee0$ess t# s,+, the ,-r#n#mist 0i0 n#t st#p there b3t his 0es1 in the 2inistr+ #* A-ric3$t3re in .r,si$i,, went #n t# c#mp,re .r,/i$9s, tre,tment #* its n,ti=e sp#1e t# #ne #* #3r c#rresp#n0ents th3s4 pe#p$es with the s$,3-hter #* the n,ti=e Americ,ns in the US, .3t th,t is ,n#ther st#r+7 The 1e+ ?3esti#n is 5A science 6#3rn,$ist7 I e8pect +#39re 63st $i1e the whether tire ,-r#n#mist w,s ri-ht7 Hist#r+ h,s scientists ,n0 the b3re,3cr,ts *r#m the :#r$0 .,n1 *,=#3re0 the temper,te re-i#ns7 C#3$0 the *3t3re $ie wh# c#me here7 ;#3 ,re ,$$ in .r,/i$ t# tr+ t# st#p 3s with the tr#pics@ e8p$#itin- the we,$th #* the Am,/#n7 :h,t ,rr#-,nce< ;#39=e ,$re,0+ 0estr#+e0 ,$$ the *#rests in The ,-r#n#mist9s c#mp$,ints c,nn#t be e,si$+ +#3r #wn n,ti#ns ,n0 s# +#3 c#me ,n0 $ect3re 3s i-n#re07 It is tr3e th,t we h,=e 0estr#+e0 #3r #wn *#rests7 it is tr3e th,t the in=estment in tr#pic,$ ,b#3t the en=ir#nment<> ,-ric3$t3re h,s been min3sc3$e in c#mp,ris#n with 5F#r #nce, $et me -i=e +#3 , $ect3re, Let me tr+ th,t in temper,te ,-ric3$t3re7 An0 it is tr3e th,t m,n+ #* the ,re,s we n#w *,rm s# pr#03cti=e$+ were #nce te$$in- +#3 , st#r+ th,t mi-ht m,1e +#3 thin17> written #** ,s b,rren7 In the 1()&s, $#c,$ hist#ri,ns 5Im,-ine th,t the hist#r+ #* the w#r$0 h,0 been rec#r0 th,t the pr,irie in I#w, w,s seen ,s Aw#rth$ess 0i**erent7 Im,-ine th,t the Ren,iss,nce, the e8p$#si#n *#r the p3rp#ses #* ,-ric3$t3reA7 On$+ the #* scienti*ic 1n#w$e0-e ,n0 the ,-ric3$t3r,$ 0e=e$#pment #* m,ssi=e Abre,1in- p$#3-hsA t3rne0 re=#$3ti#n h,0 n#t t,1en p$,ce in E3r#pe b3t in #ne I#w, int# , bre,0b,s1et7 #* the tr#pic,$ C#3ntries7 Im,-ine th,t the m,n+ cent3ries #* e8periment,ti#n th,t +#3r scientists, It is tr3e ,$s# th,t temper,te ,-ric3$t3re is *,rmers ,n0 bree0ers h,=e p3t int# ,-ric3$t3re *#r 3n0erpinne0 b+ m,ssi=e ,0=,nces in science ,n0 temper,te re-i#n h,0 inste,0 -#ne int# 0e=e$#pin- techn#$#-+4 *erti$isers, herbici0es, pestici0es, *,rm ,-ric3$t3re *#r tr#pic,$ re-i#ns7 The Am,/#n w#3$0 =ehic$es, -r,in c,rriers, ,n0 -enetic impr#=ements t# n#w be the bre,0b,s1et #* the w#r$0 ,n0 .r,/i$ the p$,nts ,n0 ,nim,$s7 N#ne #* this e**#rt h,s been m,0e in the tr#pics7 richest c#3ntr+ #n E,rth7> 5Inste,0 #* +#3r ec#$#-ists c#min- here with their r#m,ntic n#nsense, it is #3r ec#$#-ists th,t w#3$0 be h,n0in- #3t 3nw,nte0 ,0=ice7 :e90 =isit the =,st pr,iries #* the Unite0 St,tes, $i1e +#3 =isit the Am,/#n, ,n0 te$$ +#3 th,t there w,s n# ch,nce #* e=er b3i$0in- *,rms there, th,t the winters were t## h,r0 ,n0 th,t there were n#t en#3-h n3trients in the s#i$ t# s3pp#rt re-3$,r h,r=estin-7 :e90 te$$ +#3 th,t +#3r #n$+ h#pe w,s t# $e,rn *r#m the n,ti=e In0i,ns7 ;#3 sh#3$0 $e,=e the Pr,iries t# -r,ss ,n0 e,ch +e,r, 63st h3nt , n3mber #* b3**,$# -3i0e0 b+ strict ec#$#-ic,$ princip$es7 :e90 te$$ +#3 th,t t# tr+ ,n+thin- 0i**erent w#3$0 0estr#+ the ec#s+stem *#r e=er7> B#es tr#pic,$ ,-ric3$t3re re,$$+ st,n0 where temper,te ,-ric3$t3re st##0 tw# cent3ries7 C#3$0 the Am,/#n en0 3p $i1e I#w, #ne 0,+, , =,st p,tchw#r1 #* ne,t *ie$0sC :ith this heres+ in min0, ,n0 b3rnin- 0esire t# *in0 s#me ,nswers tw# #* New Scientist9s rep#rters set #** *#r S#3th Americ, this D3$+7 The+ went t# ,s1 three ?3esti#ns4 17 First, c#3$0 the r,in*#rest #* the Am,/#n e=er be c$e,re0 t# cre,te , hi-h$+ pr#03cti=e ,-ric3$t3r,$ re-i#n $i1e I#w, ,n0, i* s#, wh,t cr#ps mi-ht be -r#win- there@

5;es, i* hist#r+ h,0 been , $itt$e 0i**erent, th,t9s h#w 27 Sec#n0, h#w 0i0 the Am,/#n r,in*#rest e=er -et t# it w#3$0 h,=e t3rne0 #3t7 :e90 h,=e been pr#=i0inhe the w,+ it is n#w, the m#st c#mp$e8 the st3pi0 ,0=ice7 :e9re n#t -#in- t# $isten ,n0 were ec#s+stem #n E,rth@ -#in- t# 0e=e$#p the Am,/#n7>

)7 An0 thir0, i* it were c$e,re0 *#r ,-ric3$t3re, h#w p,th between s#,rin- tr3n1s7 There is , w##0+ sme$$ m3ch 0# we 1n#w ,b#3t the ec#$#-ic,$ c#n0iti#ns #* sweet m3$ch, -ent$+ 0ec#mp#sin-7 Hi-h ,b#=e 3s m,c,ws ,re screechin-7 Ne,rb+, , p,$e br#wn nee0e0 t# c#nser=e its p$,nts ,n0 ,nim,$s@ ,nte,ter whi**$es its w,+ 3p , +#3n- tree7 An0 , h3-e A$$ three ,nswers were s3rprisin-7 The re-i#n c#3$0 2#rph# b3tter*$+, its win-s ,n ,st#nishin-, =i=i0 we$$ be 3se0 *#r pr#03cti=e ,-ric3$t3re, 0espite wh,t b$3e, *$ies int# #3r *,ces be*#re 0is,ppe,rin- int# the en=ir#nment,$ists s,+7 Its ,m,/in- 0i=ersit+ m,+ trees7 h,=e been cre,te0 *#r the $,st re,s#n7 ;#3 e8pect in , Ar,inA *#rest7 An0 c#nser=in- the 0i=ersit+ #* the The hi1e is -r3e$$in-, the h3mi0it+ h,r0 t# *i-ht7 It Am,/#n m,+ re?3ire ec#$#-+ t# write , *ew new t,1es ,n h#3r ,n0 , h,$*, w,0in- thr#3-h sw#$$en stre,ms, str3--$in- ,cr#ss 0,mp, m#ss+ $#- bri0-es princip$es7 ,n0 *,$$en tr3n1s, be*#re we emer-e, b$in1in-, ,t the *##t #* , steep hi$$ $e,0in- int# ,n #pen *ie$07 F#r the *3$$ st#r+, re,0 #n7

SLASH AND GROW


C#3$0 the Am,/#n r,in*#rest e=er bec#me , bre,0b,s1et *#r the w#r$0@ E,brie$$e :,$1er t,$1e0 t# rese,rchers wh# ,re he$pin- *,rmers t# bre,1 #3t #* the =ici#3s c+c$e #* s$,sh ,n0 b3rn int# s#methinm#re pr#03cti=e It9s se=en in the m#rnin- #n the C,pim ri=er7 .+ Am,/#ni,n st,n0,r0s, the C,pim is sm,$$, *$#win63st , *ew h3n0re0 1i$#metres thr#3-h the *#rest 3nti$ it re,ches the At$,ntic cit+ #* .e$Fm7 .3t with s# *ew r#,0s in Am,/#ni,, ri=ers $i1e this ,re #*ten the #n$+ ?3ic1 w,+ t# tr,=e$ int# the interi#r7 :e ,re #n , sm,$$ b#,t with , p#wer*3$ #3tb#,r0 en-ine, m,1in- , -##0 ten 1n#ts7 Tw# h#3rs ,*ter we ,b,n0#ne0 the re0 0irt r#,0 *#r the b#,t, we ,re *in,$$+ ,ppr#,chin- the *irst #* #3r 0estin,ti#ns7

S# this is , s$,sh-,n0-b3rn *,rm7 The c#ntr,st with the *#rest c#3$0 h,r0$+ be m#re 0r,m,tic7 ",st, b$,c1ene0 tree tr3n1s ,re sc,ttere0 ,cr#ss , h3-e *ie$0, stretchin- h,$* , 1i$#metre int# the 0ist,nce7 The tr3n1s $ie h,ph,/,r0$+ where the+ were *e$$e0 ,n0 b3rnt7 Am#n- them str,w -c#$#3re0 m,i/e ,n0 the -reen sh##ts #* +#3n- c,ss,=, p$,nts ,re -r#win-7 As we pic1 #3r w,+ between the tr3n1s in the n#w se,rin- he,t, Nepst,0 s,+s th,t e,ch sm,$$-h#$0er c3ts ,n0 b3rns , hect,re #r tw# #* *#rest e=er+ +e,r t# -r#w cr#ps7 The en#rmit+ #* the e**#rt nee0e0 t# cre,te this *ie$0 is e=en m#re ,we-inspirin- th,n the 0estr3cti#n #* the *#rest7 :e cr#ss the *ie$0 ,n0 he,0 0#wn ,-,in int# the *#rest, t# ,n#ther sw#$$en stre,m7 A *ew min3tes thr#3-h the trees b+ 03-#3t c,n#e, ,n0 we re,ch the h#me #* #ne #* the )&& #r s# *,rmers wh# $i=e in this re-i#n7 B#n, 2,$=in, -reets 3s7 She9s 0#wn b+ the w,ter9s e0-e, s#,1in- p,$e white c,ss,=, r##ts t# rem#=e t#8ins *r#m them7 :e c$imb ,n#ther steep hi$$si0e, where she sh#ws 3s her h3t7 It is #pen #n ,$$ si0es with bri-ht$+ c#$#3re0 h,mm#c1s ne,t$+ tie0 b,c1 *#r the 0,+time7 It9s here th,t the r##ts h,=e t# be h3s1e0, p#3n0e0 in , $#n- w##0en trest$e ,n0 r#,ste0 be*#re the *$#3r c,n be t,1en t# m,r1et ,n0 s#$07

Onb#,r0 ,re C,ssi# Pereir,, ,n ,-r#n#mist *r#m the in0epen0ent en=ir#nment,$ rese,rch instit3te IPA2 in .e$Fm ,n0 ec#$#-ist B,n Nepst,0 *r#m the :##0s H#$e Rese,rch Center in 2,ss,ch3setts7 :e ,re -#in- t# se=er,$ sm,$$ *,rms in the mi00$e #* the *#rest, ne,r the tin+ ri=ersi0e sett$ement #* C#mm3nic,0e N,/,rF7 Pereir, ,n0 Nepst,0 ,re w#r1in- with p##r *,rmers *r#m the sett$ement #n new techni?3es th,t mi-ht m,1e their ,-ric3$t3re Li*e here is c$e,r$+ h,r07 .3t wh+@ :hen the Eerm,n m3ch m#re pr#03cti=e7 e8p$#rer A$e8,n0er =#n H3mb#$0t =isite0 the :e ,rri=e ,t , sm,$$ 6ett+ 63st ,s the m#rnin- he,t #3t Am,/#n in the $,st cent3r+, he w,s str3c1 b+ the #n the ri=er bec#mes 3nbe,r,b$e7 A sh#rt, steep c$imb *erti$it+ #* the *#rest ,n0 c#n=ince0 th,t it c#3$0 3p the b,n1 ,n0, s#,1e0 in swe,t, we enter the e,si$+ bec#me , bre,0 b,s1et *#r the w#r$07 It9s r,in*#rest7 S300en$+ the =i#$ent s3nshine h,s -#ne7 It #b=i#3s wh+7 The *#rest trees -r#w t# ,st#nishinhei-hts -%& metres ,n0 m#re- ,n0 i* #ne t#pp$es, is 0,r1 ,n0 h3mi07 bre,1in- #pen the 0ense c,n#p+ ,n0 $ettin- $i-ht S3rprisin-$+, there is ,$m#st n# 3n0er-r#wth -b3t thr#3-h, the see0$in-s spr#3tin- *r#m the *#rest *$##r ,pp,rent$+ this is n#rm,$7 The $,+ers #* c,n#p+ ,b#=e c,n t,1e #n$+ , +e,r #r tw# t# re,ch se=er,$ metres7 ste,$ ,$$ the s3n$i-ht, $e,=in- $itt$e t# s3pp#rt =i-#r#3s -r#wth ,t -r#3n0 $e=e$7 Inste,0 #* h,=in- t# .3t ,ppe,r,nces ,re 0ecepti=e7 In the sh#rt-term ,t *i-ht #3r w,+ thr#3-h 63n-$e, we *#$$#w , we,=in- $e,st, s,+s Nepst,0, ,-ric3$t3r,$ cr#ps ,re m3ch

h3n-rier *#r n3trients th,n the trees7 T# -r#w cr#ps, the *,rmers h,=e t# c3t ,n0 b3rn new ,re,s #* *#rest e=er+ +e,r t# pr#=i0e m#re n3trients *#r the s#i$7 Once the cr#ps ,re -r#wn, n3trient $e=e$s 0r#p, wee0s t,1e #=er ,n0 the *,rmers ,re *#rce0 t# m#=e #n7 This re$ent$ess e**#rt me,ns th,t the *,rmers h#pe *#r $itt$e m#re th,n s3r=i=,$7 T# impr#=e their $#t, the *irst step is t# *in0 w,+s t# pr#03ce m#re *##0 *#r the s,me ,m#3nt #* $,b#3r7 The rese,rch te,m here ,re e8perimentin- with enrichin- the s#i$s b+ p$,ntin$e-3min#3s -r#3n0 c#=er t# s3pp$+ nitr#-en, *#r inst,nce, ,n0 t# he$p c#ntr#$ the wee0s s# the *,rmers c,n 3se their *ie$0s +e,r ,*ter +e,r7 Pereir, estim,tes th,t their new ,ppr#,ches h,=e -,ine0 the *,rmers , )& per cent hi-her +ie$0 #* c,ss,=, ,n0 rice *#r their $,b#3r7 Slender thread

it is sti$$ h,r0 t# see h#w the s$,sh-,n0-b3rn c+c$e wi$$ e=er be ,n+thin- b3t 0estr3cti=e #n $#n-er timesc,$es7 AD3st 3sin- the *#rest ,s , s#3rce #* c,rb#n ,n0 n3trients *#r the s#i$ is , w,ste7 It9s t## m3ch $i1e minin- wh,t c#3$0 be , renew,b$e res#3rce7A Nepst,0 sees his pr#6ect ,s , w,+ #* -i=in- the sm,$$h#$0ers en#3-h bre,thin- sp,ce s# th,t the+ c,n w#r1 t#w,r0 , tr3$+ pr#*it,b$e ,n0 s3st,in,b$e w,+ #* w#r1in- the *#rest-*#r inst,nce b+ e8p$#itin- ,n0 c,re*3$$+ m,n,-in- it *#r timber7 Pr#per$+ $##1e0 ,*ter, he s,+s, , $#--e0 *#rest c#3$0 pr#=i0e ,n initi,$ s#3rce #* c,pit,$ *#r the *,rmers, whi$e m,int,ininthe we,$th ,n0 res#3rces #* the *#rest *#r *3t3re -ener,ti#ns7

Nepst,0 ,0mits th,t this be$ie* p,rt$+ c#mes *r#m his c,pti=,ti#n with the *#rest7 A;#3 -et em#ti#n,$$+ ,tt,che0 t# it,A he s,+s7 AIt9s , thri$$ t# w,$1 thr#3-h .etter sti$$, Nepst,0 s,+s, w#3$0 be t# c3$ti=,te *##0 it7 It9s ,$m#st ,s i* it h,s , s#3$7A .3t the i0e, th,t the *r#m trees-with mi$$i#ns #* +e,rs #* e=#$3ti#n 3n0er re,$ *3t3re #* the Am,/#n 0epen0s #n trees n#t cr#ps their be$t, it9s trees th,t -r#w best here7 .3t since wi$$ s##n be rein*#rce07 s3r=i=,$ h,n-s b+ s3ch , s$en0er thre,0, there seems $itt$e r##m *#r the $#n--term in=estment necess,r+ *#r Tw# 0,+s $,ter, ,n0 se=er,$ h#3rs b+ b#,t ,n0 6eep t# 0e=e$#pin- ,n ,-ric3$t3re b,se0 #n trees7 the n#rth, #** the .e$Fm-.r,si$i, hi-hw,+, the ne8t st#p is the G#n, .r,-,ntine with H#nr,0 "ie$h,3er, AIt9s s# h,r0 t# ,s1 these pe#p$e t# in=est $,b#3r *#r #ne #* the c#-#r0in,t#rs #* , 6#int .r,/i$i,nIEerm,n *i=e +e,rs with n# ret3rn,A s,+s Nepst,07 S3re there pr#6ect t# in=esti-,te h#w t# intensi*+ s$,sh-,n0-b3rn ,re *r3it ,n0 n3t trees ,$re,0+ there in the *#rest, he ,-ric3$t3re7 As we b3mp #3r w,+ ,$#n- the 3np,=e0 s,+s, b3t the+ ,re s# wi0e$+ sc,ttere0 th,t ,n+thin- #chre r#,0, he e8p$,ins wh+ ,-ric3$t3re is s# h,r0 be+#n0 h#3seh#$0 c#ns3mpti#n is =irt3,$$+ here in spite #* the ,pp,rent *erti$it+ #* the *#rest7 imp#ssib$e7 A;#3 s,w wh,t we went thr#3-h t# -et here7 T# -et *#rest *r3its, which c,n be *r#m #ne tree The pr#b$em, he s,+s, $ies with the Am,/#ni,n s#i$s7 per hect,re, h,r=este0 ,n0 t# m,r1et within '( h#3rs It9s , c#mbin,ti#n #* the -re,t st,bi$it+ #* tr#pic,$ w#3$0 be =er+ h,r07A An0 3n$i1e st,p$e *##0s $i1e c$im,tes #=er m,n+ mi$$i#ns #* +e,rs, ,n0 the hi-h c,ss,=,, *r3its ,re n#t#ri#3s$+ =3$ner,b$e t# p#p3$,r temper,t3res ,n0 e8tr,#r0in,r+ r,in*,$$7 P3t these whim, ,n0 t# price *$3ct3,ti#ns, m,1in- them e=en *,ct#rs t#-ether ,n0 the res3$t is s#i$s th,t h,=e been m#re #* , -,mb$e *#r h,r0-presse0 *,rmers7 we,there0 ,$m#st t# 0e,th-wh,t st,rte0 #** ,s n3trient-rich miner,$s ,re n#w s,n0 ,n0 c$,+7 The Th,t ni-ht we ret3rn t# #3r b,se, , c#$$ecti#n #* h3ts *#rest c,n c#pe bec,3se the trees ,re ,0,pte0 t# 0e,$ b,c1 ,cr#ss the ri=er, where the *,rmers ret3rn *r#m with $#w n3trient c#ncentr,ti#ns7 .3t ,nn3,$ cr#ps their *,rms ,t wee1en0s7 E=en here it9s *#3r h#3rs b+ s3ch ,s c#rn ,n0 rice ,re , 0i**erent m,tter7 spee0b#,t ,n0 *#3r-whee$ 0ri=e t# the ne,rest $,r-e t#wn7 .+ 0,+, it is 03st+ ,n0 3nc#m*#rt,b$e, b3t it9s , Th,t9s wh+ the+ nee0 the n3trients *r#m b3rnin-7 .3t m,-ic,$ p$,ce b+ ni-ht7 O3tsi0e the st3r0+ C,th#$ic the pr#6ect h,s 0isc#=ere0 th,t it9s , spect,c3$,r$+ ch3rch in the h#t he,=+ ,ir, h,$*-0e,*ene0 b+ the ine**icient pr#cess bec,3se $,r-e ,m#3nts #* the cric1ets ,n0 *r#-s, *ire*$ies *$ic1er their c#0e0 n3trients st#re0 in the trees simp$+ -# 3p in sm#1e7 mess,-es, m##n$i-ht p$,+s #n the ri=er ,n0 in the AThe b3rnin- is ,n ,bs#$3te 0is,ster7 :e h,=e t# 0ist,nce, $i-htnin- *#r1s #=er the -re+--reen *#rest7 rep$,ce it,A s,+s "ie$h,3er7 :#rse, c$,+ s#i$s ,re =er+ b,0 ,t h,n-in- #nt# n3trients, s# the bi#$#-ic,$$+ It9s here #n the ch3rch steps th,t Nepst,0 e8p,n0s , ,=,i$,b$e n3trients $ie ,$m#st e8c$3si=e$+ in the $itt$e #n the e,r$ier c#n=ers,ti#n7 His bi--est c#ncern, #r-,nic p,rt #* the s#i$7 he s,+s, is t# *in0 w,+s t# m,1e the ,-ric3$t3re e,sier ,n0 m#re s3st,in,b$e, , sh#rt ,n0 me0i3m-term This is *ine *#r the *#rest, he s,+s, bec,3se there is ,n s#$3ti#n t# the 0esper,te p#=ert+ #* the sm,$$h#$0ers e**icient rec+c$in- s+stem7 AIt $i=es *r#m its #wn Pr#$#n-in- the pr#03cti=it+ #* e,ch hect,re he$ps, b3t $itter7A Or-,nic m,tter s3ch ,s $e,=es, she0 *r#m the

trees, is inst,nt$+ sei/e0 ,n0 c#ns3me0 b+ the =,st ,rm+ #* s#i$ bi#t,, with the n3trients *e0 ?3ic1$+ ,n0 e**icient$+ b,c1 int# the s#i$7 The *#rest cert,in$+ h,s ,n ,ir #* c#nspic3#3s c#ns3mpti#n7 E=en the see0$in-s ,n0 herbs #n the *#rest *$##r ,re insectr,=,-e0, ,n0 ,t ni-ht the *$##r -$#ws ,s $3min#3s *3n-i 0e=#3r 0e,0 $e,=es7

.3t in re-i#ns $i1e this #ne, where there ,re re,s#n,b$e r#,0s, *,rmin- h,s been -#in- #n *#r se=er,$ -ener,ti#ns ,n0 =ir-in *#rest is n#w sc,rce7 As the p#p3$,ti#n incre,ses ,n0 press3re #n the $,n0 intensi*ies, it bec#mes necess,r+ t# c3t +#3n-er ,n0 +#3n-er *,$$#w c#nt,inin- *ewer ,n0 *ewer n3trients It9s , =ici#3s c+c$e, "ie$h,3er s,+s, b$ee0in- the s#i$s C3ttin- the trees, h#we=er, rem#=es the s3pp$+ #* #* their n3trients ,n0 $e,0in- e=ent3,$$+ t# $itter7 An0, s,+s "ie$h,3er, it ,$s# $ets in he,t ,n0 irre=ersib$e 0,m,-e7 $i-ht which 0r,m,tic,$$+ ,cce$er,te the ,cti=it+ #* the s#i$ bi#t,, m,1in- them c#ns3me the n3trients ,t , One ,$tern,ti=e is t# m,n,-e the *,$$#w7 R,ther th,n *r,ntic p,ce7 AA*ter the re,$ *ire c#mes the bi#$#-ic,$ $e,=e it t# its #wn 0e=ices, p$,ntin- cert,in trees wi$$ *ire7 It9s 63st bre,thin- e=er+thin- ,w,+ int# the spee0 3p the rec#=er+7 "ie$h,3er p#ints #3t , p$#t ,tm#sphere7A where *i=e-+e,r #$0 An,t3r,$A *,$$#w w,s c3t, b3rnt ,n0 p$,nte0 with c,ss,=, ,n0 m,i/e7 A*ter S# is there , s#$3ti#n t# this pr#b$em@ F#rt+ min3tes h,r=estin-, the rese,rchers $e*t the p$#t *,$$#w *#r tw# $,ter, #3r tr3c1 p3$$s 3p ,t , *,rm h#3sin- se=er,$ #* m#re +e,rs7 In #ne secti#n the+ p$,nte0 , $e-3min#3s "ie$h,3er9s e8periment,$ p$#ts7 On #ne p$#t the ,c,ci,7 rese,rchers s$,she0 ,n0 b3rnt, ,n0 #n ,n#ther the+ simp$+ ch#ppe0 the trees int# , m3$ch t# c#=er the Tw# +e,rs $,ter, the+ c3t ,n0 p$,nte0 ,-,in7 :hen s#i$7 Usin- the m3$ch me,ns th,t the s#i$ sh#3$0 b#th the+ c3t, there w,s ,s m3ch bi#m,ss ,*ter tw# +e,rs be pr#tecte0 ,n0 en0 3p c#nt,inin- =irt3,$$+ ,$$ the in the ,c,ci,-enriche0 p$#t ,s there w,s in , se=entree n3trients7 It9s t## e,r$+ t# s,+ whether it wi$$ +e,r #$0 *,$$#w th,t w,s $e*t ,s , c#ntr#$7 The ,c,ci, w#r1 b3t the s#i$ bene,th the m3$ch is cert,in$+ c##$ st3mps ,re cert,in$+ impressi=e-0i,meters #* 1& #r ,n0 m#ist e=en th#3-h it9s )1 JC7 1% centimetres in 63st tw# +e,rs7 :h,t9s m#re, the rese,rchers ,$s# trie0 m3$chin- r,ther th,n b3rnin- in A richer fallow p,rt #* the p$#t7 The b$,c1ene0, b3rnt st3mps ,re 0e,0 ,n0 r#ttin-, b3t the 3nb3rnt st3mps in the Ont# the ne8t *,rm, ,n0 ,n#ther ,spect #* the 0ri=e t# m3$che0 secti#n h,=e ,$re,0+ be-3n t# spr#3t ,-,in intensi*+ *,rmin-4 ,rti*ici,$$+ enrichin- the *,$$#w7 --i=in- , 1ic1-st,rt t# the ne8t $#t #* *,$$#w7 :hen the *ie$0s r3n #3t #* n3trients ,n0 ,re ,b,n0#ne0 ,*ter , +e,r #r tw# -r#win- cr#ps, trees The rese,rchers ,re n#w me,s3rin- the s#i$ chemistr+ ,n0 shr3bs sprin- b,c1 3p ,t wh,t seems ,n ,n0 n3trient $e=e$s t# see e8,ct$+ wh,t 0i**erence the ,st#nishin- r,te -i=en the p#=ert+ #* the s#i$s7 ,c,ci, ,n0 the m3$chin- h,=e m,0e, ,n0 the+ ,re ,$s# Th#3-h this *,$$#w =e-et,ti#n is m,in$+ c#mp#se0 #* #n the p#int #* h,r=estin- the m,i/e ,n0 c,ss,=, t# #pp#rt3nistic species s3ch ,s =#r,ci#3s, spin0$+ chec1 the +ie$0s7 .3t b+ e+e the h,r=ests $##1 -##0, Cecropia, it is sti$$ =er+ e**icient ,t *ee0in- n3trients ,n0 the new ,ppr#,ches pr#misin-7 b,c1 int# the s#i$7 Ne8t st#p 2,n,3s, , cit+ #* ,r#3n0 17% mi$$i#n As we$$ ,s #r-,nic m,tter *r#m $e,* $itter, $e-3min#3s pe#p$e sm,c1 in the mi00$e #* the Am,/#n b,sin7 trees *i8 nitr#-en *r#m the ,ir ,n0 ,bs#rb s#i$ Ec#$#-ist Ant#ni# N#bre, ,t INPA, .r,/i$9s n,ti#n,$ n3trients thr#3-h their r##ts, which ,re 0eeper th,n instit3te *#r Am,/#n rese,rch, m,+ h,=e s#me cr#p r##ts7 The+ c,n ,$s# see1 #3t s#3rces #* ,nswers7 N#bre9s ,-en0, is n#t h,r0 t# -,3-e4 he is ph#sph#r#3s th,t ,re in,ccessib$e t# the sh,$$#w- p,ssi#n,te ,b#3t preser=in- the *#rest7 Bri=inr##te0 cr#ps7 E=ent3,$$+, ,*ter se=er,$ +e,rs, the thr#3-h the b3s+ 2,n,3s streets, he e8p$#0es in *3r+ *,$$#w *#rest h,s st#re0 s3bst,nti,$ ,m#3nts #* ,t the i0e, #* 0estr#+in- the *#rest, b#th h,n0s n3trients in its $e,=es, b,r1 ,n0 br,nches, ,n0 c,n be spen0in- m3ch m#re time -estic3$,tin- th,n the+ 0# s$,she0 ,n0 b3rnt ,-,in7 #n the steerin- whee$7 An0 he is e?3,$$+ p,ssi#n,te ,b#3t the pr#spects *#r ,-ric3$t3re in the Am,/#n7 .,c1 #n the C,pim ri=er, the *,rmers ,re twice ,s The mess,-e4 ,-ric3$t3re here is 0##me0 3n$ess it is $i1e$+ t# c3t =ir-in *#rest ,s sec#n0,r+, *,$$#w b,se0 in ,n ec#$#-ic,$ *r,mew#r17 =e-et,ti#n7 Th#3-h it9s h,r0er t# c3t the bi--er trees, m#re n3trients ,re re$e,se0 *r#m the =ir-in *#rest F#r +e,rs, he s,+s, ,-r#n#mists h,=e c#me t# the which m,1es *#r better h,r=ests7 Am,/#n 0etermine0 t# A#=erc#meA n,t3re7 P,rt$+, he s,+s, th,t ,ttit30e c#mes *r#m ,-r#n#mists wh# ,re Mulch magic m#re *,mi$i,r with temper,te re-i#ns where there9s ,

winter e=er+ +e,r t# 1i$$ #r c#ntr#$ pests, ,n0 where the we,$th #* the s+stem is in the s#i$ n#t in the =e-et,ti#n7 There, ,$$ +#3 nee0 t# 0# is c3t 0#wn the =e-et,ti#n w#r1 #n the s#i$ ,n0 cre,te ,n ,rti*ici,$ m#n#c3$t3r,$ ec#s+stem th,t w#3$0 ne=er h,=e e=#$=e0 there n,t3r,$$+7

There ,re ,$s# bene*its t# be h,0 *r#m mi8in- the species #* trees, ,s the *#rest 0#es7 Bi**erent $e,=es 0ec#mp#se ,t 0i**erent r,tes, s# c#mbinin- tree species he$ps c#ntr#$ the ,m#3nt #* m3$ch #n the s#i$, ,n0 the r,te ,t which n3trients ,re *e0 b,c1 in7 It ,$s# en,b$es *,rmers t# p$,n the -r#wth r,te s# th,t s#me species c,n pr#=i0e sh,0e *#r #ther m#re =3$ner,b$e In the h3mi0 tr#pics, it9s , =er+ 0i**erent st#r+7 The see0$in-s7 ,=,i$,b$e n3trients ,re in the trees n#t the s#i$, ,n0 there is n# winter7 Perh,ps the pr#b$ems with s#i$s .etter sti$$, the r,in*#rest 3ses 0i=ersit+ ,s , str,te-+ ,n0 pests c,n be #=erc#me -i=en en#3-h *erti$iser *#r w,r0in- #** pests -i* there is #n$+ #ne tree #* ,n+ ,n0 pestici0e7 The ?3esti#n is, w#3$0 ,n+#ne w,nt species per hect,re, it9s h,r0 *#r 0ise,se ,n0 pests t# t#@ C#3$0 the+ e=en ,**#r0 t#@ AIt9s n#t , pr#b$em #* spre,07 It9s 0i**ic3$t t# spre,0 #3t , $,r-e n3mber #* techn#$#-+7 NASA c,n -r#w t#m,t# p$,nts in sp,ce7 0i**erent trees #n , *,rm bec,3se #* the ,00iti#n,$ The pr#b$em is th,t , 1i$# #* t#m,t#es c#sts , $#t #* time t,1en t# c#$$ect the cr#ps e**icient$+7 The m#ne+ when -r#wn in sp,ce,A s,+s N#bre7 m,8im3m th,t c,n be m,n,-e0 is *#3r #r *i=e 0i**erent species in , hect,re7 S# wh,t9s the ,$tern,ti=e@ AEet inspir,ti#n *r#m the s+stem,A he s,+s7 In #ther w#r0s, $##1 ,t h#w the .3t e=en s#, s,+s 2,t#s, mi8in- species c,n -i=e *#rest c#pes, ,n0 c#p+ it7 He is t,$1in- ,b#3t s#me he$p with pests7 T# i$$3str,te this, he sh#ws me ,-r#*#restr+4 pr#$#n-in- the pr#03cti=it+ #* the $,n0 m,h#-,n+ trees, p$,nte0 three +e,rs ,-#7 2,h#-,n+ b+ -r#win- , c#mbin,ti#n #* trees ,n0 ,nn3,$ cr#ps7 is s3sceptib$e t# ,tt,c1 b+ Hipsyphilla grandella, , c,terpi$$,r th,t 0,m,-es the b,r1 ,n0 enc#3r,-es D#,# 2,t#s, *r#m the -#=ernment-*3n0e0 br,nchin- -, 0is,ster i* +#3 w,nt t# se$$ the tr3n1 *#r ,-r#*#restr+ rese,rch instit3te E2.RAPA, in timber7 The rese,rchers p$,nte0 their m,h#-,n+ ne8t 2,n,3s, h,s been c#-#r0in,t#r #* ,n ,-r#-*#restr+ t# *,st--r#win- trees-p$+w##0 species ,n0 , pr#6ect here since 1 17 T# re,ch the pr#6ect, +#3 $e-3min#3s *r3it tree c,$$e0 in-,7 :here the t,1e the #n$+ r#,0 #3t #* 2,n,3s, he,0in- n#rth m,h#-,n+ trees h,0 n# sh,0e, the+ 0e=e$#pe0 t#w,r0s "ene/3e$, *#r ,n h#3r #r s#7 Th#3-h the s#i$ br,nches $#w #n the stems, b3t in the sh,0e #* their is p,$e +e$$#w ,r#3n0 2,n,3s, the r#,0 is , =i=i0 re0, *,st--r#win- c#mp,ni#ns the+ -rew t,$$ ,n0 str,i-ht7 s$icin- thr#3-h *#rest ,n0 -r#=es #* spin0$+ Cecropia re-r#wth7 The re0 c#mes *r#m ,n ir#n-rich 03r,b$e Ice cream tree c$,+ th,t h,s been e8c,=,te0 ,n0 03mpe0 #n the r#,0 in the ,bsence #* m#re perm,nent p,=in-7 In the r,in+ There ,re ,$s# ec#n#mic bene*its in mi8in- the trees, se,s#n, 2,t#s s,+s, it c,n be imp#ssib$e t# re,ch the s,+s 2,t#s7 F,rmers c,n st,rt with ,nn3,$ cr#ps *#r rese,rch site bec,3se the r#,0 t3rns int# , c$,+ s#3p7 the *irst *ew +e,rs 3sin- the n3trient bene*its #* the N#w, th#3-h, the 0r+ se,s#n h,s be-3n, ,n0 it9s trees t# pr#$#n- the cr#ppin-7 Then ,*ter ,b#3t three p#th#$e0 b3t p,ss,b$e7 +e,rs, the+ c,n h,r=est, s,+ p,$m he,rts ,n0 c3p3,c3-, h,r0, br#wn, =e$=et+ *r3it with , 0e$ici#3s The E2.RAPA e8periment,$ st,ti#n $ies ,m#n- cre,m+ white p3$p 3se0 in ice cre,ms ,n0 63ices7 =ir-in ,n0 re-r#wn r,in*#rest7 Sittin- in #ne #* the B3rin- the h,r=est, *,rmers m3st rem#=e #n$+ the rese,rch p$#ts bene,th , +#3n- m,h#-,n+ tree, 2,t#s cr#p -e=er+thin- e$se is strewn #n the s#i$ t# be e8p$,ins the m,n+ bene*its #* c#mbinin- ,nn3,$ cr#ps br#1en 0#wn ,n0 m,int,in the n3trient c#ntent7 Then with trees7 Le,=in- trees in the s+stem m,int,ins the the+ c#3$0 -r#w #n the s,me $,n0 , series #* s$#wer m,chine th,t *ee0s #r-,nic m,tter ,n0 n3trients b,c1 -r#win- *r3its s3ch ,s ,c,i, which pr#03ces rich int# the s#i$, thr#3-h $e,* $itter ,n0 inp3t #* nitr,tes7 berries *#r 63ice7 Fin,$$+, ,*ter twent+ +e,rs #r s#, it .etween 2& ,n0 )& per cent #* the r,in*#rest trees ,re w#3$0 be time t# h,r=est the timber7 It9s , pr#misin$e-3min#3s ,n0 ,b$e t# *i8 nitr#-en *r#m the ,ir7 ,ppr#,ch-w#r1in- with the s+stem inste,0 #* tr+int# *i-ht it7 .3t in spite #* 2,t#s9s #ptimism, wh,t An0 ,s the r##ts bre,1 0#wn ph+sic,$ b,rriers in the ,b#3t th#se str3--$in- *,rmers b,c1 #n the C,pim s#i$, it9s e,sier *#r cr#p r##ts t# penetr,te the s#i$7 ri=er@ I* ,-r#*#restr+ is t# t,1e h#$0 there ,n0 in The $e,* $itter ,n0 tree c,n#p+ ,$s# ,ct ,s sh,0e t# #ther sm,$$ *,rms thr#3-h#3t the Am,/#n, the pr#tect the s#i$ *r#m the r,=,-es #* the s3n7 p##rest *,rmers wi$$ nee0 s#me bre,thin- sp,ce *r#m 2e,nwhi$e, the trees c,n be pr#=i0in- *r3its, n3ts, the re$ent$ess e**#rt #* -r#win- en#3-h *##0 simp$+ t# *#00er, *irew##0 ,n0 3$tim,te$+ timber7 s3r=i=e7

An0 e=en when the+ -,in th,t sp,ce be*#re in=estin,n+ s3rp$3s in perenni,$ cr#ps the+ wi$$ nee0 t# be c#n*i0ent th,t the+ wi$$ be ,b$e t# st,+ there -m,n+ #* the sm,$$-h#$0ers h,=e n# $e-,$ tit$e t# the $,n0 the+ #cc3p+7 Pr#b$ems $i1e these c#3$0 #=er-sh,0#w the pr#mise #* ,-r#*#restr+ *#r sm,$$ *,rms, ,t $e,st in t#0,+9s Am,/#ni,7

SO2E 2% metres ,b#=e the *#rest *$##r in ;,s3nL N,ti#n,$ P,r1 in e,stern Ec3,0#r, E,brie$ Ere*, b,$,nces prec,ri#3s$+ #n , tree br,nch thinner th,n his wrist7 He we,rs n# s,*et+ r#pe7 His ri-ht ,rm is wr,ppe0 ,r#3n0 the tree tr3n1, ,n0 in his h,n0s he h#$0s the en0 #* , pr3nin- p#$e7 Str3--$in- t# c#ntr#$ its 12-metre $en-th, he -3i0es the p#$e 3p int# the c,n#p+ #=erhe,07 S#mewhere 3p there, hi00en *r#m .3t c#3$0 ,-r#*#restr+ be 0#ne #n , re,$$+ $,r-e =iew b+ *#$i,-e, this tree is in b$##m7 sc,$e-=,st p$,nt,ti#ns #* trees t# ri=,$ the c#rn*ie$0s #* I#w,@ Ch,r$es C$ement, , *r3it e8pert *r#m INPA, B#wn be$#w, H,t+, R#m#$er#38 w,tches with thin1s s#7 As s##n ,s rese,rchers st,rt t# w#r1 with bin#c3$,rs, 0irectin- Ere*, 3nti$ the pr3ner9s b$,0e trees r,ther th,n cr#ps the+ -et ,st#nishin- res3$ts rests ,-,inst , *$#werin- br,nch ,b#3t , metre ,n0 , *r#m the p##r Am,/#ni,n s#i$s7 C$ement is ,n e8pert h,$* $#n-7 AA$$i< MThere<CA she c,$$s7 :ith , snip, the #n p3p3nh, -, sm,$$, st,rch+ *r3it th,t c#mes *r#m br,nch c#mes cr,shin- 0#wn7 As Ere*, shinnies b,c1 pe,ch p,$m7 :ith , re,s#n,b$e ,m#3nt #* *erti$iser t# 0#wn the tr3n1, R#m#$er#38 b,-s the br,nch with , 1eep the s+stem -#in-, he s,+s, Am,/#n p3p3nh, c,n s,tis*ie0 smi$e7 She h,s c#=ete0 this specimen since +ie$0 twice ,s In3ch st,rch ,s I#w, c#rn7 she *irst n#tice0 the b$#ss#ms , wee1 ,-#7 This ,*tern##n b,c1 in the $,b#r,t#r+, she wi$$ 0isc#=er S# wh+ is n#b#0+ 0#in- it@ Tw# re,s#ns7 The *irst is which species #* tree this is -i* she9s $3c1+7 , pr#b$em #* techn#$#-+7 N#b#0+ +et 1n#ws h#w t# R#m#$er#38is *r#m the P#nti*ic,$ C,th#$ic Uni=ersit+ t3rn p3p3nh, int# *$#3r e**icient$+ #n , $,r-e sc,$e7 #* Ec3,0#r in N3it#, ,n0 Ere*, is her ,ssist,nt7 .#th The sec#n0 re,s#n is th,t t# -r#w p3p3nh, in , =,st ,re b#t,nists-b3t b#t,n+ in the Am,/#n re?3ires m#n#c3$t3re, I#w,-st+$e, w#3$0 ,$$#w pests t# -# #n s#me 3ni?3e s1i$$s7 A:e 3se sme$$ , $#t,A s,+s the r,mp,-e7 It9s ,$re,0+ h,ppene0 in the #i$ p,$m R#m#$er#38, p3ttin- her n#se t# , tree tr3n1 th,t p$,nt,ti#ns ,r#3n0 .e$Fm7 AI* +#3 tr+ t# intr#03ce ,n Ere*, h,s 63st $,nce0 with the tip #* his 1ni*e7 AThis I#w,-b,se0 ,-ric3$t3r,$ s+stem here, the #n$+ pe#p$e #ne sme$$s $i1e , $e-3me7A wh# wi$$ h,=e re,$$+ -##0 6#bs ,re ent#m#$#-ists ,n0 ph+t#p,th#$#-ists,A s,+s C$ement7 R,in*#rest trees *#rm , 0ense c,n#p+, s# =er+ $itt$e $i-ht penetr,tes t# the 3n0erst#re+ ,n0 m,t3re trees Th,t the #n$+ w,+ t# e8p$#it the Am,/#ni,n *#rest 3s3,$$+ h,=e n#ne #* the $#w, e,s+-t#-re,ch br,nches m,+ be t# m,n,-e it *#r timber whi$e 0#in- th,t m,1e b#t,n+ s#*ter -#in- in temper,te *#rests7 ,-ric3$t3re th,t m,int,ins s#me ,t $e,st #* its H#pe*3$ c#$$ect#rs m3st be prep,re0 t# c$imb-#r 0i=ersit+ is -##0 news *#r th#se wh# h,=e been sett$e *#r wh,t the+ c,n see ,n0 sme$$ *r#m the se03ce0 b+ the *#rest9s m,-ic7 -r#3n0 ,n0 sc#3r the *#rest *$##r *#r *,$$en $e,=es7 A *ew $ess p,tient #nes h,=e e=en been 1n#wn t# b$,st .,c1 in L#n0#n, Hen+,n ,-ric3$t3rist Eric1 ,w,+ ,t the c,n#p+ with sh#t-3ns in the h#pe #* Fern,n0es *r#m C#rne$$ Uni=ersit+, wh# w,s brin-in- 0#wn , *$#werin- br,nch7 instr3ment,$ in settin- 3p 2,t#s9s pr#6ect, te$$s #* his #ptimism7 AI re,$$+ thin1 th,t +#3 c,n h,=e pe#p$e .3t e=en with , pri/e specimen #* tree b$#ss#m in $i=in- in h,rm#n+ with the *#rest7 It9s n#t preser=,ti#n h,n0, the -#in- is sti$$ s$#w7 R#m#$er#38 is #ne #* the in the sense th,t +#3 63st $#c1 it ,$$ 3p ,n0 thr#w seni#r rese,rchers #n ,n ,mbiti#3s pr#6ect t# m,p ,w,+ the 1e+7 It9s h#w +#3 3se wh,t9s there, ,n0 ,n0 i0enti*+ e=er+ tree #n , %&-hect,re st30+ p$#t in m,n,-e it, ,n0 -# with the s+stem7A ;,s3nL -,b#3t , ?3,rter #* , mi$$i#n in0i=i03,$s in ,$$7 :ith 63st tw# hect,res c#mp$ete0 -,n ,re, #* 63st N#w is the time7 In spite #* the ,st#nishin- recent '& b+ %&& metres- R#m#$er#38 ,n0 her c#$$e,-3es r,tes #* 0e*#rest,ti#n, (% per cent #* the Am,/#n h,=e h,0 t# c$,ssi*+ m#re th,n O&& species #* trees, r,in*#rest rem,ins7 As Nepst,0 p3ts it, th#3s,n0s #* inc$30in- ,t $e,st *i=e species ,n0 p#ssib$+ , -en3s mi$es ,w,+ #n the C,pim ri=er4 AThe Am,/#n is the th,t ,re new t# science7 $,st ch,nce we h,=e t# -et it ri-htA7 The bi- ?3esti#n, #* c#3rse, is wh+ s3ch ,n ,st#nishin- n3mber #* species *$#3rish there7 F#r m#st p$,nt ,n0 ,nim,$ -r#3ps the Am,/#n 63n-$e, especi,$$+ the western p,rt 63st be$#w the An0es, is m#re 0i=erse th,n ,n+where e$se #n E,rth7 O=er the .#b H#$mes K E,brie$$e :,$1er p,st three 0ec,0es, ec#$#-ists h,=e p3b$ishe0 re,ms #* p,pers #n the s3b6ect7 .3t the+ c,n9t ,-ree ,b#3t

HOW DID !ARADIS" #"GIN$

the ,nswer #r e=en the ri-ht w,+ t# estim,te the t#t,$ the centr,$ pr#b$em #* wh+ s3ch st,--erin- 0i=ersit+ n3mber #* species7 is *#3n0 in the Am,/#n7 One #* the 1e+ *i-3res in the 0eb,te is Terr+ Erwin, , tr#pic,$ ent#m#$#-ist *r#m the Smiths#ni,n Instit3ti#n in :,shin-t#n BC7 He is ,t w#r1 63st O 1i$#metres 0#wn the r#,0 *r#m R#m#$er#38 in ;,s3nL N,ti#n,$ P,r17 An0, ,s it t3rns #3t, he is *,cin- e=en bi--er pr#b$ems in i0enti*+in- his species7 :#r1in- with his c#$$e,-3e D#n,th,n C#00in-t#n, Erwin is c,rr+in- #3t , cens3s #* insects ,n0 spi0ers7 F#r the p,st three +e,rs, the+ h,=e been st30+in- #ne sm,$$ p$#t in the =,st *#rest 3sin- , simp$e b3t st,--erin-$+ $,b#3r-intensi=e techni?3e7 A h3n0re0 times 03rin- e,ch trip t# the p,r1, the+ spre,0 , sheet #* n+$#n three metres s?3,re 63st ,b#=e -r#3n0 $e=e$, then spr,+ , *#- #* bi#0e-r,0,b$e insectici0e int# the c,n#p+ ,n0 c#$$ect e=er+thin- th,t *,$$s7 .,c1 h#me in :,shin-t#n, the+ s#rt ,n0 i0enti*+ e=er+ in0i=i03,$ in 1' m,6#r -r#3ps #* insects ,n0 spi0ers-ne,r$+ , mi$$i#n ,n0 , h,$* specimens s# *,r7 One #$0 s3--esti#n is th,t the Am,/#n is , 1in0 #* p,r,0ise4 $,c1 #* , h,rsh winter #r , se=ere 0r+ se,s#n h,=e $e*t species *ree t# e=#$=e m#re ,n0 m#re intric,te ,0,pt,ti#ns *#r *in0in- *##0, esc,pin- beine,ten, ,n0 c#mpetin- *#r res#3rces7 An#ther p#ssibi$it+ is th,t ,s the An0es er#0e0, the+ e8p#se0 , -re,ter =,riet+ #* s#i$ t+pes, ,$$#win- p$,nts t# speci,$ise7 Or perh,ps the 3n3s3,$ sh,pe #* the An0es -with $#n- *in-ers #* $#w$,n0 r,in*#rest tr,ppe0 in =,$$e+s between hi-h m#3nt,in ri0-es-,=e 63st the ri-ht 0e-ree #* is#$,ti#n, s# th,t species e=#$=e0 0i**erent$+ in e,ch =,$$e+ b3t -r,03,$$+ spre,0 #3t t# #=er$,p with their c#3sins, 63st ,s B,rwin9s *inches 0i0 in the E,$Pp,-#s7 One #* the m#st p#p3$,r the#ries, h#we=er, h#$0s th,t 03rin- the $,st ice ,-es, when m3ch #* the E,rth9s w,ter w,s *r#/en int# -$,ciers, $ess r,in *e$$ #=er Am,/#ni,7 As , res3$t, the r,in*#rest shr3n1 int# is#$,te0 p#c1ets, #r re*3-i,, in the wettest p,rts #* the re-i#n7 .+ the time the -$,ciers rece0e0 ,n0 the r,in*#rest bec,me c#ntin3#3s ,-,in e=#$3ti#n h,0 cre,te0 sep,r,te species in these sc,ttere0 p,tches7 Am,/#n 0i=ersit+ n#w is , res3$t #* the -r,03,$ intermin-$in- #* #nce is#$,te0 remn,nts #* *#rest7

Ei-ht+ per cent #* the insect species in , t+pic,$ s,mp$e h,=e ne=er been seen be*#re b+ ent#m#$#-ists, Erwin s,+s7 He h,s c,t,$#-3e0 the beet$es in 63st 1( #* his && s,mp$es, ,n0 ,$re,0+ he h,s 1)'( species7 E=en ,m#n- the #bsc3re insect -r#3p c,$$e0 treeh#ppers, the rese,rchers h,=e *#3n0 O'& species in , Erwin ,n0 his *rien0s ,$$ seem t# ,ccept the $#-ic #* sin-$e +e,r9s s,mp$es7 this h+p#thesis7 Un*#rt3n,te$+, e=i0ence is thin #n the -r#3n07 P#$$en *#ssi$s *r#m the e,stern Am,/#n sh#w .3t these t,$$ies sti$$ 3n0erestim,te the tr3e 0i=ersit+, th,t the r,in*#rest 0i0 shrin1 03rin- the ice ,-es, b3t since the+ 0# n#t inc$30e -r#3n0-0we$$in- species #r n# #ne +et 1n#ws whether the centr,$ Am,/#n ,$s# th#se th,t $i=e 3n0er the b,r1 #* trees where the+ 0ie *r,-mente07 with#3t *,$$in- #nt# the c#$$ectin- sheet7 In ,$$, Erwin estim,tes, , sin-$e hect,re #* r,in*#rest here m,+ F#r +e,rs, the best e=i0ence *#r this scen,ri# c,me h,rb#3r between %&,&&& ,n0 !&,&&& species #* *r#m the 0istrib3ti#n #* $i=in- species7 S#me re-i#ns insects ,n0 spi0ers-c#mp,re0 t# 63st 2&,&&& in the #* Am,/#ni, -s3ch ,s e,stern Ec3,0#r- h,=e m#re wh#$e #* .rit,in7A The n3mber #* species is th,n their sh,re #* species *#3n0 n#where e$se7 These 3nbe$ie=,b$e,A s,+s Erwin7 c$3sters, it w,s ,r-3e0, c#nt,ine0 species th,t h,0 ne=er spre,0 *r#m the re*3-i, where the+ e=#$=e07 An0 this is sti$$ #n$+ the be-innin-7 A simi$,r hect,re 63st , *ew tens #* 1i$#metres ,w,+ wi$$ h,=e , =,st$+ In 1 &, h#we=er, bi#$#-ist .r3ce Ne$s#n #* INPA, 0i**erent set #* species7 The spi0er *,3n, c,n ch,n-e .r,/i$9s n,ti#n,$ instit3te *#r Am,/#n rese,rch in c#mp$ete$+ within 1&& 1i$#metres in Am,/#ni,, s,+s 2,n,3s, t##1 , c$#ser $##1 ,t the b#t,nic,$ 0,t, ,n0 C#00in-t#n-, bi--er t3rn#=er th,n +#3 w#3$0 see *#3n0 th,t the c$3sters #* species mere$+ m,r1e0 tr,=e$$in- 1&&& 1i$#metres in N#rth Americ,7 p$,ces where bi#$#-ists h,0 c#$$ecte0 m#st intensi=e$+7 N#t s3rprisin-$+, r,re species t3rne0 3p Di%er e theorie m#re #*ten in p$,ces where ec#$#-ists h,0 se,rche0 h,r0er7 Th,t w,s ,$$7 E=i0ence *#r the re*3-i3m One e=enin- in N3it#, Ec3,0#r9s c,pit,$ ,n0 the the#r+ 0is,ppe,re0 in , p3** #* st,tistics7 ne,rest $,r-e cit+ t# ;,s3nL, Erwin, C#00in-t#n ,n0 , h,$*-,-0#/en #* their c#$$e,-3es t,1e , bre,1 *r#m At the s,me time, h#we=er, rese,rchers h,=e new c#$$ectin- insects7 The+ sett$e 0#wn in , h#te$ e=i0ence th,t , simi$,r s#rt #* 0r,3-ht-in03ce0 ,ppr#pri,te$+ n,me0 L, F$#rest, MThe F#restC, 0rin1 *r,-ment,ti#n mi-ht h,=e #cc3rre0 e=en ,*ter the icethe $#c,$ $,-er, sm#1e r#$$-3p ci-,rettes ,n0 0isc3ss ,-e -$,ciers h,0 rece0e07 At *irst -$,nce, w,ter

sh#rt,-e is ,b#3t the $,st thin- ,n+#ne w#3$0 e8pect insi0e the Am,/#n r,in*#rest7 The ,ir is perm,nent$+ h#t ,n0 he,=+ with m#ist3re7 E=en in the 0r+ se,s#n, the *re?3ent th3n0er+ r,inst#rms ,re *ierce ,n0 *3ri#3s, ,n0 in the r,in+ se,s#n the+9re n#thin- sh#rt #* spect,c3$,r7 .3t str,n-e ,s it m,+ s#3n0, $,r-e p,rts #* this =,st -reen *#rest $i=e #n the e0-e #* 0r#3-ht, -ettin- b,re$+ en#3-h w,ter t# m,1e it thr#3-h the +e,r7 An0 with 0r#3-ht c#3$0 c#me -i-,ntic *ires th,t c#3$0 bre,1 3p the *#rest ,n0 cre,te re*3-i, t# spee0 the cre,ti#n #* m#re ,n0 m#re 0i**erent species7

It isn9t e,s+ t# st,rt , *ire in the r,in*#rest7 The *#rest *$##r h,s p$ent+ #* $e,* $itter t# s3pp$+ *3e$, b3t the 0ense, c$#se0 c,n#p+ 1eeps s3n$i-ht #3t ,n0 m#ist3re in s# the $itter is 3s3,$$+ t## wet t# b3rn7 A;#3 c,n -# in ,*ter three m#nths with#3t r,in ,n0 thr#w 1er#sene #n the *#rest *$##r, ,n0 , m,tch, ,n0 the *ire 0#esn9t -# ,n+where,A s,+s Nepst,07

.3t *ire is n#t ,s 3n$i1e$+ ,s it seems7 I* the r##ts r3n #3t #* w,ter ,n0 the c,n#p+ be-ins t# p,rch, $e,=es st,rt t# *,$$ ,n0 the intense e?3,t#ri,$ s3n$i-ht wi$$ *$##0 in7 The $itter c,n then 0r+ #3t in , m,tter #* 0,+s, t3rnin- the *#rest *r#m -reen #,sis int# F,r ,w,+ #n the #pp#site en0 #* the Am,/#n, , $itt$e tin0erb#87 w,+ s#3th #* the At$,ntic p#rt cit+ #* .e$Fm in .r,/i$, #ne rese,rcher h,s been w#rr+in- ,b#3t In0ee0, *#3r times in the p,st 1%&& +e,rs there h,=e 0r#3-ht ,$m#st *r#m the *irst time he set *##t in the been h3-e 0r#3-hts, ,n0 perh,ps *ires, in the Am,/#n *#rest7 Ec#$#-ist B,n Nepst,0 *r#m the :##0s H#$e b,sin, ,cc#r0in- t# ,rch,e#$#-ic,$ ,n0 c$im,tic Rese,rch Center in 2,ss,ch3setts 1new th,t in s#me e=i0ence c#mpi$e0 in 1 ' b+ .ett+ 2e--ers #* the p,rts #* the Am,/#n, ,t $e,st, the 0r+ se,s#n c,n Smiths#ni,n Instit3ti#n7 E,ch #* these, 2e--ers brin- m,n+ c#nsec3ti=e 0,+s with#3t seri#3s s3--ests, w,s c,3se0 b+ , 0r,stic =ersi#n #* , re-3$,r ,m#3nts #* r,in7 .3t the trees -# #n tr,nspirin- w,ter c$im,tic 0ist3rb,nce in the P,ci*ic, 1n#wn ,s E$ *r#m their $e,=es ,n0 the temper,t3re - which 0ri=es NiQ#, which re=erses win0s ,n0 c3rrents, c3ttine=,p#r,ti#n *r#m the s#i$s -is 3n*,i$in-$+ h#t r,in*,$$ in the Am,/#n b,sin7 thr#3-h#3t the +e,r7 :hen Nepst,0 0i0 the s3ms t# tr+ t# b,$,nce w,ter -#in- in ,n0 c#min- #3t, he Nepst,0 ,n0 his c#$$e,-3es ,re n#w tr+in- t# w#r1 *#3n0 th,t there sh#3$0 be m,n+ 0,+s in the 0r+ #3t e8,ct$+ h#w c$#se the *#rest is t# the e0-e7 Their se,s#n when the trees ,re str3--$in-7 S# wh+, he *irst e8periments, in 1 2 ,n0 1 ), pr#03ce0 s#me w#n0ere0, sh#3$0 the c,n#p+ st,+ , perpet3,$, w#rr+in- si-ns7 Thr#3-h#3t b#th +e,rs, the+ 1ept he,$th+ -reen@ tr,c1 #* the w,ter b30-et in , p,tch #* =ir-in r,in*#rest ne,r P,r,-#min,s in the e,stern One w,+, he re,s#ne0, w#3$0 be *#r the trees t# t,p Am,/#ni,n st,te #* P,rP7 E=er+ tw# wee1s, the+ set w,ter *r#m 0eep 0#wn in the s#i$7 .3t h#w@ #3t be*#re 0,wn t# c$imb prese$ecte0 trees ,n0 R,in*#rest trees, which c,n -r#w m#re th,n %& me,s3re the $e,* w,ter p#tenti,$ -the ,m#3nt #* metres t,$$, ,re st,bi$ise0 b+ m,ssi=e, b3ttresse0 tensi#n in the $e,*9s =,sc3$,r s+stem, which me,s3res r##ts th,t spre,0 #3t si0ew,+s, n#t 0#wnw,r0s7 S# h#w h,r0 it is t# p3$$ w,ter 3p *r#m the s#i$ int# the m#st pe#p$e h,0 ,ss3me0 th,t n#thin- m3ch c,n#p+7 h,ppene0 m#re th,n , metre #r s# be$#w the s3r*,ce7 L,ter in the 0,+, the+ c#3nte0 the n3mber #* $e,=es Then, in 1 &, Nepst,0 ,n0 his c#$$e,-3es 0eci0e0 t# #n cert,in br,nches ,n0 c$imbe0 0#wn int# their pits 0i- s#me pits ,n0 see *#r themse$=es7 T# their t# rec#r0 the ,m#3nt #* w,ter ,=,i$,b$e ,t 0i**erent s3rprise, n# m,tter h#w 0eep the+ went, the+ 1ept #n 0epths in the s#i$7 *in0in- r##ts-in #ne c,se, 0#wn t# 21 metres be$#w -r#3n07 The r##ts were 0e$ic,te-63st , *ew .+ the en0 #* the 1 2 0r+ se,s#n-which, *#rt3it#3s$+ mi$$imetres in 0i,meter-b3t the+ were m+ri,0, m#re *#r the e8periment, t3rne0 #3t t# be 3n3s3,$$+ 0r+ th,n en#3-h t# s#$=e the w,ter m+ster+7 with #n$+ !& per cent #* the n#rm,$ r,in*,$$-the s#i$ w,ter w,s ,$$ b3t e8h,3ste0 ri-ht t# the b#tt#m #* .3t Nepst,0 sti$$ w,sn9t h,pp+7 I* +#3 w#r1 #3t h#w their pits, ( metres 0#wn7 Up in the c,n#p+, 1% per m3ch w,ter the s#i$ c,n h#$0 ,t 0i**erent 0epths, there cent #* the $e,=es h,0 *,$$en7 Sm,$$er trees in the ,re sti$$ s#me +e,rs when the trees w#3$0 h,=e t# 3n0erst#re+ $,+er were sh#win- 0istinct si-ns #* s3c1 3p e=er+ bit #* w,ter *#r se=er,$ metres 0#wn t# stress ,s we$$4 their $e,* w,ter p#tenti,$ re,che0 s3pp$+ their nee0s7 :h,t i* there w,s ,n e8tr,#r0in,r+ $e=e$s ,s the+ b,tt$e0 t# p3$$ w,ter 3p e8cepti#n,$$+ 0r+ +e,r@ :#3$0 there be en#3-h r##ts *r#m the 0eep s#i$7 0eep en#3-h t# t,p the s#i$ reser=#ir ,n0 1eep the c,n#p+ -reen@ An0 i* n#t, c#3$0 m,ssi=e *ires be-in@ Un$i1e the c,n#p+ trees, h#we=er, the+ 0i0 n#t she0 $e,=es7 Un0erst#re+ trees h#$0 #nt# their $e,=es ten,ci#3s$+ bec,3se the+ c#mpete *ierce$+ *#r the

$imite0 $i-ht th,t bre,1s thr#3-h the c,n#p+, ,n0 c,n9t #* its c#nte8t-, c#mm#n *,te where h3m,n ,cti=it+ ,**#r0 t# thr#w ,w,+ $e,=es with#3t -##0 re,s#n7 meets the *#rest7 E=en s#, the 1% per cent #=er,$$ $e,* $#ss w,s en#3-h t# p3sh the *#rest #=er the e0-e7 F#r three 0,+s be*#re the r,ins c,me t# the resc3e, the $itter w,s s# 0r+ th,t , ch,nce sp,r1 c#3$0 h,=e set it ,$i-ht7 E$sewhere in P,r,-#min,s th,t +e,r, m,n+ r,nchers rep#rte0 *ires in p#rti#ns #* their =ir-in *#rest7 .3t this *r,-ment #* r,in*#rest, 63st n#rth #* 2,n,3s in the centre #* the .r,/i$i,n Am,/#n, is 0i**erent7 It is , p,rt #* #ne #* the m#st *,m#3s e8periments in ec#$#-+ ,n0 it is te,chin- s#me 3ne8pecte0 $ess#ns7 The e8periment is the br,inchi$0 #* Th#m,s L#=e6#+, ,n ec#$#-ist *r#m the Smiths#ni,n Instit3ti#n7 A$m#st tw# 0ec,0es ,-#, he set #3t t# $e,rn wh,t w#3$0 h,ppen t# *r,-ments #* *#rest ec#s+stems $e*t behin0 ,*ter the men with ch,ins,ws h,0 0#ne their w#rst7 At the time, ec#$#-ists were ,b3// #=er , the#r+ 1n#wn ,s is$,n0 bi#-e#-r,ph+, pr#p#se0 b,re$+ , 0ec,0e e,r$ier b+ ec#$#-ists R#bert 2,cArth3r ,n0 E7 O7 :i$s#n7

I* the *#rest c#mes this c$#se t# b3rnin- ,*ter #n$+ , m#0er,te 0r#3-ht, h#w m3ch w#3$0 it t,1e t# sen0 the wh#$e p$,ce 3p in sm#1e@ Nepst,0 ,n0 his te,m ,re w#r1in- #n this pr#b$em b+ 0e$iber,te$+ restrictin- the ,m#3nt #* r,in *,$$in- #n , p,tch #* *#rest t# see h#w *,r the+ c,n p3sh it7 The+ h,=e ,$re,0+ c#mp$ete0 , pi$#t pr#6ect in which the+ 3se0 , s+stem #* $#w-$e=e$ r##*s ,n0 -3tters t# ch,nne$ r,inw,ter ,w,+ *r#m , 1& b+ 1& metre p$#t7 N#w 2,cArth3r ,n0 :i$s#n pre0icte0 th,t is$,n0s in the the+ ,re sc,$in- 3p t# st,rt w#r1 #n , s+stem t# #ce,n #r is#$,te0 *#rest *r,-ments sh#3$0 h,=e *ewer c#ntr#$ the r,in *,$$in- #n , hect,re #* *#rest7 species th,n , c#mp,r,b$e ,re, #* m,in$,n0 #r c#ntin3#3s *#rest7 On ,n is$,n0, there is , ris1 th,t , The+ ,$s# p$,n t# p#is#n , *ew trees t# *#rce them t# r3n #* b,0 $3c1 wi$$ wipe #3t , p,rtic3$,r species 0r#p their $e,=es ,n0 chec1 the e**ect #n the *#re=er7 On the m,in$,n0 #r in c#ntin3#3s *#rest, *$,mm,bi$it+ #* the $itter7 An0 the+ p$,n *3rther e=en i* b,0 $3c1 stri1es ,n e?3i=,$ent ,re,, #ther e8periments in the s#3th, ,t the b#3n0,r+ between members #* the s,me species c,n ,$w,+s m#=e in *#rest ,n0 s,=,nn,h, t# see whether $,c1 #* r,in c#3$0 *r#m #ther ne,rb+ ,re,s7 ,$$#w the s,=,nn,h t# creep n#rthw,r0 int# the *#rest7 In the $,te 1 !&s, :i$s#n ,n0 his -r,03,te st30ent, .,c1 in the H#te$ L, F$#rest, in N3it#, Erwin ,n0 his B,nie$ Simber$#** -n#w ,t F$#ri0, St,te Uni=ersit+*rien0s c#nsi0er the p#ssibi$it+ th,t *ire m,+ be , teste0 the the#r+ when the+ c3t the =e-et,ti#n #* c,3se #* the *#rest9s 0i=ersit+7 A +e,r ,-# $,st D3$+, m,n-r#=e is$,n0s #** F$#ri0, in tw# 3sin- ch,ins,ws7 when E$ NiQ# h,0 ,$m#st 0rie0 3p the r,in+ se,s#n in S3re en#3-h, the new, sm,$$er is$,n0s he$0 *ewer ;,s3nL, the+ cert,in$+ s,w si-ns #* , *#rest c$#se t# insect species7 c,t,str#phic c#n*$,-r,ti#n7 A;#3 c#3$0 w,$1 thr#3-h the *#rest ,n0 see the $e,=es wi$tin-,A s,+s Erwin7 .3t w#3$0 the s,me h#$0 tr3e *#r tr#pic,$ r,in*#rest@ AS#me $##1e0 $i1e c##1e0 $ett3ce7A The ,nswer w,s #* m#re th,n the#retic,$ interest7 C#nser=,ti#nists nee0e0 t# 1n#w i* the+ h,0 t# .3t n# #ne in the r##m is prep,re0 t# p3t ,$$ their pr#tect s#me critic,$ minim3m si/e #* *#rest tr,ct in m#ne+ #n th,t the#r+ -#r ,n+ #ther- when s# $itt$e is #r0er t# preser=e , re,$, *3ncti#nin- r,in*#rest sti$$ 1n#wn ,b#3t the Am,/#n r,in*#rest7 C#00in-t#n ec#s+stem inste,0 #* , 0+in- h3$17 thin1s it $i1e$+ th,t m,n+ #* the e8p$,n,ti#ns m,+ be p,rt$+ ri-ht7 A2+ pre630ice is th,t bi#0i=ersit+ is L#=e6#+ pers3,0e0 se=er,$ r,nchers wh# were c#mp$e8, ,n0 pe#p$e wh# w,nt simp$e ,nswers ,re c$e,rin- $,n0 t# $e,=e *r,-ments #* *#rest which -#in- t# be wr#n-7A *#rme0 s?3,res #* e8,ct$+ 1, 1&, #r 1&& hect,res7 E=er since, , sm,$$ ,rm+ #* rese,rchers, -r,03,te st30ents, ,n0 technici,ns h,s been *#$$#win- the *,te #* these *r,-ments t# tr+ t# ,nswer the ?3esti#n, h#w .#b H#$mes bi- is bi- en#3-h@

LI&" ON TH" "DG"

LIHE , E#thic c,the0r,$ risin- *r#m the mi00$e #* , s$3m, , per*ect s?3,re #* r,in*#rest st,n0s in , br#,0, wee0+ p,st3re7 .r#me$i,0s #rn,ment the br,nches #* the =,3$te0 c,n#p+, ,n0 b3ttresses s3pp#rt the $,r-est tr3n1s7 The s?3,re is =ir-in r,in*#rest, ,s the 0icti#n,ries 0e*ine the term, b3t it h,s been strippe0

Fi*teen +e,rs h,=e n#w p,sse0 ,n0 s#me c$e,r ,nswers h,=e emer-e0, s,+s C$,30e E,sc#n, , C,n,0i,n ec#$#-ist wh# n#w $i=es in 2,n,3s ,n0 c##r0in,tes the pr#6ect7 As e=er+#ne e8pecte0, s#me species were s?3ee/e0 #3t #* the sm,$$er *r,-ments7 L,r-e, mi8e0-species *$#c1s #* insect-e,tin- bir0s 0isperse0 within 2 +e,rs #* is#$,ti#n in the 1 ,n0 1&-

hect,re *r,-ments, $e,=in- #n$+ , *ew str,--$ers7 2,n+ #ther sin-$e-species *$#c1s #* insecti=#r#3s bir0s ,$s# =,nishe0 *r#m the *r,-ments #=er the *irst ) t# ! +e,rs7 Li%ing 'ace An0 e=en the 1&&-hect,re p,tches pr#=e0 t## sm,$$ *#r species s3ch ,s ,rm+ ,nts ,n0 the retin3e #* ,nt*#$$#win- bir0s th,t 0epen0 #n them7 C,p3chin m#n1e+s, which nee0 , $#t #* sp,ce, ,$s# =,nishe07 N#t ,$$ species s3**ere0, h#we=er7 H3mmin-bir0s ,ppe,re0 3n,**ecte07 Sm,$$ m,mm,$s incre,se0 in the sm,$$est *r,-ments7 AIt9s , tr,sh h,bit,t, ,n0 sm,$$ m,mm,$s ,re m#re ,b3n0,nt bec,3se there ,re m#re insects there,A s,+s E,sc#n7 T# the rese,rchers9 s3rprise, h#we=er, the si/e #* , *r,-ment t3rne0 #3t n#t t# be the m#st p#wer*3$ *#rce 0eterminin- the *,te #* the p$,nts ,n0 ,nim,$s within it7 Inste,0, the si/e #* , *r,-ment t3rne0 #3t n#t t# be the m#st p#wer*3$ *#rce 0eterminin- the *,te #* the p$,nts ,n0 ,nim,$s within it7 Inste,0, the *3t3re #* m#st in0i=i03,$s 0epen0e0 m#re #n h#w c$#se the+ were t# the e0-e #* the *#rest ,n0 #n wh,t s#rt #* h,bit,t s3rr#3n0e0 the *#rest *r,-ment7

-#=ernment st#ppe0 s3bsi0isin- $,n0#wners wh# c$e,re0 r,in*#rest ,n0 c#n=erte0 the $,n0 t# p,st3re7 At ,b#3t the s,me time, s#me r,nchers be-,n t# 0isc#=er th,t their p,st3res were t3rnin- t# 03st ,n0 bec#min- =irt3,$$+ w#rth$ess ,*ter 63st , *ew +e,rs #* h,r0 3se7 The res3$t w,s b,0 news *#r L#=e6#+9s e8periment,$ 0esi-n7 The r,nchers $#st he,rt ,n0 st#ppe0 c$e,rin-, ,n0 ne,r$+ h,$* the p$,nne0 *#rest *r,-ments were ne=er c3t #** *r#m the rest #* the *#rest7 Se=er,$ #thers bec,me $ess is#$,te0 ,s r,nchers ,b,n0#ne0 p,st3res ,n0 *#rest re-rew ,r#3n0 the *r,-ments7 This -,=e the rese,rchers ,n 3ne8pecte0 #pp#rt3nit+ t# c#mp,re the *,te #* *r,-ments set in 0i**erent s#rts #* h,bit,t7 The+ *#3n0 th,t the n,t3re #* the s3rr#3n0inAm,tri8A is critic,$ t# the *,te #* the *r,-ment7 The m#re *#rest-$i1e it is, the $ess the imp,ct #* is#$,ti#n7 Fr,-ments s3rr#3n0e0 b+ t,$$ sec#n0,r+ -r#wth 0#min,te0 b+ the *,st--r#win- tree Cecropia ret,in m#re species th,n th#se in ,re,s 0#min,te0 b+ the spre,0in- shr3b Vismia #r p,st3re -r,sses7 E=en s#me species th,t 0is,ppe,re0 s##n ,*ter is#$,ti#n -r,03,$$+ rec#$#nise0 the *r,-ments th,t were s3rr#3n0e0 b+ Abeni-nA m,tri87 The mi8e0species *$#c1s #* insect-e,tin- bir0s, *#r e8,mp$e, be-,n t# re-*#rm ,*ter si8 +e,rs #n *#rest *r,-ments set in Cecropia7 T#0,+, ,$$ the c#mm#n *$#c1inspecies h,=e ret3rne0 t# the 1&-hect,re *r,-ments7

:hen r,in*#rest trees t#pp$e t# m,1e w,+ *#r p,st3re, the+ e8p#se the n,1e0 *$,n1s #* their nei-hb#3rs th,t sti$$ st,n07 These trees ,t the e0-e #* the *#rest ,re *i=e times ,s $i1e$+ t# be 3pr##te0 in , win0st#rm ,s trees in 3nbr#1en *#rest, s,+s E,sc#n7 .3t e=en i* the+ rem,in 3pri-ht, $i-ht stre,ms #nt# the *#rest *$##r p,st the $e,*$ess tr3n1s, ,n0 win0 stirs E,sc#n s,+s he c,n e=en pre0ict which species wi$$ the sti*$in-, h3mi0 ,ir7 s3ccee0 in *#rest *r,-ments b+ 1n#win- h#w we$$ the+ 0# in the m,tri8 h,bit,t7 2,n+ *r#-s, *#r F#r the *irst *ew +e,rs, the *#rest *$##r is w,rmer ,n0 e8,mp$e, $i=e in p,st3res 63st ,s re,0i$+ ,s in *#rest7 0rier *#r ,t $e,st !& metres in *r#m the e0-e7 Er,03,$$+, th#3-h, , t,n-$e #* 3n0er-r#wth se,$s .+ c#ntr,st, bir0s $i=in- in the 3n0er st#re+ #* the #=er the c3t e0-e ,n0 the micr#c$im,te ret3rns t# , *#rest 0#n9t cr#ss e=en sh#rt stretches #* p,st3re7 The m#re n#rm,$ #ne, ,cc#r0in- t# ",$erie H,p#s #* the res3$t is th,t bir0s 0ec$ine ,n0 *r#-s *$#3rish in Uni=ersit+ #* C,mbri0-e ,n0 her c#$$e,-3es7 *r,-ments s3rr#3n0e0 b+ p,st3re7 This p,ttern is e=en m#re pr#n#3nce0 in sm,$$ m,mm,$s4 ,n This b3rst #* $i-ht ,n0 hi-her temper,t3re h,s , ,m,/in- tw#-thir0s #* the =,ri,ti#n in the ,b3n0,nce pr#*#3n0 e**ect #n the tree see0$in-s th,t 0#t the #* species in *#rest *r,-ments c,n be e8p$,ine0 *#rest *$##r7 AA $#t #* these sm,$$ see0$in-s wi$$ 0ie st,tistic,$$+ b+ h#w c#mm#n the+ ,re in the m,tri8-, #**, ,n0 #thers th,t ,re ,0,pte0 t# 0rier c#n0iti#ns c#rre$,ti#n th,t is ,$m#st 3nhe,r0 #* in ec#$#-+7 wi$$ t,1e #=er,A s,+s E,sc#n7 F#r e8,mp$e, see0$in-s #* .r,/i$, n3t s3r=i=e m3ch better ne,r the *#rest These res3$ts h,=e ch,n-e0 the w,+ the pr#6ect e0-e where,s 6,c,r,n0, see0$in-s 0# n#t7 w#r1ers thin1 ,b#3t *#rest *r,-ments ,n0 their m,tri87 AI thin1 we9re t,$1in- m#re in terms #* *i$ters The rese,rchers *#3n0 these Ae0-e e**ectsA in the th,n b,rriers,A s,+s E,sc#n7 2#st m#n1e+s, *#r n#rm,$ c#3rse #* their e8periments7 H#we=er, it t##1 e8,mp$e, tr,=e$ in treet#ps ,n0 nee0 we$$-0e=e$#pe0 , str#1e #* we$$-time0 b,0 $3c1 t# re=e,$ the sec#n0 *#rest re-r#wth t# m#=e t# ,n0 *r#m , *r,-ment7 1e+ *,ct#r th,t ,**ects the #3tc#me #* *r,-ment,ti#n4 An+thin- $ess th,n th,t *i$ters them #3t7 the n,t3re #* the s3rr#3n0in- h,bit,t7 :hen .r,/i$9s ec#n#m+ hit the s1i0s in the mi0-1 (&s, the

A:e c,n n#w st,rt $##1in- *#r #ther c#rre$,tes #* ,b3n0,nce in the m,tri87 B#es it h,=e t# 0# with b#0+ si/e, #r *##0 h,bits, #r ph+si#$#-+@ I* we c,n ,nswer th,t, we c,n pre0ict in the *3t3re which species ,re $i1e$+ t# be =3$ner,b$e,A s,+s E,sc#n7 T#0,+, E,sc#n ,n0 his c#-w#r1ers ,re n# $#n-er $##1in- *#r , simp$e ,nswer t# the ?3esti#n #* h#w bi- is bi- en#3-h7 The e**ects #* *#rest *r,-ment,ti#n h,=e t3rne0 #3t t# be m#re c#mp$e8 th,n e8pecte07 .3t the new, m#re s#phistic,te0 pict3re #* m,tri8 h,bit,ts ,n0 e0-e e**ects pr#=i0es better t##$s *#r c#nser=,ti#nists wh# w,nt t# preser=e ,s m,n+ r,in*#rest species ,s p#ssib$e7

,n0 Asi,7 F#rei-n timber c#mp,nies he s,+s, h,=e n# =este0 interest in the $#n--term m,n,-ement #* Am,/#ni,9s *#rests7 AThe+ re,$$+ h,=e #ne -#,$, ,n0 th,t is t# e8tr,ct the m,8im3m ,m#3nt #* timber in the minim3m ,m#3nt #* time7A

First h,n0, the e**ects #* $#--in- ,re sh#c1in-7 The st,n0,r0 pr,ctice is t# r#,m the *#rest c3ttin- ,n+ $i1e$+ $##1in- trees7 As the+ c#me cr,shin- 0#wn, the+ p3$$ #thers with them bec,3se the+ ,re ent,n-$e0 in , m,ss #* -n,r$e0 w##0+ =ines m,n+ ,s thic1 ,s , h3m,n ,rm7 A h3-e -,p strewn with tr3n1s ,n0 0ebris is $e*t behin07 Then there9s m#re c,rn,-e ,s , sec#n0, retrie=,$ te,m b$3n0ers ,r#3n0 with , b3$$0#/er Mc,$$e0 , s1i00erC 3nti$ it *in0s ,n0 h,3$s #3t the *e$$e0 trees7 ;e,rs $,ter, th#3-h , *ew trees rep#p3$,te the s1i00er tr,i$s, n#thin- -r#ws where the E,brie$$e :,$1er t+re tr,c1s r,n, ,n0 trees sti$$ *,$$ ,$#n- the tr,i$s, br#3-ht 0#wn b+ win0s ch,nne$$e0 ,$#n- the new$+ A PALL #* sm#1e h,n-s #=er the *r#ntier t#wn #* cre,te0 c#rri0#rs7 P,r,-#min,s, in the e,stern Am,/#n st,te #* P,rP7 The ,ir is ch#1e0 with b3rnin- s,w03st7 Thr#3-h#3t An0 then there9s the pr#b$em #* *ire7 N#rm,$$+ the the 0,+, tr3c1 ,*ter tr3c1 r3mb$es b+, $,0en with r,in*#rest is s,*e *r#m *ire -the ti-ht$+ c$#se0 c,n#p+ m,ssi=e tree tr3n1s7 An0 e=en ,*ter mi0ni-ht, the pre=entin- the m#ist $e,* $itter #n the *#rest *$##r $i-hts ,re sti$$ b3rnin- ,n0 m,chines -rin0in- ,t the *r#m 0r+in- en#3-h t# ,$$#w ,n+ ch,nce sp,r1s t# c#3nt$ess s,wmi$$s th,t $ine the r#,07 This sm,$$ t#wn spre,07 .3t bre,1 #pen the c,n#p+, $et in the h#t #* 63st !%,&&& pe#p$e h,s #ne #* the hi-hest e?3,t#ri,$ S3n, ,n0 it9s , 0i**erent st#r+7 Thr#3-h#3t c#ncentr,ti#ns #* s,wmi$$s in the w#r$07 P,rP, *ires h,=e wipe0 #3t =,st ,re,s #* $#--e0 *#rest, $e,=in- -i,nt sc,rs #n s,te$$ite im,-es, ,n0 t,n-$e0 Am,/#ni, is the w#r$09s $,st -re,t reser=e #* tr#pic,$ th#rn+ re-r#wth where the trees #nce st##07 timber, c#nt,inin-, b+ s#me estim,tes, 3p t# R% tri$$i#n w#rth #* w##07 S# *,r, m3ch #* this h,s been .3t there ,re ,$tern,ti=es7 F#r the p,st si8 +e,rs, pr#tecte0 b+ its sheer in,ccessibi$it+-the =,st m,6#rit+ ec#$#-ist Chris Uh$ #* Penns+$=,ni, St,te Uni=ersit+ #* Am,/#ni, is c#mp$ete$+ r#,0$ess, s# $#--ers ,n0 h,s been in=esti-,tin- w,+s #* m,1in- $#--in#thers e,-er t# e8p$#it the *#rest m3st tr,=e$ b+ ri=er e**icient ,n0 s3st,in,b$e7 D3st #3tsi0e P,r,-#min,s, #r n#t ,t ,$$7 Uh$ ,n0 , te,m #* rese,rchers *r#m the sm,$$, in0epen0ent rese,rch #r-,nis,ti#n I2AGON set 3p .3t th,n1s t# the .e$Fm-.r,si$i, hi-hw,+, b3i$t in si0e-b+-si0e p$#ts #* *#rest-#ne s3b6ecte0 t# t+pic,$$+ the e,st in 1 !%, timber c#mp,nies h,=e *$#c1e0 t# br3t,$ $#--in- pr,ctices ,n0 the #ther t# , h#st #* P,rP *r#m ,$$ p,rts #* .r,/i$ with 0r,m,tic c,re*3$ me,s3res 0esi-ne0 t# minimise the imp,ct #* c#nse?3ences *#r the 0estr3cti#n #* the *#rest7 An0 the $#--in-7 n#w the -#=ern#r #* Am,/#n,s, Am,/#nin# 2en0es, is 0#in- his best t# w## $#--ers *r#m P,rP #=er t# the F#r the m,n,-e0 p$#t, the te,m be-,n b+ 0r,win- 3p re$,ti=e$+ 3nt#3che0 western Am,/#n7 ,n in=ent#r+ #* the $#c,ti#n ,n0 species #* the trees, then p$,nne0 which were t# be c3t7 The+ 0esi-ne0 , It is n#t 63st .r,/i$i,ns wh# ,re 1een t# e8p$#it this set #* s1i00er tr,i$s th,t w#3$0 re,ch ,$$ #* the *e$$e0 =,st res#3rce7 R3m#3rs ,re ri*e ,b#3t the -r#win- trees whi$e minimisin- the 0,m,-e7 The+ c3t =ines ,ttenti#ns #* m3$tin,ti#n,$ timber c#mp,nies *r#m *r#m the se$ecte0 trees ,n0 ,$$#we0 them t# wither t# 2,$,+si, ,n0 H#re,, where, th,n1s t# re$ent$ess pre=ent 3nnecess,r+ sec#n0,r+ 0,m,-e7 Then the+ e8p$#it,ti#n, timber is n#w sc,rce7 trie0 =,ri#3s techni?3es, s3ch ,s se$ecti=e$+ 1i$$inA3n0esir,b$eA trees, t# pr#=i0e m#re -r#win- sp,ce This pr#spect 0ism,+s m,n+ ec#$#-ists7 AIt9s *#r the +#3n- c#mmerci,$ trees t# be t,r-ete0 in the *ri-htenin- t# me th,t +#3 c#3$0 h,=e , repe,t #* the *3t3re7 Asi,n e8perience here in S#3th Americ,,A s,+s .i$$ L,3r,nce7 He c,me t# INPA, .r,/i$9s n,ti#n,$ The res3$ts were 0r,m,tic7 "ine c3ttin- me,nt th,t instit3te *#r Am,/#n rese,rch, this +e,r *r#m )& per cent *ewer trees were 0,m,-e07 C,re*3$ r#3te A3str,$i,, where he st30ie0 $#--in- in N3eens$,n0

(IND"R )*TS

p$,nnin- re03ce0 b+ , ?3,rter the ,re, ,**ecte0 b+ It is t,1in- ,0=ice *r#m .r,/i$i,n *#rester Nir# b3$$0#/ers7 Hi-3chi, #* INPA, wh# h,s r3n ,n e8periment,$ pr#6ect #n se$ecti=e $#--in- 63st #3tsi0e 2,n,3s *#r Sm,$$er -,ps in the c,n#p+ ,n0 $ess *3e$ $e*t behin0 the p,st 1! +e,rs7 Hi-3chi is enc#3r,-e0 b+ the #n the *#rest *$##r me,nt $ess ris1 #* *ire7 An0 there enth3si,sm #* the Swiss c#mp,n+, b3t e8,sper,te0 w,s ,$s# $ess ch,nce #* ,cci0ent,$$+ 0,m,-in- b+ the re$3ct,nce #* #thers t# *#$$#w s3it7 Th#3-h he c#mmerci,$ species th,t w#3$0 be re,0+ *#r c#nsi0ers himse$* =er+ m3ch , *#rester, r,ther th,n ,n h,r=estin- ne8t time ,r#3n07 A:ith these pr,ctices, ec#$#-ist, he s,+s he is m#re th,n re,0+ t# ch,n-e +#39$$ be ,b$e t# -# b,c1 t# the site in )% +e,rs #r s# si0es i* the timber c#mp,nies persist in their *#r , sec#n0 h,r=est,A s,+s Uh$, inste,0 #* O& t# 1&& rec,$citr,nce7 +e,rs ,t present7 Uh$ is 63st ,s e8,sper,te0, n#t $e,st bec,3se the .3t t# c#n=ince $#--ers t# ,0#pt these pr,ctices wi$$ present s+stem is s# ine**icient7 Up t# 2% per cent #* n#t be e,s+7 A*ter ,$$, the+ re?3ire in=estment n#w the *e$$e0 w##0 is ne=er rec#=ere0 in the tr,0iti#n,$ with the m,6#r ret3rn c#min- thirt+ #r *#rt+ +e,rs s+stem, he s,+s, bec,3se it is simp$+ ne=er *#3n0 b+ $,ter7 :h+ sh#3$0 $#--ers b#ther when the res#3rce the s1i00er te,ms7 A00 t# th,t s,=in-s thr#3-h m#re seems $imit$ess@ AThe pr#b$em with m,n,-ement is e**icient 3se #* m,chiner+ ,n0 time ,n0 his te,m n#t technic,$, it9s p#$itic,$,A s,+s *#rester D#se estim,tes th,t m,n,-ement pr,ctices c#3$0 p,+ *#r N,t,$in# 0, Si$=, *r#m the st,te-*3n0e0 rese,rch themse$=es, e=en in the sh#rt term7 ,-enc+ E2.RAPA in .e$Fm7 A:e 0#n9t h,=e ,n+ m,n,-ement bec,3se we h,=e t## m3ch *#rest7A .3t there is ,n#ther st3mb$in- b$#c1 t# c,re*3$ $#--in- pr,ctices7 I* th#se c,re*3$ $#--ers ,re t# To+en effort ch,n-e the st,t3s ?3# -th,t the res#3rce is there t# be $i?3i0ise0 r,ther th,n s3st,in,b$+ h,r=este0- the+ The -#=ernment is ,t $e,st m,1in- ,n e**#rt t# ch,n-e m3st be c#n*i0ent th,t the+ wi$$ be ,b$e t# ret3rn in the sit3,ti#n7 N# $#--in- permits ,re iss3e0 b+ )% +e,rs t# c#$$ect #n their in=estment7 I.A2A, the .r,/i$i,n en=ir#nment,$ pr#tecti#n ,-enc+, with#3t , m,n,-ement p$,n7 .3t the p$,ns Fires ,re ,n #b=i#3s thre,t t# this, ,$th#3-h $ess ,re #*ten w#rth$ess, s,+s N,t,$in#, ,n0 ,re r,re$+ br3t,$ pr,ctices wi$$ minimise the ris1, ,n0-sh#c1e0 en*#rce07 He h,s 63st *inishe0 , s3r=e+ in int# ,cti#n b+ the *ire -sc,rre0 s,te$$ite im,-es- s#me P,r,-#min,s in which he e8,mine0 22' p$,ns ,n0 $#--ers ,r#3n0 P,r,-#min,s ,re ,$re,0+ inst,$$in=isite0 )' sites7 AThe res3$ts were , 0is,ster, he s,+s7 *ire bre,1s t# pr#tect their *#rests The+ ,$$ h,0 p$,ns ,ppr#=e0 b+ I.A2A b3t n#t #ne site w,s *#$$#win- -##0 m,n,-ement pr,ctices7 .3t ,s $#n- ,s there ,re trees rem,inin- there is ,n#ther 0,n-er4 $,n0 in=,si#n7 .r,/i$ h,s incre,sinA2#st pe#p$e ,ss3me th,t when , $,w is p,sse0, it9s n3mbers #* $,n0$ess p##r, sem terras, wh# ,re -#in- t# h,ppen,A s,+s Phi$ip Fe,rnsi0e, ,n ec#$#-ist *$#c1in- t# the Am,/#n t# *in0 tr,cts #* 3n#cc3pie0 ,t INPA in 2,n,3s7 Th,t9s n#t the w,+ it w#r1s here7 b3t ,ccessib$e *#rest where the+ c,n b3rn the trees It isn9t en#3-h 63st t# m,1e 0ecrees7A One #* the 1e+ ,n0 -r#w *##07 b#tt$enec1s is pers#nne$4 I.A2A is we$$ intenti#ne0 b3t h,s #n$+ ,b#3t '%&& r,n-ers t# p,tr#$ the *i*th An0 *#r e=er+ $#--er wh# w,nts t# preser=e the $,r-est c#3ntr+ in the w#r$0, s,+s C$,30e E,sc#n, ,n res#3rce there wi$$ be #thers wh# w,nt t# t,1e the ec#$#-ist wh# c#-#r0in,tes the Smiths#ni,n m#ne+ ,n0 r3n7 Ec#$#-ist B,n Nepst,0 *r#m the Instit3ti#n9s *#rest *r,-ment,ti#n pr#6ect ne,r :##0s H#$e Rese,rch Center in 2,ss,ch3setts, ,n0 2,n,3s7 , te,m #* rese,rchers *r#m the in0epen0ent en=ir#nment,$ rese,rch instit3te IPA2 in .e$Fm ,re The sit3,ti#n is n#t h#pe$ess -there ,re ,t $e,st tw# w#r1in- with , c#mm3nit+ #* 1%& *,mi$ies #n the Ri# timber c#mp,nies th,t ,re b3c1in- the tren0, #ne #n Ee$,0# in the s#3th #* P,rP t# 0e=e$#p , s3st,in,b$e 2,r,6# Is$,n0 ,t the m#3th #* the Am,/#n, ,n0 w,+ #* $#--in- their 1%,&&& hect,res #* *#rest7 ,n#ther 2%& 1i$#metres *r#m 2,n,3s in the centre #* the b,sin, where , Swiss c#mp,n+ c,$$e0 Preci#3s The c#mm3nit+ h,s ,$re,0+ been *#rce0 #** tw# $#ts :##0 is ,ttemptin- t# m,n,-e %&,&&& hect,res #* #* $,n0-#nce t# m,1e w,+ *#r , h+0r#e$ectric 0,m *#rest7 ,n0 ,n#ther time bec,3se #* ,n in=,si#n #* m#s?3it#es ,n0 bitin- *$ies7 N#w, the tit$e t# their Small ,eginning $,n0 is bein- c#nteste0 b+ , -3n-t#tin- $#--er #* the #$0 sch##$, wh# h,s n# interest in $#n--term preser=,ti#n7 The $e,0er #* the c#mm3nit+ h,s

,$re,0+ s3r=i=e0 #ne ,ss,ssin,ti#n ,ttempt ,n0 the $e-,$ wr,n-$es c#ntin3e7 A:e spent the *irst m#ne+ we -#t #n , $,w+er,A s,+s Nepst,07 ATh,t9s the n,me #* the -,me7 A

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The low-im'act road

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