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W. H. Mason
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Previously (Sizing I)
Mission denition Basic Sizing to Estimate TOGW Examples
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A Suggested Organization
1. Leader (the keeper of the notebook) 2. Conguration Designer 3. Weights (rock eater) also balance/inertia 4. Vehicle Performance and Mission Analysis 5. Aero Conguration (drag buster) 6. Flight Controls (mechanical as well as handling qualities) 7. Propulsion & Propulsion System Integration 8. Structures/Materials 9. Aircraft Systems 10. Cost and Manufacturinglast but not least!
Aerospace and Ocean Engineering
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11/18/08
Takeoff Requirements
Item Velocity Climb Gradient Gear up: Field-length denition Rolling coefcient MIL-C5011A VTO ! 1.1 VS VCL ! 1.2 VS Gear up: 500 fpm @SL FAR Part 25 VTO ! 1.1 VS VCL ! 1.2 VS Gear down: 1/2% @ VTO (AEO) 100 fpm @ SL 3% @ VCL (OEI) (OEI) Takeoff distance Takeoff distance 115% of takeoff over 50-ft over 50-ft distance with AEO obstacle obstacle over 35 ft or balanced eld length* = 0.025 not specied not specied FAR Part 23 VTO ! 1.1 VS VCL ! 1.1 VS Gear up: 300 fpm @SL (AEO)
* see discussion on next slide AEO: all engines operating, OEI: one engine inoperative
from Nicolai, Fundamentals of Aircraft Design, , 1975 See Raymer, App. F,
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Balanced Field Length (Takeoff) (Critical Field Length for Military Aircraft)
Following engine failure, at decision speed V1 (1.1VStall) either: a) continue takeoff (including obstacle clearance) or b) stop if V > V1 - takeoff if V < V1 - stop V1 chosen such that distance for both is equal details require precise takeoff speed denitions: see Sean Lynns Report, Aircraft Takeoff Analysis in the Preliminary Design Phase, on our web page or the FARs assume smooth, hard, dry runway for early design studies this is usually determined without allowing for a stopway past end of runway
Aerospace and Ocean Engineering
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11/18/08
V2: airspeed obtained at the 35ft height point V2 > 1.2Vstall in TO Cong or V2 > 1.1Vmc Vmc is minimum control speed in the engine out condition
Aerospace and Ocean Engineering
Braking coefcient
One engine out at landing weight, - in the approach conguration and landing gear retracted # of engines 4 3 2 climb gradient (CGR) 2.7% 2.4% 2.1%
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Structural Technology
Represent with weight equations developed from past designs Wing Weight equation for Fighters (from Nicolai):
WWNG $ K PIV NWTO = 3.08 KT & 1 + tan2 ! c / 2 % (t / c)
.89 .741 SW
KT K PIV WTO
! technology factor ! variable sweep factor = 1.175 ( 1 for fixed geometry) ! TOGW
Drivers: thickness, t/c span, b sweep, ! Wing area, S (different for xed AR or b) taper, ! TOGW (WTO) for low wing weight: thick wings (t/c large) low span ( b low) high taper ( ! small) Aerospace and low sweep (! small) Ocean Engineering
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11/18/08
Wing Size and Wing Loading Issues Consider Wing Loading to Find Wing Area
Specic Range (sr), best range formula, drag rise neglected
1/ 2 " % 1.07 (W / S ) { AR ( E}1/ 4 1 # & best sr = 3/ 4 sfc $ ! ' W CD
{ }
0
Increase: W/S, altitude (decreases ") , AR, E (L/D) Decrease: zero lift drag, weight (W), sfc
lt = 37.7 ! TOP,
Landing
VAPP
Aerospace and Ocean Engineering
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11/18/08
Feasible solution space Thrust Loading, T/W Cruise Take-off field length Second-segment climb gradient Missed Approach Wing Loading, W/S
Aerospace and Ocean Engineering
Match point
Increasing
from L.K. Loftin, Jr., Subsonic Aircraft: Evolution and the Matching of Size to Performance, NASA RP 1060, Aug. 1980
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# sldgfl
( W / S )cruise Climb gradient requirements: 1 % " N %" ' $ CGR + T / W) = $ ' # N ! 1& # L / D& where, ! = " "sea level
(W / S )cruise q!ARE
Note: convert T/W to M=0,h=0 values, W/S to takeoff values, N is the number of engines, where we assume one engine out is the critical case, CGR is the climb gradient, q implies best altitude, Mach, and L/D should be for correct ight condition.
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Carpet Plots
Simple Parametric Plots can be confusing Shifting the plot axis provides a better way to understand parametric studies Resulting plot is called a carpet plot Particularly good for examination of the effects of constraints See also the writeup on carpet plots from Sid Powers that is also available with these charts.
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TOGW lbs
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Example:Using a Carpet Plot to Assess How to Use Advanced Technology to Improve Maneuver Performance: SC3
Source: W.H. Mason, A Wing Concept for Supersonic Maneuvering, NASA CR 3763, 1983
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Transport Constraints
There is another important constraint for transports: The airplane must meet the initial cruise altitude requirement - at the initial cruise altitude (about 98% of TOGW), the socalled top of climb, airplane must still have a specied rate of climb (500 or 300 ft/min) According to the book by Jenkinson, Simpkin and Rhodes, Civil Jet Aircraft Design, Twin-engine aircraft are likely to be secondsegment climb critical Four-engine aircraft are likely to be climb critical (top of climb performance)
Aerospace and Ocean Engineering
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11/18/08
To Conclude:
You are now equipped to think about aircraft design Weve covered the basic physics dictating selection of aircraft weight, wing and engine size Weve explained the basic carpet and thumbprint methods to understand effects of constraints, comparison of concepts, and design tradeoffs Even major aircraft companies have problems doing the tradeoffs scientically: lots of bias and prejudice (they wouldnt admit it - but thats part of the reason for the evolutionary aircraft development we see) The next step: How to get your ideas on paper, and done so you can tell if they make sense
Aerospace and Ocean Engineering
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11/18/08
Wing Planform/Tail Location Are Not Arbitrary Pitch-Up Limits Planform Selection
Pitching moment characteristics as separation occurs must be controllable. Requires careful aero design. Horizontal tail location is critical
historical trends from early wind tunnel data 10.0 Probably Pitchup Prone 8.0 Aspect Ratio 6.0 4.0 Probably OK 2.0 NASA TM X-26 0.0 0 10 20 30 40 Quarter Chord Sweep
Aerospace and Ocean Engineering
Fighters
Transports
50
60
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