Chapter 4

Body Tissues and Membranes

Introduction
Cells are arranged in tissues that provide specific functions for the body.
Cells of different tissues are structured differently, which leads to differences in their function.

4 primary tissue types:

1. Epithelial tissue-covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands. 2. Connective tissue- supports and protects other tissues.

3. Muscle tissue- causes movement. 4. Nervous tissue- receives and generates nerve impulses

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

All over the body, covers surfaces (like organs), lines cavities, and forms glands. Lines body surfaces Anchored to a basement membrane Made of tightly packed cells Lack blood vessels Contain little extracellular material (matrix). Replaced frequently

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

Protection Secretion Absorption Excretion Sensory reception

More epithelial characteristics:

function is determined by the cell type and number of cell layers.

Anchored or supported by underlying connective tissue:

Basement membrane: separates the epithelial and connective tissues.

2 types of epithelial tissues

1. Covering and lining epithelia: covers surface of body and organs, line all hollow body structures

2. Glandular epithelia: forms glands that produce and secrete products needed by the body

Epithelial cell shapes:

Squamous cells- the thinnest of the 4, have a flattened nucleus Cuboidal cells- cubelike with a round nucleus in the center of the cell Columnar cells- tall with an oval nucleus close to the base of the cell Transitional cells- change shape (cuboidal when tissue is relaxed, squamous when the tissue is expanded)

EPITHELIAL TISSUE TYPES

SIMPLE: Epithelial tissue with ONE cell STRATIFIED: Epithleial with TWO OR MORE

Simple epi: provides a selective barrier for diffusion, filtration, secretion, or absorption of selected substances Stratified epi: thicker, subject to wear and tear, forms protective barrier

Three big Categories of Epi general functions!

Pseudostratified epi: one cell layer thick b/c all cells touch the basement membrane, not all cells reach the surface. Nuclei are at different levels giving the appearance of different cell layers.

Three types of simple epi:

1. simple squamous

2. simple cuboidal

3. simple columnar

Four types of stratified epi:

1. 2. 3. 4. Stratified squamous Stratified cuboidal Stratified columnar Transitional

Two types of Pseudostratified epi:

Pseudostratifiedcolumnar

Pseudostratified ciliated

Simple Squamous Epithelium: form the lining of a blood vessel. Notice the free surfaces forming a lumen, the flattened cells at the free surfaces, and the basement membrane Examples: -Peritoneum: secretion of serous fluid into cavity -Alveoli: diffusion of gases in lungs -Kidney capillaries: filtration of blood to form urine -Endothelium of capillaries: diffusion of substances between blood & tissue fluid

Simple Cuboidal epithelium: from a tubule (small tube) in the kidney. Notice the free surface, the cube shaped cells at the free surface, and the basement membrane. Single layer of cubeshaped cells with centrally located nuclei Examples: Walls of kidney tubules: absorption of substances from filtrate & secretion of substances into filtrate. Glands: secretion of products made by the glandular cells

Simple Columnar Epithelium: from the gall bladder. Notice the free surface, the column shaped cells at the free surface, and the basement membrane A row of elongated cells whose nuclei are all located near the basement membrane Examples: -Lining of stomach & int:
secretion of digestive juices, have microvilli for absorption -Uterine tubes: cilia to help egg move to uterus -Central canal of spinal cord: cilia move CSF

More on Simple Columnar:

Function: Lines the uterus, stomach, & intestines where it protects underlying tissues Secretes digestive fluids Absorbs nutrients In the intestine, simple columnar epithelial cells possess microvilli that increase the surface area available for absorption Mucus secreting goblet cells can be found among columnar cells

More simple columnar

Stratified Squamous Epithelium: from the palm of the hand. Notice the free surface, the many layers of flattened cells at the free surface, and the basement membrane Layers of flattened cells that are designed to protect underlying layers. Examples: Surface of skin: forms protectvie barrier Lining of mouth, esophagus, anus, vagina: forms protective barrier in areas subject to abrasion & friction

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Function: Designed to protect underlying tissue layers. These cells make up the outer layer of the skin, lines the mouth, throat, vagina, and anal canal In the skin, outer layers of cells undergo keratinization; however, this process does not occur where tissues remain moist like in the throat, vagina, or anal canal.

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium: from a sweat gland. This type of tissue is relatively rare in the human body. This one is a little difficult to figure out, but you can still see the free surface, the cube shaped cells at the free surface, and the basement membrane.
Two to three layers of cuboidal cells lining a lumen of the mammary glands, sweat glands, salivary glands, and pancreas

Several layers provide more protection than one single layer!!

Stratified Columnar Epithelium:

Several layers of cells and is found in the vas deferens, part of the male urethra, and parts of the pharynx.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

These cells appear layered due to the positions of their nuclei within the row of cells, but are not truly layered. Function: Cilia may be present, along w/ mucus-secreting goblet cells, that line and sweep debris from respiratory tubes. Example: -Lining of nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi: secretion of mucus by goblet cells. These columnar cells have cilia that move mucus toward the pharynx

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium:

This looks like columnar epithelium only it has different nuclear layers. Some cells have a centrally located nucleus while others have a basal nucleus. Left is olfactory slide/right is lining of the trachea

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium:

This looks like columnar epithelium only it has different nuclear layers. Some cells have a centrally located nucleus while others have a basal nucleus. Olfactory Trachea lining

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

Transitional Epithelium: urinary bladder

Difficult to determine, Process of elimination: free surface - epithelial tissue not shaped like cubes, columns, or scales not pseudostratified epithelium (not column looking) all you are left with is transitional epithelium.

designed to distend & return to its normal size Found in urinary bladder to keep urine from diffusing back into the internal cavity.

More transitional epithelium from the urinary bladder

Connective Tissue:
Most abundant tissue type in the body Supports epi tissues and connects it to other tissues. Forms tendons and ligaments Provides coverings that support & protect muscle and nervous tissue Bone, the hardest CT, protects organs and provides a framework for movement of muscle. Adipose tissue (fat) insulates body & stores lipids Blood provides a medium for transport of substances throughout the body

Connective Tissues Characteristics continued..

Not very cellular, containing more extracellular matrix than cells. Extracellular matrix: consists of fibers and ground substance that are made and secreted by different conn. tissue cells. 3 types of fibers: collagen fibers, elastin fibers, reticular fibers (produced by fibroblasts) Ground substance: may be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or hard.

Different Types of Mature CT:

Loose CT: extracellular fluid made by fibroblasts Dense CT: extracellular fluid made by fibroblasts Cartilage: extracellular fluid made by chondroblasts and maintained by chondrocytes Bone: extracellular matrix made by osteoblasts and maintained by osteocytes Blood: Plasma is the matrix where blood cells and platelets are, but its not made by these cells

Connective Tissue Fibers:

Collagen Fibers: Strong collagenous fibers made of protein, collagen that adds strength for holding body parts together. Elastic Fibers: Elastic fibers made of the protein elastin, are stretchy and add flexibility to certain types of connective tissue Reticular fibers: thin collagenous fibers that form supportive networks in a variety of tissues.

Loose connective tissue:

Types: Adipose & Areolar tissue Forms delicate, thin membranes throughout the body that bind body parts together. Fibroblasts are separated by a gel-like ground substance that contains collagenous and elastic fibers It binds the skin to underlying organs and fills spaces within muscle.

Adipose (fat) tissue (Loose CT)

Connective tissue designed to store fat. Fibroblasts fill with fat and become Adipocytes Found beneath the skin, around joints, padding the kidneys and other internal organs, and in certain abdominal membranes.
Notice the shape of the adipocytes (adipose cells). This shape is a result of the fat droplet within the adipocyte that pushes the nucleus to the cell membrane.

Dense Connective Tissue:

Consists of densely packed collagenous fibers and is very strong. Lacks a good blood supply Dense Regular is found in tendons & ligaments Dense Irregular is found right beneath the dermis of the skin.

Dense Regular

Reticular Connective Tissue

Where Found? lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, thymus (all organs of the immune system)

Cartilage (3 types)
Collagen fibers give it its strength, ground substance gives it its resiliency Chondroblasts secrete the fibers & ground substance and then become isolated and transform into chondrocytes that lie within lacunae (little lakes). Cartilage is Avascular (lacks blood supply) but receives its nutrients through diffusion from nearby vascular tissues. 3 types of cartilage: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage (named because of the type of fiber in the matrix)

Hyaline Cartilage:
Most common type Matrix is white and opaque Found: nose, ends of long bones, ribs, trachea Fetal skeleton is made of this type of cartilage

Notice the lacunae (spaces in the matrix) and the chondrocytes (cartilage cells) within the lacunae.

Elastic cartilage
Matrix contains many elastic fibers (more flexibility) Found in outer ear, auditory tube of ear, epiglottis Always looks dark with a lot of branching fibers

Fibrocartilage:
Many lacunae and chondrocytes (small lacuna) With many wispy, broad collagenous fibers. A tough tissue that provides a shockabsorbing function in intervertebral disks and in the knees and pelvic girdle.

Where to find cartilage:

Hyaline cartilage: ends of long bones, trachea and bronchi, anterior ends of ribs, embryonic skeleton Fibrocartilage: Intervertebral disks, cartilage pads in knee, pubic symphysis Elastic cartilage: external ear, auditory tube, epiglottis of larynx

Osseus (Bone) Tissue

Hardest connective tissue, with deposits of mineral salts deposited around protein fibers in the organized layers (lamellae) Mature bone cells, called osteocytes, lie trapped within lacunae and are arranged in concentric circles around osteonic canals interconnected by canaliculi

Two Types of Bone

Compact Bone: Spongy Bone

Consists of the Haversian Consists of bony bars called trabeculae with Systems spaces Heavy Lightweight but strong Found on the outer Found making up the ends portion of long bones of long bones (also where blood cells are made

Section of compact ground bone - dry and unstained - showing cross-cuts of Haversian systems. In the center of each system is an Haversian canal which carries blood vessels. With so many such systems per unit volume of bone, we can say that bone is a well vascularized tissue. (By contrast, cartilage is avascular.)

2 types of bone tissue: Compact and Spongy. They differ in the amount and size of spaces present. Osteon (Haversian System)-repeating organized units of compact bone and in the center is a large central canal (Haversian Canal)

Bone has a good blood supply, enabling rapid recovery after an injury

Spongy bone
t = trabeculae m = marrow

Blood
Function: Transports nutrients & chemical messengers to all body tissues and transports waste from tissues to excretory organs. Composed of RBC, WBC, platelets, plasma Plasma is the extracellular matrix and its fibers are produced and observed only during blood clotting.

Blood:
Composed of cells (red and white) suspended in fluid matrix called plasma Formed in the bloodforming tissues inside red bone marrow and functions to transport substances throughout Notice the blood cells are suspended in a fluid matrix (called plasma). The the body.
red blood cells lack a nucleus and the nuclei of the white blood cells are stained.

Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)

Carry oxygen to all tissues Lack a nucleus Formed in red bone marrow

White Blood Cells (leukocytes)

Fight infection Six different types Made in red bone marrow Much larger than RBCs

Platelets (thrombocytes)
Function in blood clotting Not complete cells, they are fragments of cells found in bone marrow

Muscle Tissue
Very cellular Vascular and innervated Muscle cells are elongated cells called fibers that shorten (contract) causing movement. Three types of muscle tissue
1. Skeletal muscle 2. Cardiac muscle 3. Smooth muscle

 multinucleated cylindrical striated

Skeletal Muscle- attached to bone and skin Large

Cardiac Muscle- wall of heart

Smaller Branching cells with one or two centrally located nuclei per cell Intercalated discs are dark bands where cardiac muscle cells connect end to end striated

Smooth Muscle - walls of digestive tract

organs, walls of arteries and veins, walls of ureters and urinary bladder Small Uninucleated Spindle-shaped (tapered at both ends) NOT striated

Nervous Tissue- forms brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Very cellular Two categories of nervous tissue cells
1. Neurons receive and send information 2. Neuroglia support the neurons and help them to fuction

The Neuron
Dendrites: processes that receive signals from sensory receptors & other neurons Axon: process that sends signals to other neurons Cell body: Integration of signal

Body Membranes:
Synovial: line synovial joint cavities and produces synovial fluid Epithelial (3 types): 1. Mucous membranes 2. Serous membranes 3. Cutaneous membranes

Mucous membranes
Wet or moist Line body cavities opening to the exterior of the body Found lining part of urinary tract, digestive, respiratory, reproductive tracts

Serous membranes
Moist Line ventral body cavities Produce serous fluid Made of simple squamous over areolar connective tissue

Cutaneous membranes
Dry Forms the skin Made of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and a thick connective tissue layer