WARSAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL MACHINES

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERTERS

AND TRANSFORMERS

Lectured for IVth semester students by

Wiesław PARTYKA, Ph.D., M.Sc. El. Eng.

Institute of Electrical Machines
Electrical Machines Division
Building beneath Chimney, room #19 (BpK19)

w.partyka@ime.pw.edu.pl

REFERENCES - RECOMMENDED BOOKS:

1. Fitzgerald A., Kingsley C., Umans S.: Electric machinery. McGraw-Hill

2. Say M.G.: Alternating current machines. Direct current machines.
Pitman Publishing
3. Nasar S., Unnewehr L.: Electromechanics and Electric Machines.
John Wiley&Sons
4. El-Hawary M.: Principles of electric machines with power electronic
application. John Wiley&Sons
5. Latek W.: Zarys maszyn elektrycznych. WNT, W-wa
6. Bajorek Z.: Maszyny elektryczne. WNT, W-wa
7. Kamiński G., Przyborowski W., Kosk J.: Laboratorium maszyn
elektrycznych. Oficyna Wyd. PW.
 G-2
ELECTRICAL MACHINE DEFINITION

Electrical machine is a converter of energy (or power converter) [A margin for

which converts: comments and
electrical energy (power) into mechanical one, student’s own notes]
or
mechanical energy (power) into electrical one,
or
electrical energy (power) into electrical - but usually of
different parameters,
with the help of (by means of) magnetic field. Energy conversion in
electrical machines is or is not accompanied with mechanical motion.

Machine converters:

.............................................................................................
T - torque (moment) in
Pout N⋅m
Pin ELECTRICAL Ω - angular speed of
the shaft in rad/s
MOTOR
F;v P - power in W (watts)
T;Ω F - force in linear
INPUT - ELECTRICAL POWER OUTPUT - MECHANICAL POWER motion in N
P = UI (DC circuit) P = TΩ (rotational motion) v - speed (linear)
P = UIcosϕ (AC 1-phase) P = Fv (linear motion) in m/s
P = √3UIcosϕ (AC 3-phase, line or phase-to-phase values) Pin - input power
P = 3UphIphcosϕ (AC 3-phase, phase values)
Pout - output power
............................................................................................

Pin
ELECTRICAL Pout
GENERATOR

MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL
INPUT OUTPUT

............................................................................................

Pin TRANSFORMER, Pout

or MACHINE
CONVERTER
ELECTRICAL ELECTRICAL
INPUT OUTPUT (OF
DIFFERENT
PARAMETERS)

IMPORTANT NOTICE: OPERATION OF ELECTRICAL MACHINE

IS REVERSIBLE. MODE OF OPERATION DEPENDS ONLY UPON
THE FORM OF POWER SUPPLIED TO AND ABSORBED FROM
THE MACHINE.
 G-3
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ENERGY CONVERSION
IN ELECTRICAL MACHINE

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Assume the coil having N turns. Each turn is linked with the
magnetic flux Φ. The total flux linked with the coil is
Ψ=NΦ
and is called coil’s flux linkage.
According to Faraday-Lenz law when the change of Ψ is taking
place the electromotive force (emf) is induced in the coil:

dΨ dΦ
e= =N
dt dt

Change of flux linkage may occur in two ways (separately or

simultaneously):
• flux is constant, the coil moves through it; in electrical
machines it is usually so arranged, that the straight parts of
the coil turns move at speed v at right angles to the direction
of the flux;
• coil is stationary with respect to the flux, the flux is varying in
magnitude.

In general Φ = f(x,t), and

dΦ ∂Φ dx ∂Φ
e= N =N +N = er + ep
dt ∂x dt ∂t

Motional (rotational) emf in a single conductor of length l cutting

across a magnetic field of uniform flux density B at speed v at
right angle to the direction of the flux is

e = er = Blv

Pulsational emf (transformer emf) in a coil of N turns, induced

due to the flux linked to the coil varying in time sinusoidally

Φ = Φmsinωt = Φmsin2πft
has the value

dΦ
e = ep = N = 2πfNΦ m cosωt = Em cosωt
dt

Its root-mean-square (rms) value

Em
E= = 4.44fNΦ m
2
 G-4
ELECTRODYNAMIC INTERACTION OF CURRENT AND
MAGNETIC FIELD

When a current I flowing along the elementary conductor dL is

under influence of magnetic field of density B, an elementary
mechanical force is developed on it, according to Lorentz
relation:
dF = I ⋅ dL × B

The highest value of the force is achieved when the conductor

(and current I) is perpendicular to the magnetic field B. In such
a case, for the conductor of total length L, the total force acting
at the conductor (current) is

F = BIL

and is perpendicular to both current and field.

Tendency to align
the magnetic field
lines (alignment)

DETERMINATION OF EMF AND DYNAMIC FORCE

DIRECTIONS H - magnetic field
strength in A/m.
The method of three fingers of the right hand. NI = Θ - magnetomotive
force (mmf) in A
(or in A-t)
AMPER'S RULE FOR MAGNETIC CIRCUIT µ =µrµo - absolute
permeability in H/m.

∫ H ⋅ dL = NI = Θ µo = 4π×10-7 H/m -
L absolute permeability
of vacuum, air or
nonmagnetic material
or for finite number of the closed magnetic circuit parts of
uniform cross-section and assignable length and permeability µr - relative permeability
(in per unit -p.u.)
∑ H x Lx = NI L
x Rµ = - reluctance
and hence A⋅ µ
(magnetic resistance)
in H-1
Bx Φ
NI = ∑ H x Lx = ∑ ( Lx ) = ∑ ( Lx ) = Φ ∑ Rµx
x µx x Ax µ x x

where Ax is a cross-section area of the x-th part of magnetic

circuit
 G-5
ELECTROMAGNETIC CIRCUIT EXAMPLE

R – winding resistance
N – number of turns
Φ - the main flux (A; l; µ)
Φl – leakage flux flowing
mainly outside the
magnetic circuit (Al; ll; µo)
Im – amplitude of
Assume i = Imsinωt (or i = √2Isinωt) sinusoidally
N ⋅i l varying current
Φ = Φmsinωt Φ= Rµf = = var (saturation effect) I – root-mean-
Rµf A⋅ µ
square (rms)
N ⋅i ll value of current i
Φ l = Φ lm sin ωt Φ l = Rµl = = const
Rµl Al ⋅ µo
emf induced due to Φ

dΦ NI N2
ef = N = NΦ mωcosωt = N m ωcosωt = ωI mcosωt
dt Rµf Rµf
N2 amplitude of ef
= Lf − inductance of the winding corresponding to Efm = Xf⋅Im
Rµf
rms value of ef
the main flux path parameters Ef = Xf⋅I
2
N
ω = L f ω = X f − so called magnetizing reactance
Rµf
emf induced due to Φl
dΦ l NI m N2
el = N = NΦ lmωcosωt = N ωcosωt = ωI mcosωt
dt Rµl Rµl
amplitude of el
N2 Elm = Xl⋅Im
= Ll − inductance of the winding corresponding to
Rµl rms value of el
the leakage flux path parameters El = Xl⋅I

N2
ω = Llω = X l − so called leakage reactance
Rµl

Xf + Xl = X
(total) reactance of
the coil

Equivalent circuit with rms values Phasor diagram

of U, I described at complex plane

Voltage balance equation ϕ - phase angle

U = ∆U R + E l + E f = R I + jX l I + jX f I
 G-6
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
OF A ROTATING MACHINE
1 - windings of stator and
rotor embedded in
slots
2 - slots and teeth
3 - magnetic cores of
stator and rotor
(made of laminations)
4 – frame, housing
5 – air gap
6 - bearings
7 - shaft

CORE LOSS
(power loss in magnetic core)

Hysteresis loss - due to the cycling of the material through its

hysteresis loop

Specific hysteresis loss (per mass unit of magnetic material)

ph = k h fBm2 [W/kg]
 G-7
Eddy-current loss - due to the induction of emfs and currents
(eddy currents) circulating within the magnetic material.

Eddy-current specific loss

ρ - resistivity of magnetic
1 material
pe = k e d 2 f 2 Bm2 = k e' f 2 Bm2 [W/kg] d - thickness of
ρ
lamination

Total core loss in

transformers rotating machines

h.r.s. - hot-rolled steel

(4-5% silicon content)
c.r.o.s - cold-rolled grain-
oriented steel

Directional properties of cold-rolled grain-oriented steel

Magnetic properties in
the rolling direction are
far superior to those on
any other axis.
Power loss and
magnetising current in
the rolling direction are
each taken as unity.
 G-8
COPPER (I2R) LOSS

When current I (rms value or DC) flows in a conductor (winding)

of resistance R, the I2R loss appears.

Copper & aluminium - most common conducting metals used

for electrical machine windings.

Total loss ∆P = ∆PCu = I2R

l - length of conductor
(winding)
l
R=ρ ρ - resistivity (Ω.m)
S Cu
SCu – cross-section
2 area of the
Specific I R loss (per volume unit of conducting material (or per
conductor
unit cube of conducting material)
J – current density
∆p = J ρ 2 (A/m2)

The resistance depends on temperature ϑ - temperature

Rϑ = R20 (1 + α ⋅ ∆ϑ ) ∆ϑ = (ϑ − 20) ∆ϑ - temperature rise
α - resistance-
Conducting materials properties temperature
coefficient
ρ α R20 – resistance
Metal Resistivity Resist - Density determined
temper. (measured) at 20oC
coefficient
[µΩ.m] [1/K] [kg/m3]

Copper 0.0172 0.00393 8 900

Aluminium 0.045 0.00393 2 700

MECHANICAL LOSS ∆Pm

Power loss due to:

• bearing friction
• windage (fan - ventilator action, friction of rotating
parts against coolant, f.e. air)
• brush friction
 G-9
EFFICIENCY OF ENERGY CONVERSION

Efficiency of power conversion is usually the most important

parameter of electrical machine.
Pout
= η efficiency
Pin

Pin - Pout = Σ∆P total power loss

∑ ∆P = ∆PFe + ∆PCu + ∆Pm

Pout P − ∑ ∆P
η= = in can be also expressed in %
Pout + ∑ ∆P Pin

TEMPERATURE RISE OF THE MACHINE

ϑo - ambient temperature
Simplifying assumptions: (coolant temp.)
• machine is an ideal homogeneous body, ϑ - machine temperature
• machine is internally heated by total power loss Σ∆P,
α - heat transfer
• machine is surface (externally) cooled (f.e. by means of coefficient [W/(m2.K)]
external fan):
ϑo M - mass of the machine
c - specific heat of the
ϑ machine body
Σ∆P [J/(kg.K)]
A - area of machine
surface at which the
α heat exchange occurs
(cooling surface)

The energy balance equation for heated machine when running αh - heat transfer coeff.
of running machine

∑ ∆P ⋅ d t = M ⋅ c ⋅ dϑ + A ⋅ α h ⋅ (ϑ − ϑo ) ⋅dt Th - heating time

constant
αc - heat transfer coeff. of
and its solution for temperature rise (above the ambient resting machine
temperature) ∆ϑ = ϑ - ϑo (while cooling at
 rest)
− 
t

∆ϑ = ∆ϑ max  1 − e h 
T
∆ϑ max =
∑ ∆P Th =
M ⋅c
Tc - cooling time constant
  A ⋅ αh A ⋅ αh
  (at rest)

The energy balance equation for cooling down (machine at rest)

0 = M ⋅ c ⋅ dϑ + A ⋅ α c ⋅ (ϑ − ϑo )
and
t
−
Tc M ⋅c
∆ϑ = ∆ϑ i e Tc =
A ⋅ αc
where ∆ϑi is initial temperature rise (at the beginning of cooling)
 G - 10
When we don’t regard a machine as a homogeneous body, the
temperature rises of the winding, core & frame can be different:

What maximum temperature (or temperature rise) can be allowed for

any machine part?

Too high temperature (overheating) can damage the material or can

shorten the material life expectancy (material life time).

Insulating materials are most sensitive to temperature. Therefore, Thermal life expectancy
almost all usable materials are subject to temperature limitations.
They are classified in accordance with limits of operating
temperature:
Temperature of winding
Insulation class A E B F H measured by means of
resistance measurement
o
Max temperature C 105 120 130 155 180 method

or, when we assume the ambient temperature ϑo = 40oC and take

into consideration the average temperature rise (for example the A, E, B, F, H – previously
temperature rise of the entire winding determined by means of its used abbreviations of
machines’ insulation
resistance increase), we can describe the maximum temperature rise:
classes (still in
Insulation class A E B F H application in machines
of older manufacturing)
Max temp. rise, K 60 75 80 105 125

IEC and European Standard 60034-1 Edition 11: “Rotating

electrical machines – Part 1: Rating and performance” provides
three degrees of thermal classification:
Thermal classification 130 155 180 Most actual system of
thermal classification
Max temp. rise, K 80 105 125

For large machines the life expectancy is about 30 years, providing

the maximum temperature of insulating material used in the machine
is not exceeded. Increased temperature above the permissible value
causes the quicker degradation of insulating material.
8oC rule
Machine life expectancy (time to failure) is halved for each 8oC
temperature rise above that maximum permissible value
Montsinger’s rule
(continuously).
 G - 11
DUTY TYPES OF THE MACHINE

There are various applications of the machines. Standard

motors & transformers are rated in terms of continuous
operation. But there are also other possible types of operation -
duty types:

N - operation under
rated condition of
load

R - machine at rest
and
de-energised

D - starting time

F - braking time

V - operation at
no-load but
rotating

Cyclic duration factors

S3: N/(N+R)

S4: (D+N)/(D+N+R)

S5: (D+N+F)/(D+N+F+R)

S6: N/(N+V)
S1 - continuous running duty
S2 - short-time duty (usually expressed in
S3 - intermittent periodic duty %: 15, 25, 40 or
60%)
S4 - intermittent periodic duty with starting
S5 - intermittent periodic duty with electric braking Cycle duration - 10 min
S6 – continuous-operation periodic duty
S2: N=10, 30, 60 or
…. 90 min
Maximum temperature rise must not exceed the appropriate
permissible value for the given insulation class of the machine.

Insulation class (thermal classification) of the machine is always

given at the machine’s nominal plate.

The rated (nominal) power of the machine is referred to

(corresponds to) the chosen duty type which should also be
given at the machine nominal plate by means of: duty type
symbol (S1 … S10), corresponding cyclic duration factor and
moments of inertia of machine and of the load.