The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/1361-2026.

htm

JFMM 11,2

Japanese consumers need for uniqueness

Effects on brand perceptions and purchase intention
Dee K. Knight and Eun Young Kim
University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
Abstract
Purpose This study sets out to examine the causal relationships among consumers need for uniqueness, brand perceptions, and purchase intention of a US apparel brand among Japanese Generation Y consumers. Design/methodology/approach A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data from 175 students enrolled at two Japanese metropolitan universities. A structural equation model using correlation matrix with maximum likelihood was estimated using LISREL 8.53. Findings Japanese consumers need for uniqueness consisted of avoidance of similarity, unpopular choice and creative choice. The consumers need for uniqueness was negatively related to the perceived quality, whereas the creative choice was positively related to the emotional value in perceptions of the US apparel brand. The perceived quality decreased purchase intention, while the emotional value increased purchase intention. Research limitations/implications This study was limited to students at two Japanese metropolitan universities and to one US apparel brand. Practical implications Consumer need for uniqueness may be considered when developing merchandising and marketing strategies for the Generation Y consumer cohort in domestic and international markets. A focus on emotional values can be successful in creating and maintaining a brand relationship with the focal consumer market. Originality/value Few, if any, studies exist that investigate Japanese Generation Y consumers need for uniqueness and its relationship to brand perceptions. This study addresses perception of a foreign brand and purchase intention related to consumers need for uniqueness. Keywords Consumer behaviour, Clothing, Brand image, Perception, Japan Paper type Research paper

270
Received October 2005 Revised July 2006 Accepted July 2006

Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management Vol. 11 No. 2, 2007 pp. 270-280 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1361-2026 DOI 10.1108/13612020710751428

Introduction With accelerating globalization, rapidly changing retail environments are fueled by increasing global competition and higher consumer expectations. International expansion is a strategy pursued by some companies to offset a maturing domestic retail environment and an aging consumer market in the USA. Economic growth and emerging young consumers who are brand and fashion conscious (Morton, 2002; Bryck, 2003) in Asian markets, such as China, India, Japan, and South Korea have attracted attention from US apparel retailers. Consequently, of the 100 largest international retailers in terms of sales, 36 are US-based companies (Stores, 2005). Given the rapid growth and optimistic outlook for international retailing, researchers and practitioners are interested in the process of building strong brands

in foreign market environments, but it is not an easy process. Consumers, in some instances, have stereotyped products and brands based on their country of origin (Andaleeb, 1995). Many researchers agree that the power of brand perception is in the cognitive and affective responses it elicits from consumers, marketing activities, sources of information, purchasing frequency and volume, and loyalty (Keller, 2001; Yoo et al., 2000; Morris et al., 2002). Consumers brand perceptions may be driven by their unique needs and brand knowledge derived from personal experience (Keller, 2001). Young consumers, especially, have a need to bolster their self-images through having cool looks. Generation Y consumers, born from 1977 to 1994 (Morton, 2002), generally prefer brands with an identity based on values with which they can identify and through which they can express their individuality (Azuma, 2002; Parker et al., 2004). To be successful in international retailing, therefore, retailers and apparel companies must consider how Generation Y consumers respond to their brands. Nevertheless, no studies have been identied that examine how the consumers need for uniqueness affects their brand perceptions and purchase intention. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between consumers need for uniqueness, brand perceptions, and purchase intention for a US apparel brand by focusing on Generation Y consumers in Japan. Literature review Japanese Generation Y as global consumers Generation Y consumers tend to be well educated, internet savvy, and eager to shop (Morton, 2002). In fact, they often are viewed as the rst global consumer segment due to their exposure to worldwide communications via the internet (Walker, 1996). They have developed a diversity of perspectives and created a patchwork culture that is not indigenous to any one country. Japanese Generation Y consumers particularly are fashion conscious and prefer name brands (Martin and Herbig, 2002). Fueling this market is a new generation of female consumers that is redening traditional life by joining the professional ranks of their male counterparts. These consumers are often part of dual-income families with increased purchasing power (Moore and Smith, 2004; Rabon and Evans, 1998). Their importance is evident by decisions at companies producing luxury goods such as Burberry to launch new divisions targeting this focal market. At the opposite end of the continuum are US apparel brands (e.g. Calvin Klein, The Gap, Polo) that have attracted young Japanese consumers (Rabon and Evans, 1998) and Benetton, an Italian apparel company that distributes 40 percent of its products solely in Japan (Moore and Smith, 2004). Domestic companies such as Uniglo, Japans answer to Gap and Limited are also competing for the Japanese Generation Y consumer (Dawson, 2000). To be successful with these consumers, companies must cater to their faddish nature, offer trend-right, brand-name products with innovative designs and quality workmanship (Moore and Smith, 2004; Rabon and Evans, 1998). Consumers need for uniqueness theory Consumers need for uniqueness is grounded in Snyder and Fromkins (1980) uniqueness theory, which manifests itself in the individuals pursuit of material goods to differentiate themselves from others (Tian et al., 2001). Consumers need for uniqueness is demonstrated in three types of consumer behaviour:

Japanese consumers need for uniqueness 271

JFMM 11,2

(1) creative choice counter-conformity; (2) unpopular choice counter-conformity; and (3) avoidance of similarity. In the rst type of behaviour, creative choice counter-conformity, consumers purchase goods that express their uniqueness and also are acceptable to others. Consumers identied as market mavens (Solomon and Rabolt, 2004, p. 419) are part of this group. Thus, brand names that can offer some distinguishing attribute (e.g. unique features, exclusivity, prestige) appeal to consumers who demonstrate this type of consumer behaviour. Other consumers willingly risk social disapproval to establish their uniqueness by selecting products that deviate from group norms though unpopular choice counter-conformity consumer behaviour (Tian et al., 2001). Interestingly, their risky behaviour may ultimately increase their self-image. These consumers are not concerned about criticism from others; in fact, they tend to make purchase decisions that others might consider to be bizarre (Simonson and Nowlis, 2000) in contrast to consumers who make purchase decisions to conform to peer pressure (Rose et al., 1992). The nal group of consumers is intent on the avoidance of similarity to goods that are part of the mainstream (Tian et al., 2001). Consumers in this group tend to select products or brands that are not likely to become too popular, but that will distinguish them from others. To avoid similarity with others, consumers may develop a variety of strategies. For instance, they may purchase discontinued styles, shop in vintage stores, or combine apparel in unusual ways. The need for uniqueness can have a signicant effect on a consumers purchase decisions (Simonson and Nowlis, 2000). Researchers have concluded that consumers with a high need for uniqueness tended to adopt new products or brands more quickly than those with a low need for uniqueness (Amaldoss and Jain, 2005; Zimmer et al., 1999). Moreover, Zimmer et al. (1999) found that perceived quality and brand image perceptions (e.g. excitement) toward nostalgic brands were inuenced by the consumers need for uniqueness. In a study of the effects of social needs on conspicuous consumption, Amaldoss and Jain (2005) found that consumers tended to purchase high-quality products not because of their desire for uniqueness but despite it. The results of those studies support the idea that consumers brand perceptions are related to their need for uniqueness. A review of the relevant literature led us to the following hypotheses: H1a. Japanese consumers need for uniqueness is positively related to perceived quality of a US apparel brand. H1b. Japanese consumers need for uniqueness is positively related to emotional value of a US apparel brand. Consumers brand perceptions and purchase intentions Brands strive to elicit strong, positive relationships with their target consumers. Previous studies found that consumers respond to brands during the decision making process in two ways cognitive and emotional (Keller, 2001; Morris et al., 2002) that have been referred to as the thinking and feeling aspects (Sweeney and Soutar, 2001). Perceived quality is dened as the consumers subjective judgment about a brands overall excellence or superiority (Yoo et al., 2000). Consumers use numerous cues to determine brand quality including price, country-of origin, performance, and

272

image (Andaleeb, 1995; Dodds et al., 1991; Keller, 2001; Yoo et al., 2000). Similarly, Keller (2001) dened brand judgment as consumers personal opinions about brands based on how they combined performance and image associations including perceived quality, credibility, consideration, and superiority. Although consumers may have a variety of attitudes toward brands, the most important in terms of purchase intention relates to perceived quality, particularly for unfamiliar brands (Hoyer and Brown, 1990). Yoo et al. (2000) also found that the perceived quality of a brand positively related to the level of brand equity, supporting Zeithamls (1988) contention that perceived high quality drives consumers to choose a particular brand over competing brands. Consumers perceived emotional value refers to their affective reactions to a brand (Supphellen, 2000). General feelings for brands are often reported in elicitation sessions (e.g. this brand makes me feel good). The feelings about brands can be mild, intense and negative or positive in nature (Keller, 2001). Importantly, emotional response to a brand is a strong predictor of purchase intention (Morris et al., 2002) and accounts for more than twice the variance of cognition. Consumers are inundated with commercial messages relative to brands, and advertisements that evoke emotional responses can signicantly affect purchase intention (Morris et al., 2002). After a review of the relevant literature the following hypotheses were developed: H2a. Japanese consumers brand perceptions of quality will increase purchase intentions for a US apparel brand. H2b. Japanese consumers brand perceptions of emotional value will increase purchase intentions for a US apparel brand. Methods Measures Existing scales were used to measure the three main constructs on a six-point rating scale (1 strongly disagree, 6 strongly agree). Eleven items measured consumers need for uniqueness (Tian et al., 2001), six items measured brand perceptions, including perceived quality (Dodds et al., 1991) and emotional value (Yoo and Donthu, 2002), and two items measured purchase intention. Demographic variables (e.g. gender and age), retail channel preference (e.g. retail store, internet, catalogue) and clothing expenditure also were included. Polo was selected as the US brand because of its wide distribution in the Japanese market. Translation from English to Japanese and back-translation techniques were used to ensure the equivalence of the two versions of the questionnaire. Sampling and data collection The sample was students enrolled at two universities in major Japanese cities. A total of 175 participants completed self-administered questionnaires during scheduled classes. The average age of the respondents was 21 years old, and the majority (82.4 percent) ranged from 19 to 22 years old. Most (74.3 percent) of the respondents were male. Levenes test for gender equality of variances indicated there were no signicant differences in means and variances of variables (e.g. consumers need for uniqueness, brand perception, and purchase intention). It ensured that gender did not frame important distinctions for this cohort of Generation Y consumers.

Japanese consumers need for uniqueness 273

JFMM 11,2

274

Respondents made most of their clothing purchases in traditional brick-and-mortar stores (M US$704:38), followed by online sites (M US$58:73), and catalogues (M US$28:90) during the previous 12 months. For purchasing casual clothing, department stores were the preferred retail format (M 3:30), followed by locally owned shops (M 3:25), specialty shops (M 2:92), discount stores (M 2:78), US retailers in Japan (M 2:35), internet sites (M 1:87), sources outside Japan (M 1:81), and tailors or seamstresses (M 1:66). Data analysis Preliminarily, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted to determine underlying dimensions of consumers need for uniqueness. A validity of measures was assessed by a conrmatory factor analysis and Cronbachs a established inter-item reliability. To test the research hypotheses, a structural equation model using a correlation matrix reskog and So rbom, with the maximum likelihood was estimated using LISREL 8.53 (Jo 2002). Overall t of the model was assessed by statistic indexes: Chi-square (x 2), goodness-of-t index (GFI), adjusted goodness-of-t index (AGFI), and root mean square estimated approximation (RMSEA). Results and discussion Japanese consumers need for uniqueness An exploratory factor analysis using principal components factor analysis with Varimax rotation was employed to identify underlying dimensions of need for uniqueness. Nine items had factor loadings higher than 0.55, resulting in three factors with eigenvalues of 1.0 or higher, accounting for 66.4 percent of the total variance. One item in the avoidance of similarity factor was removed because it loaded highly on the unpopular choice factor. The x 2 value was 18.08 with 14 degrees of freedom (p 0:20), which is within an acceptable model t of the factor structure. Other t indexes also indicated an acceptable range (GFI 0:96; AGFI 0:91; RMSEA 0:049). Therefore, the factor structure of need for uniqueness was deemed valid to test the structural equation model. As presented in Table I, Japanese consumers needs for uniqueness consisted of three dimensions. Factor 1, avoidance of similarity, included three items related to the avoidance of products or brands perceived to be in the mainstream. Factor 2, unpopular choice, included three items of need for choosing unusual brands (or products) to establish ones personal image. This supports the notion that unpopular choice can result in an enhanced self-image, suggesting that an innovator with higher needs for uniqueness may involve unpopular choices (Tian et al., 2001). Factor 3, creative choice, included two items that reect needs for seeking and buying brands that communicate uniqueness and individuality. Of all factors, the mean of creative choice was the highest (M 3:44), indicating that Japanese Generation Y consumers tend to buy and use brands or products to fulll their needs for uniqueness or individuality (Azuma, 2002; Moore and Smith, 2004; Parker et al., 2004). Structural equation modeling A single-stage analysis with simultaneous estimation of both measurement and structural models was selected because the model is theoretically based, and the constructs of consumers need for uniqueness were preliminarily veried to be reliable

Factors and items Avoidance of similarity I stop wearing fashions when they become popular with the general public I dislike brands bought by everyone When a clothing brand becomes too popular, I wear it less Unpopular choice I look for one-of-a-kind products to create my own style The thing that I buy shapes a more unusual personal image I buy unusual brands to create a more distinctive personal image Creative choice An important goal is to nd a brand that communicates my uniqueness The brands that I like best are the ones that express my individuality Goodness-of-t statistics x 2 18:06 (df 14, p 0:20) GFI 0.96 AGFI 0:91 RMSEA 0:049

Factor loading (lij)

Reliability 0.70

M (SD) 3.14 (0.98) 3.04 (1.22) 3.15 (1.21) 3.23 (1.21)

Japanese consumers need for uniqueness 275

0.72 0.67 0.56 0.62 0.59 0.55 0.55 0.71 0.86 0.61

3.24 (0.85) 3.49 (1.20) 3.23 (1.08) 3.03 (1.14) 3.44 (1.15) 3.56 (1.27) 3.31 (1.34) Table I. Conrmatory factor analysis of Japanese consumers need for uniqueness

and valid. In the structural equation model presented in Figure 1, there are three exogenous latent constructs for consumers need for uniqueness avoidance of similarity (j1), unpopular choice (j2), and creative choice (j3) and three endogenous latent constructs perceived quality (j1) and emotional value (j2) for brand perceptions and purchase intention (j3).

Figure 1. Structural equation model result

JFMM 11,2

276

Measurement model result. The measurement model presented in Table II illustrates that the factor loadings for each construct were statistically signicant (i.e. ranging from 0.51 to 0.99, p , 0:001) and sufciently high to demonstrate that the indicators and their underlying constructs were acceptable. Reliabilities ranged from 0.62 to 0.88, and the variances extracted are above the threshold value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998) except for the factor of unpopular choice. These results indicate that the measurement model is highly reliable and reasonably valid. Structural equation model result. In the structural equation model, we considered a partial covariance between the perceived quality and emotional value (c21 0:25, p , 0:01). This consideration conrmed the previous ndings that cognitive and affective responses to brands were not independent for determining purchase intention (Brown and Stayman, 1992; Morris et al., 2002). The overall model t indicated a x 2 of 102.65 with 80 degrees of freedom (p 0:05), which is within the accepted level (Hair et al., 1998). Other t indices (GFI 0:90, CFI 0:97, NFI 0:91, RMSEA 0:05) demonstrated a relatively good t (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988; Hair et al., 1998). Thus, the
Factor loading Variancea (lij) Reliability extracted 0.70 0.70 0.64 0.61 0.62 0.66 0.58 0.51 0.71 0.78 0.67 0.88 0.88 0.85 0.82 0.77 0.80 0.83 0.79 0.87 0.99 0.86 0.85 0.65 0.68 0.61 0.47 0.52

Latent variables and observed indicators Consumer need for uniqueness Avoidance of similarity (j1) X1: I stop wearing fashions when they become popular with the general public X2: I dislike brands bought by everyone X3: When a clothing brand becomes too popular, I wear it less Unpopular choice (j2) X4: I look for one-of-a-kind products to create my own style X5: The things that I buy shape a more unusual personal image X6: I buy unusual brands to create a more distinctive personal image Creative choice (j3) X7: An important goal is to nd a brand that communicates my uniqueness X8: The brands that I like best are the ones that express my individuality Brand perceptions Perceived quality (h1) Y1: Be high quality Y2: Be durable Y3: Have a good reputation Y4: Be prestigious brand Emotional value (h2) Y5: Give me pleasure Y6: Make me feel good Purchase intentions (h3) Y7: I intend to buy this brand frequently Y8: I plan to buy this brand more often

Table II. Measurement model results

Sum of squared standardized loadings Note: Variance extracted Sum of squared standardized loadings sum of indicator measurement error

estimated structural model illustrated in Figure 1 was deemed to be a good t for testing the hypotheses.

Japanese consumers need for uniqueness 277

Hypotheses testing Hypothesis 1. H1 tested whether consumers need for uniqueness was signicantly related to consumers brand perceptions including perceived quality and emotional value of the US apparel brand among Japanese Generation Y consumers. As shown in Figure 1, all factors of consumers need for uniqueness were signicantly related to perceived quality, while only the unpopular choice was signicantly related to emotional value. Avoidance of similarity had a negative effect on perceived brand quality (g11 20:49, p , 0:01). That is, respondents with a high need for avoiding similarity had negative perceptions in terms of product quality toward the US apparel brand. Unpopular choice also had a negative effect on perceived quality (g12 20:52, p , 0:01). That is, Japanese consumers who need an unpopular brand for their own personal image are less likely to perceive the US brand as high quality, reputable, and prestigious. These ndings may result from the fact that the selected brand (i.e. Polo) has a wide distribution in Japan (Wall Street Journal, 2002). However, creative choice had a positive effect on perceived quality (g13 0:49, p , 0:01), suggesting that consumers with a high need to express their individuality and also to be considered arbiters of good taste are more likely to perceive the US apparel brand as high quality, reputable, and prestigious. This nding implies that brands with a superior image play an important role in expressing uniqueness and individuality, especially for Japanese Generation Y consumers. Thus, H1a is supported, suggesting that perception of brand quality differs by the type of consumers need for uniqueness. The need for unpopular choice signicantly affected the perceived emotional value (g22 0:48, p , 0:01), while the other consumer need for uniqueness factors were not signicantly related to emotional value. This supports previous ndings that brand image perceptions were inuenced by consumers need for uniqueness (Zimmer et al., 1999), leading to unconventional decision-making (Simonson and Nowlis, 2000). Thus, H1b is partially supported. Conclusively, for Generation Y consumers, the three dimensions of needs for uniqueness avoidance of similarity, unpopular choice, and creative choice play important roles as antecedents of apparel brand perceptions, such as perceived quality and emotional value. The effects of unpopular choice and creative choice on brand perceptions were opposite in direction, that is positive and negative, respectively. Hypothesis 2. In the relationship between brand perceptions and purchase intention, perceived quality had a negative effect on purchase intention (b31 20:54, p , 0:001). That is, consumers who perceived the brand to be of higher quality had less intention to purchase the brand. This nding is not consistent with the literature that perceived high quality or superiority led to building strong brand relationships through purchase behaviour (Keller, 2001; Yoo et al., 2000; Zeithaml, 1988). Thus, H2a is not supported. The emotional value had a signicant, positive effect on purchase intention b32 0:97, p , 0:001). This nding lends support to other researchers who found that the emotional factor encourages purchase intention (Babin and Babin, 2001; Morris et al., 2002). Thus, H2b is supported.

JFMM 11,2

278

Conclusions and implications This study examined relationships among consumers need for uniqueness, brand perceptions, and purchase intention by focusing on Japanese Generation Y consumers. Findings indicated that Japanese consumers need for uniqueness consisted of three types i.e. avoidance of similarity, unpopular choice, and creative choice supporting Tian et al.s (2001) consumers need for uniqueness dimensions. Respondents needing to express their individuality through creative choice desired a US brand described as high-quality, reputable, and prestigious. While these consumers want to express their individuality, they also want to maintain social norms. This nding supports the idea that some consumers prefer expensive and high-quality brands that are considered prestigious (Amaldoss and Jain, 2005). Generation Y consumer groups extend beyond national borders (Allen, 2004; Nurko, 2003); therefore, retailers and apparel companies should consider consumers need for uniqueness when developing global merchandising strategies for this consumer cohort. Based on the degree of consumers need for uniqueness relative to brand perceptions, several implications for apparel market segmentation can be drawn. Emotional value is critical for Generation Y consumers when making choices among brands. The US apparel brand was favorably perceived on emotional value by consumers with a high need for unpopular choice and encouraged purchase intention to create their own styles. This nding supports the notion that emotional attitude toward a brand is an important antecedent in predicting consumers purchase behaviour (Kamp and MacInnis, 1995; Morris et al., 2002; Sweeney and Soutar, 2001). Also, this nding can be used as a basis for developing a brands unique identity (or image), which can elicit positive emotions (e.g. feelings of pleasure). Brands can build emotional images through their retail environments cor) and exotic locations. Creating and maintaining the equity (e.g. background music, de of US apparel brands and their relationships with Generation Y consumers require appropriate advertising media and promotional strategies, such as using celebrity endorsements, which are particularly effective with this market (Moore and Smith, 2004). Conversely, perceived brand quality does not attract consumers with a need for avoidance of similarity and unpopular choice. Consumers representing these two dimensions of need for uniqueness make purchase decisions that are counter to mainstream consumer purchase decisions. Consumers representing these two dimensions of consumers need for uniqueness would be more of a challenge for US apparel brands entering the Japanese market against European fashion brands, such as Benetton, Chanel, and Prada. The nal notation to be made is that geographic distance may not be a barrier for Generation Y consumers. It is possible to deliver promotional messages regarding apparel brands via the internet across nations. An adoption of effective e-tailing strategies (Tian and Emery, 2002) could build strong brands with Generation Y consumers who are internet-savvy for the internationalization of apparel retailing. These results should be interpreted with caution due to the limitation of sampling in one geographic location with one specic apparel brand. For cross-cultural studies, we also recommend that various agents including brand image (Hsieh, 2002) and brand response (Keller, 2001) should be examined to ascertain how those variables establish brand equity across cultures. Such studies can expand a model of customer-based brand equity by including different retail formats (e.g. internet) and different cultures.

References Allen, P. (2004), Welcoming Y, Benets Canada, Vol. 28 No. 9, pp. 51-3. Amaldoss, W. and Jain, S. (2005), Pricing of conspicuous goods: a competitive analysis of social effects, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 42, pp. 30-42. Andaleeb, S.S. (1995), Country-of-origin effects: a country-category effect hypothesis, Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 29-52. Azuma, N. (2002), Pronto moda Tokyo-style emergence of collection-free street fashion in Tokyo and the Seoul-Tokyo fashion connection, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 30 No. 3, pp. 137-44. Babin, B.J. and Babin, L. (2001), Seeking something different? A model of schema typicality, consumer affect, purchase intentions and perceived shopping value, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 54 No. 2, pp. 89-96. Bagozzi, R.P. and Yi, Y. (1988), On the evaluation of structural equation models, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 74-94. Brown, S.P. and Stayman, D.M. (1992), Antecedents and consequences of attitude toward the ad: a meta-analysis, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 34-51. Bryck, S.A. (2003), Generation Y: is their future in your future?, LIMRAs Market Facts Quarterly, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 84-9. Dawson, C. (2000), Survival of the hippest: fast retailings CEO dees tradition by building a brand name on cheap clothing in fashion-conscious Japan, Far Eastern Economic Review, Vol. 163 No. 21, pp. 42-3. Dodds, W.B., Monroe, K.B. and Grewal, D. (1991), Effects of price, brand, and store information on buyers product evaluations, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 28 No. 3, pp. 307-19. Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L. and Black, W.C. (1998), Multivariate Data Analysis, 5th ed., Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Hoyer, W.D. and Brown, S.P. (1990), Effects of brand awareness on choice for a common, repeat-purchase product, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 141-8. Hsieh, M.H. (2002), Identifying brand image dimensionality and measuring the degree of brand globalization: a cross-national study, Journal of International Marketing, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 46-67. reskog, K.G. and So rbom, D. (2002), LISREL 8.53, Scientic Software International, Inc., Jo Chicago, IL. Kamp, E. and MacInnis, D. (1995), Characteristics of portrayed emotions in commercials: when does what is shown in ads affect viewers?, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 35 No. 6, pp. 19-28. Keller, K.L. (2001), Building customer-based brand equity: creating brand resonance requires carefully sequenced brand-building efforts, Marketing Management, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 15-19. Martin, D. and Herbig, P. (2002), Marketing implications of Japans social-cultural underpinnings, Brand Management, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 171-9. Moore, K. and Smith, M. (2004), Taking global brands to Japan, Across the Board, Vol. 41 No. 1, p. 39. Morris, J.D., Woo, C., Geason, J.A. and Kim, J. (2002), The power of affect: predicting intention, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 43 No. 3, pp. 7-17. Morton, L. (2002), Targeting Generation Y, Public Relations Quarterly, Vol. 47 No. 2, pp. 46-7.

Japanese consumers need for uniqueness 279

JFMM 11,2

280

Nurko, C. (2003), Nostalgia branding: out with the old and in with the old, Brand Strategy, September, p. 6. Parker, R.S., Hermans, C.M. and Schaefer, A.D. (2004), Fashion consciousness of Chinese, Japanese and American teenagers, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 176-86. Rabon, L.C. and Evans, W. (1998), Japan: a tough sell, but not impossible, Bobbin, Vol. 39 No. 13, p. 74. Rose, R.L., Bearden, W.O. and Teel, J.E. (1992), An attributional analysis of resistance to group pressure regarding illicit drug and alcohol consumption, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 1-13. Simonson, I. and Nowlis, S.M. (2000), The role of explanations and need for uniqueness in consumer decision making: unconventional choices based on reasons, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 27 No. 1, pp. 49-68. Snyder, C.R. and Fromkin, L. (1977), Abnormality as positive characteristic: the development and validation of a scale measuring need for uniqueness, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Vol. 86, pp. 518-27. Solomon, M.R. and Rabolt, N.J. (2004), Consumer Behavior in Fashion, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Stores (2005), Top 250 global retailers, Stores, January, pp. G12-G23. Supphellen, M. (2000), Understanding core brand equity: guidelines for in-depth elicitation of brand associations, International Journal of Market Research, Vol. 42 No. 3, pp. 319-64. Sweeney, J.C. and Soutar, G.N. (2001), Consumer perceived value: the development of a multiple item scale, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 77, pp. 203-20. Tian, K.T., Bearden, W.O. and Hunter, G.L. (2001), Consumers need for uniqueness: scale development and validation, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 28 No. 2, pp. 50-66. Tian, R.G. and Emery, C.E. (2002), Cross-cultural issues in internet marketing, Journal of American Academy of Business, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 217-24. Walker, C. (1996), Can TV save the planet?, American Demographics, Vol. 18 No. 5, pp. 42-6. Wall Street Journal (2002), Polo will buy 50% of its Japan license, Wall Street Journal (Eastern Edition), October 16, available at: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did 210294061 &Fmt 3&clientld 87&RQT 309&VName PQD (accessed August 17, 2005). Yoo, B., Donthu, N. and Lee, S. (2000), An examination of selected marketing mix elements and brand equity, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 28 No. 2, pp. 195-211. Yoo, N. and Donthu, N. (2002), Testing cross-cultural invariance of the brand equity creation process, Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 11 No. 6, pp. 380-98. Zeithaml, V.A. (1988), Consumer perceptions of price, quality, and value: a means-end model and synthesis of evidence, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 52 No. 3, pp. 2-22. Zimmer, M.R., Little, S.K. and Grifths, J.S. (1999), The impact of nostalgia proneness and need for uniqueness on consumer perceptions of historical branding strategies, American Marketing Association Conference Proceedings: 1999 AMA Winter Educators Conference: Marketing Theory, Chicago, IL, Vol. 10, pp. 259-67. Corresponding author Dee K. Knight can be contacted at: dknight3@unt.edu To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints