Antennas and Propagation

Guevara Noubir
noubir@ccs.neu.edu
Textbook: Wireless Communications and Networks, William Stallings, Prentice Hall
1
CuLllne
AnLennas
ropagauon Modes
Llne of SlghL 1ransmlsslon
ladlng ln Moblle LnvlronmenL and
Compensauon
2
ueclbels
1he ueclbel unlL:
SLandard unlL descrlblng Lransmlsslon galn (loss) and relauve
power levels
Caln: !(d8) = 10 log("
2
/"
1
)
ueclbels above or below 1 W: ! (d8W) = 10 log("
2
/1#)
ueclbels above or below 1 mW: !(d8m) = 10log("
2
/1m#)
Lxample:
= 1mW => (d8m) = ?, (d8W) = ?
= 10mW => (d8m) = ? , (d8W) = ?
3
Introduction
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of
conductors
Transmission: radiates electromagnetic energy into
space
Reception: collects electromagnetic energy from
space
In two-way communication, the same antenna can
be used for transmission and reception
4
8aslcs of 8adlo-waves ropagauon
8adlowave propagauon:
8adlowaves: elecLromagneuc waves
Slgnal energy: elecLrlcal eld (L) and magneuc eld (P)
L and P are slnusoldal funcuons of ume
1he slgnal ls auenuaLed and aecLed by Lhe medlum
AnLennas
lorm Lhe llnk beLween Lhe gulded parL and Lhe free space: couple
energy
urpose:
1ransmlsslon: emclenLly Lransform Lhe elecLrlcal slgnal lnLo radlaLed
elecLromagneuc wave (radlo/mlcrowave)
8ecepuon: emclenLly accepL Lhe recelved radlaLed energy and
converL lL Lo an elecLrlcal slgnal
5
Radiation Patterns
Radiation pattern
Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna
Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
Distance from the antenna to each point on the radiation
pattern is proportional to the power radiated from the antenna
in that direction
Beam width (or half-power beam width)
Measure of directivity of antenna
Reception pattern
Receiving antennas equivalent to radiation pattern
6
Types of Antennas
1heoreucal reference anLenna (lsoLroplc radlaLor):
A polnL ln space radlaung wlLh equal power ln all dlrecuons
olnLs wlLh equal power are locaLed on a sphere wlLh Lhe anLenna
ln Lhe cenLer
8eal anLennas exhlblL dlrecuve eecLs:
1ypes: omnldlrecuonal (dlpole) or dlrecuonal (pencll beam)
SlmplesL anLenna:
ulpole (or PerLzlan dlpole) of lengLh !/4 or !/2
ulrecuonal anLennas may be more useful:
1o cover a hlghway, valley, saLelllLe beam
arabollc anLenna
8eamwldLh aL 3m dlameLer ls 0.33
7
Antenna Gain
Antenna gain
Power output, in a particular direction, compared to
that produced in any direction by a perfect
omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna)
Effective area
Related to physical size and shape of antenna
8
Antenna Gain
Relationship between antenna gain and effective area
G = antenna gain
A
e
= effective area
f = carrier frequency
c = speed of light (3*10
8
m/s)
! = carrier wavelength
Effective area:
Isotropic: !
2
/(4")
Half-wave dipole: 1.64!
2
/(4")
power gain vs. istropic 1.64
Parabolic: 0.56 A where A is the face area
power gain vs. istropic 7A/!
2
E.g., Parabolic antenna of diameter 2m @ 12GHz => Ae? G?
> C = 33.186 = 43.46 d8
9
Propagation Modes
Ground-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
Line-of-sight propagation
10
Ground Wave Propagation
Reasons:
Induced currents slows the wavefront
Diffraction
11
Ground Wave Propagation
Follows contour of the earth
Can Propagate considerable distances
Frequencies up to 2 MHz
Example
AM radio
12
Sky Wave Propagation
13
Sky Wave Propagation
Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back
down to earth
Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth
between ionosphere and earths surface
Reflection effect caused by refraction
Examples
Amateur radio
CB radio
Works below 30 MHz
14
Line-of-Sight Propagation
15
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line
of sight
Satellite communication signal above 30 MHz not reflected
by ionosphere
Ground communication antennas within effective line of site
due to refraction
Refraction bending of microwaves by the atmosphere
Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of
the medium
When wave changes medium, speed changes
Wave bends at the boundary between mediums
16
Line-of-Sight Equations
Optical line of sight (earth diameter 12734 Km)
Effective, or radio, line of sight
d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)
h = antenna height (m)
K = adjustment factor to account for refraction, rule of
thumb K = 4/3
17
Line-of-Sight Equations
Maximum distance between two antennas for
LOS propagation:
h
1
= height of antenna one
h
2
= height of antenna two
Example:
h1 = 100m, h2 = 0 => 41km
lf h2 = 10m => h1 = 46.2m
18
LOS Wireless Transmission
Impairments
Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Free space loss
Noise
Atmospheric absorption
Multipath
Refraction
19
Attenuation (Pathloss)
Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium
Attenuation factors for unguided media:
Received signal must have sufficient strength so that
circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal
Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than
noise to be received without error
Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing
distortion
20
Free Space Loss
Free space loss, ideal isotropic antenna
P
t
= signal power at transmitting antenna
P
r
= signal power at receiving antenna
! = carrier wavelength
d = propagation distance between antennas
c = speed of light ( 3 * 10
8
m/s)
where d and ! are in the same units (e.g., meters)
What is the loss (dB) when distance is doubled?
21
Free Space Loss
Free space loss equation can be recast:
22
Free Space Loss
Free space loss accounting for gain of other
antennas
G
t
= gain of transmitting antenna
G
r
= gain of receiving antenna
A
t
= effective area of transmitting antenna
A
r
= effective area of receiving antenna
23
Free Space Loss
Free space loss accounting for gain of other
antennas can be recast as
24
Categories of Noise
Thermal Noise
Intermodulation noise
Crosstalk
Impulse Noise
25
Thermal Noise
Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons
Present in all electronic devices and transmission
media
Cannot be eliminated
Function of temperature
Particularly significant for satellite
communication
26
Thermal Noise
Amount of thermal noise to be found in a
bandwidth of 1Hz in any device or conductor is:
N
0
= noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth
k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 * 10
-23
J/K
T = temperature, in Kelvin (absolute temperature)
27
Thermal Noise
Noise is assumed to be independent of frequency
Thermal noise present in a bandwidth of B Hertz (in
watts):
or, in decibel-watts
E.g., T = 290K, N
0
= 4 10
-21
W/H = -204dbW/H
28
Noise Terminology
Intermodulation noise occurs if signals with
different frequencies share the same medium
Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency
that is the sum or difference of original frequencies
Crosstalk unwanted coupling between signal
paths
Impulse noise irregular pulses or noise spikes
Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or
faults and flaws in the communications system
29
Expression E
b
/N
0
Ratio of signal energy per bit to noise power density per
Hertz
The bit error rate for digital data is a function of E
b
/N
0

Given a value for E
b
/N
0
to achieve a desired error rate,
parameters of this formula can be selected
As bit rate R increases, transmitted signal power must increase
to maintain required E
b
/N
0
30
Other Impairments
Atmospheric absorption water vapor and
oxygen contribute to attenuation
Multipath obstacles reflect signals so that
multiple copies with varying delays are received
Refraction bending of radio waves as they
propagate through the atmosphere
31
Multipath Propagation
32
Multipath Propagation
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a
surface that is large relative to the wavelength of
the signal
Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an
impenetrable body that is large compared to
wavelength of radio wave
Scattering occurs when incoming signal hits an
object whose size in the order of the wavelength
of the signal or less
33
The Effects of Multipath Propagation
Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different
phases
If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to
noise declines, making detection more difficult
Intersymbol interference (ISI)
One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at
the same time as the primary pulse for a subsequent
bit
34
Types of Fading
Fast fading
Slow fading
Flat fading
Selective fading
Channels:
Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
Rayleigh fading (due to multipath, no LOS)
Rician fading (LOS + Rayleigh fading)
35
8adlo ropagauon
Large scale paLh loss + small-scale fadlng
Large scale paLh loss
CuLdoor propagauon
Long dlsLance
1akes lnLo accounL Lerraln prole (e.g., mounLalns, hllls, large bulldlngs,
eLc.)
lndoor propagauon (lnslde bulldlngs)
ulsLances covered are much smaller and Lhe envlronmenL ls more
varlable
lncreaslng lnLeresL due Lo CS and WLAn
Classled as llne-of-slghL (LCS) or obsLrucLed (C8S)
Small-scale fadlng: mulu-paLh
36
aLh Loss Models
Log-dlsLance paLh loss model: average paLh loss
Log-normal shadowlng (slgnal level aL a speclc
dlsLance have Causslan dlsLrlbuuon)
Environment Path Loss Exponent n
Free space 2
Urban area PCS 2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban PCS 3 to 5
In building LOS 1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building 4 to 6
Obstructed in factories 2 to 3
37
aLh Loss Models of CuLdoor
Ckumura-PaLa emplrlcal model:
valld for $ from 130MPz Lo 1300 MPz. lor urban area:
$: freq, %
&
: 8S helghL, %
'
: moblle helghL, (: 8S-MS dlsLance
lor a small Lo medlum slzed clLy:
lor a large clLy:
lor suburban area:
lor rural area:
38
CLher aLh Loss Models
Luro-CCS1 LxLenslon of Ckumura-PaLa Lo CS
(f>1300MPz):
*
+
= 0d8 (medlum and suburban), 3d8
(meLropollLan)
Walsh and 8erLonl Model
lnLegraLes eecL of dlracuon on rooops
39
aLh Loss Models for lndoor
aruuon losses (same oor wlLh so or hard paruuons)
uses esumauon of paLh loss for each maLerlal aL worklng frequency
aruuon losses beLween oors
uses esumaLes of paLh loss
Lrlcsson Muluple breakpolnL model:
4 breakpolnLs, range of paLh-loss: [L
mln
, L
max
]
Log-dlsLance paLh loss:
L(d8) = L((
0
) + 10 , log((/(
0
) + -
!

, depend on surroundlng envlronmenL, -
!
ls a normal random varlable wlLh
sLandard devlauon !
Auenuauon facLor model (average paLh loss): Sl: slngle oor, lAl: oor
auenuauon facLor, Ml: muluple oor
L(d8) = L((
0
) + 10 ,
./
log((/(
0
) + lAl (d8) = L((
0
) + 10 ,
+/
log((/(
0
)
8ulldlngs peneLrauon: depends on bulldlng helghL, number of wlndows, eLc.
8ay Lraclng uslng Ceographlcal lnformauon SysLem (ClS) daLabases
40
Small Scale ladlng Models
Mulu-paLh fadlng:
Muluple reecuons from varlous ob[ecLs: muluple paLh =>
muluple phase shls
Slgnal sLrengLh may vary by as much as 30-40d8 ln hosule
envlronmenLs when Lhe recelver moves by only a fracuon of !
Maln eecLs:
8apld change ln slgnal sLrengLh over a small Lravel dlsLance
8andom frequency modulauon due Lo varylng uoppler shls on
dlerenL mulu-paLh slgnals
1lme dlsperslon (echoes) caused by mulupaLh propagauon
41
Small Scale ladlng (ConL'd)
lacLors:
MulupaLh propagauon: muluple verslon of Lhe slgnal wlLh
dlerenL shls LhaL may add or subLracL
Speed of Lhe moblle: Lhe relauve speed beLween Lhe moblle
and 8S resulLs ln random frequency modulauon due Lo
dlerenL lncldence angles of paLhs
Speed of surroundlng ob[ecLs
1ransmlsslon bandwldLh of Lhe slgnal versus channel
bandwldLh (coherence bandwldLh)
CharacLerlsucs:
Long-Lerm fadlng x shorL-Lerm fadlng: 0(1) = '(1)2(1)
42
ladlng SLausucs
uoppler shl: $
(
= (34") cos #
# ls Lhe angle beLween Lhe radlo wave propagauon axls and Lhe moblle
Lra[ecLory
Level crosslng raLe (LC8):
Average number of umes per second LhaL Lhe slgnal envelope crosses
Lhe level ln a posluve dlrecuon
LC8 and level crosslng durauon are lmporLanL for esumaung
fadlng raLe and durauon => deslgnlng error conLrol codes:
$ = 5(Specled level)/5
2'0
,

$
'
6 max uoppler shl
78
Average fade durauon:
43
8lL Lrror 8aLe
8lL Lrror 8aLe (8L8): raLe of blL errors
Lsumaung Lhe 8L8 ls very lmporLanL: lL deLermlnes Lhe packeL
loss (lrame Lrror 8aLe: lL8)
8lL Lrror 8aLe ls a funcuon of Lhe recelved energy per blL
Lsumaung paLh loss sLausucs allows Lo esumaLe Lhe 8L8
Shannon's 1heorem (AWCn):
A channel wlLh a glven Sn8 has maxlmum capaclLy: * = # log (1 + .!5)
1here exlsL a codlng scheme LhaL allows Lo achleve Lhe channel capaclLy
44
Error Compensation Mechanisms
Forward error correction
Adaptive equalization
Diversity techniques
45
Forward Error Correction
Transmitter adds error-correcting code to data
block
Code is a function of the data bits
Receiver calculates error-correcting code from
incoming data bits
If calculated code matches incoming code, no error
occurred
If error-correcting codes dont match, receiver
attempts to determine bits in error and correct
46
Adaptive Equalization
Can be applied to transmissions that carry analog or
digital information
Analog voice or video
Digital data, digitized voice or video
Used to combat intersymbol interference
Involves gathering dispersed symbol energy back into its
original time interval
Techniques
Lumped analog circuits
Sophisticated digital signal processing algorithms
47
Diversity Techniques
Diversity is based on the fact that individual
channels experience independent fading events
Space diversity techniques involving physical
transmission path
Frequency diversity techniques where the signal
is spread out over a larger frequency bandwidth or
carried on multiple frequency carriers
Time diversity techniques aimed at spreading the
data out over time
48