Curs 1 (partea a doua):

Sisteme de operare

The first computers were made with intricate gear systems by the Greeks. These computers turned out to be too delicate for the technological capabilities of the time and were abandoned as impractical. The Antikythera mechanism, discovered in a shipwreck in 1900, is an early mechanical analog computer from between 150 BC and 100 BC. The Antikythera mechanism used a system of 37 gears to compute the positions of the sun and the moon through the zodiac on the Egyptian calendar, and possibly also the fixed stars and five planets known in Antiquity (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) for any time in the future or past. The system of gears added and subtracted angular velocities to compute differentials. The Antikythera mechanism could accurately predict eclipses and could draw up accurate astrological charts for important leaders. It is likely that the Antikythera mechanism was based on an astrological computer created by Archimedes of Syracuse in the 3rd century BC.

Knot Computer Code The first modern computers were made by the Inca using ropes and pulleys. Knots in the ropes served the purpose of binary digits. The Inca had several of these computers and used them for tax and government records. In addition to keeping track of taxes, the Inca computers held data bases on all of the resources of the Inca empire, allowing for efficient allocation of resources in response to local disasters (storms, drought, earthquakes, etc.). Spanish soldiers acting on orders of Roman Catholic priests destroyed all but one of the Inca computers in the mistaken belief that any device that could give accurate information about distant conditions must be a divination device powered by the Christian Devil. Complicated knotted strings of the Inca - decorative objects called khipu - and found they contain a seven-bit binary code capable of conveying more than 1,500 separate units of information. It has long been acknowledged that the khipu of the Inca were more than just decorative. In the 1920s, historians demonstrated that the knots on the strings of some khipu were arranged in such a way that they were a store of calculations, a textile version of an abacus

In the 1800s, the first computers were programmable devices for controlling the weaving machines in the factories of the Industrial Revolution. Created by Charles Babbage, these early computers used Punch cards as data storage (the cards contained the control codes for the various patterns). These cards were very similiar to the famous Hollerinth cards developed later. The first computer programmer was Lady Ada, for whom the Ada programming language is named. In the 1900s, researchers started experimenting with both analog and digital computers using vacuum tubes. The first modern computer was the German Zuse computer (Z3) in 1941. The first modern electronic computer was the ENIAC in 1946, using 18,000 vacuum tubes. The first solid-state (or transistor) computer was the TRADIC, built at Bell Laboratories in 1954. The transistor had previously been invented at Bell Labs in 1948. Building on the technology and math used for telephone and telegraph switching networks, researchers started building the first electronic digital computers. In the earliest days of electronic digital computing, everything was done on the bare hardware. Very few computers existed and those that did exist were experimental in nature. The researchers who were making the first computers were also the programmers and the users. They worked directly on the bare hardware. There was no operating system. The experimenters wrote their programs in assembly language and a running program had complete control of the entire computer. Debugging consisted of a combination of fixing both the software and hardware, rewriting the object code and changing the actual computer itself. The lack of any operating system meant that only one person could use a computer at a time. Even in the research lab, there were many researchers competing for limited computing time.

http://www.operating-system.org/ Operating systems list (573) Evoluia sistemelor de operare: http://www.osdata.com/kind/history.htm 1950s: FORTRAN Monitor System, General Motors Operating System, SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment, designed to monitor weapons systems, the first real time control system) early 1960s: IBM 1410/1710 OS, SABRE (Semi-Automatic Business Related Environment, developed by IBM and American Airlines) mid 1960s: DOS/360 1968 Microprocessors. Summer 1969 UNIX was developed. December 1969 Linus Torvalds is born. 1970s UNIX: Ken Thompson of AT&T Bell Labs suggested the name Unix for the operating system that had been under development since 1969. First edition of UNIX released 11/03/1971. The first edition of the "UNIX PROGRAMMER'S MANUAL by K. Thompson and D. M. Ritchie" is also dated "November 3, 1971". In 1973 the kernel of Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. This made Unix the worlds first portable operating system, capable of being easily ported (moved) to any hardware. This was a major advantage for Unix and led to its widespread use in the multi-platform environments of colleges and universities. Vendors such as Sun, IBM, HP ,..., modified Unix to differentiate their products 1978: Apple DOS 3.1 1980s: HP-UX, Macintosh, MS-DOS 1991 Linux: Linus Torvalds, University of Helsinki 1990s: FreeBSD (BSD OS originally developed by the University of California at Berkeley), OS/2, Microsoft Windows 3.0, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT 2000s: Mac OS X (the most widely used desktop version of UNIX is Apples Mac OS X, combining the ground breaking object oriented NeXT with some of the user interface of the Macintosh), Windows 2000, Windows Server 2003, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7

Linux is an operating system that was initially created as a hobby by a young student, Linus Torvalds, at the University of Helsinki in Finland. Linus had an interest in Minix, a small UNIX system, and decided to develop a system that exceeded the Minix standards. He began his work in 1991 when he released version 0.02 and worked steadily until 1994 when version 1.0 of the Linux Kernel was released. The kernel, at the heart of all Linux systems, is developed and released under the GNU General Public License and its source code is freely available to everyone. It is this kernel that forms the base around which a Linux operating system is developed. There are now literally hundreds of companies and organizations and an equal number of individuals that have released their own versions of operating systems based on the Linux kernel. Through the efforts of developers of desktop management systems such as KDE and GNOME, office suite project OpenOffice.org and the Mozilla web browser project, to name only a few, there are now a wide range of applications that run on Linux and it can be used by anyone regardless of his/her knowledge of computers. The official Linux Penguin chosen by Linus Torvalds is the image shown below, and is now distributed as part of the Kernel. The penguin was designed by Larry Ewing, and a variety of different images can be found on his web site.

Tux

Command bg break bye cancel cat cc cd chdir checkeq chmod clear cls cmp comm

Description Continues a program running in the background. Break out of while, for, foreach, or until loop. Alias often used for the exit command. Cancels a print job. View and/or modify a file. C compiler. Change directory. Change directory. Language processors to assist in describing equations. Change the permission of a file. Clears screen. Alias often used to clear a screen. Compare files. Compare files and select or reject lines that are common.

Command compress continue copy cp csh date dircmp dirname edit env eqn exit file find

Description Compress files on a computer. Break out of while, for, foreach, or until loop. Copy files. Copy files. Execute the C shell command interpreter Tells you the date and time in Unix. Lists the different files when comparing directories. Deliver portions of path names. Text editor. Displays environment variables. Language processors to assist in describing equations. Exit from a program, shell or log you out of a Unix network. Tells you if the object you are looking at is a file or if it is a directory. Finds one or more files assuming that you know their approximate filenames.

Command fsck ftp groupadd groupdel groupmod gunzip gview gzip halt help history ifconfig

Description Check and repair a Linux file system. Enables ftp access to another terminal. Creates a new group account. Enables a super user or root to remove a group. Enables a super user or root to modify a group. Expand compressed files. A programmers text editor. Compress files. Stop the computer. If computer has online help documentation installed this command will display it. Display the history of commands typed. Sets up network interfaces.

jobs
kill

List the jobs currently running in the background.

Cancels a job.

Command link ln login logname logout

Description Calls the link function to create a link to a file. Creates a link to a file. Signs into a new system. Returns users login name. Logs out of a system.

ls
mail

Lists the contents of a directory.

One of the ways that allows you to read/send E-Mail.

make
man mesg mkdir mkfs more mount mv newform

Executes a list of shell commands associated with each target.

Display a manual of a command. Control if non-root users can send text messages to you. Create a directory. Build a Linux file system, usually a hard disk partition. Displays text one screen at a time. Disconnects a file systems and remote resources. Renames a file or moves it from one directory to another directory. Change the format of a text file.

Command pack pagesize passwd paste pcat ping poweroff quit reboot rm rmdir route script sdiff sendmail

Description Shrinks file into a compressed file. Display the size of a page of memory in bytes, as returned by getpagesize. Allows you to change your password. Merge corresponding or subsequent lines of files. Compresses file. Sends ICMP ECHO_REQUEST packets to network hosts. Stop the computer. Allows you to exit from a program, shell or log you out of a Unix network. Stop the computer. Deletes a file without confirmation (by default). Deletes a directory. Show / manipulate the IP routing table. Records everything printed on your screen. Compares two files, side-by-side. Sends mail over the Internet.

Command set setenv settime shutdown

Description Set the value of an environment variable. Set the value of an environment variable. Change file access and modification time. Turn off the computer immediately or at a specified time.

sleep
spell split stat stop talk tar

Waits a x amount of seconds.

Looks through a text file and reports any words that it finds in the text file that are not in the dictionary. Split a file into pieces. Display file or filesystem status. Control process execution. Talk with other logged in users. Create tape archives and add or extract files.

uncompress
unpack untar

Uncompressed compressed files.

Expands a compressed file. Create tape archives and add or extract files.

Command until useradd userdel

Description Execute a set of actions while/until conditions are evaluated TRUE. Create a new user or updates default new user information. Remove a users account.

usermod
vacation

Modify a users account.

Reply to mail automatically. Repetitively execute a set of actions while/until conditions are evaluated TRUE. Displays who is on the system. Send a message to another user. Compress files.

while
who write zcat

Lista complet a comenzilor: http://www.computerhope.com/unix/overview.htm

http://www.linux.org/

Learn UNIX in 10 minutes [2001]: http://freeengineer.org/learnUNIXin10minutes.html Linux / Unix manual : http://www.computerhope.com/unix/uman.htm#01 Dezvoltarea Linux: http://www.operatingsystem.org/betriebssystem/_english/bs-linux.htm Comenzi Linux: http://www.pixelbeat.org/cmdline.html & http://www.perpetualpc.net/srtd_commands_rev.html Comenzi Unix: http://mally.stanford.edu/~sr/computing/basicunix.html