a ~~ » ” eae » Tg a IB a ae iT ology . as a Tey: Na Standard and Higher Level . drew TN Koyaeal CONTENTS Uaies denote Higher level pages) @StaTIsTICAL ANALYSIS (1B TOPIC 1) "ean ind stand deviation Belatonshins—grfiance aed ease @ceLts as toric 2) Tell theory Stem cll and creniation Size inal bikegy Prokarysic ells Eukaratic els Membrane stucure an! memane pois Pasive varspe across membranes ace vanspoc actos membrares Cel cviion Tham questions on Topics al 2 (tHE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE (8 TOPIC 3) ster Elements and compounds in living Organisms Building macromalecales Invading DNA “Transcription and translation Gones,polypepids ard enzymes Enzymes in action Cal respiration 3nd energy Photosynthesis Exam questions on Topic 3 (@GENETICs (1B TOPIC 4) “cence al chromosomes ios Kavyonpes Monat resses Interne of Bo 00s Genes ad gener Deducing eenohpes DNA profiting ‘Genetic modtcation ‘Cloning Exam question on Topic 4 Gzoooay ano evOLUTION 18 T0PIC5) epotoar Am ev cen Se eae Seni naman enon eae ROIs asuciit gupleenieanlioee 6 HUMAN HEALTH AND PHYSIOLOGY (B TOPIC 6) Diseson a Theeardlonaslar tern a Bod, anspor an ections ” ‘ntbocies am NDS 30 Gs change 31 Nevronv nd synaoses 2 Nowe implies 3 alin th tral ononment FI ery temperate at blood pocome 33 Repaletve system 56 “he nema pele ° Inviso ferletion 3 Tom questions on Topic 3 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND PROTEINS (B TOPIC 7) NA sricureand pico “0 Ghpanzaton of DNA in ekyctes “1 erst ef DNA e Rtixsomnes at taser RNA 8 Pofysomes an poate elongation a Stoning a sopping tansltion 5 iraramolculr boning proves 6 Frotsinsrctre @ Ptah ree Hf ney nt cation ey & Enayrsinttion 7 Conroing metalic pathways n Penrith on Te n (BELL RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS (B TOPIC 8) Cheol 2 Rnecyclo a" Oxia phosporyaton 5 Micha a Tigard poly thei 2 Ligh doen ection: A Lig rlependent reeins 7 Chlorpit 0 Limiting cos in poses 8 cam qvestons on Tope 2 (@ PLANT SCIENCE (IB TOPIC 9) “Teay structure and function a Teper a ape a Reprrtion a wing plats a5 Diss in plat suc 8% Granth nd develop plats 7 fram questonron Tepied a8 GO GENETICS (1B TOPIC 10) Wendel of nkypendnt assent ° Did roses %0 Potente interance n Genes inked an unlinked By Goong over 3 Phases oi 2 rm questions on opie 10 3511 HUMAN HEALTH AND PHYSIOLOGY (1B TOPIC 11) Giibendy reduction 96 immunity‘ vaccination 7 “Maroctonal ated and bod lating oo ‘Muscles and ales 50 ‘Musto cermetion 100 (Benes arictre ad ulation 101 Urine proc and asmeaation 102 Soermaoseness 103 Ooseness 104 Cameos 103 Ferien 106 fragancy ant hei 17 Brice ae fineton ofthe placenta io ‘Bam questions on Topic 11 11 12 HUMAN NUTRITION AND HEALTH (B OPTION A) Components fhe tie no 2ymina vids ad faty acids m Frengy in human dies ma tse uron et) 3 dees ton (2) ma fam questions on Option A 3 13 PHYSIOLOGY OF EXERCISE (IB OPTION B) Muscles ane fness 16 serie and ell spittin uz raining and the pulmonary sytem 8 Training adhe cardiovastlr sytem 9 xan quoalone on Option B 120 14 CELLS AND ENERGY (IB OPTION C) ‘sam questions on Optian © m1 @EVOLUTION (18 OPTION 0) Oigin a liteon Fars 12 Origin of prokoreen ae eukaryotes 123 Species an peviaton 124 “rere in evoltion 135 Human engine 126 Haman evolution 17 Tie are Ivonberg poeple 1a Cossteston ard plage 129 Clatsies 130 Exam questions on Option E in 16 NEUROBIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR, (1B OPTION E) Stimulus and response Perception of stimuli Vision in huenons Innate and learned behaviour [Netrotansriters and synapses Peychoactive digs The bua brain iain and beaviour Evoltion ofanimal bohaviour Exam questions on Option F 17 MICROBES AND BIOTECHNOLOGY (IB OPTION F) Classeaton of microbes Diversity of microbes “Thentroyen cycle Senage teat and methane generation ‘Microbes ar biotechnology ‘Microbes ar foc production ‘Meabollsm af microbes ‘Microbes ara disease pideriolegy Exam questions on Option F 18 ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION (BOPTION G) Disnuion a plas nd armas Niche nitions Blomatsand vp lvls Siesztow and bones Reivers a forests Jotertef poner Care Caseratinn Potton cology Fa conenston tnd specie exntons team quesionsen Open {QFURTHER HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY (BOPTION #) Homonol cont eration igre ps Gest apres ‘Beppe oa Conic ce Gana ht dcsse ‘avn baraort ‘Conon dove ans eam questonsen Op H GUDANCE FOR STUDENTS WORKING ONINTERNAL ASSESSMENT GUIDANCE FOR STUDENTS WORKING ‘ONEXTENDED ESSAYS IN BIOLOGY GUDANCE FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR FINAL EXAMS ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS INDEX TO ASSESSMENT STATEMENTS INDEX 132 133 ra 135 136 7 133 139 140 1a "1 V2 174 176 Ww 181 182e te a eM vert eal) tS The questions eiled below ate all aken from past IB examination papers. The questions ae om May (M) or November N}, Sample, 1396 (96), 1989 (29) and 2000 00) paper 2 (2) or paper (P3) with question number in backers. All ether question are IB style questions ten bythe author ofthis book. TOPICS 1 AND2 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND CELLS 1. MOOSLPZT) 2. MIBSL72(t) TOPIC 3 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE 3. NUSSLP2G) TOPIC 4 GENET.CS 1. SAMPLE HLP20) 2. MOnsLP20) ‘TOPIC S ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION A. MO9SLP2(1) 2 MOBHLP23) [TOPIC 6 HUMAN HEALTH ANO PHYSIOLOGY ALNOQSLP2C) 2, NOVSLPRI TOPIC 7 NUCLEC ACIDS AND PROTEINS 3. NOBHLP2(3) ‘TOPIC & CELL RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS ALNOSSLPICH) 2. NOSSLFSIC2) ‘TOPIC 9 PLANT SCIENCE 2. MUBSLPHICD TOPIC 10 GENETICS TL.MOBHLP2G) 2, NBBALPZ) TOPIC 11 HUMAN HEALTH AND PHYSIOLOGY Questions writen by author (OPTION A ~ HUMAN NUTRITION AND HEALTH Ques writes by author OPTION B — PHYSIOLOGY OF EXERCISE T.N9BSLP3C81) OPTION C- CELLS AND ENERGY SAMPLE SLPIICI) 2. MO@SLP3(C2) (OPTION D- EVOLUTION T.MOBHLPSON) 3. NEBHLP3ID2) OPTION E - NEUROBIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR 1. MOOHLPS{ED) 2, NODSLPHIEDS OPTION F ~ MICROBES AND BIOTECHNOLOGY (Questions writen by author )PTION G - ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION (ANoostrsccn 2 93suraG3) ‘OPTION H~FURTHER HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 2. NOSHLPSIH2)1 eae ECU 2 Mean and standard deviation “There alostalways variation in biological dat. The amount ofvariaton ean e shewen using a graph calle a irequency distribution. Most variation sives a bell shape! Frequency estrbution called the normal distribution. The ran vali inthe rile ofthe estbution, The mean ofa St of valu is calculated by dividing the sum of the values by te nurnaer of values. Forexama, the sim of te values, 9, 11 and 17 is44 and os there ae aor vals, the mica is vided by 4, which fs 11. “The standard deviation Is used ta assess how far the values ce spread abuve and helow the mean. tis calculated by tering dra inloa graphic display or scientific calelator tnd pressing the standard deviation function key, A igh ‘Sandan ceviotion hos Uitte data are widely spread ‘where aove standard deviation shows thatthe data are ‘lusteredcfsely around the men. “The standae deviation can be ured o help decide whether the dfrese between So means i key o he significant “Tino exarles are deserbed below, LEFT AND RIGHT HAND LENGTHS ‘Thin teeaage boys measured the length o thor lef and ight hardy, Vad out uhether they ae dierent Individual boys lefand right han lng varied hy as much 3s Toma “The resus are shown inthe fexquency dsribution below. "The normal dition a0 Mem han 95% he ‘Sen tictnen woo sd (eisten aed Sd er. ‘A sell ule is that 6% ofthe values lie within one standard deviation of te mean in nour diseloution ane ‘approximately 95% ofthe values lie within two standard deviations af the mean hove) ERROR BARS Hand ‘Mean Feng aa Bars on graphs extending above ard below the mean value station are used to show the variability ofthe data. They may show leit 188.5 mm 1.0mm the range ofthe data, or the standard deviation, fight 188.4 rt 10.9 mm HAND AND FOOT LENGTHS ‘The same thirty teenage boys who measured theit hand 2 ii lengths also measures the length ofthe right foot, to find 7 ‘out whethcr twas diferent from thee hand lengths. ‘The results are shown in the frequency distribution r . below. Bo Hand/ioot Mean length Siandard fy eviaton righthand 188.4 mm 10.9 mn > tightfoor 262.5 mm 1am » — vid pn 10 i an Fa 4 2| Hl | 2 Teo 120 20 230 240 260 260 300 Lang em © 160 170 100 190 200 210 Hand Leagh/ am Because te standard claviations are much grater than the clfference in mean length, is very unlikely thatthe blference in mean lth berween ff and right hands is Sgniieart Because the standard deviatlons are much es than the dilerence in men lent if very likely thatthe ference in ean length heweon ight hands and right fet s sigican. Statistical analysis 1Relationships — significance and cause THE -TEST (Cathe previous page, ses of standard devatons were used toassess whether differences berween means were likely 9 be sgrifcane. Biologists oten need to decile move objetvely \nhethor differences between means ae significant One of the moa raquendy use methois's allel the es. The test can be used to find out whether there isa significant diference between the means af two populations. ‘differences consideved satsticaly significant the Pobability oft being due te anda variation is 5% oF les. {sa satitic that is calculate ram the two set of reasuremens. The larger te clifererce between the ta means, the larger 1's. The lager the sandr deviation, the salir ti, 135 nol necessary Io (earn hwo Caleb because a graphic display calculator or computer isneary always now used. Stages in using the test 1 Ener Une values in a graphic cliplay eteulstor er spreacshcot program, with values forthe two populations enuored separa. 2, Use the calculator function keys or computor sofware to ccaleuine 5. Find the numberof deyeos of Feedom, Tis wil be the {otal umber of valu in both papulaans, minus nwo, 4, Find te clcal valu for either using compute softwear ‘ora ble of values oft The level of sgnieance (A ‘inser should be 0.05 (5%) and the appropiate row shouldbe selected according tothe number of dears of freedom, 5. Compare the calculated value of twit the crea value I the erieal value is exceeded, theve fs evidence ofa significant dilleence between the means, atthe 5% level. “Table of critical values of Level fsigieanee eae 5 we a 3 = ae z = ec 4 e] eon a zg fy aor i ‘amples ofthe uve ofthe Pet “These exes are bas On the data fa hand ad foot lengths descrted on the previo page: 1, Testing 1 eference between mean lengths oflet and right hards ‘Mea lene of lt hands = 15am ‘Mean lena of right hands = 1B8.4enm t= 7082 (rial value for = 2.002 (P= 0.05) ‘The calcula value of tis muti smaller than the erica valuc, so he dlference between the mean lenghs 9 lef ane taht hands ot sinificat 4, Testing he aference between the moaa lengths of fight branel ard ight et. ‘Mean Tenth of ih hands = 188 Aen ‘Mean length of right feet = 262.5ram ana Citcal val for r= 2.005 (P= 0.05) the calcul value offi mach larger thar the eicl value, showing thet the sitference between the mean lengths cof hands ond ee! significant. In these tec examples, the es! conflums conctusionsthat are reasonably obvious. In biokigical research, its often much Tess lear wether dllerences tnean mins are sian and te testis therefore very usc CORRELATION AND CAUSE “Tho scaterraph bolew shows that thor sa posite {eortlation aetween the lengis ofthe right hand and ght ‘eat of tiny teenage boys boys with lager handstond ta have large ts well —_ Tee $280: En Ea 0 m0 nt 2 20 209, Noo 1701601502020 al eg Altiough thee is a postive comelation baweun hand and foot length, we kro that increases in the lent the haod dno ‘cause nereeses in feng of de foot. nswad, bathe duc 10 the factors tht conral growth in teenage boys. This mistake ‘atten made a analysis of data—a correlation benwcen Neo ‘arable fs asume! to show that there sa eousa ink is Triportant remember that eerelation i or pat of cause 2 Statistical analysisTNTRODUCING CELLS Gis consist of cytoplasm, enclosed In 7 pls membane, usually cole y a single nucleus. Two cel ypesthetcan be easly Human cheek cell “ok at une aight mieescape ae human cheok cls; seraped fr nse the man (st and ass ea cls igh. ‘Moss leat cel hloglasts UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS ‘Some organisms such as Amoeba thelow), Chlorella and valona have only ane call This single cel has to ary out Sle funtions of ies metabolism ~ chemical actions Inside the cll ‘esponse —reating to stinul homgostasls—contaling cantons sie the ell growth —inereosing in sie reproduction —prolacng oping -atction -obfaining food Amoeba MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS -Mulclltar organise consist of many cells. These ces do ‘nat have to ery aut many fone neti, stead, they ‘can become spac for ane pancular function and eary it ‘out very ecient Cll ina multicellular organism Uewtore dove in dient ways. Tiss calle diferentiation. The tnay in which this avers isdeseribed on pa 4 Multicelllor organisms are said 1 show emergent properties “This mcans that the whole emanism fs move than te sum of its pats, because ofthe complex interactions between cells THE CELL THEORY The call theory includes these siatoments: * Tsing organisms ae compose of ells, * calls ar the smallest units of lite + calls come ftom pre-existing cells. Many orgznisms have been examined and have bee four 8 consis of cll hot here are ste casos where the dea of ‘Ming organisms consisting of ny boxe sruetures des not seam tof For example, sveetal muscle s made up of rnuscle filves. These are much larger than mest cells (300 6r "nor mm fone and contain hundreds of nucle. Mast ana Zonsist af Jeade-ke srucrures cae yphae hich io sane ‘pecies contain many nucle without dividing walls between. Many tses, such a bone, contain a great volume of tracellular material (mat-al ous the cell membrane) han ofc Is Despite these awkward cases, most living tissues swe composed of cells Also, whereas cells taken fom an organism ellen suvive far atime, smaller pars an Dreanism do not Cells Ga therefe seem to be the smallest unis of if that are capable of survival There is ako evicenee forthe thied par of the call theory. Some ofthe classic experiments in biology showed that Spontaneous generation o life is imps felon). The frst alls mat have been farmed i The origin ile ran non ‘lll material, but ely there is no evdenco that cells cat be armed except by cel division. Serie oun in Siesized soup ln Dn apen ota ‘scale consine does Soeayabecsuse ot fecay as no ‘racers fost in Dacia sre present Calls 3Stem cells and differentiation DIFFERENTIATION Cells ina mukicelulr ogni develop in diferent ways and ‘an therefore cary ut ciferen function. This scaled ferentiation. Te cells need diferent genes to deve in clferent ways Each cell has al ofthese genes, so coulel deselop Jmany way, butitonly uses the ones that need to follow 2s pathway of develcoment. Once a pata of develope 1s begun ina cell ts usually fic andthe cll cannot change follow adiferent pttway. The call isd to be conte The drawings (below saw tree of the hundreds of diletent ‘ypes of ifloreniated calls in humans. Heart muscle tssie ‘made tom poten bes tt are used 0 onto the cell and Rep to pump blcod in theta STEM CELLS ‘Stem coll are defined ax cells that have the capacity to se renew by cell division al ws difeentiat, Human embryor ‘eonsist entirely ofsiom calls in their early stages, but sravally the cellin the embryo commit themselves 1 2 pattem of difereriation, Once commited, 2 cell may sill dive several ore times, but ll ofthe cells Fouad will dfereniate in the same way and so they are no longer stom cells Small rumbers of embxyonic cells remain asst cols however and thoy a sl present in the adult body. They are fourd in most human tissues, including bane mareow, skin and liver. They give some human issues considerable powers ‘of regeneration are repair. The sam cell in other issues any | allow limited repa — brain, Kidney and hear, (or example “Those as been great interes in stom exls because of their potential for Ussue repair and for Weating a variety of deyeneratve consitons. For example, Parkinson's dseacs ‘multiple sclerosis and strokes all involve the loss of neurons ‘or ther cells nthe nervous system. Although still only a he research stage, theres the potential to use sem cells 10 teplace them. THERAPEUTIC USE OF STEM CELLS Inthe future, many therapies may involve the use of em cell Some therapeutic uses have already been inttodaced, (One sxample is given here. 1 The placenta and umbilical cord ofa baby is wed 28 2 source of stem cells. At the end of childbirth the placenta js taken and placed on 2 stand, withthe unbilcal cord hhenging down from it. Blo drains out ofthe umbilical cod and is collected about 100m’. The coud blood ‘eovains many hematopoiete sem cell. These cells can ‘sd and differentiate into any Iype of blood cel 2. Rei blood cells a removed for the cord blood and he eraining fla shen tested wo ind tue type, checked for dscase-causng organisms and stoved in liquid iuogen, Ina special bank of cord blood, 5. Cord blood can be used to teat patients, especialy hidren, who have developed cern fos of leuko, “Tis is a cancer in which the cells ia bone marove divide uncontrollably, producing far too many white blood cll. “The pation’ tissue ype i matched with ced bloc in he bank. f suitable cord blood i available, the paien i iver chemotherapy drugs that kill bone marrow cells, including thecelle causing te leukemia, ‘rantsion of ‘ond blew! 4. The selec con blood staken rom the Bank thawed ane introduced into the pation’ blood sytem, usally via a vin Intye chest acarm. The hematopoietic stom cals establish Uhessevesin the patient’ bone marrow, where they divide repeatedly to build up a population of one marrow coll to repace those killed by the chemotherapy drugs 4 CellsSize in cell biology LIMITATIONS TO CELL SIZE Colls do et cary on growing indefiitely. Thay reach @ maximum size-an then may divide. Ifo cell hecame too large, would develop prablems because is surace arez 0 volume aio would become too sll. [As tho sizeof any abject fs increase, the ratia between the Suface area and she volume decreases, Corser the sfaceaten to volurne ratio of cubes varying size 2 an example, “he rate a which materials ener of leave a cell depends on te surtace area ofthe el However the rate at which matesals are used or produced depends om the volume, A cel that becomes too large may not be able to fake in essontial materials or excrete waste substances quickly enough, “The same principle works for heat Cells that generate heat may not be able to lose it quickly enough ifthey grow wry lage Surlace areata volume ratios are importa in biology. They help to explain many phenarsena ‘part rom maximum eal sizes, UNITS FOR SIZE MEASUREMENTS ‘Mast 1. uit fer can each othe hy 2 factor of 1000, ‘One millimetre is a theusand Umes salle than 1 mete ‘One micromesre i thousand tes smaller than ¥milimete ‘One nonomare i theusand ines smaller than | micromere. ‘The mot seh unt for measuring the sizes of ells and structures within dham are nanometre rm) and micrometres um). “The ypieal siz f some impetantsrictures i biology are shown opposite ‘CALCULATING MAGNIFICATION Photographs ar drawings of structures soem under the microscope show them larger than they really are they magn them. Lis useful to know how much larger the image is than the factual specimen. This lato s called the magnification. tis always helpll tc show the ‘magnification on a drawing ofa biological trcture. Fallow thew: insiuctons to calculate magnification. 1. Choose an obvious ength fr example the maximum diameter ofa cal, Nwasure itn the caving. 2. Measure the same Ienth on the actual specimen. 3. Ifthe unis used farthe la measurements are dillerent, convert one of then nto the same nits asthe ether one. 4. Divide the length onthe drawing by the leg on te actual specimen. he result th ‘magnification. Magmiicaion = S28 ofc Siew of specimen “This equation can alsobe used to calculate the actual sizeof aspecimen if tke magnification and size ofthe image ae known, ‘SCALE BARS ‘A scale bare line abe! to a micrograph ora drawing to help to show the actual size of ‘he sructres For example,» 10m barshaws how large a 10m object would peas. ‘The figure below shows isa scanning election ieroyaph ofa af with Ure magniation and scale br beth shown. ‘Scanning electron micrograph of leaf (480) 10m 100 un F | catcor edlanoes 104 omnes aca ‘es anh 100 m= disacchasides or monosaccharides, veerdes + water > fattyacids + ghee! EXAMPLES OF CARBOHYDRATES: samples Example of use in animale Example of use in plants Monosaccharides glucose Glucose is eatiod bythe blood to Fructose is used to make fis galactose transport encrsy to cls throughout sweet ating, attracting animals fructose the body to disperse seeds inthe fruit Disaccharides maltose Lactose ithe sugar in il, that Sucrose is canted by phloer 10 Ibexose provides enary to young mammals wanspestenesgy to cells throughout sucrose tnt they are wean the plant Polysaccharides starch Cclycogen is usad asa short-term Cellulose ie use to rake strong, slycogen ‘encry store in iverand in fib thar ae used to constuct cellulose muscles the plan cell wall FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS | [ CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS IN ENERGY STORAGE 1 Energy storage —in the oth ips and arblyates ave advantages energy slorage compound in ving for of tn horas organisms. Carbohyerates ave wsually used fr enony sloage over short perds and ids aol plans fortongterm storage + Heat insolation ~ tye ola under De dan ‘Advantages of fips Advantages of carbohydrates redaces hel loss |. ipids contain monecnerpy por 1, Cavbolncates are more exily z seoyreey Npuesicle fram han carbohyates so ores digested than lipids 50 the energy dn tham waters help Dllipidareligher han stores of stored by them ean rele aie tat Ccbolyeate thot vontinthesame mere apy Smount of enensy 2 Lipids ave insoluble in water, 30. 2, Crbotydrates are soluble in water they do not cause aoblems with so are easier to transporte and ‘osmosis in cells from the store The chemistry of fiIntroducing DNA THE NUCLEOTIDE SUBUNITS OF DNA “Although DNA isthe genetic mater of ling orgasms and is therefore of invmense importance, ts made of relatively simple subunits. These are called nucleotides. Ect racleotde consists of twee parts —asigar called deoxyribose 13 phosphate group and a base. In digrams of DNA stroctire these are usualy shown as pentagons, civles and rectangles, respectively. The Figure fhekow) shows, how the sar, he phosphate and the base ae linked up in ileotide os _ phone mm - sea [DNA nucleotides donot al have te sors hase. Four citeent hase are found — ‘adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine. These are usually simply referred toas A, CGandT, BUILDING DNA MOLECULES “Two DNA nuclecties can be linked together by covalent bond baween the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate goup of the ether. Mace ‘nacleties can ke added in a similar way to form & ‘Strand of nucleoties, DNA molecules consist of to strands of nucleotides ‘wound together xo a double helix. Hydiogen bonds Tinlethe two stares together. These form berween the bases ofthe neo arands. However, adenine only forme hydrogen tonds with thymine and cytosine ‘only forms hydrogen bonds with guanine. This is called complementary hase paring, Hudyuy DNA REPLICATION DNA replication 2 way of copying DNA to produce new rolecules with theca base weqiencey rls sembenrservative ach moles formed by replication coms of one new strand and ove Od sand conserved! ‘tba the parent ONA molecule, sage The DNA double lic is umound and separated! In sande by brag the yon bo Feta then ene vee | a Stage 2 ‘The tinge strands ac 5 temples for new Header free ucts errr in lng! ‘numbers arc fe rplcation ork. The Bases fies rcleotes for harap bonds wih the bases onthe pret strand. The nucleotides ae nea upto erm he new sand. DNA oly te main enzyme vole Stage: ‘he daughter DNA molecules each semind no douse hele “The two daushier DNA molecules ar eens Bie sence io each ‘ther and tthe parent ‘otecule because of ‘complementary hae paling pals wih T nd Cth Co, acho the new strands is ‘complementary tothe Template on wich twas nade are identical tthe ‘ther template. 16 The chemistry of lifeTranscription and translation GENES AND POLYPEPTIDES Polypeprides are long chains of amino acids “There are twenty diferent amino acids that ean focm part af a polypeptide. To make one particular polypeptide, amino acids must be Finked up in a precise sequence. Genes store the information nocd for making polypeptides. The information i stored ina coded form, The sequerce of hase in a gene cates forthe sequence of amino acids in a polypentide ‘The information i the gee is decode! during the making ofthe polypeptide. There are two ‘ages inthis process: transcription and translation, DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA DNA and RNA both cansis of chains of nucleotides, each composed ‘ofa sugar, a base and a phosphate. There are tree diffevences beween them. TRANSCRIPTION Ista ofthe DNA of ees being ised dethy to dec the she apap a copys sae The py fs RNA I cares ineratin tonic to malas polyether ‘Sopasm, 0 called miRNA messenger RNA. ‘The copying of the base sequence of a gene by. raking an RNA melee calle treneripSon. Intrarecrpon the si le of complementary tase ong are allowed an oplcaton, except usc pay vith adenine, 36 RNA oes not contain ymin The RNA molec produced thatore us bas sequence ats cme to the ascribed ard vd SGetcal otc oher DNA sand nce that Cresco —_ ona NA Nuamterofsans we sande Seon Se has cage Desoie ross este Tia as AGGandT Acomu meee bien thie 1.Theon dani ETaona fattened Sane iaeas ge . ny, \, == *% meatus: 2. Fe RNA cles are enbled using ‘one the ho 5 ity DNAsiardsasthe arias Ne tempat the inked op torr Tramared sand, kel wp fom Stages 1,2 and 5 are all carried out by the enzyme RNA polymerase TRANSLATION 1. Messenger RNA binds the small {hurt ofthe ribosome, The mRNA Contin» serie of eodons echt ‘hich eves for one amo et. 2: Tearfor RNA molzedes Se present around te bosome large numb. Fach RNA has spect ‘pitt tose called an / fanikcoden and eamestbe rio ace comesponding tothe antendon “Translation is eared out by ribosomes, using mRNA and RNA. isthe genetic code tha is being translated. The Renee code a triplet code hues tases end for one amino acid. A group of three bases called a codon, small scburit nonin, The be amine ck cate by The BONA molec ar bonded rogue: by a peptide linkage. A Sep ser tached The RNA onthe iit The RNA ‘nthe kit daachee The ibe moves ala the NAY the reat coon, nether RNA. amg an sin aid ine A ‘chamof tae amin acs ie fermed: thee tapes arrepeated unt plypesie bored. ‘rection of eneient ‘lnorome: 21. A miles bi othe bosom. Tw ‘inbind atone. A can only bi Wit has the Sicxon thats coment the codon on ‘heraRNA The bwson theca ad svcndon Ink et by fom hyronen bones ‘along te sune ies of complementary base airings in epee and warcegion. The chemistry of life 17Genes, polypeptides and enzymes ‘ONE GENE-ONE POLYPEPTIDE HYPOTHESIS Genes determine the aming acid sequence of proteins. Honever, sane proteins contain more than one type of polypeptide. Hemoglobin isan example of ontains {so different types of polypeptide It was foun that diferent gene is noedod to make each polypeptide. Farther rescorch has shown that there f almost always a single gene ta code fora polypeptide, which does nct code for any otherpolypeptide. This discovery led to an important Ihypothesis inmolecular biology —the one gene-one vebpeide pts. Thee ave so ness th sneral rule: * Some genes cade for transfer RNA or messenger RNA, nt ‘or polypeptides. + Some DNA sequences act as regulator of gone expression and ate porrarslated ito polypeptides. + InTymphoeytes, pieces of DNA fom diferent pars ofthe genome ar spliced together and tanscrbed and narsated 'o produce antibodies, Diieent lymphocytes procs iron aniiods by splicing together DNA inherted ‘im parent, in diferent ways, INTRODUCING ENZYMES Catalysis speed up chemical reactions without being changed. ‘themselves. ving organisms make biological catalysis called enzymes. Eneymes ae globular proteins which act as catalysts uf ‘chemical reactions. ‘without enzymes o catalyse them, many chemical processes happen ata very slow rate in living organisms. By making some enayins a no ers, celle ein control wha ‘chemical reaions happen in their cytoplasm. “The stuctureof enzymes ic quite delicate and can be ‘damaged by various substances and conditions. This 6 called ‘denaturation. ‘Deratuation changing the structure of am enzyme for other protein) s0 tht it can no longer carry out it function. enaturtion's usually permanent. In chemical reactions, one oF more reactants ate consented Jno one or mare products. In eactons eatalysed by enzymes, | the reactants ave called substrates, ENZYME-SUBSTRATE SPECIFICITY ‘Most enzymes are specie — they catalyse very fow dierent reactions. They therefore only have avery small number of posible substates. This f called enzyme substrate Speciiity. The substrates bind t 2 special region on he surface oftheenzyme called the active site, An active se fsa region onthe surface of an enzyme 10 which subsrates bind and which catalyses a chemical reaction involving the substrates “The active site of an enzyme has 2 very intricate and precise shape. Italo has distinctive chemical properties, Active ses ‘maich the shape and chemical properties oftheir substrates. Molecules of subsrae tthe active ste and are chemically attracted to igh. Other molecules either dono ft ‘rare not chemically arated, They donot therelore bind to the active ste. This is how enzymes are substrate speci The way in wih the enzyme and substrate fit together is similar lo the way in which a key fsa lock. The enzyme is like the lock end the substrate ike the key that its ‘Stages in enzyme catalysis Subsete wees aren com tv lier the civ een ad a mao. ne enayme- substrate complex “Ih substan fis the active sie tee molecu cli withthe stivese Ty nit a il ed “The ative site catalyoes a cherical eacton. The substrates are ‘bined in procs ‘he pode detach em he ative, leasing fe ore ‘asked 18 The chemistry of lifeEnzymes in action FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY ‘Wherever enzymes ar€ ase, itis important that they have th LACTASE AND LACTOSE-FREE MILK ‘actose isthe sugar that is naturally present in milk hean be converted into glucose and galactose by the enzyme lactase lactore M8 5 glucose + galactose Lictase is cbtaned fam Kluveromyces lactis, a ype of yeas thal grows naturally n milk. Biotechnology companies ‘eullrothe yeast, exact the lactase fromthe yest and purity 1 forsale 9 foud manulaturng companies. There are Several reasons for using lacasin fod processing: + Some peaple ae lactose icolerant and cannot dink mare than about 250ml of milk per day unless i i actos reduced. + Galactose and glucose are sweeter than lactose, 50 less sugar needs tobe added to sweet foods containing milk, Such as milkshakes or uit yoghur. + Lactose tends o rystllize during production of ee cream, ving a grit texture. Because glucose and galactose are ‘more coluble than laces they remain dissolved, giving & “smoothes entre «= Bacteria exment glucose and galactose more quickly than Incr, so le production of yoghurt and coxage cheese Istaster Lactase is se in two ways daring food processing: 1. ttcan be added 0 ilk The final product contains the exayme, 2. can be immobilized on a surface or in beads ofa porous ‘material The milk then allowed 0 flow past the immobilised lactase. This avoids contamination of he product with lacase, The chemistry of life 19Cell respiration and energy ENERGY AND CELLS Allfiving cells sed a continual supply of energy. Tis ery i used for a wide range of process including ative transport ‘and protein syn ess. Most of theve paceates require ergy in the form of ATP adenosine triphosphate. ATP isa chemical substance that can difuse to any arto the cell and release eneray. Every cell produces its own ATP, by a neocess calle cll respiration In ell respiration, organi compounds suchas glucose ‘or fatare carefully broken down. Enenjy trom them I used to make ATP. Cell respiration is defined 35 controlled slease of ‘encrgy, inthe form of ATP, from organic compounds in cll Cll respiaton can be aerobic or angerobic. Aerobic ce respiration iewelves the use of exygon and anaerobic cell respiration dows rot "THE USE OF GLUCOSE IN RESPIRATION Glucose is oftenthe organic compound that is used in ell respiration. Chemical reactions inthe ytoplasm break down ‘slucone ito a snpler organic compound called pyruvate, In hese reactions a small amount of ATP is made using energy roleased irom ghcose, Glucose ae Pyrwate ‘Small amount of ATP ‘ANAEROBIC CELL RESPIRATION {no oxygen is available, the pyruvate remains inthe cyoplasm and is converted into a waste produc that can be removed from the cal, No ATP is produced in these reactions 9 wamans the waste pesduc is lactate (lace acid), In yeas the products are ethanol and zarbon dioxide. ethanol Pyruvate Nest Carton oxise ‘AEROBIC CELL RESPIRATION oxygen is avaiable, the pyruvate is absorbed by the mtochondrion. side the mitochondrion the pyuvate is broken dawn Into carbon diode aad water A large amount of ATP ie produced ae a recut ofthese reactions. Aerobic eel respiration therelore has a much higher yield of ATP per gram of glkcose than anaerobic cel respiration Carbon dioxide Pyrnate Water Large amount ‘ofArr 20 The chemistry of lifePhotosynthesis INTRODUCING PHOTOSYNTHESIS PPhotosynhesis isthe precess used by plats and some other organisms o produce all thei own organic substances ood), using ‘only ight energy and simple morgane subsances. It involves many stages andl some complex chemical reactions, bt itcan be ‘outlined in 2 seies of tomers. * Photosynthesis Involves an energy conversion. Light energy, mually sunlight, fs crmwvered into chemical ener. * Sunlight called white ight but its actually made up ofa wide range of w2velengihs, including red, green and blue + Soa substances called pigments can absorb ight. The main gigment used 1 absorb light in photosyiess chlorophyll * The suctue of chiorphyll allows it to absodb some colouts er wavelengths of light beter than others. Rel ard blue light are aborted more than geen. «The green light that corophy/l cannot absorb is elected. This makes chlorophyll and therefore chloroplasts and plant leaves look green + Some ofthe eneray absorbed by chlorophyll is used to produce ATP, ‘Some ofthe energy abvrbed by chlorophyll is used to split water molecules. Tiss called photolysis of wate. “= Photolysis of water reals in the formation of oxyyen and hyehogen. The ony en i released asa waste product * Caron dioxide is absobed for use in photosynthesis. The carbon from its use to make a wide range of organic substonees. “The conversion of carbon in. East carbon in soll compounds i ealled carbon fixation. + Carbon fixation involves the use af hydeogen fear photolysis end energy itor ATP. MEASURING RATES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS fect of ight intensity on photosynthesis Photosynthesis involves Ihe production of exygen, the uptake ‘oF earbon diowide and an increase in biomass. Any ofthese ‘an be wed as a meas of the rate of photosynthesis. Production of oxygen Aquatic plans. Mysiophyllun) celease bubbles of oxygen when they cary out phatosyhesis, ese bubbles are collected ther volume can be measured. Uptake of carbon dioxide Leaves ake in CO. tomthe air oF water arourd them, bul this is dificult to measure dey. I'CO. is absorbed from ‘water, the pH ofthe wats sos Thican be monitored with pl incators or th pl meters. ‘Alo to mestiom Fit Increases in biomass. Watches of plants are harvested at a series of times and the biomass ofthe batches is determined, the ate of increase in biomass gives an indirect mesure of the rate of ‘hotosythesis in the plans. Rte of phobsynthesis ———> ght iennsty + Effect of CO, conceniralion on photosynthesis fect of temperature on photosynthesis ‘Atvery high CO, Astompetature Above the ancentatons the Frerones he te ‘plimum fate reaches a platen, Frereases more Optimum tanperature the Andmoresteeply. tempaatuve fatale steely serio Ranloreo, 2 / ‘At ow to fay igh _ tl arezsenae fl ee, 4] ms \ <= —— The chemistry of life 24EXAM QUESTIONS ON TOPIC 3 1) The table below shows the base composition of genetic mara rom ten sources, Sou of wenetic Base composition ™) rater Adenine |Guarine | Thymine | Cosine | Uracil Catletymespland | 202 | 21s | 228 | 225 | 00 Catle spleen aa | wz | 23 | ma | 00 Cale sperm 27 | 22 | 2a | 20 | 09 Pg thymus land zoo | 20s | 289 | 207 | oo Salnon 27 | 203 | 291 | 24 | 00 Wheat wa | 2 | wa | za | oo Yeas aia | wr | a29 | va | 00 Fall bacesa) 20 | 243 | 239 | 252 | 00 human sper no |i | a5 | ta | oo iniluenea vis 230 | 29 | oo | m5 | 325 a) ‘Deduce te type of genetic material used by (@ calle u Wi Beal uy (ivinuonza vies. 1 by Suggest a reason forthe dference between calle thymus gland, splcen and sperm inthe measurements of their base composition. ny 12 (0. Explain the reasons for he oil amount of adenine pls guarine being close to 50% inthe genetic material ‘of many ofthe species in the lable. BI )Identily two other wands inthe base composition ofthe specks hat have 50% adenine and guanine a {8 (deni a spocies shown in the table that doesnot elle the trends in base Composition deste in ( ny ) Explain the reasons forthe base composition ef his species ing diferent By 2. The graph (ight shows the resus of a data loging experiment Chel, ape of alga tat often ase in photosyaesis Bos “experiments, was cultured in water in a large glass vessel. Light e Ini ogre athe pt othe wet wet nied over a three-day poriod. The changes in pH were due to changes in 70 tatoo di boteaaon ba tua CD anew secre itt 6s 2) State the lstinsip shown nthe raph betes (0 ight intensity and CO, concentration " so (temper am CO, conctaion W Deduct he data nthe graph, what the cto igh Ince tenperaute on etbon donde coneanan x a con. ee The gaphshows th ses ad fln CO, concentration, 3 00 Explai the causey of = 100 6 resin CO, concetaton e 7 (fas, concenaton e oe 31-The agra hows he bs src of ro ach oo k—c—n | Mn, 2) Ste wisest in the ara bye er 0 ty Craw singe aso show how tno ano acids we nk og: fa 6) Aino ac sink ptr frm plates speci shine yo oto prance Compare estes where popaptds se omen prokaryote cls wih ess eukaryote cal Bi 22. IB Questions — The chemistry of lifeGenes and chromosomes GENES Genie the study of aation and inhetance. The basi Luni‘ of inheritance i the gone. A gene sa heritable factor ‘at controls a specie characteris {Atypical animal or plant cell nucleus contains thousands of ‘gene. The tal numberof genes in humans snot yet knowe buf probly between 30000 and 40000, all f the wenes of {an organism are known collectively asthe genome. A genome Inthe whole ofthe gence Information of an organs ‘CHROMOSOMES ‘Genes are made of DNA. They are pat of much lager DNA olecules called chromosomes. In eukaryotes, proteins are lays associated with he DNA in cheommasomes.. Atypical animal or plat chromosome coniains about 7000 genes, which are ranged in 3 linear sequence In any ppanicular typeof chrorrosome tho same genes are found ranged in the same sequonce. The postion oF = pone on a ‘chromosome Is called the gene locus. ALLELES Although one particular chromencme type always has the same genes inthe same sequence, the enes themsclves ‘ca vary. Dillerent forms of many genes can be found. These ‘37 called alleles ofthe gone. An alle is 2 form ofa gene, ‘Giri rom ciher alles ofthe gene by a few bases of mest ‘and occupying the sane locus 2s the oer alleles ofthat pone, REPLICATION OF CHROMOSOMES Ia nucleus is going to divide by mitosis or meiosis all DNA, in the nucleus is replicated. When mitosis or meiosis begins, ‘each chromosome is vibe a a double stricure (co belo “Te two ports are called chromatids and are connected by -centromne, Some types of evomasome have a centromere in the centre and olhershave a centromere nearer to one end GENE MUTATION Genes ar almost always passed tom parent fring, ‘without being changed. Occasionally genes do change and. ‘hiss called gene mation. ‘Gene mutation isa change to the base sequence ofa gene. The smallest posible change is when one bas na ene is replaced by another bse. This type of gone mutation i called _a base substitution, Altiough only one base is changed the “consequences can be ver significant. Many yen mutations ‘suse 4 genelie desea, More than four thousand genetic szeaces have boen discovered in humans. One example fs Sickle cell anemia (ight Sickle call anemia ~ the consequences of a base substitution mutation sa gona that codes ira potypopsie of 146 amino aca lomiog pao heme trio ona < nena oe cing the tot Shah aan. to tea The changes bs alee 1 “trrecrption ne cod in ‘hema ‘Sen ae therfore one nino se int poly epi a, fo, ors es Feet on the lea on the Phenotype T feogiobe cra Sickle cls sik shaped it epic fan ge retuance comets ‘Nowe boot cc tat ey ‘Sitecaly ular sifted by esl th alle HOS that aus vce cel anemia hae [brane quite common n sme pars of te weld ‘Sect by mola. these reponse maa ‘ence Poti cous a setae Genetics 23Meiosis HAPLOID AND DIPLOID ‘Chromosomes of a human female In mos cell the ricleus contains two of ech type oF