A PROJECT REPORT ON WIRELESS ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES SWITCHING SYSTEM

In the partial fulfillment of the BACHELORS DEGREE IN B.TECH ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT KEETHAM AGRA SESSION 2009 - 2013
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A PROJECT ON WIRELESS ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES SWITCHING SYSTEM Submitted for partial fulfillment of award of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF MR.S.P.MAGO SIR (DEAN ACADEMICS)

SUBMITTED BY
JITENDRA KUMAR (0900321049)

GAUTAM BUDDH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that project report on WIRELESS ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES SWITCHING SYSTEM has been successfully completed by Jitendra Kumar student of final year. Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of BACHELOR ELECTRICAL OF & TECHNOLOGY ELECTRONICS (B.TECH) in

ENGINEERING

from H.I.T.M College of Engineering affiliated to G.B.T.U University , LUCKNOW during session 2009-13.

MR.S.P.MAGO SIR SIR(PROJECT COORDINATOR) (DEAN ACADEMIC)

MR.VIRENDRA SHARMA (PROJECT GUIDE) (H.O.D)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant guidance and encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting before you, our project, which is result of studied blend of both research and knowledge.

We express our earnest gratitude to our project guide Mr.VIRENDRA SHARMA SIR, H.O.D OF EEE Department, for his constant support, encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation and his valuable suggestions.

Our deep sense of gratitude to MR. S.P.MAGO SIR, Dean Academics, for his support. We also thank our institution and my faculty members without who this project would have been a distant reality. We also extend my heartfelt thanks to our family and well wishing friends.

Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either directly or indirectly for the completion of this project.

ABSTRACT

The cheapest way to remotely control a device within a range is via wireless. Due to this wide spread use the required components are quite cheap, thus making it ideal for us to use wireless control for our own projects.

Wireless communication, as the term implies, allows information to be exchanged between two devices without the use of wire or cable. In all such cases, information is being transmitted and received using electromagnetic energy, also referred to as

electromagnetic radiation. The applications are they can operate multi number of appliances without moving from the place where we are .This project describes to control the Home appliances wirelessly using wireless communication. When we access the remote by pressing a key, the wireless transmitter sends a 4 bit code l to the Receiver which is placed in the desired room as bursts of electromagnetic waves. The Receiver in the other end detects and captures the code, which are then processed via microcontroller to retrieve the information they contain. This application uses ht12d & 433 mhz receiver which will accept signals. The microcontroller captures the code and controller performs the necessary action by turning ON/OFF the home appliances. The applications are they can operate multi number of appliances without moving from the place where we are .This project describes to control the Home appliances wirelessly using wireless communication.
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When we access the remote by pressing a key, the wireless transmitter sends a 4 bit code l to the Receiver which is placed in the desired room as bursts of electromagnetic waves.

The Receiver in the other end detects and captures the code, which are then processed via microcontroller to retrieve the information they contain. This application uses ht12d & 433 mhz receiver which will accept signals. The microcontroller captures the code and controller performs the necessary action by turning ON/OFF the home appliances.

DECLARATION
We, the undersigned, WIRELESS declare that the project

entitled

ELECTRICAL

APPLIANCES

SWITCHING SYSTEM, being submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING affiliated to G.B.T.U University, is the work carried out by us.

The results embodied in this thesis have not been submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any diploma or degree.

Table of Contents
Certificate..i Acknowledgement....ii Abstractiii Declaration. Chapter 0 : Introduction ......11

Chapter 1 : Hardware Requirement....12

Chapter 2: Block diagram 3.1 Block Diagram of Receiver...13 3. 2 Block Diagram of Transmitter.13

Chapter 3: Pin Diagram 3.1 Pin Diagram of Receiver...15 3.2 Block Diagram of Transmitter..14

Chapter 4 : Microcontroller (AT896S52) 4.1 Description .....17 4.2 Blockdiagram.... 18 4.3 Pin configuration ....19

Chapter 5 : Encoder IC (HT12E) 5.1 General Description...23 5.2 Pin Configuration .....24 5.3 Pin Description..25 5.4 Features.26
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5.5 Applications 26 5.6 Block Diagram ..26

Chapter 6 : Decoder IC (HT12E) 6.1 2. Pin Configuration ....28 6.2 Pin Description ..29 6.3 Features.30 6.4 Applications......30 6.5 General Description..30 6.6 Block diagram...31

Chapter 7 : Transformer 7.1 Introduction...32 7.2 Working.....33 7.3 Step down transformer..34

Chapter 8 : Capacitor 8.1 About capacitor...35 8.2 Theory of operation.....35 8.3 Energy of electric field....36 8.4 Current-voltage relation..36 8.5 Network connection....37 8.6 Capacitor used.38 8.7 Markings..39

Chapter 9 : Resistor 9.1 About resistor............40 9.2 Theory of operation...41

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9.3 Network connection..41 9.4 Resistor marking....42 9.5 Resistor used..43

Chapter 12 : RF Module 12.1 RF Module..44 12.2 Physical Diagram........46 12.3 RF signal modulation......46 12.4 Main Factors affecting RF module performance.47

Chapter 11: Diode 11.1 Introduction..48 11.2 Physical structure & working...49 11.3 V-I Characteristic.50 11.4 Diode equation.51 11.5 Numbering & Coding Schemes........51 11.6 Diode used....52 Chapter 12: Antenna..53

Chapter 13: Rectifier......................................................................................................55

Chapter 14: Filter...56

Chapter 15: Voltage Regulator.......................................................................................57 Chapter 16: Light Emitting Diode.58 How It Works62 Conclusion and Future scope...63 Result.64 Bibliography///...65
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INTRODUCTION
Wireless communication, as the term implies, allows information to be exchanged between two devices without the use of wire or cable. In all such cases, information is being transmitted and received using electromagnetic energy, also referred to as electromagnetic radiation. The applications are they can operate multi number of appliances without moving from the place where we are .This project describes to control the Home appliances wirelessly using wireless communication. When we access the remote by pressing a key, the wireless transmitter sends a 4 bit code l to the Receiver which is placed in the desired room as bursts of electromagnetic waves. The Receiver in the other end detects and captures the code, which are then processed via microcontroller to retrieve the information they contain. This application uses ht12d & 433 mhz receiver which will accept signals. The microcontroller captures the code and controller performs the necessary action by turning ON/OFF the home appliances. The applications are they can operate multi number of appliances without moving from the place where we are .This project describes to control the Home appliances wirelessly using wireless communication. When we access the remote by pressing a key, the wireless transmitter sends a 4 bit code l to the Receiver which is placed in the desired room as bursts of electromagnetic waves. The Receiver in the other end detects and captures the code, which are then processed via microcontroller to retrieve the information they contain. This application uses ht12d & 433 mhz receiver which will accept signals. The microcontroller captures the code and controller performs the necessary action by turning ON/OFF the home appliances.
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Chapter: 1

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
HARDWARE COMPONENTS

1. MICROCONTROLLER (AT89S52). 2. ENCODER IC (HT12E). 3. DECODER IC (HT12D). 4. WIRELESS MODULE (433MHZ). 5. TRANSFORMER (12-0-12,500MA). 6. DIODE. 7. RESISTOR (10K&1K). 8. RELAY (12v). 9. ELECTRIC BULB. 10.TRANSISTOR (cl100b). 11. MHZ OSCILLATOR (0592). 12. 10 MICROFARAD ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITTOR. 13. GENERAL PCB. 14. CERAMIC CAPACITOR (33PF).

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Block Diagram
Block Diagram Of Transmitter:

Chapter: 2

Block Diagram Of Rceiver:

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Chapter: 3

Pin Diagram
Pin Diagram Of Transmitter:

14

Pin Diagram Of Receiver:

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Chapter: 4

Microcontroller(AT89S52)

A Microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, or MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a process or core ,memory ,and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications.

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7.1 Description

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory.

The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip.

The Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and costeffective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry.

In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning.

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7.2 Block Diagram

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7.3 Pin Configurations

7.4 Pin Description PIN 1-8 :

Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups.
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In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the following table. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.

PIN 9 : RST Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled. PIN 10-17 : Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52, as shown in the following table.

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PIN 18 : XTAL2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier. PIN 19 : XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the inter operating circuit. PIN 20 : GND PIN 21-28 : Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification. PIN 29 : PSEN Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
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clock

machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. PIN 30 : ALE/PROG Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped dur-ing each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode. PIN 31 : EA/VPP External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming. PIN 32-39 : Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as highimpedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification.
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Chapter: 5

ENCODER IC (HT12E)

1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION The 212 encoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. They are capable of encoding information which consists of N address bits and 12_N data bits. Each address/ data input can be set to one of the two logic states. The programmed addresses/data are transmitted together with the header bits via an RF or an infrared transmission medium upon receipt of a trigger signal. The capability to select a TE trigger on the HT12E or a DATA trigger on the HT12A further enhances the application flexibility of the 212 series of encoders. The HT12A additionally provides a 38kHz carrier for infrared systems. [10]

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Pin Configuration

Fig.4.12 ENCODER(HT12E)

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2. Pin Description

Table4.5 PIN DESCRIPTION OF HT12E 25

3. FEATURES

4. APPLICATIONS

5. BLOCK DIAGRAM

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Fig.4.12 Block diagram of HT12E

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Chapter: 6

DECODER IC (HT12D)
1. Pin Configuration

Fig.4.13 DECODER(HT12) 28

2:Pin Description

Table4.6 PIN DESCRIPTION OF HT12D

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3:FEATURES

4:APPLICATIONS

5:GENERAL DESCRIPTION The 212 decoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. They are paired with Holtek_s 212 series of encoders (refer to the encoder/decoder cross reference table). For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder with the same number of addresses and data format should be chosen. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from a programmed 212 series of encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR transmission medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously with their local addresses. If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input data codes are decoded and then transferred to the output pins. The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission. The 212 series of
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decoders are capable of decoding informations that consist of N bits of address and 12_N bits of data. Of this series, the HT12D is arranged to provide 8 address bits and 4 data bits, and HT12F is used to decode 12 bits of address information. [11] 6:BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig.4.12 Block diagram of HT12D

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Chapter: 7

TRANSFORMER
13.1 Introduction
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called inductive coupling. If a load is connected to the secondary, current will flow in the secondary winding, and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp) and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus enables an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped down" by making Ns less than Np. In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers being a notable exception. Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of power grids. All operate on the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains")
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voltage. Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission, which makes long-distance transmission economically practical.

13.2 Working

Figure : Transformer

The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil. An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils. If a load is connected to the secondary winding, the load current and voltage will be in the directions indicated, given the primary current and voltage in the directions indicated (each will be alternating current in practice). The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss (see "Stray losses" below), but results in inferior voltage
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regulation, causing the secondary voltage to not be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance. Nevertheless, it is impossible to eliminate all leakage flux because it plays an essential part in the operation of the transformer. The combined effect of the leakage flux and the electric field around the windings is what transfers energy from the primary to the secondary. Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a direct current component flowing through the windings.

13.3 Step Down Transformer

A step down transformer is a device that has its secondary voltage less than its primary voltage. This transformer reduces voltage and often ranges in sizes from 0.5 kva to 500 kva. The uses of step down transformers range from large devices used in our electrical power systems to smaller units found in electronic equipment. In our electrical power systems, a step up transformer is used at power plants to carry current through transmission lines. Before the electricity's arrival at its final destination, a step down transformer is used to lower voltage input. In electronic equipment, step down transformers are used largely ahead of a rectifier. These step down transformers, which primarily are the 1-100-W power level, are used in loudspeakers in radios, television sets and high fidelity equipment. They are sometimes called audio transformers, and they reproduce sound-wave frequencies with minimal distortion over the full sound power levels. Working The basic concept of a transformer is that is has step up or step down power. Without these transformers, distribution of our electric power over long distances would be impossible. There a primary circuit and a secondary circuit. There is no connection between the two circuits, but each of these circuits contains a winding, which links it inductively to the other circuits. The windings are wound onto an iron core. The iron core channels the magnetic flux generated by the current flowing around the primary winding, and as much as possible, also links the secondary winding. The ratio of the peak voltages and peak currents in the primary and secondary windings are determined by the ratio of the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings. The latter ratio is usually called the turn ratio of the transformer.
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Chapter: 8

CAPACITOR
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.

9.2 Theory of operation

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The nonconductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their
35

facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

9.3 Energy of electric field

Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:

9.4 Current-voltage relation

The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on
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one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,

. Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,

. The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in a magnetic field rather than an electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

9.5 Networks Connection For capacitors in parallel

Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their capacitances add up. Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the schematic diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the total surface area.

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For capacitors in series

Several capacitors in series. Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the plate area, adds up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge build-up equal to that of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is apportioned to each capacitor according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire series acts as a capacitor smaller than any of its components.

Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for smoothing a high voltage power supply.

9.6 Capacitor Used

1. Ceramic Capacitor : Ceramic capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications, although their capacitance varies strongly with voltage and they age poorly. Ceramic capacitors are often used in resonators.

Ceramic Capacitor
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2. Electrolytic Capacitor : Electrolytic capacitors are used to store small and larger amounts of energy. These capacitors use an aluminum or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage current.

Electrolytic Capacitor

9.7 Capacitor Markings

Most capacitors have numbers printed on their bodies to indicate their electrical characteristics. Larger capacitors like electrolytics usually display the actual capacitance together with the unit (for example, 220 F). Smaller capacitors like ceramics, however, use a shorthand consisting of three numbers and a letter, where the numbers show the capacitance in pF (calculated as XY 10Z for the numbers XYZ) and the letter indicates the tolerance (J, K or M for 5%, 10% and 20% respectively). Example :A capacitor with the text 473K 330V on its body has a capacitance of 47 103 pF = 47 nF (10%) with a working voltage of 330 V.

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Chapter: 9

RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance. This relation is represented by Ohm's law:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current. Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits

RESISTOR The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 10 3 ), kilohm (1 k = 103 ), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.
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10.2 Theory of operation

Ohm's law The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation states that the current (I) is proportional to the voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R). This is directly used in practical computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 milliamperes) occurs across that resistor.

10.3 Networks Connection

For Resistors in series In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances:

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As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R, is given by NR. For Resistors in parallel Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors then add to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed:

The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in geometry) as a simplified notation. Occasionally two slashes "//" are used instead of "||", in case the keyboard or font lacks the vertical line symbol. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be calculated using:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same resistance R, is given by R/N.

10.4 Resistor marking

Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. Surface-mount resistors are marked numerically, if they are big enough to permit marking; more-recent small sizes are impractical to mark. Cases are usually tan, brown, blue, or green, though other
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colors are occasionally found such as dark red or dark gray. Early 20th century resistors, essentially uninsulated, were dipped in paint to cover their entire body for color coding. A second color of paint was applied to one end of the element, and a color dot (or band) in the middle provided the third digit. The rule was "body, tip, dot", providing two significant digits for value and the decimal multiplier, in that sequence. Default tolerance was 20%. Closertolerance resistors had silver (10%) or gold-colored (5%) paint on the other end.

10.5 Resistance Used

1 k resistor

10 k resistor

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Chapter:10

RF Module
RF Tag

Figure : RF TAG An RFID tag is a microchip combined with an antenna in a compact package; the packaging is structured to allow the RFID tag to be attached to an object to be tracked. "RFID" stands for Radio Frequency Identification. The tag's antenna picks up signals from an RFID reader or scanner and then returns the signal, usually with some additional data (like a unique serial number or other customized information). RFID tags can be very small - the size of a large rice grain. Others may be the size of a small paperback book.

15.2 RF Tag Antenna

The antenna in an RFID tag is a conductive element that permits the tag to exchange data with the reader. Passive RFID tags make use of a coiled antenna that can create a magnetic field using the energy provided by the reader's carrier signal.

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15.3 Tag cost

The cost of tags depends on their type. In the 2003 report RFID Systems in the Manufacturing Supply Chain, ARC Advisory Group predicted the following decrease of tag prices:

Price in 2003

Estimated in 2008

price

Passive UHF tag

57 cents

16 cents

Passive HF tag

91 cents

30 cents

This predicted decrease is still deemed insufficient, as economic use of tagstaking the associated 535% decrease of labor costs and zero tag information generation costs into account as wellwould require a maximum of 25 cents per tag for high-end products, and 5 cents for common item-level tagging. Prices of active or semi-passive tags (at least $1 per tag) are even more of a hindrance, allowing their economic application only for scanning high-value goods over long ranges.

15.4 Frequency
The optimal choice of frequency depends on several factors, such as: a.) Transmission mode. RFID tags basically use two kinds of data transmission, depending on the behavior of electromagnetic fields at the frequency used. In lower frequencies (such as 125134kHz in the LF band or 13.56MHz in the HF band), inductive coupling is used, while
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in frequency bands above (UHF with typical frequency ranges of 433MHz, 865956MHz and 2.45GHz), wave backscattering is the main means of transmission. This also affects the safe reading range, as it is easier to build direction-selective devices with a longer read range in higher frequencies. This may restrict design freedom if either reading range or spatial selectivity are an important issue. b.) Behavior of tagged goods and environment. Properties of some materials may be an obstacle to RFID application at a given frequency, as they may corrupt data transmission either by absorption or by ambient reflection of the signals. Typically, conductive materials such as goods containing water, or metal surfaces may be the source of problems. However, absorption and reflection being frequency-dependent, failure at one frequency does not rule out applicability at other frequencies. Electromagnetic disturbance can also have external sources, which is also a commonthough also frequency-dependentproblem in an industrial environment. c.) International standards in frequency allocation. Due to historic reasons, the world is divided into three large regions of frequency allocation for various purposes, region 1 containing Europe, Africa, the Middle East and former SU member states, region 2 with North and South America and the part of the Pacific east of the date line, and region 3 with Asia, Australia and the Pacific west of the date line. The industry exerts pressure towards a uniformization of frequencies allowed for RFID, yet there still are notable differences between the three regions, forcing companies planning to employ tags in several regions to restricting themselves to bands shared by all regions concerned. A compromise for tags only modulating the reader signal without actively producing a carrier wave on their own may be their ability to work in a wider frequency range than nominally specified, allowing their usage even in regions where RFID bands are close enough.

RF TRANSCEIVER 433 MHz MODULE These RF Transmitter Modules are very small in dimension and have a wide operating voltage range (3V-12V). The low cost RF Transmitter can be used to transmit signal up to 100 meters (the antenna design, working environment and supply voltage will seriously impact the effective distance). It is good for short distance, battery power device development. Cytron Technologies provides 2 types of RF Transmitter Modules at either 315MHz or 433MHz for user:
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The application includes: Industrial remote control, telemetry and remote sensing. Alarm systems and wireless transmission for various types of low-rate digital signal. Remote control for various types of household appliances and electronics projects. [9] 1. PRODUCT SPECIFICATION 1.1 The Specifications of RF Transmitter Module Except for the frequency and antenna length, RF_TX_315 and RF_TX_433 share the same product specifications as shown in table below:

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Chapter:11

DIODE
Introduction A diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric transfer characteristic,
with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p-n junction connected to two electrical

terminals. A vacuum tube diode. now rarely used except in some high-power technologies and by enthusiasts, is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a plate (anode) and cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are forms of rectifiers. Semiconductor diodes' nonlinear currentvoltage characteristic can be tailored by varying the semiconductor materials and introducing impurities into (doping) the materials. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits.

12.2 Physical Structure & working

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A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far greater ease than in the other. The most common kind of diode in modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams such as Figure below. The term diode is customarily reserved for small signal devices, I 1 A. The term rectifier is used for power devices, I > 1 A.

Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical part. Working When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure below)

Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. (b) Current flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased. When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is backward and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be thought of as like a switch: closed when forward-biased and open when reverse-biased. Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbol's arrowhead points against the direction of electron flow. This is because the diode symbol was invented by engineers, who
49

predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics, showing current as a flow of charge from the positive (+) side of the voltage source to the negative (-). This convention holds true for all semiconductor symbols possessing arrowheads: the arrow points in the permitted direction of conventional flow, and against the permitted direction of electron flow.

12.3 V-I Characteristic

Diode curve : showing knee at 0.7 V forward bias for Si, and reverse breakdown. A semiconductor diodes behavior in a circuit is given by its currentvoltage characteristic, or IV graph (see graph below). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the pn junction between differing semiconductors. When a pn junction is first created, conductionband (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P side. The region around the pn junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each electronhole pair that recombines, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the Pdoped region. As recombination proceeds more ions are created, an increasing electric field
50

develops through the depletion zone that acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in" potential across the depletion zone. If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron/hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light. see photodiode). This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric current through the pn junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction). For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V (0.3 V for Germanium and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.7 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be "turned on" as it has a forward bias.

12.4 Diode Equation

12.5 Numbering and coding schemes

There are a number of common, standard and manufacturer-driven numbering and coding schemes for diodes; the two most common being the EIA/JEDEC standard and the European Pro Electron standard:

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EIA/JEDEC -A standardized 1N-series numbering system was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC (Joint Electron Device Engineering Council) about 1960. Among the most popular in this series were: 1N34A/1N270 (Germanium signal), 1N914/1N4148 (Silicon signal), 1N4001-1N4007 (Silicon 1A power rectifier) and 1N54xx (Silicon 3A power rectifier).Pro ElectronThe European Pro Electron coding system for active components was introduced in 1966 and comprises two letters followed by the part code. The first letter represents the semiconductor material used for the component (A = Germanium and B = Silicon) and the second letter represents the general function of the part (for diodes: A = lowpower/signal, B = Variable capacitance, X = Multiplier, Y = Rectifier and Z = Voltage reference), for example:

AA-series germanium low-power/signal diodes (e.g.: AA119) BA-series silicon low-power/signal diodes (e.g.: BAT18 Silicon RF Switching Diode) BY-series silicon rectifier diodes (e.g.: BY127 1250V, 1A rectifier diode) BZ-series silicon Zener diodes (e.g.: BZY88C4V7 4.7V Zener diode)

Other common numbering / coding systems (generally manufacturer-driven) include:

GD-series germanium diodes (e.g.: GD9) this is a very old coding system OA-series germanium diodes (e.g.: OA47) a coding sequence developed by Mullard, a UK company As well as these common codes, many manufacturers or organisations have their own systems too for example:

HP diode 1901-0044 = JEDEC 1N4148 UK military diode CV448 = Mullard type OA81 = GEC type GEX23

12.6 Diode Used

Diode 1N4007
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Chapter: 12

Antenna
1. User may use any soft or hard wire (likes Drawbars antenna) as antenna. The frequency is determined by the length of antenna, please select the correct length with refer to specification of RF Transmitter above. If a soft wire is used, please make sure it is fully extended. 2. If the transmitter module is molded in a metal casing, please use an external antenna. [9] For better result, use A 50 Ohm coaxial cable can be used as antenna to the module.

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Fig.4.11 RF TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

- PIN DESCRIPTION
RF Transmitter

Pin No 1 2 3 4

Function Ground (0V) Serial data input pin Supply voltage; 5V Antenna output pin

Name Ground Data Vcc ANT

RF Receiver

Pin No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Function Ground (0V) Serial data output pin Linear output pin; not connected Supply voltage; 5V Supply voltage; 5V Ground (0V) Ground (0V) Antenna input pin

Name Ground Data NC Vcc Vcc Ground Ground ANT

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Chapter: 13

Rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of and as of signals. Rectifiers may be made of , diodes, , and other components. The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification. In positive half cycle only two diodes( 1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct, in negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward bias only.
alternatingcurrent directcurrent powersupplies detectors radio solidstate diodes vacuumtube mercuryarc valves

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Chapter: 14

Filter
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage. The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply. This filter is also used in circuits where the power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can be relatively high. Below figure can show how the capacitor changes and discharges.

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Chapter: 15

VOLTAGE REGULATOR (7805)

Features Output Current up to 1A. Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V. Thermal Overload Protection. Short Circuit Protection. Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description The

LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

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Chapter:16

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

LED Symbol

.
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11.2 Physical Structure

Figure : LED Structure

LED is a two terminal device i.e. Anode and Cathode.

11.3 Working

Figure : Working of LED

The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes
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recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus, light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development.

11.4 Different types of LED

The different types of LEDs are as follows :

Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated multivibrator circuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.

Bi-color LEDs are two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types of these. One type consists of two dies connected to the same two leads antiparallel to each other. Current flow in one direction emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the other color. The other type consists of two dies with separate leads for both dies and another lead for common anode or cathode, so that they can be controlled independently.

Tri-color LEDs are three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is connected to a separate lead so they can be controlled independently. A four-lead
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arrangement is typical with one common lead (anode or cathode) and an additional lead for each color.

RGB LEDs are Tri-color LEDs with red, green, and blue emitters, in general using a four-wire connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). These LEDs can have either common positive or common negative leads. Others however, have only two leads (positive and negative) and have a built in tiny electronic control unit.

Alphanumeric LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format. Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but rising use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.

11.5 LED Connection

Connecting LEDs in series If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to connect them in series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with the same current as just one LED. All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they are all the same type. The power supply must have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To work out a value for the resistor you must add up all the LED voltages and use this for VL. Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared between them is generally not a good idea. If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED will light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing through it.

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How It Works
By integrating a mechanical limit switch with an IEEE 802.15.4 trans receiver , these wireless limit switches can communicate their position changes to a monitoring receiver that can handle multiple switches in a star configuration network. Every network, and each switch within the network, has a unique identification number. These identification numbers allow a switch and its associated monitor to encode their signals so that the communications link between them is both private and virtually immune to crosstalk from other switches or networks. 802.15.4 radios provide excellent results in large single room and outdoor installations with a relatively open line-of-sight between switch and monitor. A 35-dB link margin ensures that minor obstacles or even intense precipitation will not compromise communications. Depending on composition, the signal can penetrate intervening walls in some installations. An 802.15.4 radio allowable operating range is more than 1000 feet (304 meters). In extreme conditions such as heavy precipitation, rain or snow, the signal could be reduced by approximately 75 feet (23 meters). To ensure reliable operation and provide for almost limitless options for installation, 802.15.4 draws so little power that the switches can be operated by industry standard batteries rather than depending on situation-dependent, unreliable ,and expensive energy scavenging. With the proper design, a wireless switch should be able to operate for several years without a battery replacement or re-charging. The monitor/receiver unit that forms the other half of a wireless switch installation can be designed to support a single switch or multiple switches. For example, the Honeywell Limitless WDRR receiver can support up to 14 different remote battery-powered wireless limit switches. In addition to switch activation status, the controller can also monitor the signal strength and battery levels for each individual switch on its network.
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Conclusion
Wireless limit switches can lower equipment costs in a variety of ways. For one, the cost of manufacturing and installation is reduced. Not only is the expense of wiring eliminated, there are no conduits, clips or connectors required to place a limit switch where it is needed. There are no wire routing problems to solve, no need for pulling wire during installation and fewer restrictions on location and placement of the limit switch. Wireless limit switches can also reduce maintenance costs.Equipment wiring is less complex with the elimination of wired switches from the mix, simplifying troubleshooting and reducing commissioning time. Further, going wireless increases system reliability by eliminating the potential for having continuity issues with switch wiring or connectors. Switches also become simpler to replace, with no need to disconnect and reattach wiring and no risk of incorrect wire attachment. Global limit switches are an essential element of industrial and transportation controls, monitoring position and presence of doors, booms and valves. Conventional wired switches, however, present installation and maintenance challenges, especially in installations that are subject to harsh environments or involve frequent flexing in the wiring.In some cases, traditional wires can represent tripping hazards or can be compromised during normal equipment operation, thus causing expensive machine down-time.

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Result
Receiver:

Transmitter:

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Bibliography
Reference Books:

1. Weis, Stephen A. (2007), RFID (Radio Frequency Identification): Principles and Applications, MIT CSAIL, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.182.5224 2. Daniel M. Dobkin, The RF in RFID: Passive UHF RFID In Practice, Newnes 2008 ISBN 978-0-7506-8209-1, chapter 8 3. John R. Vacca Computer and information security handbook, Morgan Kaufmann, 2009 ISBN 0-12-374354-0, page 4. "Capacitor charging and discharging : DC CIRCUITS". All About Circuits. http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_6/chpt_3/17.html. Retrieved 2009-02-19. 5. F. F. Mazda, Discrete electronic components, Cambridge University http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/misc/c04-appguide.pdf 6. Braunstein, Rubin (1955). "Radiative Transitions in Semiconductors". Physical Review 99. 7. "The first LEDs were infrared (invisible)". The Quartz Watch. The Lemelson Center. http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerpieces/quartz/inventors/biard.html. 8. Wolinsky, Howard (February 5, 2005). "U. of I.'s Holonyak out to take some of Edison's luster". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on 2008-02-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20080228071504/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4 155/is_20050202/ai_n9504926. 9. Perry, T.S. (1995). "M. George Craford [biography]". IEEE Spectrum 32 (2): 10. "Brief Biography Holonyak, Craford, Dupuis" (PDF). Technology Administration. http://www.technology.gov/Medal/2002/bios/Holonyak_Craford_Dupuis.pdf

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