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Geometric Representation of
Modulation Signals Version 1.1: Nov 16, 2007 9:51 pm US/Central
Tuan Do-Hong
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RT Pk−1 2
where Eˆk = 0
sk (t) − j=1 (skj ψ j (t)) dt.
The process continues until all of the M signals are exhausted. The results are N or-
thogonal signals with unit energy, {ψ1 (t) , ψ2 (t) , . . . , ψN (t)} where N ≤ M . If the signals
{s1 (t) , . . . , sM (t)} are linearly independent, then N = M .
The M signals can be represented as
N
X
sm (t) = (smn ψn (t)) (2)
n=1
PN
with m ∈ {1, 2, . . . , M } where smn =< sm , ψn > and Em = n=1 smn 2 . The signals can
sm1
sm2
be represented by sm = .
..
smN
Example 1:
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Figure 1
Figure 2
s1 (t)
ψ1 (t) = √ (3)
A2 T
√
s11 = A T (4)
√
s21 = − A T (5)
Example 2:
sm (t) RT A2 T
ψm (t) = √
Es
where Es = 0
sm 2 (t) dt = 4
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Figure 3
√
Es √0 0 0
0 Es 0 0
, s = √
s1 = , s = , and s4 =
0 2 0 3 Es
0
√
0 0 0 Es
v
uN p
uX 2
∀mn : dmn = |sm − sn | = t (smj − snj ) = 2Es (7)
j=1
Example 3:
Set of 4 equal energy biorthogonal signals. s1 (t) = s (t), s2 (t) = s⊥ (t), s3 (t) =
⊥
− (s (t)), s4 (t) = − s (t) .
s⊥ (t) RT
The orthonormal basisψ1 (t) = √s(t)
Es
, ψ2 (t) = √
Es
where Es = 0 sm 2 (t) dt
√ √
Es √0 − Es 0
√
s1 = , s2 = , s3 = , s4 = . The
0 Es 0 − Es
four signals can be geometrically represented using the 4-vector of projection co-
efficients s1 , s2 , s3 , and s4 as a set of constellation points.
d21 = |s
√2 − s1 | (8)
= 2Es
d12 = d23
= d34 (9)
= d14
d13 = |s√
1 − s3 |
(10)
= 2 Es
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Signal constellation
Figure 4
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