THE

VARIATION

OF

ANIMALS
UNDER

AND

PLANTS

DOMESTICATION

BY

CHARLES

DARWIN,

M. A.,

F.R.S., Etc.

IN

TWO VOL.

VOLUMES
II

IVITH

ILLUSTRATIONS

NEW

YORK

AND

LONDON

j^ l)

D.

APPLETON

AND

COMPANY

5^

'^^

"^

"A

I
V V

Authorized

Edition.

"^

rnt

f.

N. O. ^

-^^^

ahage
-

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

XIII. Reversion
or

Inheritance,
Different forms

continued
In

"

or

Atavism.

of reversion cattle and

"

pure

uncrossed cultivated

fowls, hornless
feral animals

and
"

sheep,

in

breeds, plants

as

in

pigeons,
in
"

"

Reversion

in crossed varieties and plants Reversion species in the and Reversion bud-propagation, by segments same through in the animal In different parts of the body flower or fruit same of reversion, various act of crossing a direct The of, with cause cases of reversion Latent characters instincts" Other causes proximate of the two sides Unequal development Secondary sexual characters derived with of characters of the body advancing Appearance age The with all its latent from a cross characters, a wonderful germ, in some Peloric flowers due to reversion. cases object Monstrosities Pages 1-35
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

CHAPTER

XIV.
of

Inheritance,

continued

"

Fixedness
"

Character
of

"

Prepotency Age.
of inheritance
same

"

Sexual
Fixedness of character
of

Limitation

Correspondence
not

apparently species

due

to

antiquity
of the

"

family, in in often than the other ; one sex stronger ; to the same character being present and visible in one and breed latent in the other Inheritance limited as by sex Newlyin our domesticated animals often transmitted acquired characters by Prepotency
crossed breeds due sometimes and
" "

transmission

in

individuals

lost by one at correInheritance alone sponding sex of life The periods importance of the principle with respect to embryology exhibited exhibited in domesticated animals : as ; as in the appearance and disappearance diseases ; sometimes of inherited
one sex
" "

alone, sometimes

supervening earlier in the child three preceding chapters

than

in

the

parent

"

Summary

of the
36-59

CHAPTER On
Free

XV.

Crossing.
"

intercrossing obliterates
the numbers other The
"

When allied breeds the differences between the absorbs of two breeds are unequal, one commingling sion, transmisof rate of absorption determined by prepotency All organic selection of life, and by the conditions by natural
"

iii

iv

CONTENTS.

acters On certain charbeings occasionally intercross ; apparent exceptions have incapable of fusion ; chiefly or exclusively those which in On of old the individual the modification suddenly appeared and the formation of new crossed by crossing Some races, races, On have from their first production bred true the crossing of races distinct species in relation to the formation of domestic races. Pages 60-74
" " "

"

CHAPTER
Causes
which interfere with
of the

XVI. Free Crossing

on of

Varieties

"

Influence Difficulties
in

Domestication

Fertility.
"

"

crossed Various judging of the fertility of varieties when causes keep varieties distinct, as the period of breeding and Varieties of wheat said to be sterile when sexual crossed preference Varieties of maize, verbascum, bacco, tohollyhock, gourds, melons, and in some rendered Domestication nates elimidegree mutually sterile to sterility natural to species when crossed the tendency On and animals the increased fertilityof uncrossed cation plants from domestiwhich
" " "

and

cultivation

75-88

CHAPTER On
the

XVII.
and on the

Good

Effects

of

Crossing,

Evil

Effects

of

Close
Definition General of close interbreeding evidence of the good

Interbreeding.

"

Augmentation
efiects

of morbid from

tendencies

"

crossing, and on the close interbreeding evil eflfects from Cattle, closely interbred ; halfwild cattle long kept in the same parks Sheeji Fallow-deer Dogs, of incestuous marriages rabbits, pigs Man, origin of his abhorrence Hive-bees the Fowls on Plants, general considerations Pigeons from benefits derived crossing Melons, fruit-trees, peas, cabbages, On the increased size of hybrid plants, not wheat, and forest-trees On due certain either their to sterility exclusively plants which but both the fertile, are on are self-impotent, normally or abnormally distinct individuals crossed with either male and female side, when 89-122 of the same another or species Conclusion
" " " " "

derived

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

....

CHAPTER On
the

XVIII.
of

Advantages
OF

and :

Disadvantages
from

Changed Causes.

Conditions

Life

Sterility

Various

On

the

from of life rility Steslight changes in the conditions good derived from changed conditions, in animals, in their native country and Loss of secondary sexMammals, in menageries birds, and insects ual of instincts of sterility Sterility of domesticated and Causes characters conditions from Sexual animals changed incompatibility conditions of animals Sterility of plants from of individual changed
"
" " " " " " "

life

"

Contabescence flowers Double

of
"

Monstrosities the anthers as Seedless fruit Sterility from

" "

cause

of

rility ste-

the

excessive

CONTENTS.
y

of vegetation" From of the organs development long-continued by buds" Incipient sterilitythe primary cause of double and seedless fruit

gation propa-

ers flow-

Pages 123-151

CHAPTER
Summary
of
the

XIX.

Four

Last

Chapters,

with

Remarks

on

bridism. Hy-

On

the

effects of crossing" The influence of domestication on fertility Close interbreeding" Good and evil results from changed conditions of life" Varieties when crossed not invariably fertile" On the difference in fertility between crossed varieties" species and Conclusions with respect to hybridism" Light thrown on hybridism gitimate by the illeof heterostyled plants" Sterility of crossed progeny species due to differences confined to the Not reproductive system" mulated accunot

are

through natural mutually sterile" in fertility between

selection Reasons domestic varieties why Too much stress has been laid on the difference crossed species and crossed varieties clusion Con" "

152-169

CHAPTER
Selection
Selection with
a

XX.
by

Man.
natural selection
"

difficult art of
"

"

Methodical,
selection carried on
"

unconscious, and
Care
taken in

selection

"

Eesults

methodical Selection
"

plants people
"

by

Unimportant
circumstances

characters the action

and the ancients ofttm attended to of

by
"

Selection lized semi-civi-

selection animals of

As

slowly change,

changed
different

through

have unconscious
so

our

Unconscious domesticated ence Influselection

" "

breeders the on same sub-variety selection Effects of selection as by unconscious in the parts most of difference valued by great amount
"

Plants shown
man
.

as

fected af-

by the
170-201

CHAPTER

XXL continued.

Selection,
Natural
appear

selection

as

affecting domestic
often
"

productions

"

Characters

which

vourable faCircumstances importance and the man Facility in preventing crosses, of the conditions and nature Close attention sable indispenperseverance of individuals The especially production of a large number not favourable When is applied, distinct selection races are no in formed animals liable to Tendency degeneration Highly-bred extreme the to carry to an point, selection of each character man Characters leading to divergence of character, rarely to convergence in the same direction in which continuing to vary they have already of intermediate varied Divergence of character, with the extinction of trifling value to selection by
of

real

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

varieties, leads
power
races

to
"

distinctness

in time

our

domestic
"

races

"

of selection have

Lapse

of
"

important

Manner

Limit to in which

the
mestic do-

originated Summary

202-228

vi

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER Causes
of

XXII.
\

Variability.
"

Causes assigned Variability does not necessarily accompany reproduction differences authors Individual of every various kind Variability by the On of such of life nature due to changed conditions changes Effects of nutriment Slight changes sufficient Climate, food, excess of grafting on the productions variability of seedling-trees Domestic On the become conditions accumulative to habituated tion acchanged of changed conditions Close interbreeding and the imagination of of the mother variability Crossing as a cause supposed to cause from the the appearance of new characters Variability commingling and from reversion On the manner and of characters period of action of the causes either directly, or which indirectly through the reproductive variability Pages 229-250 system, induce
" " " " " " " " " " " "

....

CHAPTER Direct
and

XXIII.
of the

Definite

Action

External

Conditions

of

Life.

Slight modifications
in
"

from the of changed definite action tions, condiin the and of sues tischemical the state size, colour, properties, Local from modifications diseases climate Conspicuous changed of birds affected or food, etc. by peculiar nutriment, and Plumage of poison Land-shells Modifications of organic by the inoculation beings in a state of nature through the definite action of external of American and Galls conditions trees Comparison European Considerations Effects of parasitic fungi opposed to the belief in the in

plants
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

potent
varieties

influence
"

of

changed
"

external does not

conditions

"

Parallel with

Amount the

in of change unnatural by

of variation conditions
"

correspond
"

series of the degree

Bud-variation

Monstrosities

produced
251-273

treatment

Summary

CHAPTER Laws
Nisus
of

XXIV. Use
and

Variation

"

Disuse,

etc.

of the organisation On the formativus, or the co-ordinating power and of organs habits effects of the increased disuse of use Changed Acclimatisation with and life animals methods plants Various by this can of development which be effected Arrests Rudimentary
"
" " " " "

organs

274-300

CHAPTER Laws
of

XXV. Correlated Variability.

Variation,
of term

continued
"

"

Explanation

correlated variation
the structure
"

correlation Connected with development tions Modificathe increased lated Correwith decreased size of parts or of homologous Feathered feet in birds assuming parts between of the the head and the Correlation wings
" " " "

extremities

Between

the

skin

and

dermal

appendages

"

Between

the

CONTENTS.

yji

organs

of
"

sight

and

hearing

"

Correlated
"

modifications Correlation
"

in between

the the

organs

of
and

plants
ears
"

Correlated Skull
and

monstrosities
crest of

skull

feathers

Skull

and

horns
of

"

Correlation
tion selec-

of

growth
"

complicated
as

by

the with

accumulated constitutional

effects

natural

Colour

correlated

peculiarities. Pages
301-321

CHAPTER

XXVI.

Laws

of

Variation,
parts
The

continued
"

Summary.

The

fusion

of

homologous
"

"

variability
"

of

multiple
pressure

and
"

gous homoloRelative
ovary, of 322-337

parts

Compensation
flowers variation with
"

of

growth
to

Mechanical

position
as

of

respect

the
or

axis,

and

of

seeds
"

in

the

inducing
three last

Analogous

parallel

varieties

Summary

the

chapters

CHAPTER

XXVII.

Provisional

Hypothesis

of

Pangenesis.

Preliminary single growth

male

remarks

"

First

part

"

The

facts

to

be
of

connected

under
"

point
of element of

of

view,

namely,
parts
the female of the
"

the

various

kinds
"

reproduction
direct
action

Rethe

amputated
on

Graft-hybrids
"

The
"

of

Development
"

The
"

functional
"

pendence indeRever-

the

units

body

Variability

Inheritance

sion.

Second

part

"

Statement
are

of

the
"

hypothesis Explanation

"

How

far aid
of

the

necessary

sumptions as-

improbable
of facts

by
the

the
"

hypothesis

of

the

several

classes

specified

in

first

part

Conclusion.
338-387

CHAPTER

XXVIII.

Concluding

Remarks.

Domestication
and

"

Nature
of

and

causes

of
"

variability
Extinction
"

"

Selection
races
"

"

Divergence

distinctness
to

character

of of has

Circumstances
races
"

favourable

selection
each

by

man

Antiquity
variation

certain been

The
ordained pre-

question

whether

particular

specially

388-415

THE

VARIATION PLANTS

OF

ANIMALS

AND

UNDER

DOMESTICATION.

CHAPTER continued
of reversion
cattle and In

XIII.

INHERITANCE

REVERSION

OR

ATAVISM.

Different

forms

"

pure

or

uncrossed cultivated
in

breeds, plants
varieties
"

as

in

pigeons,
in
"

fowls,
feral Reversion flower The

hornless animals

and
"

sheep,

in

Reversion
and in
same cases

Reversion plants bud-propagation, through

"

crossed
and

species
the
same

by

segments
in

or

fi'uit

In

different
a

parts
cause causes
"

of

the

act

of crossing

direct

of
of

body reversion,
reversion

the

animal

"

various
"

of, with
two

instincts" Other proximate sexual characters Secondary of the body Appearance

"

Latent of

charactersthe sides

Unequal development with of advancing age

with
all

characters
a

derived wonderful reversion.

from

a
"

cross

"

The

germ,
"

its

latent due in

characters,
some cases

object The

Monstrosities

Peloric

flowers

to

great
has

principle
been

of

inheritance

to

be

discussed and

in

this

chapter
various

recognised
as

by by
the

agriculturists
scientific
term

authors

of
rived de-

nations,
from
or

shown
an

Atavism,
terms

atavus,

ancestor;
-hach
;

by by
the
or

the

English

of

version, Re-

Throwing
German

French

Pas-en-

Arriere;
When than the its

and

by

the

Riickschlag,
either
our

RiicJcschritt.
more

child

resembles

grandparent
attention is not

closely
arrested,
when

immediate
in truth

parents,
the
some

much but

though
child
in this
"

fact

is

highly
ancestor

remarkable;
or case some we
a

the

resembles

remote
"

distant
must
common

member

collateral
the
we

line,
of
a

and all the

in

the

last

attribute

to

descent

members of

from astonishment.

progenitor,
When
one

feel

just

degree
some

parent

alone

displays
and other But

newly-acquired offspring having

both do
not

and

generally
it, the
of

inheritable
cause

character,
lie in
the

the

inherit
power
are

may mission. trans-

parent
when

the

prepotent

parents

similarly

characterised,
1

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIIL

and the

the

child

does in

not, whatever

the

cause

may

be, inherit

grandparents, we have of reversion. We continually one of atavism, though another and simple case more even see under this head, namely, when the son not generally included than his paternal grandhis maternal more closely resembles male sire in some attribute, as in any peculiarity in the beard of man, of the bull, the hackles of the cock, the horns comb or diseases necessarily confined to the male sex; or, as in certain question, but of the simplest cases
for
as

character

resembles

its

the

mother

cannot must

possess

or

exhibit

such

male

tributes, at-

the child his maternal The classes

cases

inherit

them, through her blood, from

be divided into
two
one or

grandsire.
of reversion
may
some

main
other; an-

which, however, in namely, first, those

has
not

instances, blend
in
a

into

occurring
has and all

variety
variation

race some
appears. re-

which

been it

crossed, but
class

lost by which
cases

character

that The with

formerly possessed,
includes

afterwards
in which
a an or

second
some

dividual incies, spe-

distinguishable character,
former

race,

period been crossed, and a character from this cross, after having disappeared during one derived A third class,difseveral generations, suddenly reappears. fering or
at
some

has

only in the
to

manner

or

reproduction, might
effected
true

be

formed of

include

all

cases

of

reversion of

and

therefore
even a

independent
fourth class in the of the But

Perhaps
reversions and

might
same

buds, seminal or generation. be instituted, to include

means

by

by segments
parts
old.

individual
same

flower

or

fruit,
mal anibe will

in different
as

body in the
the
two

individual classes

it grows for
our

first main

sufficient

purpose.

Reversion

to lost Characters of this

hy

pure

or

uncrossed
cases were

forms.

"

Striking instances
the sixth

first class

of

given in
in all

chapter, namely, of the occasional reappearance, variously-coloured breeds of the pigeon, of blue birds with
the
cases

marks
were as

characteristic

of the
case

wild

Columha fowl. With

are

livia. the almost

Similar
common

ass,

given in the the legs of the

may

of the

wild

progenitor
that the

always
re-

striped, we
of such

feel the

assured

occasional

appearance

stripesin

domestic

animal

is

case

of

simple

Chap.

XIII.

REVERSION.

g
to
over.
our

version.
cases,

But

shall

be

compelled
pass

refer

again

to

these

and

therefore

here

them which

The and

aboriginal species sheep are descended, no

breeds
are
now

from doubt

domesticated
; but

cattle several
"

possessed horns
Yet
"

hornless

well

established.
"

in

these
to

for find

instance, in
among

Southdown

sheep
some

it is not small in

unusual The

the thus
"

male

lambs

with

horns."

horns,

which
either skin

grow

alone

other occasionally reappear polled breeds, to the full size,"or are curiously attached to the " and The loosely down, or drop off." hang
^

Galloways
100
or

and

Suffolk but

cattle
a

have

been

hornless the

for horn

the

last

150

years,

horned

calf, with

often

loosely attached, is occasionally produced.* believe There is reason that sheep in their to
condition
"

mesticat early do"

but even dingy black ; certain flocks were in the time of David spoken of as white as snow. During the classical period the sheep of Spain are authors described by several ancient being black, red, or as tawny.* At the present day, notwithstanding the great care which is taken and to prevent it, particoloured lambs some black occasionally, or even frequently, dropped entirely are most highly improved and valued breeds, such as the by our Since the time of the famous Southdowns. Bakewell, during the last century, the Leicester sheep have been bred with the most yet occasionally grey-faced, or blackscrupulous care;
were or

brown

still appear.* This occurs spotted, or wholly black lambs frequently with the less improved breeds, such as the more this tendency in sheep to revert Norfolks.^ As bearing on state to dark (though in doing so I trench on colours, I may of crossed the reversion breeds, and likewise on the subject of
seven

prepotency)
white which had

that

the

Eev.
ewes

W.
were

D.

Fox
to
on

was a

informed so-called

that

Southdown
two

put spots

Spanish they
bethis

ram,

small

black all
234,
oe-

his

sides, and
Mr.
informed
Rev. W.

produced
1

thirteen
on

lambs,
pp. in
*

perfectly black.
*

Fox
of
D.

Youatt
same

Sheep,
of loose

20,
horns

I the

have

been the

The breeds
many;

fact has been

fact
on

through
excellent see,

Fox,
Mr.
on

easionally

appearing

hornless in Ger-

observed i. Cattle,
s.

Wilmot: this
'

of authority remarks also, in

an

Bechstein, b. Deutschlands,'
2

Naturgesch.
362. 174. iri.5, pp.

subject Quarterly
"

article

in

the

Review,'
pp.

1849,

page

"

Youatt Youatt

on

395.

on

Sheep,

1838,

pp,

Youatt,

19, 234,

17, 145.

4
lieves that this

INHERITANCE.

Chap. XIII.

belonged to a breed which he has himself kept, and which is always spotted with black and white; and ways of this breed alhe finds that Leicester sheep crossed by rams produce black lambs : he has gone on recrossing these Leicesters white crossed sheep with pure cessive during three sucram

the same result. Mr. generations, but always with the spotted breed Fox was also told by the friend from whom for six or seven on was procured, that he likewise had gone generations crossing with white sheep, but still black lambs invariably produced. were

Similar of various chickens

facts could animals.

be For

given with

respect to tailless breeds that states instance, Mr. Hewitt^

reckoned rumpless fowls, which were " able exhibition, in a considera prize at an so good that they won with fully developed furnished number of instances were of these tail-feathers." On inquiry, the original breeder he had first kept them, fowls stated that, from the time when with tails;but that they had often produced fowls furnished these latter would again reproduce rumpless chickens. in the vegetable kingof reversion occur Analogous cases dom " thus from the finest cultivated from seeds gathered ; varieties of Heartsease (Viola tricolor),plants perfectly wild both in their foliage and their flowers are frequently produced bred from
some
" '

but

the

reversion

in this

instance

is not

to

very

ancient
are

period,for the best

existingvarieties of the heartsease

origin.
some

of

comparatively modern vegetables there is

to

With

most

of

our

tivated cul-

what

is known

be, or

may

tendency to reversion to be presumed to be, their aboriginal

more

state;
not

and

this would

be

generally look over " the false plants or

already been

their beds
"

gardeners did of seedlings, and pull up

evident

if

rogues
some

as

they
few

are

called.

It

has

seedling apples and identical not apparently are pears In our with, the wild trees from which they are descended. " " break that is, turnip and carrot-beds a few plants often their roots and flower too are generally hard and soon; stringy, as in the parent-species. By the aid of a little se^
"

remarked, that generally resemble, but

"

The

Poultry
1866,
'

Book,'
p.
a

by

Mr.
vol.

with that
"
'

much

experience
occurs.

on

this
me

Tegetmeier,
''

231.

subject,

Loudon's

Gard.

Mag.,'

has likewise this sometimes

assured

X.,

1834,

p.

396;

nurseryman,

Gard.

Cliron.,' 1855, p. 777,

Chap.

XIII.

REVERSION.

lection, carried
cultivated
any

on

during
in

few

generations, most

of

our

plants could
change
"

great

probably be brought back, without their conditions of life,to a wild or

Mr.

nearly wild condition: the parsnip ; and Mr.

selected, during

Buckman C.

has

effected

this with

plants of Scotch
of the

Watson, as he informs me, three generations, " the most diverging of the least modified kail,perhaps one rieties vaHewett and
in

cabbage;
very

the the

third forms

generation
now

some

of in

plants came England about

the Reversion In the
cases

close to

established

old

and castle-walls, and Plants

called

indigenous."
have
run

in Animals hitherto
not

which

wild.

"

plants have
in

been

and considered, the reverting animals exposed to any great or abrupt change of life which different could with have animals induced and this

their

conditions but

plants feral or run wild. It has been repeatedly which have become asserted in the most by various authors, that positivemanner and plants invariably return feral animals to their primitive specific type. It is curious on what little evidence this belief animals could not subsist rests. Many of our domesticated in a wild state; thus, the more highly improved breeds of " field search for their own food. the pigeon will not or be destroyed by become feral, and would Sheep have never
tendency;
"

it is very

almost know

every

beast

of

prey.^"In
been
any

several

cases

we

do

not

the
or

aboriginal parent-species,and
not

cannot

possibly tell

whether It is not out; and

there
in any

has

close

known

instance have

what

degree of reversion. first turned variety was

some cases run

several their

varieties

probably in
tend
to

wild,

crossing alone would

Our
must

obliterate and
new

character.
run

domesticated
"

animals
to

their proper plants, when they of life,

to

wild,

always be exposed
has well
1862,

conditions

for,as Mr.
9 Gardener's 721. 1" Mr. Boner
'

Wallace

remarked, they have

frozen snow and they

obtain

Chron.,'

clinging
have lost

to

p.

the

their wool, skill necessary

to ois-hunting,' over icy (' Chamsteep speaks pass two occasion On one slopes. edit., 1860, p. but wild survived the ewes 92) of sheep winter, running in tlie Bavarian lambs their on perished. but, Alps; 11 remarks See excellent further at some making inquiries my Mr. this that he found Wallace, by are on request, subject they not Linn. able to establish Journal Proc. Soc.,' 1858, themselves; from the vol. iii. p. 60. they generally perish

2nd often

'

6
their native

INHERITANCE.

Chap. XIII.

own

food, and
animals

are

exposed
these
not

to

competition with
if
some our

the

productions.
would
this

Under did

circumstances, undergo change of

to

mesticat do-

kind,
rived ar-

the

result
at

be
work.

quite opposed

the

conclusions

Nevertheless, I do not doubt that and the simple fact of animals plants becoming feral,does the primitive state; to cause some tendency to reversion
in

though
authors.
I

this

tendency

has

been

much

exaggerated

by

some

will
nor

briefly run
cattle

through
that

the

recorded stock have horses

cases.

With and different

neither been in colours

horses shown in South

is the

primitive
Thus the

known;
assumed which
and

it has

in

former

chapters
are

they

different America

countries. their
heads

have in

run

wild

East generally brownish-bay, have become and this larger and coarser, be due to reversion. No careful has been description given of may the feral goat. which have wild in various countries run Dogs have uniform a hardly anywhere assumed character; but they are from several domestic and probably descended aboriginally races, the

dun-

coloured;

from La

several

distinct

species.

Feral

cats, both

in

Europe

and

to cases regularly striped; in some they have grown but do not differ from the domestic animal an size, unusually large character. in any other When rabbits variously-coloured tame turned out in Europe, they generally reacquire the colouring of are doubt the wild animal; there can be no that this does really occur, but we should remember that oddly-coloured and mals conspicuous anisuffer of prey and from would much from beasts being easily who tried to the opinion of a gentleman shot; this at least was stock his woods with a variety; if thus destroyed, nearly white of being transformed would be instead into, they supplanted by,
are

Plata,

the and
new

common

rabbit. The

We

have best

seen

that

the of

feral rabbits
new

especiallyof
characters. the of

Porto

Santo, have
known have

assumed
case

of Jamaica, colours and other that

on

reversion, and

which is that South wild But

widely spread pigs. These animals

and the
case

belief in its Falkland

universality apparently rests,

America,
the
in

the

acquired
even

dark and the

colour, the thick

wild in the West run Indies, have Islands, and everywhere bristles,and great tusks of the

boar;

have reacquired longitudinal stripes. young describes the half-wild of the pig, Roulin

animals

in different In Louisiana

parts
the

of South

America
run

as

differing in
and

several differ

respects.

pig
in

^^

has

wild,
the of

is said With

to

little in form, and much a does not closelyresemble

1'

colour, from
wild
in

domestic

animal, yet

the

boar

Europe.

pigeons
pigs
of

Bureau 807.

de

la
From

Malle,
torn,

Comptes 1855, p.
ments

Rendus,'

xli.,
state-

the

concludes wild that the Louisiana descended not are Sus the European scrofa,

from

above

given,

the

author

Chap. XIII.

ItEVERSlON.

and what the

fowls," it is
character West With

not

known

what

variety was
assumed.
to
seems

the state.
to

feral birds

have

first turned out, nor The guinea-fowl in

more

Indies, when respect

what

feral,

vary

than

in

the

domesticated insisted

has wild. Dr. Hooker^* plants run strongly the belief in their common slight evidence to rests. reversion Godron a describes wild primitive state turnips, carrots, and celery; but these plants in their cultivated their wild prototypes, except in the succustate hardly differ from of certain and which would leney enlargement parts, characters in certainly be lost by plants growing poor soil and strugglingwith other wild on so plant has run enormous plants. No cultivated scale as the cardoon in La Plata. a (Cynara carduncnlus) Every it growing there, in vast botanist who has seen beds, as high as struck with its peculiar appearance; horse's back, has been but a
on
^'
"

whether

it differs

in

Spanish form, which descendant, or whether

which species, is said
nature

important any to be is said not

it
not

point from the prickly like its

the
I do

cultivated American be due

differs
to

from

wild
not

Mediterranean may

be

social

(though

this know.

merely

to

the

of the

conditions), derived

from a Cross, in the case individual of Sub-varieties,Races, and Species. When an of having some recognisablepeculiarityunites with another the same not having the peculiarityin question, sub-variety,
"

Reversion

to Characters

it often several

reappears

in

the

descendants

after

an

interval

of

have noticed, or heard generations. Every one must from old people of children closely resembling in appearance in mental and small or disposition,or so complex a character of their grandparents, or some as expression,one distant collateral relation. anomalies of more Very many and of diseases,^" which instances have been

structure

given

into a family from one chapter, have come parent, and have reappeared in the progeny after passing over two three generations. The following case cated has been communior I believe, to me be fully good authority, and may, on
"

in the last

Capt.
to

W. the

Allen, in his Niger,' states

'

pedition primitive Exthat of

in
1*
'

stock,
a

and
more

as

tory confirmament state-

still

vague

fowls island The vague

me

have the wild run on of Annobon, and have come bemodified in form voice. and and account is so meagre that it did not to appear
worth

classical of Flora
p. ix. De

times

bv

Varro.

Australia,'
tom.

1859,
54,

Introdnct.,
^^
'

I'Espece,' Sedgwick
in

ii. pp.
many

58, 60.
1^ Mr. instances

copying;
Bureau de

but la

now

gives
'

find

that

Malle

the

British

and

torn, (' Comptes Rendus,' xli., this a as 1855, p. 690) advances of reversion to the good instance

Foreign April and

Med.-Chirurg. July, 1863, pp,

Review,'

448, 188,

85

INHERITANCE.

Chap. XIII.

trusted
marked

pointer-bitch produced
blue
and

seven

puppies; four

were

is so unusual colour a white, which with thought to have played false with pointers that she was litter was of the greyhounds, and the whole condemned; one but the gamekeeper was one as a curiosity. permitted to save with

Two

years

afterwards declared
the that

friend he
was

of the
the

owner

saw

the

young

dog, and
bitch

image

of his

old

pointer-

pointer of pure descent led to close inquiry, and This it he had which seen. ever the great-great-grandson of Sappho; was proved that he was expression, he had only that, according to the common so Sappho,
l-16th of her
on

only blue and white

blood

in

his

veins.

may

the

authority of Mr.
He with
in

R.

give Walker, a

one

other

stance, in-

large cattle-

breeder of
a

in Kincardineshire.
cow

black

white 1870
a

bought a black bull, the son legs, white belly and part of the
calf the

tail white; of this

cow

and
was

gr.-gr.-gr.-gr.-grandchild
same

born

coloured

in the

very

peculiar manner;

In offsprings having been black. there can rived these cases hardly be a doubt that a character deindividual of the same with from cross an variety a three generations in the one reappeared after passing over

all the

intermediate

case,

and

five in the other.

two

When the

distinct
in the

races

are

crossed, it is notorious
revert
many

that

tendency
seen

offspring to
endures evidence

to

one

or

both

parentI have

forms

is strong,

and

for

generations.
in

myself
and of Essex of the before

the

clearest

of this
"

crossed

pigeons

with

various

pigs, two
in

Berkshire

states that, in a litter Sidney the image ones appeared which were young boar that had been used twenty-eight years

plants. Mr.

giving size and

the

constitution

to

the

breed.

served ob-

fowls showing a farmyard at Betley Hall some told by Mr. Toilet strong likeness to the Malay breed, and was that he had forty years before crossed his birds with Malays ; and that, though he had at first attempted to get rid of this strain, he had subsequently given up the attempt in despair, the Malay character would as reappear. This rise to
17

in

strong endless
In his

tendency
discussions
edit, of
'

in crossed in

breeds
many
the

to revert

has

given
a

how
on

generations after
Pig,' 18G0, p. 27.

Youatt

10

INHERITANCE.

Chap. XIII.

by long-continued selection; but these subjects will more properly be discussed in a future chapter on Crossing. From
what
races,
we see

and

of reversion, both in pure of the power and scope infer when varieties or species are crossed, we may of almost been from
every
a

that

characters after having

kind great

are

capable of

ing reappear-

lost for

length of time.

But

it

does

not

follow will

this that for

in each

particular case
not

certain
occur

characters
when
a race

reappear;

instance, this will

endowed
power

is crossed

with

another the able stated

to

with

prepotency

of transmission.

Sometimes
our

of reversion
any
a cause

wholly
for the

fails, without
failure: thus
out

being
been
GOO

assign
that
in

it has

French
six

family in
generations,
not

which
had

85

of above
to

been

subject

during night-blindness, " there

members,
it."
^"

has

been who

single example of this affection in the children

were

of parents

themselves

free from

Reversion

hy segments

Partial Reversion, through Bud-propagation in the same flower or fruit,or in differentparts

"

of the body in the chapter many cases

seminal

same

individual

animal.

"

In

the eleventh

of reversion
were

by buds, independently of
"

generation,

given

as

when

leaf-bud

on

variegated, a curled, or laciniated its proper character; or as when

a

variety suddenly
a

reassumes

Provence-

rose

appears
some

on

moss-rose,

or

peach

on

a or

nectarine-tree.

In smaller

of these
or we

cases mere

only half the flower

fruit, or
former Vilmorin from

segment, and here also

stripes,reassume
reversion
cases

their

character;
^^

have

by segments.
to

has

recorded
ing revert-

several

with

plants derived
their

seed, of flowers

primitive colours ; he states white that in all such cases a or pale-coloured variety must this is propagated for a length of first be formed, and, when time their apby seed, striped seedlings occasionally make pearance; afterwards and these can be multiplied by by care
seed.
2" Quoted by Med.-Chlrnrg.

by stripes or blotches

Mr. Dr.

in Sedgwick April, Review,' H.

an a

transmitted

to

several

members

during
the
never
^i

1801,
'

p.
-

4Sr".

Dobell, analogous

in

Med.

vol. case,

Chirurg. xlvi., gives

in

Transactions,' large family, joints were

when but generations; blemish it once disappeared reappeared, Des Verlot, Vari^tSs,' 18G5,
'

five

which,

in

p.

63.

fingers with

thickened

Chap.

XIII.

REVERSION.

n
to
are

The far
cross,
as

stripes and
is known, but
to
'^

segments
to

just referred
to

not

due,
from

as a

reversion lost

characters

derived These
on

characters

by

variation.

cases,

ever, how-

as

Naudin
are

insists in his discussion

closely analogous with crossed plants have been known eleventh chapter, in which to or striped flowers and fruit,or distinct produce half-and-half kinds of flowers on the same root resembling the two parentforms. under this same Many piebald animals probably come shall see in the chapter on Crossing, Such cases, head. as we ing apparently result from certain characters not readily blendof this incapacity for fusion, together,and, as a consequence the offspring either perfectly resemble of their two one
character,
parents, parent
in
or

disjunction of those given in the

resemble another with

one or

parent
whilst

in

one

part, and
are

the

other in

part;

young revert

intermediate

character, but
to

advancing
or

age to

either

parent-form,

both.

of the

in intermediate are Cytisus adami the two older the buds between parent-forms; but when continually revert either partially or wholly to both forms. The cases given in the eleventh chapter on the changes which occurred during growth in crossed plants of Tropseolum. all analogous. As, however, Cereus, Datura, and Lathyrus are these plants are hybrids of the first generation, and as

wholly or by segments trees Thus, young foliage and flowers

their
not
come

buds

after

time

come

to
cases

resemble
do
not

their
at

parents

and

their

grandparents,
the law
as

these

under

of reversion the

first appear to in the ordinary sense of the

is effected
same

word;
thus

nevertheless,
of included. facts
more

change
on

through

cession suc-

bud-generations
have

the

plant, they
in the
occur

may

be

Analogous
and
are

been

observed
as

animal
same

dom, king-

remarkable,
sense,

they
not

in the

dividual in-

in the strictest
a

and

as

with

plants through

version, bud-generations. With animals the act of reif it can be so designated, does not pass over true a in the the early stages of growth generation, but merely over

succession

of

same

individual.
"
'

For

instance, I crossed
du Mii-

several

white

hens

Nouvelles
'

Archives

Soc,
holds

s^um,' torn. i. p. 25. Alex. (in his Rejuvenesceaoe,'

Brann

1853, p. similar

315) apparently opinion,

Ray

12
with black

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIII.

first year, black year which

were

of the chickens during the cock, and many were, perfectly white, but acquired during the second of the chickens feathers; on the other hand, some first black, became at during the second year white. which
"

piebald
Brahma
in

with hen

great breeder
any

^^

says,

that

Pencilled

has

of the blood
a

her, will
the shoulders

occasionallyproduce
but

first year,

she

will most

Light Brahma ing pullet well pencilled durlikely moult brown on

her original colours
in

of the

the

and

become
The
same

quite unlike

the second if of with But has

year."

thing

occurs

impure
is

blood.

have

observed

Light Brahmas exactly similar cases pigeons. turbit, which

on

with

the crossed here

a a more

offspring from
remarkable

differentlycoloured
fact
:

I crossed

frill formed
a

by the
and
a

feathers
one

being
young

reversed

its

breast, with

trumpeter;
not

of the of the

pigeons thus

ing but, after moultfrill, thrice, a small yet unmistakably distinct frill appeared on its breast. According to Girou," calves produced from a red
trace
cow

raised at first showed

by

black

bull, or

from

black

cow

by

red

bull,

are

not

I posblack. rarely born red, and subsequently become sess white of terrier fox-coloured the daughter by a a dog, a about six she was quite white, but when bulldog; as a puppy her nose, and brown old a black spot appeared on months little older she When her was badly a on ears. spots

wounded cicatrix father.

was

on

the of
a

back,
brown the

and

the

hair

which

grew

on

the her mals ani-

This

is

colour, apparently derived remarkable, as with more hair, that which

grows
on a

from
most

having coloured
surface
In is white.

wounded

ing foregoing cases, the characters which with advancing reappeared, were present in the immediately precedage in the sometimes generations; but characters reappear Thus the after a much longer interval of time. same manner of cattle which calves of a hornless originated in Corrace adult rientes, though at first quite hornless, as they become sometimes acquire small, crooked, and loose horns; and these attached the to in occasionally become succeeding years the
2'

Mr.

Teebav,

in

'

The

Poultry

"

Book,'
p. 72.

by

Mr.' Tegetmeier,

1866,

die

Hofacker, "c., Eigenschaften,' Quoted by

'

s.

Ueber 98.

Chap.

XIII.

REVERSION.

I3
both
grow

skull." White
breed red been

and

black
assume

Bantams,
as a

of which old
a

generally
saffron
or

true, sometimes For

they

plumage.

instance,

first-rate black
seasons was more

bantam

has

described, which during three black, but then annually became more
deserves notice that this

perfectly
red; and
it
"'

and
to

it change, whenever is almost certain to prove in a bantam, occurs hereditary." blue-mottled The cuckoo or Dorking cock, when old, is liable in place of his proper hackles to acquire yellow or orange Gallus hanhiva is coloured red as bluish-grey hackles." Now and as Dorking fowls and bantams and orange, descended are from this species, hardly doubt that the change which we can in the plumage of these birds as their age occasionallyoccurs advances, results from a tendency in the individual to revert to the primitive type.
"

tendency

It has long been of Reversion. notorious that hybrids and mongrels often revert to both or of their parent-forms, after an interval of from two to to one authorities, even seven or eight, or, according to some a But that the of of number act generations. greater crossing in itself gives an impulse towards reversion, as shown by the of long-lostcharacters, has never, I believe, been reappearance hitherto proved. The proof lies in certain peculiarities,

Crossing

as

direct

cause

"

which

do not
cannot

characterise have been

the immediate from

parents, and

fore thereing appear-

derived
two

them, frequently
crossed, which
extreme

in the
never same

offspringof
appear,
or as

breeds

when

arities peculi-

breeds, as long
seems

this conclusion

rarity,in these they are precluded from crossing. As to me highly curious and novel, I will
appear

with

give the evidence My

make stated coloured attention
numerous was

in detail.
first called to this MM. certain

subject, and
and breeds

was

led

to

experiments, by

that, when
like the

they
wild

with slaty-blue,

double

having pigeons, birds the C. livia, or dovecot common namely, black sometimes wing-bars, chequered with
crossed

Boitard

Corbie

of

"

black, white
feathers
"

edged with
'

with outer the loins, the tail barred black, with white, ^^ere almost invariablyproduced. The
"

Azara,
These

Essais
ii.
are

Hist.

Nat.

de

'The
-''
'

Poultry
The

Book,'

by Book,'

Mr.

Paraguay,'
^'^

torn.

facts

1801, p. 372. the given on

Tegetmeier, Tegetmeier,

liSOG,p.
Poultry

248.

by

high authority

of

Mr.

Hewitt,

in

1866,

p.

97.

14
breeds been which
to
or

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIII.

I crossed, and
in the true

the
sixth

remarkable

results
I

attained, have
longing pigeons betrace and
or a

fully described
and

chapter.
but often
or

selected
not

ancient

breeds, which

had when

of

blue their less

of the above specifiedmarks; any birds ^vere mongrels recrossed, young with coloured some plainly slaty-blue,

crossed,
more

produced,

all of the

proper
one

teristic characcase,

marks.

may

recall

to

the

namely,
Shetland two

that

pigeon, hardly the grandchild of species,

of
a

memory distinguishable from

a

reader's

the

wild

red-spot, white
when
C.

fantail, and
have duction probeen

black of
a

barbs,

from

any

of

which,

purely-bred, the
livia would

almost
I
was

pigeon coloured prodigy.

led to make fowls.
not I

like the the

wild

thus
on

experiments,recorded

in the

seventh in

chapter,
which

selected
trace

long-established pure

breeds,

of the mongrels of red, yet in several a was of this colour feathers appeared; and one magnificent bird, the and black cock white Silk of coloured a hen, was Spanish ofTspring

there

All w^ho know exactly like the wild Gallus hankiva. thing anythat tens of thousands of the breeding of poultry will admit of pure white Silk fowls of pure Spanish and might have been without the appearance of a red feather. The reared fact, given on in the authority of Mr. Tegetmeier, of the frequent appearance, of like or fowls, feathers, pencilled mongrel transversely-barred to many those common gallinaceous birds, is likewise apparently a to a character of reversion ancient case formerly possessed by some I of the the kindness this to of excellent owe family. progenitor neck-hackles tailobserver the opportunity of inspectingsome and from feathers the common fowl and tinct disa a hybrid between very species,the Gallus rarii(s; and these feathers are transversely metallic with dark blue and grey, striped in a conspicuous manner almost
a

character
I

which been

could informed drake

not

have

been B. P.

derived

from that

either he

diate imme-

parent.
have

by Mr.
and
a

Brent,

crossed

white

Aylesburj^
are

black

so-called

Labrador

duck,

both

he obtained drake a breeds, and closely young mallard Of the musk-duck {A. boschas). {Cairina moschata) there are two sub-breeds, namely, white and slate-coloured; and these I am informed breed true, or nearly true. But the Rev. W. D. Fox tells me to a drake that, by putting a white slatecoloured duck, black birds, pied with white, like the wild muskduck, were ahvays produced. I hear from INIr. Blyth that hybrids
true

of which like the

from
on

the

and canary their backs;

gold-fineh almost
and the this

always have
must

streaked

ers feaththe

streaking

be the

derived

from

original
We

wild

canary.
seen

have

in

fourth This of
a

rabbit, with feet, breeds

of two by the union Himalayan doe was

its snow-white varieties

crossed

chapter, that body, black

race

so-called
nose,

layan Himaformed

ears,

tail, and

perfectly true.

is known

to have

been

by

Now, when silver-greyrabbits. a sandy-coloured buck, a silver-grey

rabbit

^^'a"

produced; and

this is

evidentlya

case

of reversion to

Chap.

XIII.

REVERSION.

15
of
do

one are

of
born

the

parent varieties.
and

The dark

young
marks

the
not

Himalayan
appear until

rabbit
some

snow-white,

the

subsequently; but occasionally young Himalayan rabbits are of a light silver-grey,which colour born soon disappears; so that have trace of here we a reversion, during an early period of life,to the parent varieties, independently of any recent cross. In the third it shown that at was ancient an chapter period
time
some

breeds
ears,

of cattle
and

in the the thus

wilder
now

parts of Britain

were

white
certain

with

dark and Mr.

that

cattle
run

kept

half two
an

wild

in

parks,

those
are

which

have

quite wild
coloured.

in

world,
J.

likewise

Now,

parts of the experienced breeder,

distant

Beasley, of Northamptonshire,^* crossed some carefully selected West with shorthorn cows bulls. Highland purely-bred The bulls were and red, red and white, or dark roan; the Highland all of a red colour, incliningto a light or yelloAV shade. cows were But of the offspring and considerable number a Mr. Beasley calls
"

attention red and here colour

case,
ears.

to

this

as

remarkable mind that in

fact
none

"

were

that the
of

Bearing they were

some

in

of

the

white, or parents
of the in

white
were

with

white,
that to

purely-bred animals, it is highly probable

and under udders consequence half-wild parent-breed.
same

offspring reverted,
ancient
comes

cross,

the

The do Now

following
natural not

perhaps,
have
so

the but

head:

cows

their

state

their much
to

little cross-bred

developed, and
animals. animals between
and

yield
is

nearly
some

milk

as
^"

our

domesticated

there
tAvo

reason

believe
are

that

both often
In

of which
turn out

worthless
on

good milkers, such as Aldenieys in this respect.

the that Horse
was reasons were

kinds, Shorthorns,

the the

chapter

assigned for believing

and details

that
were

primitive stock

striped
in
all

and

dun-coloured;
of the world

given, showing
colour the

parts

dark
on even

frequently appear
on

shoulders, where
the

along the spine,across they are occasionallydouble

and

the
or

stripes of a legs, and

treble, and

body of horses of all breeds and of all colours. But the stripes appear most frequently on the various kinds In of duns. foals they are sometimes and plainly seen, and the stripesare subsequently disappear. The dun-colour ly strongtransmitted when I
was a

sometimes

face

horse able the

thus
to

characterised that
two

is crossed

with
are

any
erally gen-

other;
of which The of

but

not

produced
are

from the

prove crossing of this does often wild

striped duns
distinct
occur.

breeds, neither
may

duns, though
of
ass are

sometimes

legs
as a

striped, and
parent
are

this

be

sidered con-

reversion

to

the the
and p. I

form, the

Eqinis twniopus

Abyssinia,^" which
the

is

generally thus
shoulder Ag528.
am a

animal
-^
'

stripes on

striped. In the domestic occasionally double, or

p.
a

Gardener's Chrnn. riciiltural 1866, Gazette,'

2"

1869,
to

1216)
cross

admits

my
a

ciple of
^o

giving
'

printendency

Ibid.,
to

1860,
that
cattle

p.
so as

843.

rever.sion.

glad

find
of

experienced
Mr. Wil-

breeder

in Proc. Sclater, Soc.,' 1862, p. 163.

Zoolog.

lougliby

Wood

('Gard.

CUron.,'

16

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIII.

is species. There the that the more to believe frequently striped on reason the horse, I have not acquired As with legs than the adult animal. of difl'erently-coloured the varieties distinct that evidence crossing any the of the ass stripes. brings out and result of crossing the horse to the But turn let us now in not numerous as mules so are nearly England ass. Although with number and much I have striped legs, a greater seen asses, in either parent-form with the stripes far more conspicuous than and mules Such might be called falloware generallylight-coloured, at instance in was one duns. The deeply forked shoulder-stripe instance in another was the extremity, and double, though united of with in the middle. Mr. Martin a a Spanish mule figure gives and remarks that mules its legs,^^ marks are on strong zebra-like their legs. In South striped on particularly liable to be thus frequent and America, according to Roulin,^- such stripes are more In the United in the ass. than States, conspicuous in the mule

forked

at

the

extremity,

as

in

certain

zebrine

foal

is

that in a Gosse,^^ speaking of these animals, says, banded the of in nine out are ten, number, perhaps legs every

Mr.

"

great
with

transverse

dark years
from

stripes."
ago
I
saw

curious a triple Zoological Gardens female male and from ass a a bay mare, by a hybrid when old had This animal zebra. hardly any stripes;but I was shoulderit had assured by the superintendent, that when young its and I and flanks mention this faint legs. stripes, stripes on instance of the case more especially as an stripes being much

Many hybrid,

in the

plainer during youth

As

than such

in old
a

age. and

legs, and hybrids from this animal would had their legs in some the common have ass degree striped; but it appears from the figures given in Dr. Gray's Knowsley Gleanings,' and still more plainly from that given by Geoffroy and F. Cuvier,^^ that the much more legs are conspicuously striped than the rest of the body; and this fact is intelligible only on the aids belief that the ass in giving, through the power of reversion, this character to its hybrid offspring. is banded The the whole front part of its body like over quagga of them. traces a But zebra, but has no stripes on its legs, or mere famous in the Lord bred hybrid Morton,^^ from a chestnut, by the nearly purely-bred, Arabian by a male mare, stripes quagga, defined than and darker those the were more on strongly legs of the quagga." The mare was subsequently put to a black Arabian horse, and bore two colts, both of which, as formerly stated, were plainly striped on the legs,and one of them likewise had stripeson and the neck body.
it

the

zebra

has

conspicuously striped body

the

might have

been

expected that

'

"

"i

'

History
Mem.
k

of

the

Horse,'
par

p.

"

'

212.
"
'

1859. presentes
I'Acad. p. 338. divers
torn.
^^
'

Savans

Royale,'

1820,
""
'

Letters 280. Hist. Nat. torn. i.

p.

from des

Alabama,' Mammiferes, 1821,

p.

vi., 1835,

piiji. Transact.,'

20.

18
and

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIII,

so

rare

is it for them
in works
on

to incubate

that

I have

seen

notices

poultry,when hens of such breeds have sit.** Yet of course taken the aboriginal species was to a in of birds with state nature and a hardly good incubator; published
any

instinct
recorded
are

is

been

strong as of the crossed

so

this.

Now,

so

many two

cases

have neither
the

offspringfrom
must goes

races,

of which
reappearance

incubators, becoming
of this instinct One author

first-rate

that sitters,
to say,
"

be attributed
so

reversion
that
a

from
cross

crossing.
between
a

far

as

to

two

non-sitting
becomes
"

varieties

almost

invariably produces
able remarka

mongrel that
that

broody, and
can

sits with

steadiness."

Another

author, after giving

be

striking

explained only on the two negatives make a principle that positive." It cannot, that hens produced from tween behowever, be maintained a cross stinct, their lost intwo non-sitting breeds invariably recover than that crossed fowls or pigeons invariably more any the red or blue plumage of their prototj'pes. recover Thus I raised several chickens from a Polish hen by a Spanish
"

example, remarks

the fact

cock,
"

breeds
at

which

do not
any
was

hens
the
on

first showed
one

incubate, and none tendency to sit; but

"
"

of the young of them one

year sat

"

only

which

preserved

in the

third

well
we

So her eggs and reared a brood of chickens. with advancing age of a have the reappearance
in the
same manner as we

that here

stinct, primitive inthat

have

seen

the

red

reacquired both plumage of the Gallus hankiva is sometimes by crossed and purely-bred fowls of various kinds as they
grow

old.
Black Polish and steady birds to sit." Mr. B. P. Brent informs that he raised me some hens sitting good by crossing Pencilled and Polish Hamburg breeds. A cross-bred bird from Golden
are

*" and Cases of both Spanish Polish hens sittinc: are friven in the Poultry Chronicle,' 1855, vol. iii. p. 477. " Book.' The Poultry by Mr.
' '

and

Te^etmeier,
The two

1866,
who

pp.

119,
on

163. the two

author,

remarks
of states

tween
fowls,
"

good

negatives
p.
were

(' .Journ.

Hort.,'

Spanish

1862.
broods

325),

that

from raised a ish Spanand cock Silver pencilled which of neither Hamburg hen, less and than incubators, no are in these of eiglit hens out seven broods showed two a perfect The Rev. in obstinacv sitting." PoulS. Dixon E. (' Ornamental that 200) try,' 1848, says p.
-

Cochin mentioned

and

non-incubating incubating
the iii. p. vol. mother."
an

cock hen
'

is
an

in

Poultry
as

Chronicle,' exemplary
"

13. On

the

other

hand,
in
p.

is

given
18G0,
a

the

'

case exceptional er,' GardenCottage

"

388, which

of cock

hen and

raised
black

from

Sfjanish
hen

Polish

did

not

bate. incu-

chickens

reared

from

cross

be-

Chap.

XIll.

REVERSION.

19
animals

The
course

parents

of

all

our

domesticated

were

of

when cated a domestiaboriginally wild in disposition ; and with whether this is a distinct species, species is crossed only a tamed animal, the hybrids are often or a domesticated wild to such a degree, that the fact is intelligible only on the has caused to a a partial return principle that the cross ported primitive disposition. Thus, the Earl of Powis formerly imcattle from humped thoroughly domesticated some India, and crossed them with English breeds, which belong to remarked his agent without to me, distinct species; and a bred question having been asked, how oddly wild the crossany

animals domesticated Sir F. Darwin

were.

The
are

European

wild

boar

and

the

Chinese

pig

almost
a sow

distinct: certainly specifically of the latter breed with

a

crossed

wild

Alpine boar which had become extremely tame, but the young, blood in their veins, were though having half-domesticated " extremely wild in confinement, and would not eat swill like English pigs." Captain Hutton, in India, crossed a common from the Himalya, and he rewild one marked tame a goat with Mr. how to me surprisingly wild the offspringw^ere. cockHewitt, who has had great experience in crossing tame pheasants with fowls belonging to five breeds, gives as the
character
seen

of all
one

"

extraordinary
to

wildness
Mr.

'

*'

but

I have

self my-

raised Gallus Mr. under

exception of hybrids from large number

states
some

this rule.

S. J.
a

who Salter,"

bantam-hen

by

sonneratii,
"

that

"

all

were

exceedingly wild."
from
were

Waterton
a common

bred

wild the

ducks
young

eggs

hatched
to
cross

duck, and

allowed

and with themselves the tame ducks; freely both amongst " half wild and half the dows winto tame they were ; they came about them to be fed, but still they had a wariness quite

remarkable." On the other

not

hand, mules
least wild,

from

the

horse

and

ass

are

tainly cer-

in

the

though
has

notorious

for

obstinacy
with
me,

and
many

vice. kinds the

'

Mr.

Brent, who
were

crossed

canary-birds
as

of finches, has
in
any
by

not
way

observed,

he

informs
:

that
42

hybrids
Poultry

remarkably
"
*

wild
History

but

Mr.

Tjjp

Mv.

Tegetmeier,

Book,' 1866, pp.

Natural

Review.'

165,

1863,
**
'

167.

April, Essays

p.
on

277.

Nat.

Hist.,' p. 917.

20
Jenner

INHERITANCE.

Chap. XIII.

is of a Weir, who has had still greater experience, oppositeopinion. He remarks that the siskin is the directly of finches, but its mules are as wild,when young, tamest as and their often lost are tinued connewly caught birds, through

efforts to escape. Hybrids are often raised between the common and musk duck, and I have been assured by three
have who persons, not wild ; but Mr.

kept these crossed birds,that they

Garnett
" *"'

were

observed

that his
"

hybrids were
there

wild, and exhibited

is not
a

migratory
common

propensities of which
or

No case is duck. known of this latter bird having escaped and become wild in Europe or Asia, except, according to Pallas,on the Caspian domestic duck only occasionally becomes Sea; and the common

vestige in the

musk

wild in districts where

large lakes and fens abound.

*"

have been recorded of cases Nevertheless,a largenumber of hybrids from these two ducks having been shot in a completelywild state, although so few are reared in comparison

with their wildness

improbable that

purely-bredbirds of either species. It is of these hybrids could have acquired any from the musk-duck having paired with a
in
acquired, renewed re-

not to be the case truly wild duck; and this is known North infer that they have America; hence we must well as as through reversion,their wildness, of flight. powers

These

That
no one

quently latter facts remind us of the statements, so fregraded made by travellers in all parts of the world, on the deof o f crossed state and savage man. races disposition and existed excellent kind-hearted mulattos have many will dispute;and a more mild and gentleset of men inhabitants of the island of

could hardly be found than the Chiloe, who consist of Indians in various proportions.On the long before I had thought of the
with
*5

the fact that, in South

As
'

commingled with Spaniards other hand, many years ago, I struck was present subject, of complicated America, men
v.,

his
p.
*"

stated by Mr. of Physiology

Orton.

in

1845-46,

Breeding,'

12. de E. M. Selys-Longehamps Acad. refers de (' Bulletin Roy. torn. xii. No. 10) to Bruxelles,'

have parts of France.

of in and then

p. been

1254)
shot and

Belgium

that eral sevin various Northern

Biography,'
North

Audubon ('Ornitholog. vol. iii. p. 168), speaking these tliat, hybrids, says

than of these seven hybrids shot in Switzerland and France. M. Deby asserts ('Zoologist,' vol.
more

America,

they

"

now

wander quite wild."

off and

become

Chap.

XIII.

REVERSION.

^|

descent

between the
a

Negroes, Indians, and

cause more

had, whatever
"

and after

Spaniards, seldom might be, a good expression.*^ Livingstone, unimpeachable authority cannot be

the Zambesi, speaking of a half-caste man on described by the Portuguese as a rare of inhumanity, monster " It is unaccountable why half-castes, such remarks, as he, much cruel than the more are so Portuguese, but such is undoubtedly

quoted,
"

the
"

case." white

An

inhabitant
men,
***

remarked made
two

to

stone, Livingmen,

God

made

and

God

black

but

the Devil

made

the scale, are Thus the

in the progeny be to seems eminently bad. noble-hearted felt no Humboldt, who prejudice
races,

half-castes."

When

both

low

crossed

of the bad against the inferior races, speaks in strong terms and savage dians dispositionof Zambos, or half-castes between Inand Negroes: and this conclusion has been arrived at

by various
that

observers.*** From

these

facts

we

may

perhaps

fer in-

half-castes is in part degraded state of so many due to reversion to a primitive and savage condition, induced if mainly due to the unfavourable by the act of crossing,even moral conditions under which they are generally reared. the proximate causes leading to Reversion. Summary on When acters, long-lostcharpurely-bred animals or plants reassume
" "

the

when

the

common

ass,

for

instance, is born

with

of black white or race pigeons striped legs, when a pure heartsease with throws a slaty-blue a cultivated bird, or when small flowers produces a seedling with large and rounded and elongated flowers, we are quite unable to assign any
"

animals When wild, the tendency to proximate cause. run reversion, which, though it has been greatly exaggerated, no extent doubt to a certain intelligible. exists, is sometimes

Thus,
favour with

with

feral pigs, exposure to the weather is known the growth of the bristles, as

will
to

probably
case relation cor-

be the

the hair of other domesticated the tusks will tend

to

animals, and

through

of coloured

appearance redeveloped. But the referal longitudinal stripes on young

be

pigs cannot
"
'

be attributed
of
to

to the

direct action
*^

of external
'

con-

1845,
*8
'

Journal p. 71. pp.

Researches,'
in the

Dr.

P.

Broea,
p.

on

the

Genus

Homo,'
39.

Hybridity Eng. trans-

1865,

Expedition 25, 150.

Zambesi,'

lat., 1864,

22
ditions. that
any

INHERITANCl^.

Chap. Xlll.

In

this

case,

and

in

many

others,

we

can

only
a

say dency, ten-

change in the habits of life apparently favour

inherent
or

latent

in

the

species,to

return

to

the

primitive

state.

chapter that the position of flowers on of the axis, and the position of seeds the summit the capsule, sometimes determine within a tendency towards of sap reversion; and this apparently depends on the amount
It will be shown in
a

future

or

nutriment

which

the

flower-buds
on

and

seeds
or on

receive. roots,

The
times some-

position,^Iso, of buds, either

determines,
the
as was

branches

formerly shown, the transmission

the

of mer for-

character
state.

proper

to

variety,or

its reversion

to

We

have

seen

in

the

last section
is the

that

when

two to

races

or appearance re-

species are

crossed
in the

there

strongest

tendency

the

offspring of long-lostcharacters, possessed im.mediate two by neither parent nor progenitor. When white, or red, or black pigeons, of well-established breeds, to inherit the same united, the offspring are almost sure are colours ; but w^hen differently-coloured birds are crossed, the each apparently counteract opposed forces of inheritance
other, and
in

the tendency other E.

which

is inherent

in both

parents

to

produce slaty-blueoffspring becomes

several
cases.

But
or

when,
with the

So it is predominant. for instance, the ass is

"

crossed
have

with

indicus
"

not

striped legs, and

their

stripes on
said

legs and

even

which horse, animals the hybrids have conspicuous their faces, all that can be on

inherent is, that an disturbance through some act of crossing. Another

form

tendency to reversion is evolved in the organisation caused by the

is far commoner,

of reversion
with

indeed

is almost

offspring from a cross, namely, to the characters to either pure parent-form. As a genproper eral first in the crossed rule, generation are nearly offspring the grandchildren their but intermediate between parents, and succeeding generations continually revert, in a greater lesser degree, to one both of their progenitors. Several or or that hybrids and mongrels include authors have maintained
all the characters of both parents,
not

universal

the

fused

together, but

mingled in different proportionsin different parts of merelj'^

Chap. Xm.

MVElESlON.

^S

expressed it, a hybrid is a living mosaic-work, in which the eye cannot distinguish the discordant elements, so completely are they intermingled.
the
or,
as

body;

^Naudin^" has

We when

can we

hardly doubt
behold
in

that, in hybrid a
into

certain the

sense,

elements in the
or

this is true, as of both species

same

segregating themselves
fruit, by
Naudin
a

segments

flower

or

process

of self-attraction

self-affinity ; this segregation

taking place either by seminal or bud-propagation. further believes that the segregation of the two specific
or essences

in the eminently liable to occur male and female reproductive matter; and he thus explains universal the almost in successive tendency to reversion be the natural result hybrid generations. For this would of pollen and of the union ovules, in both of which the of the same elements species had been segregated by selfincluded- the affinity. If, on the other hand, pollen which of one elements ing specieshappened to unite with ovules includof the other species,the intermediate the elements or hybrid state would still be retained, and there would be no But it would, as I suspect, be more reversion. correct to
say

elements

is

that
in

the
a

elements double

of both

parent-species exist in
blended

every

hybrid

separate.
essence specific or

attempt
But

to

show

together and comnamely, pletely How this is possible,and what the term element be supposed to express, I shall may in the chapter on the hypothesis of pangenesis.
state,

ble propounded by him, is not applicaof characters lost long ago by variation; to the reappearance and it is hardly applicable to races or species which, after having been crossed former at some period with a distinct form, and having since lost all traces of the cross, nevertheless reverts occasionally yield an individual which of the great-great-grandchildof the pointer (as in the case of reThe most Sappho) to the crossing form. version, simple case of its namely, grandparents, a hybrid or mongrel to is connected case by an almost perfect series with the extreme of a purely-bred race had been recovering characters which lost during many thus led to infer that all and we are ages; the cases bond. be related by some must common view,
as
w
'

ISTaudin's

Nouyellea

Archives

du

Museum,'

torn,

I, p, 151,

^4
Gartner
any
erroneous

INHIiRlTANCE.

Chap. Xlll.

believed

that
to

hibit only highly sterile hybrid plants ex-

tendency
belief
may

reversion

to

their

parent-forms.
for

Thia
nature

perhaps be accounted

by

the

crossed of the genera by him, for he admits that the tendency The is also directly differs in different genera. statement contradicted by^^au^i's observations, and by the notorious

fact
a

perfectly W'tile mongrels exhibit the tendency in high degreCj^^vQ^in a higher degree, according to Gartner
that

himself,

thaj^5^yj";3*ds." that states Gartner~^iurtn$r

l^^ed pl^S^^
whiRtjv^dth
of frequent willows
an

reversions

rarely
have
not

occur

with vated, culti-

hybrid
they
a are

from
those

species which
which have This

been

been

occurrence.

conclusion

long cultivated, explains

worked
to
so

curious
on

discrepancy :
which instance

Max

Wichura,^^ who
not

sively exclu-

had

been

subjected
he
goes

culture,
far
as

never

saw

of reversion; and Gartner had

not

to

suspect that the careful

his

sufficiently protected : I^audin, on parent-species who the other hand, chieflyexperimented on cucurbitaceous other and cultivated plants, insists more strenuously than in all hybrids. the tendency to reversion other author on any
hybrids from
the

pollen of the

The

conclusion

that
is

the
one

condition of the the

of the

parent-species,
causes

as

affected by culture,

proximate
case

leading

to

reversion,
animals

agrees

well with

converse

of domesticated when
or stitution con-

and

cultivated feral
; for

they become
must

plants being liable to reversion in both cases the organisation

though
in
a

be disturbed,

very

different

way."

that characters often reappear in Finally, we have seen without being able to assign any our purely-bred races feral this is either but when they become proximxate cause; tions by the change in their condiindirectly or directly induced

of itself
"
'

life.

With

crossed
to

breeds, the
recovery species
seasons

act

of

crossing in

certainly leads

the

of
of

long-lostcharacters,
butterfly
at

Bastarderzeugung,'
Die fler

s.

582,

different

438.
^'

"o.
'

Bastardbefruchtimg
s.

der 23. this

has

(' Saison-Dimorphismus 27, 28), Schmetterlinge,' pp.

come

For

Weiden.' 1865, remarks Gilrtner's on

'

to that

similar
cause

conclusion,
which
such
cocoons

namely,
the

any

turbs disas

s. heod, see Bastarderzeugung,' 474. 582. " in his Profesi=ior Weismann, the ent differcurious on very essay forms produced by the same

the
exposure
or a even

organisation,
of
to the

to

heat

gives

tendency

much shaking, to reversion.

26

INHERITANCE.

Chap. XIII.

and had assumed laying,

of disposition

plumage, voice, spurs, and the cock; when opposed to an enemy

the
show
manner as

like war-

she
have
to

would

erect
to

her hackles and the instinct and

fight. Thus
of

every

ter, charac-

even

must fighting,

in this hen as long lain dormant kinds The females of two act.

her ovaria continued

of deer, when old, have has to acquirehorns; and, as Hunter been known remarked, in the human something of an analogous nature we see

species.
the other hand, with male animals, it is notorious that less completely or the secondary sexual characters are more lost when they are subjected to castration. Thus, if the
On

be performed on operation

again ; states, crows to their full size,and

appearance

cock, he never, as Yarrell and spurs do not grow the comb, wattles,
a

young

the

hackles

assume

an

intermediate

between

true

Cases

are

recorded

hackles and the feathers of the hen. of confinement, which often affects the

acters reproductivesystem, causing analogous results. But charproperlyconfined to the female are likewise acquired

by the male; the

capon

bring
the

up

sterile male
same

chickens; and hybrids from

"

sitting on eggs, and will v/hat is more curious, the utterly

takes
the
to

manner,

pheasant and the fowl act in the their delightbeing to watch when

hens leave their nests, and to take on themselves the officeof " ^* asserts that That admirable observer Reaumur a sitter."

cock, by being long confined in solitude and darkness, can be taught to take charge of young chickens; he then utters a peculiar cry, and retains during his whole life this newly well-ascertained cases acquired maternal instinct. The many
a

of various
condition. We

male
mammary

mammals

mentary giving milk shows that their rudiin latent a glands retain this capacity
in
many,

thus

see

that

probably

in

all

cases,

the

secondary characters of each sex lie dormant or latent in the stances. opposite sex, ready to be evolved under peculiar circumit is posWe can thus understand how, for instance,
kinds of Aristotle
birds.
was

It
well

appears
aware

that
of the

"

'

Cottage
Art

Gardener,'
faire

1860, p.

379.
^^
'

chanf^e
hens.

in mental The case

acquiring

horns

disposition in old of the female deer is given at p, 513.

de

Eclore,' "C.,

1749, torn. ii. p. 8.

Chap.

XIII.

REVERSION.

27

to transmit her good qualities good milking cow through her male offspringto future generations ; for we may confidently believe that these qualities are present, though
a

sible for

latent, in the males

of each

generation.

So

it is with

the

transmit his superiority in courage game-cock, who can and vigour through his female to his male offspring; and with that diseases,such as hydrocele,necessarily it is known man be transmitted confined to the male sex, can male through the feSuch these offer, to the grandson. cases as as was marked reof this chapter, the simplest at the commencement possibleexamples of reversion; and they are intelligible on the belief that characters to the grandparent and common sex are grandchild of the same present, though latent,in the of intermediate the parent opposite sex. The subject of latent characters is so important, as we shall see in a future chapter, that I will give another tration. illus""*

Many
with and
the

animals

have

the right and

is well
one

left sides of their

to

body unequally developed : this

in flat-fish,

known

be the

case

which

the

side differs in thickness the other, and is gradually

In
most

colour

and

in the

from shape of the fins,

young

during the growth

twisted from

of the
to

fish

one

eye

the lower

the upper

surface.""
in
some

fishes flat-

the left is the blind

side, but
"

it is the

right;

reversed or ally occasionfishes," are though in both cases wrong flesus the right or left side developed; and in Platessa With fish, is indifferently the upper gasteropods or shellone. the right and left sides are extremely unlike; the far and of species are dextral, with rare casional ocgreater number few are normally reversals of development, and some Achatisinistral; but certain species of Bulimus, and many

nellse,"^ are
case

as

often the
so

sinistral great

as

dextral.

I will

give

an

ogous anal-

in
"

of Verruca
so

are

sides kingdom : the two wonderfully unlike, that without careful articulate
Medical 3rd edit..
'

Sir
and p.

H. 31.

Notes

Holland, Reflections,'

"i

nals
"2

Dr. E. von Mac. and

'

Martens,
of

in

An-

Nat.

Hist.'

1855.
60

tlie 'Ob/SffP Steenstrnp on Annals ': in liqnitv of Flounders and Nat. Hist.' of Magr. May, abpriven an 1865, p. .361, I have of stract of Malm's explanation in this wonderful phenomenon the Edit, 6th Origin of Species p. 186.
' ' '

1S66, p. 209. Balanida?,' Ray Darwin, the apSoc. 1S54, p. 499: srr also the remarks on apparentpended of the development ly capricious March.
limbs thoracic in left sides
ceans,
on

the

the right and crustahigher

28
dissection parts
a

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIII.

it is
on mere

ing extremely difficult to recognise the correspondopposite sides of the

matter

the

body;

yet

it is apparently the

right of change. the left side that undergoes so singular amount or in which the flower, according as One plant is known to me it stands on the one other side of the spike, is unequally or
of chance
"'

whether

it be

the two sides are developed. In all the foregoing cases fectly perNow, early period of growth. symmetrical at an whenever a species is as liable to be unequally developed on

the

one

as

on

the other

side, we
a

may

infer

that

the capacity

for such

development
side. And
as

is present,

occurs

in animals
very
common.

of many

veloped though latent, in the undereversal of development occasionally kinds, this latent capacity is probably

The
are,

young

of characters lying dormant simplest cases perhaps, those previously given, in which chickens and between oured differentlycolpigeons, raised from a cross best yet

birds,

are

at

first of

one

colour, but

in

year

or

two

acquire feathers of the colour of the other parent ; for in this the tendency to a change of plumage is clearly latent in case So it is with hornless breeds of cattle,some bird. the young
of which black
assume,

acquire small horns and white bantams, and with advancing years,
I will here
a

as

they

some

Purely bred other fowls, occasionally

grow

old.

the red feathers different characters

of the
case,
as

parentit
nects con-

species.
in Mr.

add
manner

somewhat latent excellent became

striking
"

of two

classes.

Hewitt

possessed an
as

hen, which, cvaria, and assumed

resemble the
spurs,

she

tam Sebright gold-laced banin her diseased old, grew In

male
in

characters. all respects hen would

are

this breed
in

the males

females and

except
it

their

combs,
pected ex-

wattles,
masculine

instincts; hence
which

might
to

have

been

that the diseased characters

have

assumed
the

only those

proper

acquired, in addition, well-arched foot in length, saddle-feathers a

on
"

breed, but she tail sickle-feathers quite the and hackles loins, on
as

the would

neck,

"

ornaments
as

which,

Mr.

Hewitt The

remarks,

be held

abominable

in this breed."
July, 1864, opportunity
remarkable
p.

Sebright

"3 Mormodes Fertilisation p. 2.51. ^* Journal

' '

of

Darwin, ignea: Orchids,' 1862,

of

Horticulture,'

kindness

of

I have had the 38. of these examining feathers the through Mr. Tegetmeier.

Chap.

XIII.

REVERSION.

29
the
a

bantam from
a

is known
cross

*"

to
a

have
common

originated about
bantam and and

year

1800

between
a

recrossed
hence

by
can

hen-tailed

bantam,

fowl, carefully selected;

Polish

there

hackles Polish

which fowl
or

hardly be a doubt that the sickle-feathers and derived from the appeared in the old hen were
common

bantam;
characters masculine

and

we

thus
to

see

that

not

only certain
bantam,
first

masculine other

proper

the

Sebright
from the

but

characters

derived

progenitors of the breed, removed by a period of above lying latent in this henbird, ready to be sixty years, were
as soon as

evolved
From

her

ovaria

became

diseased. be admitted that certain

an

these

several facts it must

and characters, capacities, and

even

instincts,may
of

lie latent in

dividua inour

in

succession

without individuals,

When sign being able to detect presence. fowls, pigeons, or cattle of different colours are crossed, and their offspring change colour as they grow the old, or when the least
of their

crossed

turbit
or

moult,
were

acquired the characteristic frill after its third when the red purely-bred bantams partiallyassume
we

plumage of their prototype,

from the

cannot

doubt

that these qualities

in the

first present,

though latent,in the

of
a

dividual in-

animal, like the characters ISTow,if these animals

had

moth

pillar. cater-

produced offspringbefore

characters, they had acquired with advancing age their new mitted nothing is more probable than that they would have transwould them to some of their offspring, who in this case in appearance have received such characters from their grandparents
or more

distant

progenitors.We

should

then

have

in the is, of the reappearance ing child of an ancestral character, actually present, though duryouth completely latent, in the parent; and this we

had

case

of reversion, that

may

safely conclude
however This view of the

is what

occurs

in

all reversions

to

genitors, pro-

remote.

acters latency in each generation of all the charwhich through reversion, is also supported by appear their actual presence in some during early youth alone, cases and greater distinctness or by their more frequent appearance that this is have seen We at this age than during maturity. often the case with the stripes on the legs and faces of the
"5
'

TUe

Poultry

Book/

by Mr.

Tegetmeier,

1866,

p.

241,

30-

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIII.

species of the horse-genus. The Himalayan rabbit, when crossed, sometimes revert to produces offspring which the parent silver-grey that in purely breed, and we have seen bred animals pale-grey fur occasionally reappears during feel assured, would early youth. Black cats, we casionally ocmay
produce by reversion kittens, with
*""

several

tabbies; and

on

young

black

to have been long pure, faint pedigree known of stripesmay almost which traces afterwards always be seen Suffolk cattle occasionally produce by disappear. Hornless
a

reversion hornless felt

at
an

horned

animals
"

and

Youatt of

"

asserts
a

that
may

even

in

individuals

the

rudiment

horn

be

often

early age."
it appears that in every
at first sight in the

jNo doubt

probable highest degree im-

horse

of every
to

generation there should

be

latent
may

capacity and
not

tendency
in
a

produce stripes,though
generations
;

these
every

appear
or

once

thousand

that in
have

white, black,
latent

other

coloured

pigeon, which

may

transmitted be
a

its proper
in cai^acity certain

during centuries, there should the plumage to become blue and to be

bars; that in
be
every

colour

marked
in
a

with

characteristic

child

six-fingered family there

should

the capacity for the

production of an additional digit; and so in other cases. inherent there is no more ISTevertheless, improbability in this than in a useless and rudimentary being the case or organ, the in of to a only a tendency production even rudimentary being inherited during millions of generations, as is organ,
beings. inherent improbability in each domestic There is no more pig, during a thousand generations, retaining the capacity and tendency to develop great tusks under fittingconditions, than
to
occur
a

well

known

with

multitude

of

organic

in

the

young

calf having

retained incisor

for

an

indefinite
never

number
trude pro-

of generations

rudimentary
the
gums. at the

teeth, which

through
I shall

give

end

of the next

chapter

summary

of

preceding chapters; but as isolated and striking of reversion have here been chieflyinsisted on, I wish to cases guard the reader against supposing that reversion is due to
the
three
some rare or

accidental
'

combination
on
e?
"

of circumstances.
Qu

When

""

Carl

Man,'

Eng.

Leotures Vogt, translat., 18G-4,

Cattle,* p.

174.

p.

411.

Chap.

XIII.

REVERSION.

^i
of

character, lost during hundreds

no

generations, suddenly
must

reappears,

doubt the

some

such

combination

occur;

but

immediately preceding generations may be constantly observed, at least,in the offspring of most unions. This has been universally recognised in the case of hybrids and mongrels, but it has been recognised simply from the the difference between united forms rendering the resemblance of the offspring to their grandparents or more remote Reversion is likewise almost progenitors of easy detection. invariably the rule, as Mr. Sedgwick has shown, with certain conclude Hence that a tendency to this diseases. must we is an of transmission peculiar form integral part of the general law of inheritance.
to

reversions

Monstrosities.

"

large number
are

of monstrous

growths and
to

of lesser anomalies
an

admitted

by

every

one

be

due
an

to
bryonic em-

arrest

of

development, that is,to the persistence of

Bat
many
no

condition.

monstrosities
trace
can

cannot

be thus
in the

explained ; for parts of which

embryo, but which
of animals truth this be attributed
occur

be detected of the
may
same

in other

members these

class

occasionally appear,
to reversion.

and

probably with
I have
'

As, however,
'

treated

subject as fully as I could I will not here i., 2nd, edit.),

When flowers
or

in my
recur

Descent it.

of Man

(chap,

to

which have come benormally an irregular structure nists peloric,the change is generally looked at by botareturn to the primitive state. But Dr. Maxwell a as Masters,**^ who has ably discussed stance, this subject, remarks that when, for inall the sepals of a Tropa3olum of the and become green same of being coloured with shape, instead one prolonged into when a all the of Linaria become or a simple and petals spur, such to arrest be due merely of development; regular, cases an may for in these flowers all the organs during their earliest condition are at this stage of growth, they symmetrical, and, if arrested would not become to take the arrest were irregular. If, moreover, be a place at a still earlier period of development, the result would of tuft this and call would a no simple leaves; one probably green

regular

"8 Natural Hist. Review,' April, 1863, p. 258. 8re also his Lecture, Royal Institution, March On subsame 16, 1860. ject, see EleMoquin-Tandon, ments de Teratologie,' 1841, pp.
'

'

184, 352.
lected Akad.
LX.
a

Dr.

Peyritsch
number of

lias very d.

coliu-

large

terestinj?

1872,

k. Sitzl". Rd. Wien. d. Wissensch. : and Bd. LXVI., especially p. 125.

cases,

32

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIII.

ease

of
as

reversion.

Dr.

Masters
and form of

designates the

cases

first alluded

to

regular peloria;
assume a

parts
in
a

similar

Linaria
to

become
the

all the corresponding in which all the petals irregularity,as when have no spurred, as irregular peloria. We

others,

right
shown had
from the

to reversion, until it can be cases of the Linaria had for instance, parent-form, genus all its petals spurred; for a chance of this nature might result

attribute

these

latter

that

the

spreading
to

of

an

anomalous
in
a

structure, in
of

accordance

with

law, chapter, homologous parts But both forms of peloria manner. as tending to vary in the same individual the same on plant of the Linaria,''^ frequently occur in some close relation to one another. On they probably stand is the of development that result of an the doctrine arrest simply peloria
be
it is ditlicult
a

discussed

future

to

understand

how

an

organ

arrested

at

very

growth eaily period how a petal,supposed

"

of

should
to
as

acquire
be
an

its full functional

fection; peror

thus

arrested, should
to the

acquire
a

its brilliant
stamen

colours, and
efficient

serve

envelope

flower,

occurs peloric many chance pelorism variability,but of development arrest to reversion, we either to an or infer may made observation Ch. from an ]\lorren,'" by namely, that families return often which have irregular flowers by these monstrous their whilst to form; we regular never see a growths regular of an flower realise the structure irregular one." have almost flowers Some less comor certainly become more pletely the following interestingcase peloricthrough reversion, as of its two shows. nectaries Corydal'is tuberosa properly has one half nectar destitute of the size of the other, and colourless, only therefore, to a certain extent, in a rudimentary state; the pistil the is curved of towards the perfect nectary, and hood, formed the inner in one direction stamen and petals, slips off" the pistil sucks the perfect nectary, the stigma and alone, so that, when a bee stamens eral are exposed and rubbed against the insect's body. In sevin Dielytra, "c., there two as are closely allied genera, perfect is straight,and the hood nectaries, the pistil slipsoff on either side, the bee sucks I have either examined Now, according as nectary.

produce
That

flowers.

pollen; yet this is not due to mere

with

"

several

flowers

of Conjdalis

tuberosa,

in which

both

nectaries

were

see development nectar; in this we only the reequally developed and contained of a partially aborted but with this ment redeveloporgan; the pistilbecomes straight, and the hood slips off" in either direction, so that these flowers have acquired the perfect structure, of Dielytra and its allies. well adapted for insect agency, We so to attribute these cannot to chance, or coadapted modifications must to to attribute them reversion correlated we a variability; of the species. primordial condition The peloricflowers of Pelargonium have their five petals in all

69

Verlot,
89;
du

p.

Nandin,

chives 167.

Vfiri6tes,' Nouvelles torn. Museum,' Des

'

'

1S65,
Ari.
p.

''^

In

his
'

discussion

on

some

curious in quoted ture,' Feb.

peloric
Journal

Calceolarias,
of Horticul-

24, 1863, p. 152.

34

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIII.

and

Gloxinia

and

sometimes

in

that

of

the have

peloric Corydalis
been in
As

solkla.''add that Lastly I may many not flowers, generally considered are abnormally augmented organs
instances
as

recorded increase
nor
as

of
of due

peloric,
number.
of

which
an

certain

in

parts
to

cannot

be

looked

at

as

an

arrest

development,

the
as

redevelopment
these
to

and with

additional

rudiments of rudiments, for no parts bring the plant into closer

to

are

present,
a^ sions rever-

relationship

its natural
a

allies,they ought probably

condition.

be

viewed

primordial

These

several facts show abnormal

us

in

an

intimately certain
namely,
parts
and
now

states

how interestingmanner connected are together;

arrests

mentary rudidevelopment causing parts to become to be wholly suppressed, the redevelopment of or in a more less rudimentary appearance condition, the reor be detected, of organs of which not a vestige can of
" "

"

to

presence

of animals, the added, in the case tain during youth, and subsequent disappearance, of certhese
may

be

characters life.
as a

which

occasionally are
look
at all such

retained abnormal
to

throughout
structures

Some
return

naturalists
to

the ideal state

of the

group

which

the

fected af-

being belongs; but it is difficult to conceive what is naturalists to be conveyed by this expression. Other meant maintain, with greater probability and distinctness of view,
that the
common

bond is
an

of connection

between

the several foregoing

to

cases

actual, though partial,return

the structure be

of the ancient correct,

we

progenitor of the
believe that
a

group.

If this view of

characters, capable organic being. But be a mistake it would that to suppose the number is equally know, for instance, that plants of great in all beings. We orders occasionally become peloric; but many more many have been observed in the Labiatas and Scrophulariacese cases than in any other order ; and in one of the Scrophularigenus namely Linaria, no less than thirteen species have been acese,
must vast

number

of evolution, lie hidden

in every

described

in

this

condition.'^

On

the

view

of the nature

of

in peloric flowers, and bearing in mind certain monstrosities conclude that the progenitors the animal kingdom, we must of most plants and animals have left an impression, capable
'2
"

Godron,
de

reprinted
I'Acad.

Momoires las,' 1S68.

from the Stanisde

"

Moquin-Tandon,
p.

Teratolo-

gie,'

186.

Chap.

Xm.

REVERSION.

35

of

redevelopment,
these The fertilised
is
to
so

on

the been of
one

germs

of

their

descendants,
modified.

though al-

have

since
germ

profoundly
of the

higher
from

animals,
the

subjected
cell

as

it old

vast

series

of

changes by

germinal

to

age,

"

incessantly
vital,
It is
"

agitated
is

what the
most

Quatrefages
wonderful
a

well ject obof

any
on

calls

the in

tourhillon
nature.

perhaps
that

probable
without

hardly
some

change
being
as

kind the

affects

either But
on

parent,
the becomes

mark

left
in

germ.

doctrine
a

of far which
more

reversion,
marvellous it

given

this

chapter,
besides believe both
to
a

the the that

germ

object,
we

for,
must to

visible
it
to

changes
crowded the male thousands with

undergoes, characters,
side
of

is both of

invisible and female of like left

proper

sexes,

right
and

the

body,

and

long
or

line
even

ancestors

separated
from
on

by

hundreds time: invisible

is

generations
those
Vv^ritten

the

present with

and

these

characters,
lie

paper

ink,
disturbed

ready by

to

be

evolved

whenever
or

the

tion organisa-

certain

known

unknown

conditions.

36

INHERITANCE.

Chai". XIV.

CHAPTER
INHERITANCE
"

XIV.
of

Continued
SEXUAL

"

fixedness
"

character OF

"

tency prepo-

LIMITATION

CORRESPONDENCE

AGE.

Fixedness

of character apparently not due to antiquity of inheritance in individuals of transmission of the same family, in crossed breeds and species ; often stronger in one than the other ; sex sometimes due to the same character being present and visible in one Inheritance breed and latent in the other limited by sex as Newlyanimals often transmitted acquired characters in our domesticated by lost by one sex alone Inheritance one sex alone, sometimes at corresponding periods of life The importance of the principlewith respect in domesticated to embryology animals exhibited : as ; as exhibited in the appearance and disappearance of inherited diseases ; sometimes of the supervening earlier in the child than in the parent Summary three preceding chapters.
"

Prepotency

"

"

"

"

"

In

the last two

chapters the
which

nature

and

ance, force of Inheritits power,

the circumstances the

interfere
its many In

with

and
tingencies, con-

tendency
related

to

Reversion, with
discussed. will be

remarkable

were

the

present

other

materials

phenomena permit.

treated

chapter some of, as fully as my

Fixedness It is
a

of Character.
breeders that the

longer any character has been transmitted fully it by a breed, the more I do not wish to dispute the will continue to be transmitted. ply truth of the propositionthat inheritance gains strength simit can through long continuance, but I doubt whether the propositionis little better than be proved. In one sense general belief amongst
a

truism; if

any

character the for

has

remained

constant
so,

during
a

many

it will be likely to continue generations, of life remain

same.

tions if the condiferior all in-

So, again, in improving

of time
to exclude to

a length breed, if care be taken will obviously tend breed the individuals,

become

truer,

as

it will not
an

have

been

crossed We have

by

inferior

animal.

during many tions generapreviously seen, but

Chap.

XIV.

FIXEDKESS

OF

CHARACTER.

3^

without character fluctuates with

new

being able
appears,

much,
aggregate
than

assign any cause, that, when a new it is occasionallyfrom the first constant, or So it is or wholly fails to be transmitted.
to

the

of slight differences
some

which kind

characterise from the

variety, for
truer

propagate
Even

their with

first

much

others.

plants multiplied by

in one be said to form sense bulbs, layers,"c., which may that certain individual, it is well known parts of the same varieties retain and transmit through successive bud-generations

their In
none

newly-acquired characters more truly than others. in the following cases, does there appear of these, nor
relation and between
the

to be any

the force with

time

which

character

is

transmitted transmitted. and

length of
sweet-peas,
the

during which
as

it has been

Some white do
In

varieties,such
varieties

white

and

yellow hyacinths
colours
more

transmit

their have

faithfully than
natural colour.

which

retained

their

in the twelfth family, mentioned chapter, the peculiar tortoiseshell-like colouring of the eyes our. far more transmitted faithfully than any ordinary colwas Ancon and Mauchamp sheep and niata cattle, which all comparatively modern breeds, exhibit remarkably are of inheritance. could be Many similar cases strong powers

the Irish

adduced.
As

all domesticated yet doubt

remote
ensures are

animals

and from
the

varied, and
which
no

descended retained
we

plants have aboriginally wild forms,

character from
an

cultivated

had

same

immensely antiquity
true.

epoch,
a

see

that

scarcely any
be said
that

degree of

character

being transmitted
it may

In

this

case,

however,

perfectly changed
not

conditions

of life induce of inheritance either

be

certain

modifications, and
case

that

the power
some

cause,

fails; but in every internal or external, must

that the
organs
or

of

failure,
It in

interfere.

will
our

generally
to
are

found

parts which
or

domesticated
vary,
"

productions have
that with
genus.

varied,

which

still

continue state,
"

is, which As,

on

fail to retain

their former

the

same same

the parts which

differ in the natural with fied modi-

species of the

the theory of descent

genus
common

the species of the modification, since they branched off from that the characters by which

same a

have

been

lows progenitor,it folone

they differ from

another

38
have

INHERlTxVNCE.

Chap. XIV.

varied, whilst
unchanged;
now

other and
vary

parts
it

of

the be

organisation have
argued
that
or

remained
same

might

these fail to
*

characters

under
lesser
to

be in

inherited, from
a

their
seems

domestication, antiquity. But

in
some

variation

state

of nature

stand

close relation which be

very

with

changed
varied under
vary

conditions
under

of life,and such conditions

characters would

have apt
on tiquity. an-

already
to

the

still greater of

changes
their

consequent
or

domestication, independently
Fixedness of character,
or

greater

less

strength of inheritance,has often been judged of by the preponderance of certain characters in the crossed distinct races; but preoffspring between potency of transmission here comes into play, and this, as we shall immediately see, is a very different consideration from
the the

strength
that

or

weakness breeds

of inheritance.^

It has

often

been

inhabiting wild and mountainous countries cannot be permanently modified by our improved breeds; and as these latter are of modern origin, it has been thought that the greater antiquity of the wilder breeds has been the cause of their resistance to improvement and by crossing; but it is more probably due to their structure tions. constitution being better adapted to the surrounding condiWhen plants are first subjected to culture, it has been their found that, during several generations, they transmit
characters
to

observed

of animals

truly, that
ancient

is, do

not

vary,

and

this has

been

tributed at-

characters
or

being strongly inherited; but

it

may

with

equal
action.
be

greater

probability be consequent
a

on

changed
cumulative would

conditions

long time for their IsTotwithstandingthese considerations, it

of life requiring
rash
to

more deny that characters become I lieve betransmitted; but strongly fixed the longer they are into characters resolves itself that that the proposition this,

perhaps

"

of all kinds, whether and

that

new

or

old, tend

to

be inherited,

those

which and

have

influences

been

all counteracting already withstood truly transmitted, will, as a general

rule, continue
inherited.
1

to withstand

them, and

consequently

be

fully faith-

See

Youatt

on

Cattle,
and

pp.

92,
on

Sheop,
'

p.

325.

Also
torn.

Dr.

Lucaf5,
310,

e9" 78, 88,

163;

Youatt

L'Herea.

Nat.,'

ii. p,

Chap. XIV.

PREPOTENCY

OP

TRANSMISSION.

39

Prepotency in the Transmission

When distinct
races,
or

of Character.
the when
same

individuals, belonging
enough
two to

to
or

family, but
well-marked

be recognised,

two

species,are crossed, the usual result,as stated in the previous chapter, is, that the offspring in the first between their parents, or resemgeneration are intermediate ble
one

part.
many

parent in one this is by But

cases

part and
no

the the

other

means

parent in another invariable rule; for in

individuals,races, and in transmitting their likeness. This species,are prepotent subject has been ably discussed by Prosper Lucas," but is rendered the sometimes extremely complex by prepotency ning runin both sexes, and sometimes equally more strongly in than in the other; it is likewise complicated by the one sex of secondary sexual characters, which render the presence comparison of crossed breeds with their parents difficult.
It would
appear

it is found

that

certain

that in certain families

in

some

one

ancestor, had great

and
power

after

him

others

the

same

family, have
through
how
the
same

in transmitting
we

their

likeness

the male

line;
many
so

for

cannot
so as

otherwise be

understand after

features

should

often

transmitted
case

females,
was,

in the
to

marriages with of the Austrian Emperors; and

it

according
Roman
*

Niebuhr, with the mental tain qualitiesof ceris believed families.'' The bull Favourite famous
had
a

to
race.

have

prepotent
observed

influence
'^

on

the

short-horn

It has

also been have

with

English race-horses

that certain

acter, chargenerally transmitted their own blood have allowed whilst other mares of equally pure black greythe character of the sire to prevail. A famous hound,
mares

Bedlamite,
got colour
all his

as

hear

from

Mr.
no

C.
matter
"

M.

Brown what
a was

"

variably in-

puppies black,
"

the

of the bitch

but

then

Bedlamite
on

had

ance preponderside."

of black in his blood, both

The when
2

the sire and

comes

dam
out
more

truth distinct

of the
races

principleof prepotency
are

clearly
not-

crossed.
ii.
'

The
*
'

improved Short-horns,
Gardener's
N.
on

Hfr$d. Sir
on

Nat.,' Henry

torn.

pp. p.

Chronicle,'
'

1860,

112-120.
3

ters

Mental

ChapPhysiology,' 1852,

Holland,

270. " Mr. tions

*

Smith, Breeding,'
H.

Observain p.

quoted

p, 234,

Ency.

of

Rural

Sports,'

278,

a?

40

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIV.

withstaHding
acknowledged
on

that
to

the

breed
and

is

comparatively modern,
in

are

generally
likeness

possess

great power
it is

impressing

their

all other

breeds;
so

that
a

they

are case

highly
of
a
ram

valued

curious

Cape

of Good from

Hope,
two of

which

of this power chiefly in consequence has for exportation.** Godine given from the breed of of a goat-like sheep guished produced offspring hardly to be distin-

himself,

when

crossed half-bred

with
ewes,

ewes

of

twelve to
a

other

breeds.
ram,

But

these

when

put

merino

Girou breed. closely resembling the merino produced lambs found the de Buzareingues that of two of French races ewes sheep when crossed with successive merino of one, during generations far sooner than the ewes of the yielded up their character rams, and Sturm Girou have with other race. cases given analogous of breeds other sheep and with cattle, the prepotency running in these assured cases on side; but I was through the male good in crossed South that when niata cattle with America, are authority males common cattle, though the niata breed is prepotent whether females or are used, yet that the prepotency is strongest through tiio female has line. The Manx cat is tailless and long hind legs;
^

Dr. the had

Wilson female
In

crossed
Manx

male
crossed

Manx
were

with

common

cats, and,

out

of

twentj^-three kittens,
was

seventeen

destitute

they were imperfect." between making reciprocalcrosses pouter and fantail pigeons, to be prepotent the poutei"-raceseemed over through both sexes the fantail. But this is probably due to weak in the fantail power to any rather than in the pouter, for I unusually strong power that barbs also preponderate over have observed fantails. This weakness of transmission in the fantail, though the breed is an to be general ; but I have ancient is said observed one one, tion excepin to the rule, namely, between fantail and laugher. a cross a
"

tails, though

male by common generally short and

of tails; but when cats all the kittens

The least

most

curious

instance

known This

to

me

of weak has been

power
well

in both known

sexes

is in the

trumpeter pigeon. it breeds perfectly true, as I have been assured by years: who have birds: those it is characterised long kept many by a tuft of feathers the crest the head, by over beak, by a on peculiar a singular coo quite unlike that of any other breed, and by muchbreed for at
130

I have feet. crossed almond with tumblers, breeds, them; mongrels and recrossed

feathered

both

sexes

with

turbits

of two

submany head with beak this is

and most
or

feathered

feet
I have

were never

breeds),
heard

reared runts, and spots, and though the crest on the inherited (as is generally the case the seen a vestige of the tuft over Boitard and Corbie
^"

and

the

peculiar coo.
result
Bronn,

assert

that

the
"

invariable Quoted
der

of
in b.
'

crossing trumpeters
Geii. s. Uebor For
' '

with
*

other

breeds.

by
also,
s.

schiehte
170.

Natur,'

See.

Racen,'
the 146.

1825,

Sturm. 104-107.
my

niata see cattle, of Researches,'

Jourpage

1845,

L'Hereditg Nat./ ii. p. 112. " Mr. of Orton, Physiology 1855, p. 9. Breeding,' " and Roitard Les nal PiCorbie, geons.' 1824, p. 224. i" Ibid., pp. 168, 198.

Lucas,

torn.

'

'

42
shown"
when

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIV.

that Nicotiana
of N.

this

is the

case

with
and

plants. To
are

give

one

instance: acter charbut

paniculata is almost pamcnlata

vinca'flora

crossed, the
in the

completely

lost

hybrid;

quadrivalris be crossed with N. vinccefiora, this latter species, almost in its turn disappears before so which Avas prepotent, now
if A",

under

the

power
of
as one

of

N.

quadriralvis.

It

is remarkable

that

the

prepotency
which With the

dependent is quite inin transmission another species over with less the of or shown facility greater by Gartner,

one

fertilises the
the made the
case

other.
is

animals, by Flourens, who

this
a was

jackal

prepotent over
crosses a

the
I

dog,
once

as

is stated and
of

likewise and
a

many with
I

between which from

over

these the the

animals;
saw

hybrid
doubt,

between

jackal

terrier.

cannot

observations the the

Colin than
more

is and others, that the ass in this instance running female the so ass; through

prepotent more strongly through

that the The
from

horse; the prepotency

male
ass

mule male the

resembles

closely than
Mr.
seen,
as

does

from

Hewitt's
is

hinny." descriptions," and

the has

the

pheasant, judging 1 hybrids which

the

have far for

preponderates over
concerned,

domestic

fowl; but

latter, as

colour

considerable

five differently hybrids raised from curious I examined in some hybrids in formerly plumage. greatly of the comthe mon between Penguin variety the Zoological Gardens, though althe Egyptian goose and {Anser wgyptiacus) ; and duck domesticated the that assert I will not variety preponderated it had natural the strongly impressed its yet species, over unnatural upright figure on these hybrids. I
15

of transmission, power differed hens coloured

am

aware

that

such

cases

as

the
tail

foregoing have
of
the

been

ascribed

'

Bastarderzeugung,'
"e. du
a

290,
Archives

Naudin

256, s. (' Nouvelles

i. p. torn. of instance stramonium other two
Hu-

Museum,'
striking
in

149)
when

gives

prepotency

crossed Flourens,
p.

Datura with
'

species.
I*'

this is genand mule, erally the for accounted by ting transmitboth males of species this part with greater power but a pound comtheir of structure; I saw in the whicli hybrid from mare a Gardens, Zoological
a

LongSvite
crossed
to the

by

hybrid
its

ass-zebra,
mother in who

closely
its

sembled re-

mnine.'

With
between I hinny. generally sire and
am

144, on respect
the
aware

als. jackence differand this

to the has
1^

Mr.

Hewitt,

tail. has had

mule
that

been dam

attributed

the

in raising great experience these (' Poultry hybrids, says 1S66, bv Mr. Tegetmeier, Book,'

such

their transmitting Colin, characters differently; but .537ii. pp. tom. Comp.,' Phys. who has the have that

pp.
was

165-1G7)
destitute

that

in

of

head all, the comb, wattles,

given

in

his

'

539,
I

fullest description of these with met

is the

Traite which

hybrids,
crosses, This degree.

both

rocal recipion strongly of opinin ass preponderates in but an unequal

is

all closely and and ear-lappets; in the the resembled pheasant the and tail general of shape These of the contour brids hybody. of hens raised from were
several but breeds another

likewise
and
'

the

clusion con-

by

of stein
tail in

Flourens. his b.

of 294.

BechThe
more

Naturgeschichte
i.
is
s.

Deutschlands.'
like of the of that the

hinny

much

frorn raised a Bantam silver-laced cock, rudimental this possessed a and wattles.

ant; cock-pheasscribed dehybrid, Mr. was Hewitt, by a hen-pheasant, by

a

and

comb

horse

than

is the

Chap. XIV.

PREPOTENCY

OP

TRANSMISSION.

4.3

to one individual being or species, race, its in character the other its crossed on impressing prepotent the that father but to such rules influences as the external offspring, internal and mother the the vital characters or But organs. almost the great diversityof the rules given by various authors has fully discussed this proves their falseness. Dr. Prosper Lucas ^^ that none of the rules (and I could add and has shown point, Similar rules others to those quoted by him) apply to all animals. and have been proved by Gartner ^^ for plants, have been announced view to the domesticated If we confine our to be all erroneous. to the species of the same of a single or even races species, perhaps for hold it such rules that instance, seems good; may genus, some breeds of fowls various the male in reciprocally crossing generally exceptions have passed under my gives colour; -'^ but conspicuous that the ram It seems own usually givesits peculiarhorns eyes. and the bull the presence or and fleece to its crossed offspring, absence of horns. In the following chapteron CrossingI shall have occasion to blended by crossshow that certain characters are rarely or never ing, state from either parentin an unmodified but are transmitted it is sometimes form ; 1 refer to this fact here because accompanied side which thus acquires the false apthe on one by prepotency, pearance of unusual strength. In the same chapter I shall show that the rate at which breed absorbs and obliterates a or species another by repeated crosses, depends in chief part on prepotency in transmission.

by

various

authors, not

over

In wide

conclusion, some

of the

cases
"

above
prove

given, for
"

stance, ina

that of the trumpeter difference between mere

seems

pigeon,
our

that there is
and

inheritance

prepotency.

This latter power

cases

to us, in

to act in most ignorance,

same

when by different sf)ecies, prepotent force" or singular feebleness. It is obvious, that a purely-bredform of either sex, in all in which prepotency does not run cases more stronglyin one will transmit its character with prepotent than the other, sex force over a mongrelised and alreadyvariable form."^ From

The quite capriciously. though it be an abnormal or be transmitted feathers, may

very monstrous

character, even such as silky one,

crossed,either with

18

'

book
'

L'Hered. ii. eh. i.

Nat.,'

tom.

ii.

i" 264s. Bastarderzeugung,' Ar266. Nandin ('Nouvelles chives du Museum,' i. p. 148) tom. has arrived at similar conclua sion. ^"

in Wilson, Chronicle,' 1868, p.

head Mi-.

with

respect

to
'

sheep

by

of striking instances are given by M. Malingie-Nonel RoVal (' .Tourn. Agrioult. Soc.,' revol. xiv. 1853, p. 220) with

Gardener's 15. Many this result

pp.
*i

Cottage 101, 137.

See
some

'

Gardener,'
remarks
on

1856,
this

spect
lish found

to and

crosses

between

that

French sheep. the obtained he

EngHe de-

I:

4:4
several of the

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIV.

above-given
In
some

cases

we

may

conclude
means

that

mere

antiquity of character
make it prepotent.
on

does

not
cases

by

any

prepotency

necessarily pends apparently devisible in

or

the

same

character which
are

of the two

breeds

being present and crossed, and latent

case

one

invisible in acter charbe

the other

breed; and
is

in this

it is natural in

that the

which

potentially present

both

breeds

should

have reason is a Thus to believe that there we prepotent. latent tendency in all horses to be dun-coloured and striped; and
other

when

horse

of this

kind

is crossed

with

one sure

of

any to be

colour, it is said that the offspringare

have
we a

almost

striped. Sheep
a ram

similar have
seen

latent
with

tendency
what
with

to

become force

dark-coloured, and
with
a

prepotent white

few

black

spots, when its

crossed

sheep
a

of various

breeds, coloured
to

latent tendency

become

offspring. with slaty-blue,

All

pigeons have
istic charactercoloured

certain

marks, and
is crossed

it is known
one

with

_pf any

thus that, when a bird other colour, it is most tint.

A

difficult

nearly parallelcase is offered by those black bantams old, which, as they grow But there develop a latent tendency to acquire red feathers. are exceptions to the rule : hornless breeds of cattle possess latent capacity to reproduce horns, yet when crossed with a horned ing breeds they do not invariably produce offspring bearhorns. with analogous cases plants. Striped flowers,though they can be propagated truly by seed, have a latent tendency to become once uniformly coloured, but when afterwards crossed by a uniformly coloured variety,they ever fail to produce striped seedlings." Another is in some case curious : plants bearing peloric flowers have so respects more strong a latent tendency to reproduce their normally irregular flowers, that this often occurs by buds when a plant is I crossed the richer soil.^^ Now transplanted into poorer or in the majus), described peloric snapdragon (Antirrhinum form ; and the latter, last chapter, with pollen of the common with peloricpollen. I thus raised two great beds reciprocally,
meet

afterwards

to eradicate

the blue

We

with

sired
breeds

influence

of French breeds.

the breeds

English
p.

"

Verlot,

Des

Varietes,'
'

1865,

by

crossing

intentionally
with

66. Teratolo-

mongrelised English pure

^3 Moqnin-Tandon, gie,' p. 191.

Chap.

XIV.

PREPOTENCY

OF

TRANSMISSION.

45
"

of seedlings, and
same

not

one

was

result from
I

form.

crossing a carefully examined

Antirrhinum

obtained peloric. Naudin the peloric Linaria with the common the flowers of ninety plants of

the crossed had few

is
not

in the two

beds, and
cross,

their structure

been

in the least affected

by the

instances

the minute
was

rudiment
more

of the

except that in a fifth stamen, which

fully or even veloped. completely deIt must be supposed that this entire obliteranot tion in the crossed plants can of the peloric structure be accounted for by any incapacity of transmission ; for I raised a large bed of plants from the peloric Antirrhinum, artificially fertilised by its own alone pollen, and sixteen plants, which all as the winter, were survived perfectly peloric as the ference parent-plant. Here we have a good instance of the wide difalways present,
between of the inheritance of
a

character

transmitting it to crossed offspring. The which the common perfectly resembled snapdragon, were allowed to sow and twentythemselves, and out of a hundred seven seedlings, eighty-eight proved to be common dragons, snaptwo
were

the power crossed plants,

and

in

an

intermediate

condition
were

between

the

peloric and normal state, and peloric,having reverted to the

This
to
case seems

thirty-seven
structure

perfectly
one

of their
to
a

parent. grandwhich
is

at

first

sight

offer

an

exception

the

rule
one

just given, namely, that

form and

character is

present in
For
in

latent in the other force when the two

mitted generally transare

with

prepotent
and

forms

crossed.
genera

all the

Scrophulariacese, and
Linaria, there

especiallyin the
was

Antirrhinum

is, as

shown

in

the last

chapter, a strong latent tendency to become peloric; but there is also, have seen, a still stronger tendency in all peloric as we So that irregular structure. plants to reacquire their normal in the same have plants. two we opposed latent tendencies the tendency to proNow, with the crossed Antirrhinums duce normal irregular flowers, like those of the common or dency Snapdragon, prevailed in the first generation ; whilst the tenmission to pelorism, appearing to gain strength by the interin the of a generation, prevailed to a large extent it is possible for a character to second set of seedlings. How
**
*

Nouvelles

Archives

du

Museum,'

torn.

i. p.

137.

46

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XVI.

gain strength by the

considered On
the in the

intermission
on

of

generation, will be

chapter

pangenesis.

to

tricate, whole, the subject of prepotency is extremely inin strength, even in regard from its varying so much the same ning character, in different animals, from its run"

"

either
with than

equal
"

in

both with

sexes,

or,

as

frequently

is the

case

animals, but not the other, from

"

stronger in one sex plants, much charthe existence of secondary sexual acters, of certain characters
"

from
as
we

the

transmission

being

limited,
characters
from the

not

from certain by sex, blending together, and, perhaps, occasionally shall immediately
see,
"

effects of
not

It is therefore in

drawing

previous fertilisation on the mother. has hitherto ceeded sucsurprising that no one general rules on the subject of prepotency. up
a

Inheritance New characters transmitted

much

as

limited
in
sex,

hy Sex.
one

often
to

appear
same

sex,

and

are

wards after-

the

either

greater both
not

degree than
with

to

the other. of
many

exclusively or in a portant, This subject is imkinds in

a

because

animals

state

of

nature,

high and low in the scale,secondary sexual

acters, char-

with the organs of reproducdirectly connected tion, mals, aniconspicuously present. With our domesticated are of this kind often differ widely from characters those of the parent species; and the distinguishing the two sexes principle of inheritance, as limited by sex, explains how this is possible.
Dr.

P. Lucas with
much

has the

shown

"^

that

when the

peculiarity,in
in

no

manner

connected it is often
or

reproductive organs,

transmitted the

exclusivelyto

to

Tims,
skin

in
were so

of greater number of family Lambert, from

parent, appears offspring of the same sex, them than of the opposite sex. the horn-like projections on the
to of his
sons

either

transmitted
it has

the other

father
cases

and

grandsons

ichthyosis, with supernumerary and with of a deficiency digits, digits phalanges, and in a lesser degree with various diseases, especially with colour-blindness and the ha^morrhagic diathesis, that is, an extreme to proliability fuse the and uncontrollable from On bleeding trifling wounds.
2^
'

alone;

been

with

L'Hered.

137-165,

Sec,

Nat.,' also,

torn.

ii. pp.

Mr.

Sedg-

wick's ly to

four immediatememoirs, be referred to.

Chap.

XIV.

SEXUAL

LIMITATION.

47

other

hand,

to their

daughters alone, supernumerary

may that
sex

generations, blindness colourdigits, So that the very and other same peculiarities. arity peculibe long inherited become attached to either sex, and by
and

mothers

have

transmitted,

during several
deficient

alone; but
to
one

the

attachment other
sex.

in

certain The
same

cases

is much

more

frequent

than

the

to either sex. be promiscuously transmitted may the male that his peother cases, occasionallytransmits showing culiaritie and the his daughters alone, mother to to her sons that inheritance in this case is to a certain we see alone; but even

peculiaritiesalso Dr. Lucas gives

extent,

though

inversely, regulated
evidence,
be
comes

by
to

sex.

Dr.

Lucas,
that

after every
to
as

weighing the
that
I
sex

whole
to

the

conclusion
or

tends peculiarity
in

transmitted appears. in whilst

in

greater
a more

lesser definite

degree
rule,

which which the that far

it first

But either

have

elsewhere

shown,-"
first

generally holds
sex are

good, namely,
at
a

that

variations of

appear

late
tend

period
to be

life, when

reproductive
sex

functions

active,
which
to

developed in
early
I am, A

alone;
sex are

variations that this

in life in either

commonly

transmitted is the

first a[)pear both sexes. ing determin-

however,
few details
here

from the

supposing
many
cases

sole Mr. in

cause.

from

collected from
some

by

Sedgwick,"
cause,

be given. Colour-blindness, may oftener in males than itself much shows

two to In
men

unknown nine-tenths

in females;

upwards
women.

of

hundred
;

cases

collected

by

Mr.

Sedgwick,
of

related
families

but

it is

eminently
Dr.

liable to be transmitted

through
related

were

given by eight of during five generations: these families consisted ninesixty-one individuals, namely, of thirty-two males, of whom of and of sixteenths were twentyincapable distinguishing colour, afTected. nine thus females, of whom were only one-fifteenth thus Although colour-blindness generally clings to the male sex, in instance in which it first appeared in a female, one nevertheless, it was transmitted during five generations to thirteen individuals, all of whom females. The companied were ha3morrhagic diathesis, often achas alone males to been known afTect the by rheumatism, during five generations, being transmitted, however, through the females. It is said that deficient phalanges in the fingers have been inherited the females alone by during ten generations. In
case

the

Earle, members

affected

another

case,

man

thus

deficient

in both

hands

and

mitted feet, trans-

and sons one peculiarity to his two daughter; but in the third generation, out of nineteen sons grandchildren, twelve had the family defect, whilst In free. the seven daughters were of sexual or ordinary cases limitation, the sons daughters inherit the
2"

the

whatever peculiarity,
'

it may
2nd

be, from
April, April,
150. flnence
ease.

their ISfil, 18G3,

father
477;

or

mother,
108; .Inly, p.
the in-

Descent Sexnal

of

Man,'

edit.,
in
Heand

p.

.7nlv, p.
and 'On

p.

-2. "On

Limitation
'

Also

p. 44r,; in 18G7.

reditary
For. Med

Diseases,
-

Brit,

of

Age

in

Hereditary

Dis-

Chirurg.

Review,'

4:8

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIV.

and

transmit with
and

it the in

to

their

children

of

the
and
sons

same

sex;

but

hsemorrhagic
some

diathesis,
cases,

often
never

with

erally gencolourblindness,
the

other

the

inherit

the daughters alone their fathers, but peculiarity directly from that the of the daughters the latent so sons tendency, the Thus alone exhibit it. father, grandson, and great-greatgrandson will exhibit a peculiarity, the grandmother, daughter, it in a latent and state. great-granddaughter having transmitted Mr. kind Hence double remarks, we a have, as Sedgwick of atavism or reversion; each grandson apparently receiving from his and the each developing peculiarity grandfather, and the latent daughter apparently receiving tendency from her grandmother. transmit
"

From
and

the

various

facts recorded

appearing
the

others, there in either sex,

connected with

Prosper Lucas, INIr. Sedgwick, be no doubt that can peculiaritiesfirst variably though not in any way necessarily or inthat sex, strongly tend to be inherited by
are

by

Dr.

state

offspring of the same sex, but through the opposite sex. domesticated to Turning now
not

often

transmitted find
often

in that the

latent certain

characters and of from the in the the

proper

to
sex

inherited

by,

one

animals, the parent species do alone; but we

we are

confined

to,

not In

know the

history

Sheep,
ewes

first appearance of such characters. have of certain that the males we seen females of
some

the

chapter on differ greatly races in the shape of their horns, these being absent in in differ of also the development fat breeds; they
the outline of of the the forehead. wild These

tail and from for the

in the

differences,
be

judging
accounted horns zebu of

character There
sexes a

allied

species, cannot

by supposing that
two

parent
is said

forms.
to

have
two

tinct disthey have been derived from difference the between a great breed of goats. The Indian in one bull In the Scotch larger hujup than the cow.

is, also,

deer-hound

the of the

sexes

differ

in

size

more

than

in

variety analogy, more dog,^ and, judging aboriginal parent-species. The peculiar colour called tortoise-shell in a male is very cat; the males of this variety being of rarely seen
a

from

any than

other in the

rusty tint.
In various
and

breeds these

of the

fowl

the
are

males far from

of

and

females the

often
same

differ

greatly;
those GalhfS
unusual

differences

which
In
case

hankiva;

sexes distinguish the two and consequently have

with being the parent-species, the cation. domestioriginated under Game

race we more

certain of

sub-varieties hens breed

of

of white

the

have than

the the

the

differing from
a

each

other shaded

cocks. hens

In

an

Indian

colour

with

black, the

invariably have black skins, ancl their bones are covered by a black most periosteum, whilst the cocks are never or rarely thus characterised. for throughPigeons offer a more interesting case; out the whole the two do not often differ sexes great family much;
"

Scrope,

'

Art

of

Deer

Stalking,'

p.

354.

50

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIV.

Inheritance This
'

at

corresponding periods of Life.

the
reason one

important subject. Since no Origin of Species/ I have seen my truth of the explanation there given of facts in biology, namely, the
is
an

publication of
to

doubt
most

the
markable re-

of the

difference

between

explanation is, that variations do not at a very necessarily or generally occur early period of embryonic growth, and that such variations
the

embryo

and

the

adult

animal.

The

are

inherited

at

corresponding
even

age.

As

consequence

of

parent-form has undergone bryos great modification, is left only slightlymodified ; and the emwhich descended from of widely-differentanimals are a common progenitor remain in many important respects like another and probably like their common one progenitor. We thus understand why embryology throws a flood of light can of classification, this ought to be as the natural system on as far as possiblegenealogical. When the embryo leads an independent that is,becomes to be adapted to life, a larva, it has in its structure the surrounding conditions and instincts, independently of those of its parents; and the principle of inheritance this at corresponding periods of life renders possible. obvious that it This principle is,indeed, in one so way
this the embryo,
escapes

after

the

attention.

We

possess

number

of

races

of animals

and

plants,which, when compared with one another and with their parent-forms, present conspicuous differences, both in
and of peas,
how
mature states.

their immature several kinds

see

Look

at
can

the seeds be

of the

beans, maize, which

propagated

they differ in size, colour, and shape, whilst the full-grown plants differ but little. Cabbages, on of the other hand, differ greatly in foliage and manner growth, but hardly at all in their seeds ; and generally it will that the differences be found cultivated between plants at different periods of growth are not necessarily closely connected in their seeds and differ much together, for plants may little when full-grown, and conversely may yield seeds hardly when distinguishable, yet differ much full-grown. In the several breeds of poultry, descended from a single species,
differences in the
eggs

truly, and

and

chickens

whilst

covered

with

Chap.

XIV.

AT

CORRESPONDING

PERIODS.

5^

down,
well
as

in the

plumage
and

at

the first and

subsequent
teeth

moults,
With
man

as

in the comb

wattles,are
and second

all inherited.

inheritable,and longevity is often transmitted. So again with our improved breeds of cattle and sheep, early maturity, including the early development of the teeth, and with certain breeds of fowl the early appearance of secondary characters, all come under the same head of inheritance at corresponding periods. Numerous analogous facts could be given. The silkoffers the best instance; for in the breeds moth, perhaps, which transmit their characters truly,the eggs differ in size, in moulting three colour, and shape: the caterpillarsdiffer, in having a dark-coloured four times, in colour,even mark or
like
an

in the milk peculiarities received the details) are

(of which

I have

eyebrow, and

in the loss of certain in

instincts and

;
"

the

coons co-

differ in size, shape, and the silk; these several

the

colour

differences

being followed
in the
mature

quality of by slight or

barely distinguishable differences

But

moth.

it may be said that, if in the above cases a new liarity pecuis inherited,it must be at the corresponding stage of
an

development; for
or

egg

or a

seed

can

resemble
ox can

only
at

an

egg
a

seed, and
The

the horn

in

full-grown
show

resemble

only

horn.

following
more

cases

inheritance

ing correspond-

periods
which

plainly,because supervened,
are as

they
far
as

refer to
we can

peculiarities
see,

might have later in life,yet

earlier
at

or

inherited

at

the

same

period

which

they first appeared.

appeared nine about weeks namely, age, described after birth.^** In the extraordinary hairy family by Mr, children Crawfurd/^ were produced during three generations with his body at hair began to grow father the over in the hairy ears; six years earlier, namely, at one old; in his daughter somewhat teeth appeared late in life, year; and in both generations the milk the permanent teeth being afterwards singularly deficient. Greyin soir.e transmitted of hair at an unusually early age has been ness
In the Lambert

family
at

the

excrescences porcupine-like

in the

father

and

sons

the

same

families.

These

cases

border

on

diseases

inherited refer.
is his to

at

corresponding

periods

to which of life,
'

I shall
of Hist, 349. p. of Court third The

immediately
generation
Yule in

'0 Phvs. Prichard, Manlvind,' 1851, vol.'i. *i to the Embassy

'

Mission

described Narrative Court the

'

by
of

Capt.
the

of

Ava,*

Ava,'

vol,

i. p.

320.

1855, p. 94.

52
It is the full well-known

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIV.

with peculiarity

almond-tumbler
of
or

beauty
the

and

peculiar character
has moulted of
two

the

pigeons, that plumage does not

Neumeister whole
first breed

appear describes white

all the

until

bird

three which but

in

times. the their

and white

figures a
feathers its first

brace

pigeons
head;

in

except the breast, neck,

have

and

body is plumage
is
more

coloured
is

edges.

Another

rusty-red wing-bars plumage these marks then come beon crescent-shaped mark so during three or four moults; but after white, and remain the body, and the bird loses its this period the white spreads over tail have their black; wings and canary-birds beauty.^- Prize until the first moult, so that this colour, however, is only retained the change takes be exhibited ere place. Once moulted, they must the Of all birds the course emanating peculiarity has ceased. tails the first year." black A have from this stock wings and has been of account curious and somewhat a analogous given first observed in 1798, near were family of wild pied rooks which that date from the period of to Chalfont, and which up year every several of their brood have the published notice, viz., 1837, coloured, partiThis ever, black and white. variegation of the plumage, howthe next but with the first moult; disappears among young These there families are changes of always a few pied ones." inherited at various are corresponding periods of plumage, which life in the pigeon, canary-bird, and rook, are remarkable, because such the parent-species passes through no change. in some diseases afford evidence Inherited respects of less value diseases not because than the foregoing cases, are nected necessarily conin other in but with any structure; change respects of more been the periods have tain Cermore value, because carefullyobserved. communicated to the child diseases are apparently by a process
remarkable:
a

and

black, with the breast;

"

^^

^*

"

cases

like inoculation, and the child is from the be here classes over. passed Large may
at certain in

first affected

such

of

diseases in

appear
and

ages,

such

as

St.
at

Vitus's the

dance

usually sumption youth, constill

these

are

early mid-life, gout naturally inherited

this

later, and
same

apoplexy period.
recorded,
or

later;
in

But
as

even

class, instances Vitus's dance, showing that an In the disease is inheritable.^^

inherited disease is

diseases

of

have

been

with of

St.
to

unusually early
most
cases

late

tendency

the

appearance

any

largely determined by certain critical periods in each person's life,as well as by unfavourable conditions. There other which not attached to are diseases, are particular many any in the child at about certainly tend to appear period, but which the same the parent was An first attacked. of age at which array and ancient could be in high authorities, modern, given support of this proposition. The illustrious Hunter believed in it; and Pi'2
'

Das

Ganze

der

Tauben-

zueht,' 1837, s. 24, tab. 8. 21, tab. i., fig. 4.

33

iv., fig. 2;
on

^4 Charlesworth. i. 1837, Hist.,' vol. 35

'

Mag.
p.
'

of

Nat.

167. H6r6d,

dj.

prosper
ii. p.

Lucas,
713.

Kidd's
p.

'

Treatise

the

Ca-

Nat.,'

torn.

nary,'

18.

Chap.

XIV.

AT

CORRESPONDING

PERIODS.

53
the the child
at

"^"

orry

cautions any

the

physician

to

look

closely

to

the Dr.

period when
Prosper

asserts collecting facts from source, every related to any of all kinds, though not that alTections particular in the offspring at whatever period of life,tend to reappear period of life they first appeared in the progenitor. be well As to give a the few subject is important, it may for not as instances, proof; simply as illustrations, proof, recourse to the authorities above be had of the followmust ing quoted. Some for the sake have been selected of showing that, when cases the child is affected somea slight departure from the rule occurs, In the family of Le Compte the parent. Avhat earlier in life than inherited blindness was through three generations, and no less than and all affected at about grandchildren were twenty-seven children in blindness their to advance the same about general began age; and ended in total sixteenth the fifteenth or deprivation of year, father case twenty-two,^^ In another a sight at the age of about all became blind at tw^enty-one years old; in and his four children blind at thirty-five, her daughter at another, a grandmother grew

Lucas/'

grave after

inheritable

disease

attacked

parent.

nineteen,
cleven.'^^

and So

three
with became

grandchildren
two at

at

the

ages

of

thirteen and

and

deafness,
several

brothers, their father

the age of instances

paternal

grandfather,all
at the
same

deaf
of

forty.**'

Esquirol gives
committed be
age, suicide
as

as

that
near

given,

of

whole

of insanity coming on striking a grandfather, father, and son, who all their fiftieth year. could Many other cases who at became insane the family age of

fortv."

Other

cerebral

affections and

sometimes
A
woman

follow

the died

same

rule,

"

epilepsy apoplexy. of her daughters at fortysixty-three years old; one three, and the other at sixty-seven: the latter had twelve children, who tubercular all died from this latter meningitis.*^ I mention because it illustrates a frequent occurrence, case namely, a change in the precise nature of an inherited disease, though still affecting
of the latter
the
same

for instance, disease when

organ.

Asthma

has

attacked
other

several

members

of the

same

family
The most

when

forty

old, and years diseases, such

at

various

ferent difduring infancy. as angina pectoris, stone in the bladder, and affections of the skin, have appeared in successive generations nearly the same The little began from finger of a man age. families
dans p.
*

36

'

L'Hered.

les
For

Mala-

in

the

'

Baltimore of
so

dies.'
see

1S40.

1.35.

Hunter,

Harlan's
'

Med.

Researches,'
tom.

Phys. Reg.' 1809, has been Sedgwick

send
me
39

Med. which kind

'

and
Mr.
as

to

5.30. 3^ L'Hered. 8r)0.

p.
3*

copy.

Nat.,'
'

ii. p.
For.

Prosper
tom. i. p.

Lucas,
400.

Her6d.

Nat.,'
Brit,
some

Sedsrwick,
48.^). p. number
seems

and

*o

Sedgwick, Piorry,
tom. p. ii. p.

ibid., July,
109;
759.
tom.

1861,
cas, Lu-

Med.-Chinu-g.
1861,
the
this

Review,'
In of is be children

April,
accounts

p.

202.
*i

Prosper
ii.

and

grandchildren
to

given
an error

as

37;

but

*2

Prosper

Lucas,

p.

from

the

paper

first

judging published

748.

54
some

INIIERITAHCE.

Chap.

XIV.

unknown
sons

cause

to

grow

inwards,

and

the

same

finger in his
in

two
manner.

parents
of 1

inwards to bend a began at the same age Strange and inexplicable neuralgic afl'ections have sufier to and children the same agonies at about
cases,

similar
caused

period

life.-*" will

other give only two the illustrating disappearance as

at
seven

which
as

are

interesting as

well their

tlie

aflected

brothers, same age. their paternal grandfather, were all similarly cousins, and called a "the skin-disease, pityriasisversicolor; disease, by
Two

of disease appearance father, their paternal uncles,

the

to the strictly limited through the females), at

case

about of

the four every

a

family (though transmitted usually appeared at puberty, and peared disapof The or second forty forty-fiveyears." age
brothers, who
week when about

males

of

the

is

that
almost

twelve which

years
were

old
lieved re-

suffered

from

severe

headaches,
a

onl}^by position paternal vmcles, paternal grandfather,

in the
four
or same

recumbent
from

in

dark

room.

Their all

father,
sufl'ered

and

granduncles
ceased at

way

headaches,
who

which lived
so

the

in all those fifty-five

long.

None

age of fiftyof the females

of the

family
is

were

affected.*'*

It
many
on

impossible
which
or

to

read

the

foregoing accounts,
recorded, of diseases
in several

and

the

others

have
even

been
more

coming
members
case

during
same

three

generations
same

of the
rare

family

at

the

age,

especiallyin
cannot
a

the

of

affections

in which
to doubt at

the

coincidence is

be attributed

to

chance, and
in

that there

strong

tendency
of life.

to

heritanc in-

disease

corresponding periods
is apt to
come on

When

the

the rule fails, in

very

disease the

earlier in the child

the other
to

than

the

parent;
rarer.

exceptions
Dr. Lucas
*^

in

direction
cases

being

much

alludes
earlier wath

several

of inherited

diseases
one

already given
three

coming on at an striking instance

and
Mr. Bowman
cataract.

period.
that
seems

I have

blindness

during
this

generations;
occurs

remarks
cancer

quently freto be

with

With

there

Sir J. Paget, who peculiar liabilityto earlier inheritance: this subject, and tabulated to has particularly attended a informs that he believes that in of cases, me large number
a

nine
43

cases

out

of ten
torn.

the

later generation
Mr. of

suffers
on

from

the

Prosper

Lucas,

iii. pp.

Sedj^rwiek,
Dr. H.

the

authority
in
'

700. 702; 678, isr53, p. April, Dr. 1S().3, p. 162. on Hereditary say
pp.
**

Sedgwick,
and 449, J. Steinan.

ibid.,

Stewart,

Med.-

July,
'

Chirurg.

Review,'

April,

1863, pp.
ii. p.

Es-

449, 477.
*^
'

Disease,'
are

1843, by

Hered.

Nat.,'

torn.

27,

34.
cases

852.

These

given

Ceap. XIV.

SUMMARY.

55

disease at

an

earlier

adds,
and
age

"

In

the

period than the previous generation. He the opposite relation holds, instances in which
of later generations have
I think predecessors,
cancer

the members
than

at

later

their

it will be found

that the So the have

non-cancerous

parents

have

lived to extreme
seems

old ages."
to

that the

longevity of non-affected parents of influencing the fatal period in power element thus apparently get another we
inheritance. The

the

offspring;and of complexity in
the

period of inheritance frequently advances, are occasionallyor even for they important with respect to the general descent-theory, with it probable that the same render thing would occur
ordinary modifications
of characters thus
come

facts, showing that with

certain

diseases

of structure. would

The

final result

of

long series of such advances

proper to

be the

gradual obliteration
larva, which
would
mature

the
more

embryo
and

and
more

to

resemble
any

closely the
was

parent-form. But
embryo tendency
and
or

structure

which

of service to the
at any age.

larva

would

be

preserved by the destruction

which
at too

this stage of
to

growth of each individual

lose its proper from the numerous another character
races

manifested

early

an

Finally,
domestic

of

cultivated

plants
or

animals, in which
one

the seeds of eggs,

the young

old, differ from

"

and

from

those

of the

parent-

in which characters have apnew species; from the cases peared afterwards at a particularperiod, and been inherited with respect at the same period; and from what we know believe in the truth of the great principle to disease,we must of inheritance at corresponding periods of life.
"

of the three preceding Chapters. Strong as is of the force of inheritance, it allows the incessant appearance characters. beneficial or injurious, of new These, whether the most trifling importance, such as a shade of colour in a of the lock of hair, or a mere flower, a coloured or gesture, highest importance, as when affectingthe brain, or an organ of so grave as so perfect and a nature or complex as the eye, to deserve to be called a monstrosity, peculiar as not to or so natural class, of the same occur normally in any member often inherited by man, by the lower animals, and plants, are Summary
" " "
" "

"

3^

56
In numberless that
one

INHERITANCE.

Chap.

XIV.

cases

it suffices for the alone should

inheritance be thus

of

liarity pecu-

parent Inequalities in the two the

law of

characterised.
to

sides of the

body, though opposed

There
is

evidence

be transmitted. symmetry, may that the eifects of mutilations and

ample
pecially es-

of accidents, that parent

to

or

i^erhapsexclusivelywhen
There
can

followed be
no

by disease, are
the
to

occasionally inherited.
effects of the conditions So it is,as effects of the Periodical would
use are we

doubt of the

evil
jurious inspring. off-

long-continued
shall disuse likewise
see

exposure

sometimes in
a

transmitted future

the

chapter, \vith the

of mental habits.
it

and
are

of parts, and

habits

transmitted, but generally,as

at

appear,
we

with
are as our

little force.
led
to

Hence

look

inheritance
But

as

the

rule, and
often
pears ap-

non-inheritance
to
a us

the

anomaly.
to act

this power

in

ignorance

capriciously, transmitting

The inexplicable strength or feebleness. same peculiarity,as the weeping habit of trees, silky very be inherited either firmlj'^ not feathers, "c., may at all by or different members of the
In this

character

with

of the
same

same

group,

and

even

by different
in

individuals
manner.

species,though
case we see

treated

the

same

latter

that

quality which is merely As with single characters, so it is with the several concurrent slight differences which distinguish sub-varieties be propagated almost as truly or races can ; for of these, some whilst others cannot The rule be relied on. as species, same holds good with plants,when "c., propagated by bulbs, offsets,
is
a

the power of transmission in its attachindividual ment.

which for
some

in

one

sense

still form retain

or

parts inherit

of the

same

individual,
budothers.
tainly cer-

varieties

through

successive

generations their character

Some characters been
may not

far

more

truly than

proper

to the

parent-species have

inherited

from

an

therefore whether

be considered

as

extremely remote firmly fixed. But

in itself
are

epoch, and
it is doubtful

length of inheritance

gives fixedness
true
or

of

character; though the chances character which has long been

still being transmitted remain retained
the
same. same

obviously in favour
as

of any of life

transmitted

unaltered,

true

as

long

the

conditions

We

know

the

character

that many species,after having for countless ages, whilst living

58
thousands
as

INHERITANCE.

Chap. XIV.

of generations
in invisible

in the

case

of pure
at any

breeds, written
to be evolved

it

were

ink, yet ready

time

under What

certain these

conditions. conditions

know. do not precisely are, we But disturbs the organisation or constitution which cause any A cross to be sufficient. certainly gives a strong seems of long-lost characters, both tendency to the reappearance In the case of plants, this tendency corporeal and mental. have been crossed is much stronger with those species which after

long cultivation
disturbed with

and

which
cause

therefore
as

have
as

had

their

constitutions

by this
have then
and

well

by crossing,
their natural

than

species which
and
have

always lived under

crossed. A

conditions domesticated favours

been

return,
to
a

also, of
state

animals

cultivated

plants

wild

stances circumtendency under has been much exaggerated. differ someWhen of the same individuals what, family which and when races or species are crossed, the one is often

reversion; but

the

these

prepotent
race

over

the
a

other

may
as

possess
we

strong
seen

A transmitting its character. of inheritance, and yet when power

in

crossed,

have

with
race. sexes

prepotency
may
runs

other of every be equal in the two

more

trumpeter-pigeons, yield to the Prepotency of transmission

of the
same

species, but often

It plays an sex. strongly in one important part in determining the rate at which be modified one race can or with another. We can wholly absorbed by repeated crosses makes seldom tell what one race or species prepotent over character another; but it sometimes depends on the same

being present and

present Characters the male
the
may

visible in

one

parent,

and

latent

or

tially potenin
to

in the other.

than

first appear in either in the female, and afterwards

sex,

but

oftener

be transmitted

In this case feel confident offspringof the same sex. we may that the peculiarity in question is really present though latent in the opposite sex ! hence the father may transmit to his grandson ; and the through his daughter any character mother We thus learn, conversely to her granddaughter.

and

the fact

is
are

an

important

one,

that

transmission

and these

velopmen detwo

distinct be

powers.

Occasionally

powers

seem

to

antagonistic,or

incapable of combination

'

Chap.

XIV.

SUMMARY.

59
have
a

in the
in

same

individual;
the
or son

for

several

cases

been

recorded from has

ceived re-

which

has

not

directly inherited
it to

character
son,

his

father,
it

directly
transmission it

transmitted

his

but

by

through
his

his

non-affected

mother, Owing secondary

their
ervation pres-

and
to

transmitted inheritance characters and

through
have

non-affected

daughter.
see

being
may

limited

by
arisen

sex,

we

how

sexual

under

nature;
on

accumulation

being

dependent
character

their

service

to

either At

sex.

whatever

period of life
latent and
in

new

first appears,
a

it

generally remains
age

the

offspring
is the

until

ing correspondthis
an

is

attained,
the

then

developed.
character

When
at

rule

fails, the

child

generally
parent.
we

exhibits On
can

earlier
at most

period than corresponding

animals succession

this

principle of inheritance
how

periods,

understand
to

it is that
a

display from

the

germ

maturity
obscure

such

marvellous

of characters. much look

a

Finally, though
we

remains
at

with laws

respect
as

to

heritance In-

may

the

following
in

fairly well
new

established. and

Firstly,
be

tendency

every

character,
bud and
on

old,

to

transmitted counteracted
or

by seminal by various
which

and known

generation,
unknown sion transmisin bud
may

though
causes,

often

reversion and

atavism,

depends
powers:

development
manners

being distinct
through
be

it acts and which

ous varieration. gen-

degrees and
confined
to

both

seminal

Tnirdly, prepotency
one as

of transmission,
common

be

sex,

or

to

both
to

sexes.

Fourthly,
same sex

transmission,
which
many,

limited

by

sex,

generally
first
on

the

in in

the

inherited
most at

character
cases,
a

appeared;
the
new

and

this

probably
first
at to

depends
late

character

ing hav-

appeared
the laws
see an

rather

period of life.
of the

Fifthly,
some

heritance in-

corresponding
earlier of

periods
of

life, with
inherited under

dency ten-

development
as

character. tion, domestica-

In

these
we

inheritance,

displayed

ample
natural

provision for the selection, of

new

production, specific forms.

through

variability and

60

ON

CROSSING

AS

CAUSE.

Chap.

XV.

CHAPTER
ON CROSSING.

XV.

Free

the differences between allied breeds When of two breeds absorbs the commingling are unequal, one of transmission, rate of absorption determined by prepotency of life, and selection All organic by natural by the conditions acters charintercross certain On beings occasionally exceptions : apparent have incapable of fusion ; chieliy or exclusively those which modification of old On the suddenly appeared in the individual and formation the of new crossed by crossing Some races, races, have bred true from their first production races On the crossing of distinct species in relation to the formation of domestic races.

intercrossingobliterates
"

"

the numbers other The

"

"

"

"

"

previous chapters, when discussing reversion and prepotency, I was facts on necessarily led to give many crossing. In the present chapter I shall consider the part in which crossing plays in two opposed directions, firstly, obliterating characters, and consequently in preventing the of formation of new and secondly, in the modification races;
two
"

In

the

old

races,
a

or

in the formation

of

new

and

intermediate

races,
tain cer-

by

combination characters
are

of characters.

I shall also show

that

incapable of fusion.
or

The members

effects of free of the

same

uncontrolled

breeding between

the

variety or of closelyallied varieties are be discussed that they need obvious not important; but are so at much length. It is free intercrossingwhich chiefly and under domestication, gives uniformity, both under nature of the same to the individuals they species or variety, when ducing inlive mingled together and are to not cause exposed any excessive variability. The ing, prevention of free crossand
are senses

the

intentional

matching
breeder's
or

of

individual
art.
a

animals,
in
his

the

corner-stones

of the

No breed

man

would
manner,

expect to improve
or

modify
true

keep

an

old breed

and

in any particular distinct,unless

The killing of inferior animals in separated his animals. to the same each generation comes thing as their separation. the inhabitants and semi-civilised countries,where In savage

he

Chap.

XV.

OF

UNIFORMITY

OF

CHARACTER.

61

separating their animals, more than exists. In same species rarely or never a single breed in the United former there times, even States, tinct diswere no of for all had been races sheep, mingled together.^ The Marshall celebrated remarks that " sheep that agriculturist kept within fences, as well as shepherded flocks in open are if not a uniformity, of countries, have generally a similarity, in the individuals of each flock ; " for they breed character freely together, and are prevented from crossing with other
not
means

have

the

of

of the

kinds; whereas
or

in the

unenclosed of the various that

same

parts of England

the

un-

shepherded sheep, even

uniform,
We

owing
have British different
many

to
seen

flock,are far from breeds having mingled

half-wild uniform
in

true

and of

crossed. the but

the

cattle in each

several
in

the

crossed small We and

during
cannot

parks are nearly character; from not having mingled and parks, generations, they differ to a certain
that the extraordinary of the number of varieties

extent.

doubt

to at least pigeon, amounting is partly due hundred and fifty, ferently to their remaining, difone from other domesticated birds, paired for life once the other matched. On hand, breeds of cats imported into this country soon disappear,for their nocturnal and rambling it habits render hardly possible to prevent free crossing. with Rengger gives an interesting case respect to the cat in Paraguay : in all the distant parts of the kingdom it has assumed, apparently from the effects of the climate,a peculiar the capital this change has been character, but near vented, prehe the native animal to as owing, frequently asserts, like In all cases crossing with cats imported from Europe. the foregoing, the effects of an will be augoccasional cross mented of the crossed by the increased vigour and fertility of which fact evidence will hereafter be given ; for offspring, this will lead to the mongrels increasing more rapidly than the pure parent-breeds. When distinct breeds are allowed to cross sult freely,the rewill be a heterogeneous body; for instance, the dogs in

sub-varieties

'

Communications
of

to

the

ports,
200.
3
'

North

of
von

England,' Paraguay,

p.

Board p. 367.
2

Agriculture,'
'

vol. of

i. Re-

gjiugethiere
s.

Marshall,

Review

1830,

212,

62

ON

CROSSING

AS

CAUSE

Chap.

XV.

Paraguay
to

are

far from

uniform,

and

can

no

longer
which
a

be

ated affili-

their

parent-races.*The
"

character

crossed

must body of animals will ultimately assume eral depend on sevof the contingencies, namely, on the relative members individuals which or more races belonging to the two are the prepotency of one allowed the to mingle; on race over

other

in the transmission

of character
are

; and

on

the conditions

two exposed. When commingled breeds exist at first in nearly equal numbers, the whole will later become intimately blended, but not so soon, sooner or in all respects, as might both breeds being equally favoured have been expected. The shows that following calculation if a colony with this is the case: of black equal number an that they marry and white men founded, and we assume were in thirty and that one indiscriminately,are equally prolific, in 65 years the number of annually dies and is born ; then would be equal. In 91 years blacks, whites, and mulattoes

of life to

which

they

"

the whites
or

would

be

1-lOth, the blacks

In

1-lOth, and
not

the

lattoes, mu-

people of intermediate
number. exist." of two

degrees of colour, 8-lOths of

1-lOOth

the whole whites When

in

three centuries

part of the

w^ould
one

mingled
soon

races

exceed

the

other

number,
and

the latter will

absorbed

lost.*" Thus
in

wholly, or almost European pigs and dogs have

be islands absorbed
^

greatly wholly,
been and of doubt

largely introduced
the native about
were races

the been
;

of the and

Pacific

Ocean,
course no

have

lost in the
races

fiftyor
favoured. Some

sixty years
Rats
may

but

the

imported
as

be considered

semi-domesticated

(Mus alexandrinus) escaped in and the Zoological Gardens of London, for a long time afterwards the keepers frequently caught cross-bred rats, at with less of the character first half-breds, afterwards of the
animals. snake-rats
"

snake-rat, till at length all traces of it disappeared." the other hand, in some parts of London, especiallynear docks, where
*

On the

fresh
'

rats

are

frequently imported,
tention
discussed
"

an

endless
and

Rengger,
'

Saugethiere,'

Szc,

to

s.

154.
5

this it.
D.

subject,

ably
in Ben-

White, Regular Man,' p. J46.

"

Gradation
in des his at-

Rev.
*

Tverman of

and

nett,
1829.
*

Journal

Yovages,'
'

1821-

Dr.

W.

F.

Edwards,

vol. Mr.

'

Caracteres

Humaines,'

Physiolog. p. 24, first

Races

called

Linn.

i. p. .300. Journal S. J. Salter. Soc.,' vol. vi., 1862, p. 71.

Chap.

XV.

OF

UNIFORMITY

OF

CHARACTER.

^3
between the

forms variety of intermediate may snake brown, black, and rat, which ranked How
race
''

be
are

found

all three

usually
or

as

distinct
many

species.
for has
one

to absorb
;

generations are necessary another by repeated crosses

the Some
more

species
been

often

cussed dis-

and

requisite number
writers have

has

probably been
that
;
a

much dozen this in

exaggerated.
or

maintained
necessary

score,

or

even

generations, are

but

improbable, for in the tenth generation there would be only l-1024th part of foreign blood in the offspring. Gartner that with found,'" plants, one species could be made
to

itself is

absorb

another that this

in from could

three

to

five generations, and

he
"

always be effected in from six to generations. In one instance, however, Kolreuter seven speaks of the offspring of Mirahilis vulgaris,crossed during eight successive generations by M. longiflora, as resembling this latter species so closely,that the most server scrupulous ob" could vix aliquam notabilem detect differentiam " he says, he succeeded, ad plenariam fere transmutaor, as tionem." But this expression shows that the act of absorption then not was even absolutely complete, though these crossed plants contained only the l-256th part of M. vulgaris.
"

believes

The

conclusions
are

of such of far

accurate

observers than
those

as

Gartner
made
account

and

Kolreuter

higher worth
The

without which

scientific aim
I have
met

by breeders.
is given by

most

precise

with

and Stonehenge,'"'

is illustrated

by photographs. Mr. Hanley crossed a greyhound bitch with a bulldog; the offspring in each succeeding generation being As first-rate greyhounds. recrossed with marks, Stonehenge retake sevit might naturally be supposed that it would eral of the bulldog; but to get rid of the heavy form crosses no Hysterics, the gr-gr-granddaughter of a bulldog, showed
trace

whatever
same

of this breed

in
were

external
"

form.

She

and

all
in

of the

litter,however,

remarkably deficient
I

stoutness,
9

though
'

fast
Racen,
'

as

well
"c.,'

as

clever."
1"
'

believe

clever
s.

1825,

Sturm. 107. s.

Ueber

Bastarderzeugung,'
Nova
see

463,
^"^^

Bronn,

Geschichte

470.
"
'

der b. ii. s. 170, gives Natur,' a of table the of blood proportions after successive P. Dr. crosses. L'Heredite Lucas, Nat.,' torn. ii. p. 308.
'

Acta
also

Petrop.,

1(94,
179-

p.

393:
^^
'

The

previous Dog,' 1867, pages

volume,

184.

64
refers

ON

CROSSING

AS

CAUSE

Chap.

XV.

to

skill in
"

turning.

Hysterics
fifth

was cross

put

to

a as

son

of

Bedlamite,

but

the result of the

is not

yet, I

the On satisfactory than that of the fourth." believe, more shows how other hand, with sheep, Fleischmann" persistent " that the original be : he says the effects of a single cross may
coarse

square

have sheep (of Germany) inch; grades of the third or about

5500

fibres of Merino

wool
cross

on

fourth
cross

duced pro-

8000,
blood

the

twentieth

27,000,
So that

the

perfect
man Gerdid
pure

pure

Merino

40,000 to 48,000." twenty

times

common

sheep crossed
not

successivelywith
as

Merino of the

by

any

means

acquire wool
all
cases,

fine of

as

that

breed.

But

in

the

rate

absorption will depend

of life being favourable to any largely on be suspect that there would particular character; and we may constant tendency to degeneration in the wool of Merinos a unless prevented by careful of Germany, the climate under case selection; and thus perhaps the foregoing remarkable also depend rate of absorption must be explained. The may the two of distinguishable difference between the amount on which insists, forms crossed, and especially,as Gartner are the conditions
on

prepotency
have of
seen

of transmission
in

in the

one

form
one

over

the other. French with

We

the

last
up

chapter that
its

of two

breeds

sheep yielded
very

character, when

crossed

slowly than the other; and the German be in sheep referred to by Fleischmann common may there will be more this respect analogous. In all cases or less liability to reversion during many subsequent generations, has probably led authors and it is this fact which to of generations are requisitefor that a score maintain or more
Merinos,
much
more one race

to absorb

another. of two
or

In
more

considering the final result of breeds,

we

the that

commingling
the
act

must

not

forget

of

crossing
not proper

in
to

itself tends the immediate

to

lost characters With

any
are

bring back longparent-forms.

of life
on

respect to the influence

breeds which
are

of the conditions
to
cross

two

allowed

freely,unless

both

to the country indigenous and have long been accustomed be unequally affected where they live,they will, in all probability, by the conditions, and this w^ill modify the result.
in the quoted of Breeding,' by Principles
"

As

'

True H.

C.

Macknight 1865, p. 11.

and

Dr.

H.

Madden,

66
will

ON

ALL

ORGANIC

BEINGS

Chap.

XV.

merely recall the fact

in structure,
are

that

many

plants, though
in function in
;
"

maphrodit heras

unisexual

such

those

called

pollen and
periods;
which
or

by C. K. Sprengel dichogamous, flower are matured at different stigma of the same those called by me reciprocally dimorphic, in
own

which

the

the flower's
or

pollen is

not

fitted

to

fertilise its

own

stigma;

kinds in which cal curious mechaniagain, the many contrivances tion. exist, effectuallypreventing self-fertilisaThere hermaphrodite plants which are, however, many
in any
way

ing, speciallyconstructed to favour intercrossnevertheless but which commingle almost as freely as This is the case animals Avith separated sexes. with cabbages, radishes, and onions, as I know from having experimented on the peasants of Liguria say that cabbages must them: even " with In from be prevented each other. falling in love
are

not

"

the of

orange

tribe, Gallesio
kinds

^^

remarks

that

the

amelioration and other

the

various

is checked So
it

by
is

their with

continual
numerous

almost

regular crossing.
the other

plants.
On

hand,

some

cultivated

plants rarely or
pea
are

never

intercross, for instance, the common {Lathy rus odoratus) ; yet their flowers
for
cross

and

sweet-pea and

certainly adapted
the
tomato

fertilisation.

The
the
even

varieties

of

aubergine
are

(Solanum)
never

and

said

^''

to

cross,

pimenta (Pimenta vulgarisf) when growing alongside one

that these
are

another.

But
we

it should do not
when
common

be know

observed how

all exotic
in

plants, and
native

they would
the have
proper

behave

their With
it is

country
to

visited
pea,

by
I

insects. that

respect

the

ascertained

tion. fertilisaowing to premature There plants which under their exist, however, some such as natural conditions to be always self-fertilised, appear the Bee Ophrys (Ophrys apifera) and a few other Orchids; yet these plants exhibit the plainest adaptations for crossfew plants are believed to produce fertilisation. Again, some cannot possibly only closed flowers, called cleistogne,which

rarely crossed

in

this country

lished arrives
elusions other

by
at
as

Dr.

Hildebrand,
same

who
eon-

the
I

general

and

especially by Delpino.
^'
'

Hermann

Miiller

have

peared

treatises the on

Various done. since have ap-

same

subject,

more

della Teoria Riproduzione Vegetal,' 1816. p. 12. " Verlot, 'Des Var.,' 1865, p. 72.

Chap. XV.

OCCASldsfALLY

mTie^RCROSSma.
be the

67
ease

be crossed. Leersia

This

was

long thought

to

with

the

oryzoides" but this grass is now known occasionally which to produce perfect flowers, seed. set Although some plants, both indigenous and naturalised, rarely or never produce flowers, or if they flower never doubts that phanerogamic produce seeds, yet no one plants are adapted to produce flowers, and the flowers to produce believe that such plants under difseed. When we they fail, ferent would conditions perform their proper function, or that they formerly did so, and will do so again. On gous analogrounds, I believe that the flowers in the above
anomalous do
so cases

specified
would

which

do

not

now

intercross,either

occasionally under the means formerly did so

"
"

conditions, or that they for affectingthis being generally will again intercross still retained and future at some extinct. this view On period, unless indeed they become and action of the reproalone, many points in the structure ductive in and animals telligib inhermaphrodite plants are organs
"

different

for instance, the

fact of the male

and

female

gans or-

completely enclosed as to render access from without conclude that the we impossible. Hence may for giving uniformity to the most important of all the means individuals of the same species,namely, the capacity of occasionally intercrossing, is present, or has been formerly of the present, with all organic beings, except, perhaps, some
never

being

so

lowest.
On crossed but
and
some

certain their
state

Characters

not

hlending.

"

Wlien

two

breeds in When

are

characters either
are

usually become
from

intimately fused
are or

together;
an modified un-

characters mice
not

refuse

blend, and both parents

to
are

transmitted
from
one.

white but

paired, the young

an

piebald, or
so

grey,
common a

of

intei'mediate
are

tint;

grey or pure white is white and it when

collared

turtle-doves Mr.
of

great authority,
of both breeds years

paired. In breeding Game I may J. Douglas, remarks, here

"

fowls,
state
a

strange fact:
birds

if you

cross

black

with colour."

white
Sir R.

game,
Heron

the

clearest

get you crossed Angora

the
same cases

during many

rabbits, and never animal, but often

"

and white, black, brown once got these colours all four
'

fawn-coloured

mingled

in

colours
Soc.
p.

in

the

same

litter.^^
in
'

From

Duval
de

Bot. 194.

Jouve, Prance,' torn,

respect
to

Bull.
x.,

Ascherson

Bot. letter me

Zeitung,'
from Sir

1863,
see

1864,
^^

"With

the

perfect
Dr.

350. Extract
p.

of

flowers

setting

seed,

R.

Heron,

1838, given

by Mr,

68

ON

CERTAIN

CHARACTERS

Chap.

XV.

of the two the colours parents are transmitted have all sorts of gradations, to the we offspring, separately quite 1 will instance: fusion. an to a give gentleman leading complete hair dark fair complexion, light but with a a lady eyes, married hair and with dark complexion: their three children have very light like these, in which

hair, but
scattered When dwarfed
not

on

careful

search of the

about

dozen
on

black the

hairs
of

were

found have

in the

midst

light hair
ancon common

heads

of all three.

turnspit dogs
limbs,
or are

and with

sheep, both
take

which

crossed
in

intermediate
hornless but

structure,
animals
are

but

breeds, the offspring are after either parent. When

with

quently, perfect animals, it frethat the ineans invariably, happens by offspring are in a perfect state, or with these organs either furnislied are quite of them. of destitute According to Rengger, the hairless condition is either all not at to transmitted its the Paraguay perfectly or dog one partial exception in a dog mongrel offspring;but I have seen had part of its skin hairy, and of this parentage which part naked, in the parts being distinctly separated as When a piebald animal. crossed with other breeds, the Dorking fowls with five toes are tailless
no

crossed

chickens Some and but

often

have

five toes

on

one

foot
in

and
between

four

on

the

other.

crossed
common

pigs raised pig had not

were

by

Sir R. with

Heron
an

the

solid-hoofed

all four

feet

intermediate

condition,
two

two

feet hoofs.

furnished have been

properly divided, and

with

with Trevor

united Clarke with

Analogous
crossed

facts the
a

observed

plants: Major
stock

little, glabrous-leaved, (Muthlohi), large, red-flowered, rough-leaved, biennial stock, that half the called cncurdeau by the French, and the result was seedlings had glabrous and the other half rough leaves, but none intermediate state. That the glabrous seedlings had leaves in an the of the were rough-leaved variety, and not accidentally product show^n of the mother-plant's own pollen, was by their tall and In the habit of growth.^^ succeeding generations raised strong from the rough-leaved crossed seedlings, some glabrous plants appeared, showing that the glabrous character, though incapable of all the time modifying the rough leaves, was blending with and in this family of plants. The latent numerous plants formerly
annual

pollen of

Yarrel.
see

With
des I have

respect
Sc.
For heard
'

to

mice,
toni. i. other geons.' Pithe

thiere
I
saw

von

Annal.

Nat.,'

in
were

the

s. Paraguay,' Zoological a

l~^2". but Gardens

cross,

p.

180;

and
cases.

of
Les For of

mongrels,
which
or

from in and

similar

similar
Eoitard

turtle-doves,

and

Corbie,
'

hairy
with

hairless, patches,
hair. For other the crossed

quite
that
crosses

hairy, is, piebald

of
see

"S:c., Game

fowl.
p.

p. The For

28S.

Poultry
crosses

Book,'
less tail'

Dorking
'

fowls,
vol. ii.

1866,

128.

Poultry
About

Chronicle.'

p.
tract ex-

see fowls, Deutseh.' turges.

Beehstein,
b. der

Na-

355.
to

pigs,

iii.

s.

403.
b. facts

Bronn,
ii.
with
s.

'

Geschicte

Natur,'
hairless can Ameri'

170,
horses.

gives
of On crossed
see

analogous
the South

condition

dogs,

Rengger,

Siiuge-

of letter from Sir R. Mr. other Yarrell. For P. L'Hered. see Lucas, torn. i. p. 212. 19 Internat. Hort. and of London,' 1866. Congress
' '

Heron
cases, Nat.'

Bot.

Chap.

XV.

NOT

BLENDING.

09

referred
in

to, which
common

raised

from

peloricand
the
in first the

Antirrhinum,

and

generation all the next generation, out

alone
were

between tlie reciprocal crosses a nearly parallel case; for the common plants resembled form,
ofi'er

of

one

hundred

and

thirty-seven
others form.

plants, two
Trevor stock

in either

an

intermediate

condition, the
common

perfectlyresembling
Clarke with
also

the

peloric
the

or

Major

fertilised

above-mentioned

red-flowered

pollen from the purple Queen stock, and about half the seedlings scarcelydiffered in habit, and Hot at all in the red colour half bearing blossoms the mother-plant, the other of the flower, from like those of the rich of a paternal plant. purple, closely
Gartner of the crossed many white
and and

yellow-flowered species
colours
were never

and

rieties va-

verbascum;

these

offspring bore either pure white or pure in the larger proportion.-" Dr. Herbert former
as

blended, yellow blossoms;

raised many
crossed

but the lings, seedtwo

he

informed

me.

from

Swedish

turnips

by

varieties, and these never produced flowers of an intermediate of their parents. I fertilised the purple tint, but always like one has dark a odoraius), which reddish-purple sweet-pea {Luthyrus standard-petal and voilet-coloured wings and keel, with pollen of
other the
has a pale cherry-coloured standard, painted lady sweet-pea, which keel and almost white and from the and same ; wings pod I twice raised plants perfectly resembling both sorts; the greater So perfect was the resemblance, number resembling the father. I had should been that have some mistake, if the thought there with first identical the at were paternal variety, plants which in the not had later the season produced, as namely, painted-lady, with streaked in a former and mentioned chapter, flowers blotched and I from raised dark great-grandchildren grandchildren purple. the to resemble these crossed paintedplants, and they continued rather blotched more lady, but during later generations became reverted with completely to the original motherpurple, yet none is slightly differThe ent, following case plant, the purple sweet-pea.

but

still shows between

and

the the

same

: principle

Naudin

-^

raised
the

numerous

hybrids
pnrpurea,

yellow

Linaria

during three successive flower. parts of the same in which the offspring of the From such the as cases foregoing, first generation perfectly resemble either come by a parent, we flowers borne small in coloured which to those cases differently step both the same root resemble on step to parents, and by another with flower those in which fruit is striped or blotched the same or colour of the the two bears or a or colours, single stripe parental With other characteristic of the quality of one parent-forms. hybrids and mongrels it frequently or even generally happens that
distinct in different
-0
'

purple L. generations the colours kept

vuhjuriH

and

Kolrenter (' Dritto s. 84, 89), however,

termediate
crosses

807. s. Rastnrrlerzeuernn.^,' Fortsetsznnj;.'

obtainod in-

With

respect
'

to

the

in

tints the genus

similar from Verbascum.

Herbert's Amaryllidaceae,' p. 370. "^ du Archives Noiivelles i. p. 100. seum,' tom.

'

turnips, sec 1837,

Mu-

70
one

ON

CROSSING

AS

CAUSE

Chap.

XV.

closely one parent and to resistance again some mutual to the same comes fusion, or, what thing, some affinity of the same between the organic atoms nature, apparently comes termediat be equally inall parts of the body would into play, for otherwise the So again, when in character. offspring of hybrids in character, intermediate themselves whicli are or nearly mongrels, to their either wholly or by segments revert ancestors, the principle of the affinity of similar, or the repulsion of dissimilar atoms, must to be extremely To this principle,which into action. seems come in the chapter on pangenesis. general, we shall recur has been It is remarkable, as strongly insisted upon by Isidore of Geoffroy St. Hilaire in regard to animals, that the transmission without when fusion characters occurs rarely species are very of one exception alone, namely, with the hybrids crossed; I know and hooded the common crow (Corciis naturally produced between and fering closely allied species,difcorone comix), which, however, are I met Nor in nothing except colour. have with wellany part
of the another

part the

body resembles other parent;

more

or

less

and

here

ascertained
is

cases

of

transmission

of this kind,

even

when

one

form

two crossed races are another, when strongly prepotent over have been therefore selection, and slowly formed by man's natural extent resemble to a certain as species. Such cases puppies in distinct the litter closely resembling two same breeds, are probably due to superfoetation, that is, to the influence of two

which

"

fathers.
in
"

All
a

the

characterg
to

above
some

enumerated,

which
not

are

mitted trans-

perfect state
horns have

of the

offspring and

to

others,
ture, struc-

such absence animals

from

as

distinct

of
"

colours, nakedness or tail, additional

all been From

of skin, smoothness

of leaves, in individual

toes, pelorism, dwarfed

appear

"c.,
and

known this

to

suddenly
from the

plants.
not

aggregated differences
one

which

another,
we

slight, and races distinguish domestic species mission, being liable to this peculiar form of transthat it is in
some

fact, and

several

may

conclude

way

connected

with

the

sudden

appearance

of the

characters

in

question.

Modification of old Races and the Formation of Races We have hitherto c onsidered new hy Crossing. chieflj^ the effects of crossing in giving uniformity of character; we
the
"

On

must

now

look at

an

that

crossing, with generations, has been

and in

be no doubt opposite result. There can the aid of rigorous selection during several
a

potent
ones.

means

in

modifying
crossed

old his

races,

forming

new

Lord with the

Orford

famous

stud

of greyhounds

once

and give them courage been crossed, as I hear

perseverance.

bulldog, in order to Certain pointers have

W. D.

from dash
a

the and

Rev.

Fox, with
strains Game

the of

foxhound

to

give them
have had

speed.

Certain of

Dorking

fowls

slight infusion

bloody

Chap. XV.

OF

THE

MODIFICATION

OP

RACES.

Yl

and

I have

crossed greater
In

his

single occasion with barbs, for the sake of gaining turbit-pigeons

a on a

known

great fancier

who

breadth
the

of beak.

breeds have been crossed once, for foregoing cases the sake of modifying some particular character; but with of the improved races of the pig, which now most breed true, there have been repeated crosses, for instance,the improved its excellence to repeated crosses with Essex the Neapolitan, owes infusion of Chinese together probably with some British So with our blood." sheep : almost all the races, except in fact, the Southdown, have been largelycrossed ; " this, has been the history of our To give an principal breeds." Oxfordshire Downs rank as an lished estabexample, the now breed.'* They were produced about the year 1830 by " instances Southdown crossing Hampshire and in some ewes " Cotswold the itself with : rams now Hampshire ram was between the native Hampshire produced by repeated crosses and the long-woolled Cotswold were sheep and Southdowns; latter again is with the Leicester, which improved by crosses between several long-woolled believed to have been a cross Spooner, after considering the various cases sheep. Mr. have been carefully recorded, concludes, " that from a which judicious pairing of cross-bred animals it is practicable to
"

^^

"

"

establish

new

breed."
races

On

the

continent of other

the

history of
has
been

several crossed

of cattle and To

animals

well ascertained.

instance: the King of Wurgive one temburg, after twenty-five years' careful breeding, that is, breed of cattle after six or seven a new generations, made
a cross

from with
true ago

between

Dutch

and

Swiss

breed, combined
which about breeds
as

other
as

breeds.^* The
other kind

Sebright bantam,
was

any
a

of fowl,

formed

sixty years
are

by

complicated cross.^"
some

Dark

Brahmas,
a

which

lieved be-

by
22

fanciers
'

to

constitute
24
.

distinct

were species,

Richardson, Pigs,' 1847, pp. of edition S. 37, 42; Sidney's Youatt the on Pig.' 1860. p. 3.
"

Gardener's Bulletin
de torn.
'

Chronicle.'
la ix.
cases,

1857,

pp.
25

649, 652.
.

Soc.
p.

See Mr. cellent paper

'

23

W.
on

C.

Journal XX.,

Royal
part

exSpooner's Cross-Breeding, Soc.,' Agricult. see

mat.,
and

1862,

also, for other Du Gayot,

'

d'Accli8re 463. Moll MM.

Ba?uf,'

1860,
vol.

p.

vol.

equally Howard,

good
in
'

ii. : article

also

an

xxxii.
26 poultry 1854, p. 36.

by

Mr.

Ch.

Chronicle,'

il.,

Gardener's Cle,'1860, p. 320.

Chroni-

a9

72

ON

CROSSING

AS

CAUSE

Chap. XV.

in the United States, within a recent undoubtedly formed With between Chittagongs and Cochins. period, by a cross plants there is little doubt that the Swede-turnip originated and the history of a variety of wheat, raised from a cross; after six years' from distinct two varieties, and which very culture presented an even sample, has been recorded on good

"

authority/'*
Until
not
averse

lately,cautious
to
a

and

single infusion
that the
two

experienced breeders, though of foreign blood, were almost

attempt
to

universally convinced
race,

establish

new

widely distinct races, was they clung with superstitious tenacity to the hopeless : of purity of blood, believing it to be the ark in doctrine Nor alone true this which safety could be found." was
intermediate
"
"'*

between

conviction the

unreasonable
the

when

two

distinct
are

races

are

crossed,
be the of As

offspringof
in

first generation
even

form generally nearly unifails to

character; but
the animals been But first
are

this sometimes

case,

especially with
from

crossed
are

dogs and

fowls, the
much
size

young

which

sometimes

diversified. and

cross-bred

generally of large
in

vigorous,
sumption. con-

they have
for

raised

great numbers

for immediate found

for breeding

they

are

utterly useless;

in character, themselves be uniform though they may generations astonishingly diversified they yield during many offspring. The breeder is driven to despair, and concludes

that he will
cases

never

form

an

intermediate from others

race.

But have

from been

the
corded, re-

already given, and

it appears that
"

which

patience alone
opposes
no

Spooner remarks,

nature

Mr. is necessary; as barrier to successful

of time, by the aid of selection and admixture; in the course breed." careful weeding, it is practicable to establish a new After
most

six
cases or

or

seven

generations the hoped-for result will

even

in

be

obtained; but

then

an

occasional The of

sion, rever-

failure to

however, will decidedly unfavourable breed.^"

27
"

keep true, may assuredly fail if the

to

be expected. conditions of

attempt,
life be

the

characters

either

parent-

B. p.

Tjjp Book,' by W. Poultry 1800, p. 58. Tejjetmeier, 28 Gardener's Chronicle,' 1852,

'

765.

=*" in Journal Spooner, Royal Agrlcnlt. Soc.,' vol. xx., part il. ^^ See Colin's Traite de Phys. des Animaux Comp. Domes' '

74

CROSSING

AS

MODIFYING

RACES.

Chap.

XV.

tions but
in

there
most

can cases

be

little
one

doubt

that will

this

occurred have
that

with absorbed

cattle;
and

form for
it the

probably
not

obliterated
men

the
have their

other,
taken

is

likely

semi-civilized
to

would

necessary

pains
and best

modify

by
stock.

selection

commingled,
those animals would
means

crossed,
which
were

fluctuating

Nevertheless,
conditions and
aided in

adapted
natural
have

to

their tion; selec-

of

life this

have

survived will

through
often

by
the
recent

crossing
of
as

indirectly
breeds. the

formation

primeval
as

domesticated
are

Within

times,

far has

animals done
of

concerned, nothing
It is which

crossing
the
known been With

of

distinct
or

species
modification

little
our

or

towards
not

formation
whether

races.

yet have
races.

the

several
in
can

species
will

of

silk-moth

recently plants

crossed which has

France be

yield
by

permanent and kinds

and

multiplied
as

buds

cuttings,
of

hybridisation Khododendrons,

done

wonders,

with

many

Roses,

Pelargoniums,
these but

Calceolarias,
be

Petunias.
most

Nearly
them

all

plants

can

propagated
or none come

by

seed,
true

of

freely;
Some

extren"ely
believe

few

by

seed.
cause

authors
"

that the
gone

crossing
appearance
so

is

the of

chief

of
new

variabilitj%
characters. sole
cause;

that Some
but

is, of
have
this
on

absolutely
look
at

far
is

as

to

it the

as

the facts acters charquently fre-

conclusion Bud-variation.
either

disproved
The
or

by
belief

given

in
not

the

chapter
present
in

that

parent
is

in

their

ancestors

originate
do
so

from is

crossing
but

doubtful;

that

they
be
causes more

casionally oc-

probable;
in
a

this

subject
on

will the

conveniently
Variability.
A

discussed

future

chapter

of

condensed

summary

of
some

this

and

of
on

the

three

following
will be

chapters given
in

together
the

with

remarks

Hybridism,

nineteenth

chapter.

Chap.

XVI.

CROSSING

OF

VARIETIES

CHECKED.

^5

CHAPTER
CAUSES WHICH
"

XVI.
THE FREE

INTERFERE INFLUENCE OF

WITH

CROSSING
ON

OF

TIES VARIE-

DOMESTICATION

FERTILITY.

Difficulties in judging
causes

which

keep
"

sexual
"

preference

of the fertility of varieties when crossed" Various varieties distinct, as the period of breeding and Varieties of wheat said to be sterile when crossed

Varieties of maize, verbascum, hollyhock, gourds, melons, and bacco, toin some rendered degree mutually sterile Domestication nates elimito species when to sterility natural the tendency crossed On animals and the increased from fertilityof uncrossed cation domestiplants and cultivation.
" "

plants,when crossed, are, with extremely few exceptions,quite prolific, in than the purely-bred parent-races. some cases even more so The offspring,also, raised from such crosses likewise, as are in shall see the following chapter, generally more we vigorous and fertile than their parents. On the other hand, species ably when crossed, and their hybrid offspring,are almost invarito exist in some degree sterile;and here there seems and species. and insuperable distinction between races a broad The importance of this subject as bearing on the origin of
races

The

domesticated

of both

animals

and

"

species is obvious

and

we

shall hereafter few

recur

to

it.

precise observations have been and plants during made the fertility of mongrel animals on remarked has several successive generations. Dr. Broca that no one has observed M^hether, for instance, mongrel dogs, fertilit bred inter se, are fertile; yet, if a shade of inindefinitely in the offspringof be detected by careful observation when natural forms crossed, it is thought that their specific breeds of sheep, cattle, distinction is proved. But so many pigs, dogs, and poultry, have been crossed and recrossed in from if it had existed, would that any sterility, various ways, In investigat being injurious almost certainly have been observed. of of crossed varieties many the fertility sources
It is unfortunate how
^

'

Journal

de

Physiolog.,'

tom.

ii.,1859, p. 385.

76
doubt
two
occur.

CAUSES

WHICH

CHECK

Chap.

XVI.

Whenever

the

least trace

of

between sterility

observed by Kolreuter, plants,however closelyallied,was who counted and more the exact ber numespeciallyby Gartner, ranked of seed in each capsule,the two forms were at once

as

distinct
never

species; and
be

if this

rule be followed, assuredly it when crossed

certain
are

will

proved
We

that

varieties

in breeds

any

degree dogs do
been

sterile.
not

produce the full the latter are perfectly fertile and whether number of young, inter se; but, supposing that some degree of sterility were found to exist, naturalists would simply infer that these breeds were from descended aborginally distinct species; and this it would be scarcelypossible to ascertain whether not or the true one. explanation was less prolific The Sebright Bantam is much than any other
made breed
very

formerly seen readily pair together; but no whether, w4ien paired, they
have

that

of

observations

have

of fowls, and

is descended

from
a

cross

between

two

sub-variety. But it would be extremely rash to infer that the loss of fertility was in any connected with its crossed origin, for it may manner with more probabilitybe attributed either to long-continued close interbreeding,or to an innate tendency to sterility related corby
with Before be
ranked the

distinct breeds, recrossed

third

absence

of hackles

and
cases some causes

sickle tail-feathers. of

giving the few recorded

as

forms, which

must

varieties, being
remark that

in

degree sterile when

sometimes

crossed, I
with

may

other

interfere

varieties
in

freely intercrossing. Thus

with
some
'

greatly
says

size, as
editor
can

kinds Journal
with

differ too they may of dogs and fowls : for of Horticulture, "c.,'
the
"*

instance, the
that much he

of the

keep Bantams

larger breeds

out with-

danger of their crossing, but not with the smaller "c. With ference breeds, such as Games, Hamburgs, plants a 'difin the period of flowering serves to keep varieties
distinct,as with
Colonel Le the various
^

kinds
"

of maize
the

and

wheat

thus

Couteur

remarks,
than

Talavera other of the of

are

wheat, from
is
sure

flowering much
continue the cattle those
2

earlier
In

any

kind,

to

pure."
are on

different
up

parts

Falkland different

Islands

breaking
the
p.

into

herds

and

higher ground, which

484.
a

colours; generally white,

Wlieat,'
p.

Dec,

1863,

On

'

The

Varieties

of

66.

Chap.

XVI.

THE

CROSSING

OF

VARIETIES.

77
J.

usually breed,
months earlier

as

am

informed
on

by

Sir

Sulivan, three

lowland; and this would manifestly tend to keep the herds from blending. Certain domestic to prefer breeding with their races seem kind; and this is a fact of some own importance, for it is a that instinctive feeling which helps to keep step towards distinct. We have closelyallied species in a state of nature abundant evidence for this feeling, not that, if it were now more hybrids would be naturally produced than in this many We in the first chapter that the alco dog of have seen case.
Mexico dislikes dogs of other
mixes less

than

those

the

breeds; and
with

the hairless

dog of

European races, than In Germany the female the latter do with each other. Spitzfox is receive said to the more dog readily than will other Australian Dingo in England attracted the dogs; a female
Paraguay
wild male and due
foxes. But
power

readily

the

these
of the

differences various

in the

sexual
may

instinct

attractive

breeds

be
*

wholly
the believes

to their descent

from

distinct
an same

species.
excellent colour

In

Paraguay
size

horses

have the

much

freedom, and
horses of the

observer and

that

native

prefer

associating with each other, and that the horses w^hich have into Banda Oriental Rios and Entre been imported from Paraguay likewise prefer associating together. In Circassia
six sub-races
a

of the horse

have
'^

received

distinct

names;

and of
to

of three that horses asserts progenitor of rank these races, whilst living a free life,almost always refuse native

mingle and
It

cross,

and

will

even a

attack

one

another. stocked with

has

been and

observed, in

Lincolnshire bred
a

light Norfolk

heavy sheep, that both kinds, though

district
"

turned together,when sheep ; the Lincolnshires

"

out,

in

short

time

separate to
and soil,
as as

drawing
breeds
In

off to the rich

as

the !Norf oiks to their is

own

dry light soil ; and

two

long

there
tinct dis-

plenty of
as

"

grass,

the

keep themselves
case

rooks
to

and

pigeons."
races

this

different
one

habits

of

life tend

keejj the
more

distinct.
a

On

of the

Faroe

not islands,

than
are

half

mile

in

diameter, the half-wild

native
*

black

sheep
'

said not
von

to have
botte
'

readily mixed
and De

with

the
in torn.

Rengger,
s.

Siiugethicre

Paraguay,'
"

336.

See

memoir

by

MM.

Lher-

Qnatrefngcs, d'Accliinat.,' viiL, July, ISGl, p. 312.

Bull. Soc.

78

CAUSES

WHICH

CHECK

Chap.

XVI.

fact that the curious sheep. It is a more semi-monstrous have been origin ancon sheep of modern from the observed to keep together, separating themselves rest of the flock,when put into enclosures with other sheep." With live in a semi-domesticated respect to fallow-deer,which that the dark and states condition, Mr. Bennett pale have coloured herds, which long been kept together in the of Dean, in High Forest Meadow Woods, and in the New been known to mingle : the dark-coloured Forest, have never
" '
'

imported

white

deer, it

may

be added,
I. from

are

believed

to have

been

first

brought
ness. harditwo

by James
I

ISTorway, on
the

account

of their of Porto

greater Santo

imported from

island

of

the feral rabbits,which

described in the fourth chapdiffer, as ter, from rabbits; both proved to be males, and, common in the Zoological Gardens, though they lived during some years the superintendent, Mr. Bartlett,in vain endeavoured
to

make

them
to

breed breed

with
was

various due
to

tame

this refusal
or

any

kinds; but whether change in the instinct,

whether
occurs,

simply

to

their extreme them

wildness, or
often

confinement
cannot

had

rendered

sterile,as

be

termined. de-

of the matching for the sake of experiment many of pigeons, it frequently appeared to distinct breeds most that the birds, though faithful to their marriage me vow, their desire kind. after retained own Accordingly I some

Whilst

kept a larger stock of various he thought in England, whether breeds together than any man that they would kind, supposprefer pairing with their own ing females males of and that there were enough each; and
asked
Mr.

Wicking,

who

has

he

without
was

hesitation
case.

answered often
an

that been

he

was

convinced that towards

sprung

that cot doveeral sev-

this

the

It has
to
;

noticed

the the

pigeon
fancy
a common

seems

have
*

actual
all

aversion

breeds

yet

have Rev.
39, of
'

certainly
W.
With
the

from
me

progenitor.
Norfolk
'

The
see

D.

Fox
respect

informs
to the

" For the Marshall's vol. Norfolk,' L, Landt's

sheep,
Economy
130.
the

origin

Rural ii. p.
'

of
Rev.

S^e

Description
For
ancon

of

Faroe,'

p.
sec
'

00.

sheep,
p. 90.
T

Phil.
'

Tran.sact.,' 1813,
Hist, of

s^e dark-colonred deer, Deer Account Some of English Parks,' by E. P. Shirley, Esq. * Rev. The Dovecote.' by the E. S. ir".^; Bechstein, Dixon, p.
'

White's

Nat.

Selp.

'Natnrgesch. iv., 1795, s.

Deutschlands,'
17.

Band

bourne,'

edited

by

Bennett,

Chap. XVI.

THE

CROSSING

OF

VARIETIES.

79

that

his

flocks

of

white

and

common

Chinese

geese

kept

distinct.
of them though some are of the of incapable proof, resting only on opinion experienced that domestic led by different some races observers, show are These

facts

and

statements,

habits others
manner

of life to keep to

certain

extent

separate,

and

that
same

prefer coupling with their own kind, in the as species in a state of nature, though in a much

less

degree.
With
know

respect to sterilityfrom
no

the with

crossing of domestic
animals. This

races,

of

well-ascertained

case

fact, seeing

between breeds of pigeons, some great difi'erence in structure with the sterility fowls, pigs,dogs, "c., is extraovdinarj^ in contrast of many shall crossed; but we species when closely allied natural show that it is to not hereafter so extraordinary as it at attempt the
a species not or they will breed together, guide for predicting whether crossed some closely allied species when being utterly sterile,and unlike others which are extremely being moderately fertile. I have in crossed of sterility said that no rests on case races satisfactory at first seems which evidence; but here is one trustworthy. Mr. better and cannot be quoted, states, that a Youatt," authority between crosses were formerly in Lancashire frequently made long-

And first appears. of external amount

it may be difference

well

here

to two

recall

to

mind is not

that

the safe
"

between

cattle; the first cross was excellent, but the uncertain; in the third or fourth generation the cows produce was bad addition to which, there much were milkers; "in was certainty unwhether the cows and would full one-third of conceive;
horn and the This breed
cows

shorthorn

at

among first seems

some a

of

these
case: same

half-breds but
cross

failed

to

be

in

calf."
a

good
this

Mr.
was

Wilkinson

states,^"that

in actually established another the fact part of England; and if it had failed in fertility, would Moreover, surely have been noticed. supposing tliat Mr. Youatt had proved his case, it might be argued that the sterility was from wholly due to the two parent-breeds being descended distinct species. primordially In the case of plants Gartner states that he fertilised thirteen heads dwarf maize (and subsequently nine others) on a bearing of seed with tall maize yellow a pollen having red seed ; and one head alone produced good seed, but only five in number. Though these plants are not and therefore do monoecious, require castration, in the manipulation, had yet I should have expected some accident
"

derived

from

not
"

Gartner
'

expressly stated
in Sir J.
'

that

he

had
"
"

during

many

years

grown
s.

p. 202. J. Wilkinson, marks addressed to bright,' 1820, p. 38.

^"

Cattle,'

Bastarderzeugunf:,'
the Table

87,
the

Mr.

Re-

Se-

169. end

See also of volume.

at

80

CAUSES

WHICH

CHECK

Chap.

XVI.

together, and they did not spontaneously cross; moncecious and abound and this, considering that the plants are to known cross seems and well generally with freely, are pollen, in these varieties two that belief some are explicable only on the degree mutually infertile. The hybrid plants raised from the above in structure, extremely variable, and intermediate five seeds were
these
two

varieties

perfectlyfertile.^"
succeed
in

In

like

manner

Prof.
flowers of

Hildcbrand

^^

could

not

grains although
with the
once

with

the fertilising from pollen flowers

on own

female
a

certain the
same

kind

other that

a plant bearing brown bearing yellow grains; fertilised were plant, which

tlieir

pollen, yielded good

these varieties
in

seed.
are

Ko

one,

believe,
would with

even

suspects
have

of maize
I

distinct doubt close

species; but
Giirtner that relation

had
at
doubted un-

hybrids
so

been

the

least

sterile, no
may here

classed

them. is not

remark,

necessarily any and that of the hybrid oli'spring.Some of a first cross sterility with be crossed facility,but produce utterly sterile species can be with extreme but the crossed others can difficulty, hybrids; I not am moderately fertile. produced are aware, hybrids when quite like this of the maize, namely, of a however, of any instance but made with first cross difficulty, yielding perfectly fertile hvspecies there
the brids." The

between

following
Gartner,

case

is much

more

remarkable,
it
to

and

evidently perplexed

broad line of was a strong In the genus distinction between Verbascum, species and varieties. of experiments, and he made, during eighteen years, a vast number and counted their seeds. 1085 flowers less than crossed Many no white and consisted in of these rieties vayellow crossing experiments whose
draw

wish

of both
and

Y.

lychnUis
That

and the

F.

Mattaria and

with

nine

other

species
and
from

their
two

hybrids.

white

yellow

flowered

plants of

these the
seed

Giirtner seed
asserts

has doubted; species are really varieties, no one in of both raised the case species one variety actually of

the
crosses

other.

Now

in

two

of

liis works

^'

he the

distinctly
vield
more

that than

between

similarlv-coloured

flowers that

between so yellowdissimilarly-coloured; variety of either species (and conversely with the whiteflowered kind, yields variety), Avhen crossed with pollen of its own when crossed with that of the white seed than more variety; and so crossed. The coloured it is when general diff'erently species are flowered results may he instance be
seen
^"

in

the

Table

at

the

end

of his volume.

In

one

gives
avoid

Gartner,

to

following details; but I must premise that in his crosses, exaggerating the degree of sterility
the
maximum

always compares
1=^
'

the

number 87,
327.

obtained

from
he of
was

cross

with
admits

Bastarderzeugung,'
Bot. Zcitung,' 1808, Shirreff formerly

s.

577.
13
'

p.

but eration; (' Improvement this 1873) that

^''
'

now

the
an

Cereals,'
error.

i*Mr.

(' Gard.
the
tween

Chron.,' 1858, p. from a offspring

certain sterile

thought 771) that

be-

Kenntniss
s.

der

Befrnehthe
s.

cross

tung.' s. 92,
varieties
^^
'

1.37; 'Bastarderzeugung,'

became

varieties of wheat in the fourth gen-

181. On from

raising seed, sec

two

307.
s.

Bastarderzeugung,'

216,

82

CAUSES

WHICH

CHECK

Chap.

XVI.

yielded altogether thirty-sixsimilarly-coloured unions whilst dissimilarly-coloured thirty-five thirty-five good capsules; the foregoing unions yielded only twenty-six good capsules. Besides crossed was by a experiments, the purple T. phccniceum these two of the same white rose-coloured and species; variety a
made,
and varieties follows the
were

also than Mr.

crossed
F.

together, and
by its
that

these
own

several

unions Hence
it

yielded less seed

from

pIvTnicenm

pollen.
genus of the

Scott's

experiments,

in the but

Verbascum

similarly and
This remarkable

varieties dissimilarly-coloured fact of the for the sexual

behave, when varieties, as

rare

crossed, like closely allied

observed

same species species.^* affinityof similarly-coloured

distinct

and Mr. Scott, may not be of very by Gartner not to by others. has been attended subject occurrence; to worth show how difficult it is The giving, partly following case has Herbert remarked that Dr. is to avoid error. variouslyvarieties of the Hollyhock be double coloured (Althea rosea) may seed from close with raised plants growing together. certainty by
"

I have not

been

informed their

that

nurserymen
I

who

raise

seed

for

sale do

procured seed of eighteen separate varieties eleven of named these, varieties; produced sixty-two produced fortyplants all perfectlytrue to their kind; and seven half of half false. of nine true which and Mr, Masters were plants, has he saved seed from given me a more striking case; Canterbury varieties planted in closelyadjoining a great bed of twenty-four named and each itself with variety reproduced truly only rows, in the hollyhock the shade of difTerence in tint. Now sometimes a is matured is abundant, and pollen, which nearly all shed before flower is ready to receive it; the stigma of the same and bees as

plants; accordingly

^"

1*

The

followinc:
'

facts,

given

of
len

each

species
'

Dritte Fortin his by Kolreuter at 34, 39, appear setznnff,' ss. conflrm to first strongly sight

(Kolreuter,

for its Dritte

'

own

pols.

Forts.'

and 39, passim)

Bastarderz., Gartner, wella being perfectly

power.

Gartner's statelimited certain Kolreuter asextent they do so. observainnumerable serts, from that insects incessantly tions, from one species pollen carry and to anvariety of Verbascum and I can this confirm asother; he found that the sertion; yet and white varieties of yellow Vcrbasrum li/c7initis often grew Mr. ments; Scott's and and
to
a

ascertained of the lessened

But

the

force

facts is much foregoing nimierous by Gartner's experiments, for, differently from he never once Kolreuter, got inter(' Bastarderz.,' s. 307) an mediate

yellow
ties of of fact rieties
our

tint when white and Verbascum. the white

the he crossed flowered variethat the So and true to

yellow
their

va-

keeping

col-

wild

mingled
cultivated considerable
years

together:
these in two numbers

moreover,

he
in four

varieties

during
and when

does not that by seed prove not fertilised they were mutually by the pollen carried by insects from
^^
'

his

garden,
but

one

to

the

other,

they
he

liept
crossed

true

by

seed;

Amaryllidacese,'
has made

1837,
a

p.

them, they produced flowers of intermediate tint. an Hence it been have might varieties must that, both thought have elective a stronger affinity for the own vapollen of their for that of the other; riety than this elective add aflinity, I may

Gartner lar observation. -'^ Kolreuter Mem. fact,

'

366.

simi-

first observed this de I'Acad. de St. vol. iii. p. 127. See Petersburg,' also C. K. Das EntSprengel, declite Geheimniss,' s. 345.
'

Chap. XVI.

THE

CROSSING

OF

VARIETIES.

63

pollen incessantlyfly from plant to plant, it would that adjoining v^arieties could not escape being crossed. As, appear that however, this does not occur, it appeared to me the probable that ot stigma over prepotent on its own pollen of each variety was all other this point. Mr. varieties, but I have no evidence on C. for his success in the cultivation of Slough, well known Turner of of the flowers which this plant, informs that it is the doubleness me to the pollen and stigma; and he prevents the bees gaining access
covered finds this that it is difficult
even

with

to

cross

them

for explanation will fully account themselves so seed, I do not know. truly by propagating The worth are following cases giving, as they relate to monoecious do not have forms, which require, and consequently cannot Girou de Buzareingues crossed what been injured by, castration. he and three varieties of that their mutual asserts designates gourd,^^ fertilisation is less easy in proportion to the diff"erence which they I in how the forms this am aware were imperfectly present. group until recently known; but Sageret," who ranked them according to their mutual
as
^*

Whether artiflcially. varieties in close proximity

considers fertility, does

a

the

three
melons

forms have

above

alluded M.

to

as

varieties,

far

higher authority, namely,

certain
to
a

Naudin.'^

Sageret
whatever

has the has he

observed
cause

that

may

be,

din, who that me

than

had
of

such

immense

keep true than experience in this group,

varieties but he intercross
not
more

greater tendency, others; and M. Nauinforms

believes the

that
same

certain

readily
the

truth species; proved of this conclusion; the frequent abortion of the pollen near Paris close he has gether, todifficulty. Nevertheless, being one great grown

others

has

during

seven

years,

certain

forms

of

Citrullus, which,

as

crossed with they could be artificially perfect facilityand produced fertile offspring,are not ranked as varieties; but these forms when other crossed varieties, on the other artificially kept true. Many Naudin hand, in the same with such M. cross as facility, group far apart they cannot repeatedly insists,that without being grown be kept in the least true. Another be here given, as different, may though somewhat case, is it excellent evidence. on highly remarkable, and is established

Kolreuter which
were

minutely describes five varieties of the common crossed, and the offspring were reciprocally
and
as

tobacco,-'*
intermediate far
I

in character inferred that

seems

fertile
are

as

their parents:
and such

from
no

this fact Kolreuter

one,
as as can

they
to

reallyvarieties;
doubted that

discover,
crossed

have

is

the

case.

He

also

reciprocally these five varieties with N. glutiunm, yielded very sterile hybrids; but those raised from the var.
^^

and

they

perennis,

Namely,
Giraumous:
torn.

Barbarines,
'

sons,

Annal.

Nat.'
and
22
'

XXX.,
sur

1833,
les
.55.

PastisSe. des 398 pp.

405. Memoire
pp.
'

siders these ]y varieties 24 ^em. 25 Zweite

" "

undoubtedforms as of Cucurhita pcpo. Cucurb..' p. S.

Cucurbita-

ly,

Nicotiana

cese,' 1826,
Annales Berles, torn.
23

46,

perennis;
sub-var.

Sc. des Nat.,' 4th vi. M. Naudin con-

nilnoris: (2) (4) a (3) trnnsi/lvdnicd : of the last; (5) major

Forts.,' major

s.

name5,'?.

latifol. ft. alb.

8i

DOMESTICATION-

ELIMINATES

STERILITY.

Chap.

XVI.

not sterile as plant, were so other the four varieties.-" hybrids from So that the sexual capacity of this one variety has certainly been in some degree of N. modified, so as to approach in nature that (jlutinosa.^^
as or

whether

used

the

father

mother

the

These
cases

facts with

respect have

to

plants show
their

that

in

some so

few far

certain

varieties
cross

had

sexual

powers

modified, that they

seed than
see are

other that

together less readily and yield less varieties of the same species. We shall presently
functions of most animals and

the sexual

plants

to

eminently liable to be affected by the conditions of life which they are exposed ; and hereafter we shall briefly discuss the conjoint bearing of this fact,and others,on the difference
in

fertilitybetween

crossed

varieties

and

crossed

species.
Domestication eliminates

general with
This

tendency Species when

the

to

Sterilitywhich

is

crossed.

first propounded by Pallas,"^ and has hypothesis was I can been adopted by several authors. find hardly any rect difacts in its support; but unfortunately no has comone
28

Kolreuter

struck

with that

this

in glutinosa might mingled got prrcnnis, and know

much so was that he suspected fact of 2\^ little pollen a his of experiments one
have with

styled
sent
me

seedlings from by Mr. Scott,

were

seed

and,
some more

they
sterile,
common own

all

in

kindly though degree

tile ferthe their wise like-

accirteutally
that of
var.

thus

aided
But
we

its

tilising fernow

they were with pollen primrose Mr. pollen.

described
a

much taken than

from

Scott
red

with has
p.

power.

equal-styled
10(i),
to be this several with

conclusively
s.

from
never

Gartner
the acts

cowslip
which
was

(P.

i^rris, ibid.

(* Bastarderz.,'

34. 43) that

pollen of conjointly
less
own

two
on a

species
third

highly
the
was

found sterile when

not the
case

by

him
but

crossed with

species;
a a

Avill

the

pollen

species, mingled pollen, if the

sufficient in The effect.
two in kinds the

of with
latter sole

still distinct

common

cowslip;
red

plant's
be present have

quantity,
of

equal-styled from by me riety of the

remarkable

any

effect

of

raised seedlings This vaplant. the cowslip presents of cornpeculiarity

his organs in of

mingling to produce
seeds

taking
aftpr
-''

which after
the other Scott
on

yield
the has the

pollen is same capsule some plants,

one

bluing
spect

male

like

those

reevery the short-

and

some

with female styled form, in and function resembling in structure those that

parent.
made
absolute
some

of
we

the have the

partly longthe two er. flow-

Mr.

observations

ility ster-

so styled form; anomaly singular

of

white and of a purple (Primula vulgaris) when

rose primtilised fermon com-

forms

by pollen from (' Journal primrose

of

the

of

Proc. p.
quire re-

combined in the same Hence it is not surprisng that be should these flowers in self-fertile a spontaneously

Linn.
but

Soc'
these

vol.

viii., 1SG4,

high
"^

degree.
'

9S);
number

observations

Act.

raised I a confirmation. of purple-flowered long-

1780, part

Acad. ii. pp.

St. Petersburg,' 84, 100.

Chap.

XVI.

FERTILITY

FROM

DOMESTICATION.

g5

of either animals pared, in the case or plants, the fertility of anciently domesticated crossed varieties, when with a that of the wild parent-species when distinct species with No has compared, for instance, the one similarly crossed. hankiva and of the domesticated of Gallus fertility, fowl, when crossed with a distinct species of Gallus or Phasianus; in all cases be surrounded and the experiment would by many has so closely studied difficulties. Dureau de la Malle, who classical literature, states the
common
""*

that

in

the
more

time

of

the

Romans
at

mule

was

produced with
whether
more

than difficulty
may

the present I know

not.
case

day; but
A

this statement

be trusted ferent dif-

much

important, though

somewhat that

plants, from character and their intermediate known sterilityto be hybrids between ^gilops and wheat, have perpetuated themselves under culture since 1857, with a rapid hut varying In increase the fourth of fertilityin each generation. generation the plants, still retaining their intermediate fertile as become cultivated as common character, had
wheat. The
appears

is given

by M.

Groenland,"^" namely,

indirect
to
me

evidence
to

in favour

of the Pallasian
In the

doctrine

be

extremely strong.
our

earlier

ters chapscended de-

I have

shown

that

various

breeds

of the dog that

the

are

from
case

several

wild
can

species; and
be
no

this

probably is the
Zebu
or

with

sheep.
Indian
the
may
ox

There

doubt

humped

cattle:

pean belongs to a distinct species from Eurodescended from two latter, moreover, are be called either

have We species or races. domesticated good evidence that our pigs belong to at least two Now tended specific widely exa types, S. scrofa and indicus. analogy leads to the belief that if these several allied first reclaimed, had been crossed, they would species, when have exhibited, both in their first unions and in their hybrid offspring, degree of sterility. Nevertheless, the several some domesticated
as
can

forms, which

races

descended

from

them

are

now

all,as

far

be

soning ascertained, perfectly fertile together. If this reabe trustworthy, and it is apparently sound, we must

admit
="
'

the Pallasian
Annales
rtos p

doctrine
Nat.,'
torn.

that

long-continued domestica^o
"

xxi.

(1st series),

So. 61.

p,"ii,

y^ot.

Soc. tom.

do

Frnnoo,'
p.

Dee.

27tb,

ISUl,

viii.

012.

86
tion tends when

INCREASED

FERTILITY

Chap. XVI.

to eliminate

that

crossed

in their

which sterility aboriginal state.

is natural

to species

On

increased Increased
to

Fertilityfrom Domestication
from fertility
may

and

Cultivation.
any

domestication, without

ence refer-

crossing,

be here
two

bears the

indirectly on
of

This subject brieflyconsidered. three with or points connected As Buifon

in

modification

organic beings.
animals breed

long
the

ago

marked,"*^ re-

domestic

oftener

year

and

of the same at a birth than wild animals produce more young breed at an earlier age. The species; they, also, sometimes would further hardly have deserved case notice, had not authors latelyattempted to show that fertility increases some and This decreases strange when
in
an

inverse has

ratio with

the

amount

of food. individual

doctrine

apparently arisen from

supplied with an inordinate quantity of food, kinds when and from plants of many on excessively grown rich soil, as a dunghill, becoming on sterile;but to this latter point I shall have occasion presently to return. With domesticated have hardly an exception, our animals, which been long habituated to a regular and copious supply of food, without the labour of searching for it,are fertile than more the corresponding wild animals. It is notorious quently frehow cats and dogs breed, and how they produce young many The wild rabbit is said generally to breed at a birth. four times six yearly, and to produce each time at most rabbit breeds six or seven times yearly,pro; the tame young ducing
animals each Weir time tells
at
a me

from of
a

four
case

to

eleven

young;

and

Mr.

rison Har-

produced supposed
to
sow

birth,

of eighteen young all of which survived.

more

having been The ferret,

though generally so closelyconfined, is

wild prototj^e. breeds twice
even

The

wild

sow

than its prolific is remarkably prolific; bears but from four the domestic oftener
at
a

she often

in the year,

and

eight and

sometimes

twelve

young;

regularly breeds twice a year, and would permitted ; and a sow that produces less than
31 Quoted Hilaire, rale,' torn.
'

breed

if

eight
the
in

birth
subject

MS.

has

GeofFroy St.Naturelle Geneiii. p. 476. Since this full been sent to press a by
Isid. Hist.

discussion on has appeared

'

present

Herbert Mr. Spencer's Principles of Biology," vol. ii., 1867, p. 437 et seq^

CuAP. XVt.

PROM

DOMESTICATION.

87
is

"

is

worth

and little, individual

the
The
:

sooner

she

fattened

for

the

butcher of
the

the better."
same

amount

of food

affects the

fertility

sheep, which mountains on lamb than one at a birth,when never produce more brought down to lowland This difference pastures frequently bear twins. apparently is not due to the cold of the higher land, for animals said to be extremely are sheep and other domestic in Lapland. Hard living,also,retards the period at prolific
thus which animals
in

conceive; for it has

northern islands
are

been

found
to
32

geous disadvantaallow
cows

the

of Scotland
years

to

bear

calves before
offer number
lien.
course

they

four

old.

Birds

still better which The wild

evidence GaUns be would duck

of increased hankica

from fertility with the

The

mesticati do-

the hen eggs, domestic

one
a

of the wild

thought
from
one

lays from nothing of

eggs; hundred.
tame ten

six to ten the tame

lays

five to

in the

grey-lag goose she lays to eighteen,and high-feeding, care, and

"

of the year from eighty to lays from five to eight eggs;

a

wild

the

from has
a

thirteen

second moderate
some

time;
measure

as

INIr.Dixon induce fertile

remarked,
of

warmth
is

habit than

lificacy prothe wild

which

becomes

in

hereditary."'

Whether

the more pigeon cated not; but the more rock-pigeon, C. livia,I know thoroughly domestitwice breeds fertile dovecots: the are as as latter, nearly however, when caged and highly fed, become equally'fertile with that the wild house pigeons. I hear from Judge Caton turkey in the
United

semi-domesticated

dovecot

States
is rather

does

not

breed

when
do. The

year

old,
some

as

the
of

cated domesti-

turkeys
birds

there

invariably
more

peahen

alone

cated domestiwhen
to
our

fertile,according to

accounts,

wild much
32

in its native

Indian

home,

than

in

Europe

when

exposed

colder
For
cats in

climate.^^
and
'

dogs,
Annal.

"c.,
des

see

S3

For
see

the
Nat

eggs in

of
'

Bellinger!,
Nat.,'
xii.
p.
'

Sc.
tom. Beoh-

2nfl

series,
For

Zoolog.,
ferrets,

kiva, Mag.
vol. and

Blyth,
p.

Gallus Annals
2nd For

han-

of
tame

Hist.,'
4.50.

and series,
wild

155.

i., 1848,

stein, Natnrgeschiclite i.. ISOl, s. lanrls,' Band For ditto, s. 1123, rabbits,
and

Dentseh7S6, 795.

1131;

tur.,'

Nader monntain s. For tility ferthe sheep, ditto, s. 102. Bechof the see wild sow,

Bronn's b. ii.

'

Geschiclite For 99.

' British ' Die and L. geese,

Macgillivray. ducks, vol. 37; v. Birds,' p. wild For 87. s. Enten,' Lloyd,
vol.
' Scandinavian ii. 1854, p. 413; ' Ornamental geese. E. S. Dixon, Rev. p.

Adventures,'
and for tame

steiu's

'

Naturgosch.

Deutsch-

lands,'
domestic Youatt Witli Acerbi's

b.

i., 1801, s. 534; for edit, pig, Sidney's

the
'

on

Pig,
to to

ISW,

p.

the of 62.
see

bv Poultrv,' 139. the On breeding of der Ganze Das Pistor, and zueht,' 1831, s. 40;
'

Pigeons,
TaubenBoitard 158.
cording ac-

and

Corbie to

'

Les

respect
Travels the
on

Lapland,
the
vol.

With
Nat.

respect
Gen. des

Pigeons,' p. to peacocks, Pigeons,' 41), the hen

many
aa

Cape,'
222.
see

Eng.
About

translat.,

North ii. p.
cows,

Temminck

(' Hist.

Highland

Hogg

Sheep, p. 263,

1813, tom. in India

Ii. p.
even as

"c., lays

twenty

4Q

88

FERTILITY

PROM

DOMESTICATION.

Chap.

XVI.

With
more,
or

respect
and each in number
ear

to to soil that

plants, produce
a

no

one

would

expect
in
or

wheat than in
Seeds

to rich

tiller soil
so

more

grain,
ot to

poor

to

get
in

poor

heavy
it in is
a

crop

peas

beans.

vary
on paring com-

much

dillicult nursery
about

estimate

them;
with
much

but

beds
former

of

carrots to

garden
twice
as

wild seed.
as

plants,
Cultivated wild

the

seemed

produce
thrice
as

cabbages
from
the
enormous.

yielded
rocks
of

many Wales.
in

pods
The

by
excess

measure

cabbages by
is

the

South

of with

berries the

produced
wild such

cultivated
No

asparagus doubt many sugar-cane, attribute

comparison highly
"c.,
cultivated
are

plant
as

plants,
or

pears,
and to

pineapples,
I
am

bananas,
to

nearly
to

quite
of

sterile;
food
recur.

inclined

this but

sterility
to

excess

and

other

unnatural

conditions;

this

subject

shall

In

some

cases,
are

as

with

the for

pig,
their
has

rabbit, seed,
the

"c.,

and

with

those of

plants
the their
more

which

valued

direct much have

selection increased
occurred
numerous

fertile and
the

individuals
in

probably
this
may

fertility;
from

all

cases

directly, in-

better
more

chance fertile ferrets

asparagus,
can

of

some

of

the

spring offbeen
served. pre-

from But carrots,

their

the with

individuals and

having
and
are

cats, and selection increased conditions

dogs,
which

with
not
a

plants
valued subordinate
to

like for

cabbages,

prolificacy,
and their

have

played
must

only
be

part;
more

fertility
of life

attributed which

the have

favourable existed.

under

they

long

eggs; and

but another

according
writer
'

to

Jerdon
in

eRgs: tlie
or
*

in

England Book,'
another

she

is
to

said, lay

in
five

(quoted Book,'
there nine
or

Poultry
but

Tegetmeier's 1866, only

pp.

Poultry
she
to

SIX,

writer eggs.

says

280,
four

282),

lays
ten

from

eight

to

twelve

from

/
90
ter to

GOOD

PROM

CROSSma.

Chap. XVII.

the
will

individuals

of the

same

race

or

species;for

if

additional vigour and be far greater

the than

be thus gained, the crossed fertility the ultimate otherwise

spring off-

and multiply and prevail, would

result will

have

occurred.

Lastly,
I

question is of high interest,as bearing on mankind. shall therefore discuss this subject at full length. As
prove

the

facts which
more

the

evil effects of close

interbreedingare

copious,though less decisive,than those on the good of beings, begin effects of crossing,I shall, under each group
with
the

former.
is
no

in definingwhat is meant difficulty by a cross ; " in but this is by no means to regard breeding in and easy in close interbreeding," too shall see, or because, as we different species of animals affected by the are differently same degree of interbreeding. The pairing of a father and if cardaughter, or mother and son, or brothers and sisters, ried is several form during on generations, the closest possible of interbreeding. But some good judges,for instance Sir J. that believe the pairing of a brother and sister is Sebright,

There

"

"

much father with

closer than
is matched

that of parents
with
own

and

children

for when
as

the

his

daughter he
The

crosses,

is

said,

only half his

blood.

consequences

of close

interbreeding carried on for too long a time, are, as is generally ity, believed,loss of size,constitutional vigour, and fertilsometimes accompanied by a tendency to malformation. Manifest evil does not usuallyfollow from pairing the nearest four generations ; but several relations for two, three,or even interfere with our detecting the evil such as the causes
"

deterioration

being

very

gradual,and
tendencies

the

of distinguishing difficulty
the

between

such
morbid

direct evil and On

inevitable
may

mentation augor

of any

which
the

be latent been

apparent

in

the
a

related
even

parents.
when

other

hand, the
any very

benefit from

cross,

there has not

close interbreeding, is almost invariably at once conspicuous. is good reason to believe, and this was the opinion of There that the evil that most experienced observer Sir J. Sebright,^ effects of close interbreeding may by the related individuals
be

checked

or

quite

vented pre-

generationsand exposed
1
'

being separated for a few to different conditions of life. This

the

The

Art

of

Improving

Breed,

"c.,' 1809,

p. 16,

Chap.

XVII.

EVIL

FEOM

INTERBREEDING.

9X

conclusion
Carr
^

is

now

held it is
a

by

many

breeders; for instance

"

Mr.

remarks,
climate

well-known

fact
as an

that great that

soil and the

effects
as

perhaps almost
result
a

change of change in
of

constitution I

would show
in

from work

infusion

fresh

blood."

hope

to

future but

consanguinity
related
ganisms or-

by itself counts

for

nothing,

acts

solely from

constitution,and having generally having a to similar conditions. been exposed in most cases ing That any evil directlyfollows from the closest interbreedhas been denied by many ; but rarely by any persons tical pracbreeder; and
never,
as

similar

far

as

know,

by

one

who

has

which largely bred animals Many physiologistsattribute and

to

propagate
the

their

kind

quickly.
the
bination com-

evil

exclusively to
is It
an

consequent

increase and be that

no

of morbid this

tendencies active

mon comsource

both

parents;
there that
a can men

of
too

mischief notorious with

doubt. various

is

unfortunately
animals

and

domestic

endowed

reditary constitution, and with a strong hefully are disposition to disease, if not actually ill, their kind. Close of interbreeding, on procreating capable the other hand, often induces sterility;and this indicates of morbid something quite distinct from the augmentation wretched tendencies
common

to

both

parents.

The

evidence

diately imme-

that it is a great law of name ture, given convinces that all organic beings profitfrom occasional an cross with in blood; and individuals not closely related to them that, on the other hand, long-continued close interbreeding is injurious.
to be

have had much influence general considerations in leading me the reader will probto this conclusion; but ably on rely more special facts and opinions. The authority of experienced observers, even when they do not advance the grounds all written
men
on

Various

of their belief, is of who the

^

some

little value. of animals

Now

most alhave

have

bred

many

kinds

and

subject, such as Sir J. Sebright, Andrew Knight, "c., have expressed the strongest conviction on the of long-continued close interbreeding. Those impossibility
History Progress of the Herds,' p. 41. ^ For Andrew
"^
'

The

of

thp

T?ise

find

Walker,
p.

'

on

Killerby, Knight,
see

"c.
A.

Sir J. 227. tias just been

IntermnrriaRo,' l,srJ8, Sebrijrht's Treatise

quoted.

92
who have

GOOD

FROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVII.

agriculture,and have associated with much breeders, such as the sagacious Youatt, Low, "c., have their effect. strongly declared opinion to the same authorities, has Prosper Lucas, trusting largely to French compiled works
on

distinguished German agriculturistHermann Nathusius, who has written the von I have met able treatise on this subject which most with, concurs; this treatise,I may and as I shall have from to quote is not only intimately acquainted with that Nathusius state
come

to

similar

conclusion.

The

works

on

agriculture in all languages, and

our

knows

the

grees pedibut

of has
an

British

breeds
our

better

than

most

Englishmen,
and

of imported many experienced breeder. Evidence

improved animals,

is himself

of the evil effects of close

interbreeding can

most

of animals, such fowls, readily be acquired in the case as which from pigeons, "q., quickly, and, being kept propagate in the same conditions. Now place, are exposed to the same I have breeders of these birds, and I inquired of very many

have

hitherto

not

met

with
an

single

man

who

was

not

oughly thorstrain

convinced of the
same

that

occasional

cross

with

another

Most absolutely necessary. sub-variety was breeders of highly improved or fancy birds value their own unwilling, at the risk, in their opinion, strain, and are most of deterioration, to make The cross. purchase of a firsta bird of another strain is expensive, and exchanges are rate troublesome; yet all breeders, as far as I can hear, excepting those who keep large stocks at different places for the sake of crossing,are driven after a time to take this step. Another which ence has had great influgeneral consideration mind on is, that with all hermaphrodite animals my and plants, which been it might have have thought would and been thus subjected for perpetually fertilised themselves long ages to the closest interbreeding, there is not a single the structure discover, in which sures enspecies,as far as I can self-fertilisation. of
cases,
as

On

the contrary,

there

are

in

titude mul-

briefly stated in the fifteenth chapter, manifest adaptations which favour or inevitably lead to an occasional between cross one hermaphrodite and another of the same utterly are species; and these adaptive structures purposeless,as far as we can see, for any other end.

Chap.

XVII.

EVIL

FROM

INTERBREEDING.

93
close breeding inter-

With external is

Cattle may

there be The
for

can

be with of
"

no on no

doubt

long
and
case a

carried

that extremely advantageously with evil

as

characters,
interbred

manifest has

far been

as

respect to constitution
which
were

concerned.

Bakewell's

Longhorns,
often

long period, quoted; yet had acquired a delicacy of constitution and the propagation of common management," But certain," the Shorthorns not offer the the species was always of close interbreeding; for instance, the famous most striking case bull Favourite (who w^as himself the offspring of a half-brotlier and with his own matched sister from Foljambe) was davighter,granddaughter, and great-granddaughter; so that the produce of this last union, or the great-great-granddaughter,had jfths, or 93.75 closely
* the says with inconsistent

Youatt

breed

"

per cent, matched

of with

the

blood bull

of

Favourite

in

her

veins.

This

cow

was

vourite Wellington, having 62.5 per cent, of Fain his veins, and Clarissa blood Clarissa was produced ; the with bull liancaster, having 68.75 of the same matched blood, she and offspring.* Nevertheless yielded valuable Collings,who these animals, and advocate for reared close was a strong breeding, with his stock crossed the cows from a tliis once Galloway, and realised the highest prices. Bates's herd esteemed the cross was
most

the

celebrated the
most

in

the

world.

For the
next

thirteen
seventeen

vears

he years,

bred

most he

closely in-and-in;
had infused fresh blood

but

during
notion

though

exalted

of the

value

of his

own

into his
own

his herd:

it is said

that

stock, he thrice he did this, not to

improve the form of fertility. Mr. Bates's

was,

of their lessened animals, but on account view, as given by a celebrated breeder,'

from
a

that

"

to

breed that
We

in-and-in the the thus

bad be

stock

was

ruin

and

vastation de-

yet
certain
rate

limits with

when

practice parents so
see

may related there he this

safely
are

followed
from

within

descended
been after find

firstbreeding intercareful of
a

animals." of From their

that but

has

much the
no

close
most

Shorthorns;

Nathusius,
can

study
breeder life. close
* 5
'

who

pedigrees, says that has strictly followed his own this study and
necessary
to

instance

practice during his experience, he concludes

the
are

w^hole that that in

interbreedingis
Cattle,'
p.

ennoble
the dams Clarissa and one

stock;
given.
"

but

199.
on
'

Moreover,
two

give

this

of
'

Nathusius,

Rindvieh,'

1857,

the authority Shorthorn Ueber 71 s. (see also

bore

only
and in
cases

bullf?
next became

heifer,
her

the

generation
extinct."

progeny
are

1860, Gardener's Chronicle,' p. Mr. But J. Storer, a 270). large informs of hroeder me cattle, is that of Clarissa the parentage the In not authenticated. well she first vol. of the Herd Book,'
'

Analogous

interbreeding

pamphlet
Macknight
'

On

the
'

of close in a Mr. C. by published Madden, H. and Dr. of True Principles

given

Breeding;
186.5. " Mr. Gardener's and 411;
'

Melbourne,

Australia,
in p.

was

entered

as

having
"

six

scents dein
was

from
was a

Favourite,

which

and mistake," palpable all editions she subsequent of as spoken having only four Mr. about the Storer
doubts
no names

Wood, Willoughby 1855, Chronicle,'

1860. p. tables Nathusius'
270. and
'

See

the

scents. de-

very

clear

even

given
of
s.

four,

as

in 72-77.

pedigrees Rindvieh,'

94

GOOD

FROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVII.

is effecting this the greatest care to infertility and weakness. a'sserts that authority high many
'

necessary, It may
more

on

account

of

the

dency ten-

be

added, that
are

another

calves
less

born interbred

cripples
races

from

Shorthorns

than

from

other

and

closely

of cattle.

(as Nature Although by carefully selecting the best animals be of close law the does battle) interbreeding may by effectually effects between of a cross long carried on with cattle, yet the good shown the is breeds almost at once two greater size and by any writes Mr. to crossing Spooner me, vigour of the offspring; as Such distinct breeds certainly improves cattle for the butcher." of no but they to the breeder; value of course animals crossed are in several have been raised during many parts of England to years is now and their merit so be slaughtered ; fully recognised, that for their recephas formed class been at fat-cattle shows a separate tion. show the at The at best fat ox Islington in 18G2 was great
" **

crossed
The

animal.
half-wild

cattle, which

have
even as same a

been for
case a

probably for 400 or 500 years, or advanced by Culley and others

within the limits
to of the

kept in British parks longer period, have been of long-continued interbreeding

without any The

herd
at

consequent
late Lord

injury.
Tankerville

With estimates

respect
owned

the

cattle
were

Chillingham, the
breeders.^

that

they
letter

bad
me,

agent, INIr.

Hardy,
herd

(in

to

dated

number of about fiftythe average and is about ten, fighting, dying, by is kept up to nearly the same average

May, 1861) that in the annually slaughtered, killed

one

or

to

ffve. the

As

the

herd of

number,
five. The the

annual

rate

increase engage

must

be

likewise

about of

one

in

in be

furious

battles,
me
a

^^'hich battles

bulls, I may present Lord

add,
kerville Tan-

has

always
the

given rigorous
from account

graphic description, so that there will selection of the most I provigorous males. cured
D.

in 1855

Mr.

Gardner,
wild 200

agent
cattle
acres

to

the

Duke The
number

of Duke's

Hamilton,

following
varies

of the is about

kept
in
and

in the the
to

park

in

Lanarkshire,
cattle killed
annual

which from

extent.

number that

of the
Now

sixty-five to

eighty;

annually
so

(I

by all causes) is from presume of increase rate can hardly be more

America,
fair
of

eight

ten;
one

than

in six. therefore
to Azara

in South
a

where of the
total

the of

herds

are

half-wild,
estancia
to adult

and

offer the
to

nearly

standard

comparison,
on an

according
is from

natural one-fourth and

^

increase
the

cattle

one-third
and

this, no
Mr.

number, or one doubt, applies exclusively

'

in between

three

four;
con-

animals
he
for
season

fit for
bred
some

Wrisht,
Ajrrieult.

Journal
vol.

of

Bates,
herd
"

Royal 1S46,

Soc'

J. Mr. Downing p. 204. successfnl of Shorthorns breeder informs that in Ireland) the me families raisers the of of great Shorthorns conceal carefully of want their consterility and stitution. He adds that Mr.

vii., (a

after in-and-in
in
one

had

his
years,

lost

twenty-eight
want

calves

solely
on

from

of 202.

con-

stitntion." * Youatt
^
'

Cattle,
British

p.

Report

Assoc,

Zo-

olog.

Sect.,' 1838.

Chap.

XVII.

EVIL

FROM

INTERBREEDING.

95
which have

sumption.
interbred fertile.
must be

Hence

the the

half-wild
of

British
same

cattle herd
are

long

within

limits

the

Although in an unenclosed the some crossing between

believe
of

country
dilierent
to

relativelyfar less like Paraguay there

even

herds, yet
"

there
in size

the from and

inhabitants distant diminution in the

that

the
^^

occasional The
decrease

introduction in

of animals ancient

localities is necessary

prevent

degeneration
size from

fertility." cattle must have been Chillingham and Hamilton for Professor that Riitimeyer has shown they are almost prodigious, of the gigantic Bos prunitjoiius. No certainly the descendants in size may to less favourbe largely attributed this decrease able doubt of life; yet animals conditions roaming over large parks, and fed during severe winters, can as placed under hardly be considered
times
unfavourable conditions. very With iiheep there has often

been
;

long-continued interbreeding
but
as

within

the have

limits been
not

of the matched

same so

flock

whether in the

the
case

nearest

tions rela-

frequently
Messrs. into that
two

of Shorthorn have the has

of

cattle, I do
never

know. fresh
He Barford

The blood
has

Brown the

during fiftyyears
flock
of
same

infused
1810

their
on

excellent

Leicesters.

Since Foscote

Mr.
him

acted

principlewith

flock.

asserts

convinced
sound
;

that

when

but

in constitution, in-and-in he adds that he " does affinities." without

most In

a century experience are nearly related animals quite breeding does not induce degeneracy not pride himself on breeding from

half

the for

nearest

France of

the

Naz of
a

Hock

has

been

bred ram."

single strange sheep have protested against close interbreeding prolonged for too great a length of time.^" The five celebrated of recent Jonas most breeders, Webb, kept separate families to work tionship thus retaining the requisite distance of relaon, ^^ between the and is of what probably greater sexes; importance, the separate flocks wall have been exposed to somewhat
years

sixty

the

introduction

Nevertheless,

great breeders

"

"

difl'erent conditions.

Although
of has

by

the

aid

of careful

selection any
to

the

near

sheep

be long continued may often been the practice with

animals for

Avithout farmers which

manifest shows have

interbreeding evil, yet it

breeds
to

cross

distinct that in

obtain
some

the

butcher,
from this Mr.

kind
on

is derived this head

plainly practice. We

good

of the

excellent detail

dence eviwhich

from the
A

comparative numbers be supported on can

in fleece and result
in
carcase.

of four
same

S. Druce,^* wdio pure breeds and of

gives
a

cross-breed

money

value

ground, and he gives their produce the high authority, Mr. Pusey, sums up during an equal length of time, namely
Cotswolds
du la

for shillings), (neglecting

^0

248?., for Leicesters

Soc.
^^

223/., for
18G0,
p.
s.

Azara,
For

Qnadrupedes

d' Acclimation,'
'

Para.sruay,'torn.
'^

tlie
see

case
'

ii. pp. 354. 368. of the Messrs.

477.

Natliusius,
on
'

Brown, 1855,
416.

Gard.
For

Chronicle,'
the

65; Youatt
i^ i*

Rindvieli,' Shoof), p. 405.

flock,

26. Gard. For the

p.
'

Chron..'
Naz

Foscote 1860, p. flocli, Bull, de

'

Gard.

'

Journal

1861. p. 631. Chron.,' R. Soc.,' Agrricult.

p.

vol.

xiv., 1853,

212.

96
Southdowns 293?. that
his A

GOOD

FROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVII.

204?.,
half-breeds than

for

Hampshire
celebrated

former

264?., and for the Somerville, breeder, Lord

DoAvns

bred cross-

states

larger Ryelands and Spanish sheep were or Spanish sheep. Ryelands pure pure Mr. Spooner concludes his excellent on Essay Crossing by asserting in judicious cross-breeding, that is a pecuniary advantage there is larger than the female." the male especially when that to me As of British some our parks are ancient, it occurred there have must been long-continued close interbreeding with the but fallow-deer on inquiry I find (Ce?'vu8 datna) kept in them; to infuse blood that it is a common new practice by procuring from who has carefully studied bucks other parks. Mr. Shirley,^** that in some the management of deer, admits parks there has been of blood from of admixture time a no foreign beyond the memory the he concludes that in the end constant But man. breeding
from

animals

eitlier

the

"

in-and-in

is

sure

to

tell to

the

disadvantage

of

the

whole

herd,

take when a though it may long time to prove it; moreover, very of we find, as is very constantly the case, that the introduction fresh blood has been of the to both use deer, greatest by very

improving
service
to in

their deer

size and the

removing
are

and particularlyby appearance, taint of rickback,' if not of other

'

being
not

of

diseases,
been
cross

which

sometimes
I think,

subject
be
no

when
but

the

blood
a

has
and

changed, there with a good

essential,
sooner

can,

doubt

that

judicious
is

stock
or

is of

the
to

greatest
the

later,

prosperity
have close he

consequence, of every
been

indeed

well-ordered

park."
Mr. that
and
no

Meynell's

famous from
and

foxhounds from him

son,

adduced,

as

showing
Sir J. father brothers close carried

ill effects

follow

Sebright ascertained daughter, mother

and
too

that and

interbreeding; frequently bred

even

and
from

sometimes there agree

has

from much be

sisters. far."
But

With Sir J.

greyhounds
the best

also

been it may

but interbreeding,

breeders

that

Sebright, declares,^*that by breeding in-and-ui which he and means sisters,he has actually matching brothers by the and seen offspring of strong spaniels degenerate into weak W. diminutive The Fox has communicated to Rev. D. lapdogs. the case of a small lot of bloodhounds, me long kept in the same had become bad and breeders, family, which nearly all had a very A in the tail. with distinct strain cross a bony enlargement single and of bloodhounds restored their fertility, drove the tendency away I have to malformation in the tail. heard the particulars of
another
1'

case

with

bloodhounds,
'

in

which

the

female

had
P.

to

be

Lord and

Somerville.

Facts
p.

on

Sheep
Mr.

Husbandry,'

Royal
vol.

Spooner, Agricult.
XX.

part
paper
'

cellent

in 'Journal Soc. of England,' ii. See also exan the subon same

6. of

Deer Parks,' by ley, 1867. ^^ Stonehenge,

pp.
^*

Evelyn
'

Shir-

The

Dog,'

1867,

175-188.
'

The

Art

of
13.

Breed,'
to

"c.,
Scotch
'

p.

the Improving With respect

see

Gard. ject in 321, by Mr. p.

"
'

Chronicle,'
Howard.

1860,

Some

Charles Account

Scrope's
pp.

Art

deerhounds, of Deer

Stalking,*

of

English

350-353.

98 daughter,
in
many and

GOOD

FROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVII.

so

on

for the

seven

generations.
failed the when
to of

The

result in

was,

that

instances few
sense,

offspring

breed;
many

others
were

they
idiotic,

produced
without
not

that
even

lived; and to suck, and

Now

latter

straight. of interbreedingwere sent produced by this long course to other boars, and they bore several litters of healthy pigs. The in external best sow produced during the whole seven appearance the in last stage of descent; but the litter one generations was
last
sows

walk

it deserves

could attempting to move especial notice, that the two

consisted bred did many

at

of

this

one

sow.

She
a

would
and
or

not in

breed blood. of the

to So

the affect

first trial the

the

to

stranger

sire, yet that, in Mr.

her

Wright's
not

case,

long-continued
external
form

extremely
merit
and

close

interbreeding
with

and general especially the reproductive functions, were seriously affected. Nathusius more gives an analogous and even striking case : he from of the a sow England pregnant imported large Yorkshire breed, and bred the product closely in-and-in for three generations: of them constitution
-^

but young; mental powers,

the

result with

was

unfavourable,

as

the

he impaired sows, uncle good animal, produced, when paired with her own to be productive with known of other sows (who was breeds), a time a litter of only five weak litter of six, and a second pigs. young He then paired this sow with boar of a small black a breed, which latest which esteemed
a

fertility. One

young of the

were

weak

in

tion, constitu-

he

had

likewise
sows

imported
own

from

England;

this

boar, when

matched

Now,

to nine breed, produced from seven young. was so large breed, which unproductive when paired with her own uncle, yielded to the small black boar, in the first litter twenty-one, and in the second litter eighteen young that in she so one pigs; produced thirty-nine fine young year

with

of his

the

sow

of the

animals

x\s in

the

case

of several
is words

other Coate Club

animals

when

no

injury
the

perceptible from
of Mr. Smithfield

already mentioned, even moderately close interbreeding,

(who
five times for the
won

yet,
"

to

quote

the annual pen of

gold medal
Crosses

pigs), farmer, as you profit get more constitution and quicker growth ; but for me, who sell a great number of pigs for breeding purposes, I find it will not it do, as quires reto get anything like purity of blood many years again.""
answer

of the

Show

best

Avell for

to

the

gregarious, their own must frequently pair daughters, for they expel the young males as well as all intruders,until
as are

Almost

all the

animals

yet mentioned
with

and

the males

23 Ueber s. Rindvieh,' "c., Le who has 78. Col. Couteur, much done for the so agriculture that from of Jersey, writes to me fine breed of a possessing pigs he bred them closely, twice very
'

and pairing brothers sisters, but fits and had nearly all the young died suddenly. -* the on Sidney Pig, p. 36. See also
son
on

note, the

p.

34.

Also

Richardp. 26.

Pig,

1847,

Chap. XVn.

EVIL

FROM

mTEREREEDIKG.

09
to

forced stronger

by old
male.
may

age

and

loss

of

strength

It is therefore

not

yield to some improbable that ous gregariless susceptible than

animals non-social

have

been

rendered

of close interbreeding, speciesto the evil consequences live in enabled to that be herds without jury inso they may their offspring. Unfortunately we do not to know
an

whether

animal

like the cat, which

in
a

is not greater

gregarious, would

suffer from other

can

close interbreeding animals.

degree than
as

our as

domesticated

But

the
we

pig

is not,
seen

far

discover, strictly gregarious, and

have

that it

pears ap-

eminently liable
Mr.

to

the
case

evil effects of close interbreeding.

Huth,

in

the

of the been
"

pig, attributes
cultivated
most
a

(p. 285)
for

these

effects to their
to

having
remember

their

fat," or
have

the selected
we

individuals

having had
it is great and the who
cases,

weak

tution; constiwho
more are

but

must

that

breeders
are

brought
than

forward

the above
men can

far which

familiar

ordinary
with

be, with

causes

likelyto interfere
The difficult discussed Mr. the

the

of their fertility
in the but
many

animals.
case

effects of close interbreeding

of

man

is
been

subject,on
by various
''*

which

I will say under authors

little. It has

iDointsof view.''^
races

Tylor
most
"

has

shown

that of

with
the

widely different
world, marriages
"

in

distant
even

quarters

between

relations

between There
are,

distant

relations
many

have

been

strictly
to

prohibited.
rule, which

are

however, fully given by Mr.

exceptions
It is. a

the

Huth."^

curious

problem

how times.

these
Mr.

barous during early and barprohibitions arose them to Tylor is inclined to attribute

the evil effects of consanguineous

;
25

marriages
to

having

been

served ob-

and
Dally

he

ingeniously attempts
published
(translated
an

explain some
in
answer

apparent
to

Dr.
'

has

assured,
made in
2"

inquiries
tliat f:ihle.

excellent

article

in

the

United
is
a

States,
mere

the

May, Review,' Anthropolog. 1864, p. 65), criticising all writers

have who follows that maintained evil from consanfruineons No this side donbt on
,

this the
-'
'

statement iSV'r his

Early
X.
'

work on interesting of Man.' 1S65, History of

chap.
1875.

marriages. of the question many have their injured

thus stated
'

The The

Mnrringe
evidence I valuable
some

Near

advocates
cause

given
liave than other

by
it to

Kin.' Mr.
been is
on

by
has

accuracies: inHuth been

even

would,
more

(hiuk.

it

Du des (Devay, Danger Mariages,' "c., 1S62, p. 141) that the of cousins have marriages been the prohibited ture legislaby

this
he works

and had

points,
had

if
the
sided re-

referred of
in
men

solely
who

long

of

Ohio;

but

have

been

to,

and

each who

country
showed

referred that they

100
anomalies relations that other
may
on

GOOD

FROM

CHOSSma.

Chap.

XVII.

in

the

prohibition
and
as

not

extending equally
side. He of

to

the

the male
causes,

female
the Mr.

such
into

extension W.

have

come

play.

Adam,
are

admits, however, friendly alliances, the other hand, on

viewed arise
dite recon-

concludes with
in

that

related
from

marriages
and

prohibited and
which other these would still
more

repugnance,

the confusion from

thus

the

descent

of property, But
I
cannot

reasons.

accept

views, seeing that

as

incest

is held

in abhorrence

by

savages

such
no

those
to not

of Australia

and
or

South

who America,"**
to

have

property who
are

bequeath,

fine moral
on

feelings

confuse, and
their
progeny.

reflect

distant

evils to

likely to According to Mr.

Huth
as

the feeling is the this

indirect

practice ceased strictly confined to the dogamous, so that marriages were mer tribe, and it is not unlikely that a vestige of the forsame still be retained, so that closely-related practice would self itmarriages would be prohibited. With respect to exogamy from Mr. MacLennan believes that it arose a scarcity of owing to female infanticide, aided perhaps by other women,
when
causes.

result of exogamy, inasmuch in any tribe and it became en-

It has instinctive

been

clearly shown
man

feeling in
animals.

by Mr. Huth against incest

also how
as

that
any
more

there

is

no

than
any

in

gregarious
or

We
rise to

know

readily
shown

dice prejuin
seems

feeling may
to
no

abhorrence,
defilement.

by Hindus
there

regard
to

objects causing
strong inherited
men

Although
times

be
seems

it

possible that
more

feeling in mankind during primeval

females the
same are

against incest,
may

have with

been whom
to

excited

by

strange
; in

than
manner

by those
as

they habitually lived

Mr.

according
towards

male Cupples,"^

deerhounds the females

inclined

prefer dogs with whom If any such feeling formerly existed they have associated. have led to a preference for marriages in man, this would kin, and might have been strengthened beyond the nearest
strange
possessed
See
'

females, while

Jiidgnient
Mr.

and
' '

also

W.

Adam,

caution. On Conthe p.

in in Marriage sanguinity 1865, Review,' Fortnightly iHof acker, Also Ueber 710. "c., 1828. Eigenschaften,'
'

die

of Journal Grey's into vol. Expeditions Australia,' ii. p. 243; and On Dobrizhoffer, the of South America.' Abipones =9 Descent of edit. 2nd Man,'
' ' '

**

Sir.

G.

p.

524.

Chap.XVII.

evil

from

INTERBREEDING.

lOJ
in greater
bers, num-

by the offspringof such

as

marriages surviving
us

analogy

would

lead

to believe

would

have

occurred.

consanguineous marriages, such as are permitted in civilised nations, and which would be considered not as
close
cause census

Whether

interbreeding in the injury will never any

is taken

case

of

our

domesticated with

be

known

with what

this

object in view.

animals, certainty until a My son, George

possible at present by a statistical and he has come to the conclusion, from his investigation,^" researches and those of Dr. Mitchell, that the evidence own is conflicting, evil thus caused but on the whole to any as points to the evil being very small.
Darwin,
has
done

is

Birds. could when be thus

"

In

the

case

of
he

the
made

Fowl

whole

array

of
Sir

authorities J.

given against
that

too

close

interbreeding.
many the

Sebright
his

positivelyasserts
breeders.^^

trials, and

that
in

fowls,

long body, and the famous Bantams bad produced Sebright by and by breeding in-and-in; and since his time complicated crosses, much close interbreeding with there has been these animals; and bad I breeders. have seen Silver Bantams, they are now notoriously from his stock, which had become almost as directly descended chicken not barren for had been that as a hybrids; single year
treated,
He the hatched these male
even

became

in

legs,small

from
Bantams in

two

full nests relation

the closest he

sterilityof the
with have from

of eggs. Mr. Hewitt says male stands, with

their

that
rare

with tions, excep-

the

loss
as

of
a

certain
in

secondary
the tail of

characters: the
male

adds,

"I

noticed,
feminine

general rule, that

slightest deviation
" "

character

Sebright say the elongation by only half an inch of the it improved principal tail feathers brings with probability of increased fertility." Mr. Wright states that Mr. Clark, whose fighting cocks were
two
^^ ^^
"

the

so

notorious,

continued

to

breed

from
to

his be in

own

kind up
as

till thev be under

lost those
cross

their any

disposition to
resistance, and

fight,but
were so

stood reduced

cut

without

making

size

to

weights required for the best prizes; but on obtaining a from Mr. Leighton, they again resumed their former courage weight." It should be borne in mind that game-cocks before
30
'

and

they

Journal

of
p.

Statistical
'

Soc'

June,
'

1875,

nightly Review,'

Fort1.53; and 187.5. June,

3^ The Art of the Improving Breed,' p. 13. 32 rp}^^ Poultry Book,' by W. B. Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 24.5.' 3' Journal Agricult. Royal Soc.,' 1846, vol. vii. p. 205; see also Ferguson the on Fowl, pp.
' '

also 'The 317: see Poultry 18GC, Book,' Tegetraeier, p. by extent to to the 135, with respect found that which cock-tighters

83,

they
and-in,
with
were

could
her

venture

to
"

breed
a

inhen

viz.,
own

occasionally
son;

but

they
the

not cautious in-and-in breeding."

to

repeat

102
fought
not
seem

c^ooD

FPtOM

cuossma.

Chap. xvn.

were

always weighed,
to

so
or

about

any have

reduction bred from

left to the imaginothing was nation Mr. Clark of weight. increase does that
and

brothers
he in

sisters,which
after in
a

is the

most

injurious kind
tliere
was
a

of union; and greater reduction with his

found,
than

repeated trials, that

the

weight
from

young

from with

daughter, thologist, orniEyton, of Eyton, the well-known of Grey Dorkings, informs who is a large breeder that me in and become less diminish unless size, a they certainly prolific, is another strain obtained. So it is with with cross occasionally Malaj^s, according to INIr. Hewitt, as far as size is concerned.^* remarks An that the same as amateur, experienced writer maintains his the is well known, seldom birds; long superiority of is due and to all his stock this, he adds, undoubtedly being hence of the same it is indispensable that he should blood; sionally occason.

father

paired

mother

her

I may

add

that

Mr.

^^

"

"

with

procure those who Ballance,

more

bird
a

of another stock bred

strain.
at for any

But

this is not

keep
who

of fowls Malays than

different

necessary stations. Thus,

years,

Mr.
won

has

thirty
other

and in

has

prizes with

these

birds

fancier

England,
tion deteriora-

says
;

that
"

has
two

been

does not breeding in-and-in necessarily cause but all depends this is managed. how upon to keep about five or six distinct runs, and to
or

My
rear

plan
about

hundred
birds to

three each that

from

hundred
run

chickens

each
I

year,

and
secure

select

the

best We

from

for

crossing.
^^

thus

sufficient

crossing

prevent
see

deterioration." there
when is

thus

almost
are

poultry-breeders that,

fowls

with complete unanimity the at same kept place, evil

on

quickly
would it is
a

follows

interbreeding carried
in

to

an

extent

which

disregarded chickens the are generally received opinion that cross-bred INIr. Tegetmeier, who has careand hardiest most fully easily reared.^' to poultry of all breeds, says"* that attended Dorking hens, Houdan with Crevecceur allowed to or run cocks, produce in that for size, hardihood, early maturity, the early spring chickens
case
"

be

the

of

most

quadrupeds.

Moreover,

and
we

fitness have
ever

for

the

market,

raised."

surpass JNIr. Hewitt

breed

those

of it
as

any
a

pure
He

breed

that with this

gives
from

general
and

rule fowl
"

fowls, remark

that

crossing the
that

increases

their the

size.

makes

are .pheasant hybrids stating either from progenitor: so again, hybrids considerably larger than female of the male common are pheasant golden pheasant and either To this of the far larger size than parent-bird." subject increased size of hybrids I shall presently return. With unanimous, are Piffcotifi,breeders as previously stated, it is absolutely indispensable, notwithstanding the trouble that

after

^^

34

rpjjp Tjj^ vol. Tjje

ponltrv

Book,'
18fi6, p.

B.

Tesetmeier,
35
'

bv 79.

W.

"

'

i. p.
^s
"

Poultry
i. p.

Chronicle,'
Book,'
p.

The 89. tj^^

Poultry

Chronicle,' Book,'

vol.
p.

Poultry

1866,
'

1854,
3"
.

4.3.

210.

Poultry

by

W.

^^

B.

Tegetmeier,

1866,

79.

try

Poul1866, p. 167; nnd Chronicle,' vol. iii., 1855, p. 15,

Ibid.

Chap. XVri.

EVIL

FROM

INTERBREEDING.

io3

their thus caused, occasionally to cross much-prized expense but of another individuals birds with strain, belonging,of course, notice size is one to the that, when same of variety. It deserves

and

the such

desired

characters,
are

as

with
sooner

interbreeding
as

much

pouters,^"the perceived than

are as

evil efl'ects of when

small extreme and

dose

birds,

tumblers, of the high fancy breeds, such English carriers, is remarkable;

and have

short-faced

valued.
these
are

The tumblers

delicacy improved
diseases,
their
eggs

often

die

in

the

egg

or

they during the

under generally to be hatched Although have these highly-prized birds invariably been subjected to much close interbreeding,yet their extreme not candelicacy of constitution Yarrell Mr. be informed thus me fully explained. perhaps Sir owlJ. Sebright continued that closely interbreeding some he as nearly as possible sterility pigeons, until from their extreme to Mr. Brent tried raise a breed of trumlost the whole peters, family. pigeon, and recrossing the daughter, by crossing a common ter, granddaughter, great-granddaughter, and great-great-granddaugh"

liable to many first moult; and foster-mothers.

with of

experiment failed, for If close breeding so stopped reproduction." The experienced Neudovecotes also asserts that the offspring from and various meister^fertile and birds: other breeds are so hardy generally very again, MM. Boitard and after Corbie,*^ mend forty-five years' experience, recomfor amusement; their breeds to cross for, if they fail persons under will succeed to make economical birds, an interesting they of is found it that mongrels are as fertile than view, more point pigeons of pure race." I will refer only to one other animal, namely, the Hive-bee, because a this as a case of distinguished entomologist has advanced inevitable close interbreeding. As the hive is tenanted a single by female, it might have been thought that her male and female ofi'spring would always have bred together, more especiallyas bees of hostile to each other; a strange worker different hives are most being alattacked when another to enter hive. But Mr. always trying that tliis instinct does not apply to drones, Tegetmeier has shown which are permitted to enter any hive; so that there is no a priori of a queen The fact of the improbability receiving a foreign drone. union invariably and necessarilytaking place on the Aving,during the queen's nuptial flight, to be a special provision against seems continued this be, experience has interbreeding. However may of the yellow-banded Ligurian race shown, since the introduction into Germany and that bees Mr. Woodbury, England, freely cross: who introduced during a Ligurian bees into Devonshire, found of from that to two three single season one stocks, at distances
"

trumpeter, until then the trumpeter's blood; but

the
same

male

he

obtained

bird

with

''

"

"

**

Treatise on PigFancy eons,' by J. M. Eaton, p. 56. "'The 46. Pigeon Book,' p. ' " Das Ganze der Tauben-

40

"

"

'

Les Proc.

Pigeons/ Entomolog.
p. 126.

1824,

page

35.
**
'

Soc.,'Aug.

6th, 1860,

"uoht,' 1837, 41

s.

18.

104

GOOD

PROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVII.

miles
several black
one

from

his drones

hives,
must

were

crossed
flown

by
over

his

drones.

In

one

case

the
over

Ligurian

have hives.

the

city

of

Exeter,
several distance

and
common

intermediate

On

another

occasion

to

queens three

were

crossed
a

by Ligurian

drones

at

of from

and

half

miles.**

Plants.
When
a

single plant

of

new

species

is introduced

into

any

individuals will soon be country, if propagated by seed, many that if the insects be there will be raised, so crossing. present proper With
seed
an

newly-introduced
we are

not

here

almost

universal
means

seed, by which
conditions diminishes
introduced

propagated by plants it is to make practice occasionally exchanges of individuals which have been exposed to different
trees
or

other With

plants

not

concerned.

old-established

of

life, and
"

this,

as

we

have
"

seen

with

animals,

the
into

evil each
to

from

close

interbreeding,

will

occasionallybe
sub-variety,
of all other

district.
individuals and

With

respect

accuracy observers, states ^^ that he has many this step, especially with exotic from
is somewhat also

Ciirtner, whose

belonging to the experience exceeded

times genera, think

same

that

observed

good
the

effects

of which
I

fertility
bert Her-

impaired, says,*^ I am
"

such

as

Passiflora, Lobelia, Fuchsia.

to

inclined the

that from

have
I

derived wished the of

vantage adto
same

from obtain seed

or

impregnating
with

flower another

which than

pollen

from

individual

variety, that crossed Again, Professor Lecoq ascertained vigorous and robust than their parents.^
at

least from

another

flower, rather

with

its own."
more

offspring are
can

General
trusted:

statements I therefore

of this

kind, however,

seldom

be

fully

experiments, will I think for about ten years, which conclusively show the good distinct effects of crossing two plants of the same variety, and the evil effects of long-continued self-fertilisation. A clear light will thus such be thrown on questions, as why flowers are almost to permit, or so as favour, or necessitate invariably constructed shall the union of two individuals. We why clearly understand monrecious and dioecious, why dichogamous, dimorphic and triI intend other such cases. to soon morphic plants exist, and many of these here give only publish an account experiments, and I can in illustration. few I followed The to grow cases a was plan which in in of the the same same size,or close together pot, or pots plants in the open tilise insects; and then to ferground; carefully to exclude flowers with of the from and the some same flower, pollen the same others on plant with pollen from a distinct but adjoining of these experiments, the crossed plant. In many plants yielded
a
"

began

long

series

of

continued

*^

Journal
pp.
'

of

Horticulture,'
p.

1861,

39, 77, ir)8; 1804, " Kenntniss Beitriige zur Befruehtung,' 1844, s. 366.

206.
der

371. AmarvllidaceEB,' p. ^e la 2nd Fecondation,' edit., 1862, p. 79.

"
"

"

'

106

GOOD

FROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVII.

plants
half

were

only
not

did inches the

quarter of last, for, when

a

an

inch
the

high.
three

But

this
were

equality degree of infour and

a

crossed
were

plants

tained they regrowth was complete. far more The crossed vigorous than the uncrossed, plants looked flowered before and them; they produced also a far greater number the of capsules. As in the former experiment was case, repeated Had I not these watched several succeeding generations. during I their whole and could growth, Ipomoia during plants of Mimulus that a difference it possible, have believed not apparently so slight from the same that of the pollen being taken flower, or from a as in the same so distinct plant growing derful wonpot, could have made difl'erence in the growth and vigour of the plants thus proa duced.

high,

the

self-fertilised
dill'erence

inches, and

same

relative

till their

This, under

point of view, physiological

is

most

able remark-

phenomenon.
from respect to the benefit derived crossing distinct has been varieties, plenty of evidence peatedly republished. Sageret in terms of the of melons raised speaks strong vigour by adds that more ciossing difl'erent varieties, and easily they are fertilised than common melons, and produce numerous good seed. follows the evidence of an "1 Hei'e have English gardener :
*^ ^"

With

this
in
an

summer

met

with

better

success

in my

cultivation

of melons,

unprotected state, from the seeds of hj^brids (i. e. mongrels) obtained The ofi'impregnation, than with old varieties. by cross of spring of three different hybridisations (one more especially, which the two the most dissimilar I varieties were could parents select) each ample and finer produce than any one yielded more of between varieties." twenty and thirty established his Andrew believed that Knight rieties seedlings from crossed vaof the increased apple exhibited vigour and luxuriance; alludes and to M. Chevreul the extreme of the vigour of some fruit-trees raised by Sageret. crossed By crossing reciprocally the tallest and shortest peas, Knight "I in this had of the experiment a striking instance says: stimulative effects of crossing the breeds; for the smallest riety, vatwo whose increased to six height rarely exceeded feet, was the height of the large and luxuriant kind feet; whilst was very Mr. diminished." Laxton little me seed-peas produced from gave
^^ ^"

crosses were

between

four

distinct

kinds;

and
in

the each

plants

thus close

raised
one

two

case extraordinarily vigorous, being the parent-forms growing three feet taller than or

from

to

side alongof
3rd

them.

Wiegmann
*^
'

^*

made
les

many
Cucurbita-

crosses

between
^'

several

varieties

Memoire
pp.

siir

Annal.

des torn.

cees.'
so

36,
p.

London's
'

viii., 1832,
"1

Transact.

80. Gard. 52. Hort.

28,
'

series,

Bot.,
p.

Sc. Nat.,' vi. p. 1S9.

Mag.,' Soc.,'

vol.
v.

^^^

"

pjjjjQgQpijipal Transactions,'
'

1799,
i.
^*

200. Ueber

die
s.

Bastarderzeu-

p.

25.

gung,'

1828,

32, 33.

For

Mr.

Chap.

XVII.

EVIL

FROM

INTERBREEDING.

107

he of astonishment the cabbage; and speaks with vigour and the of the which excited of all the amazement height mongrels^ beheld Mr. them. Chaiindy raised a great number gardeners who of mongrels by planting together six distinct varieties of cabbage. These mongrels displayed an infinite diversityof character ; But
"

the

most

remarkable
and

circumstance in
were

was,

that, M'hile
were

all

the

other

cabbages
when Mr. and
"

borecoles

the

nursery to be

winter, these
there Maund
was

hybrids
no

little

injured, and
had." the

destroyed by a severe supplied the kitchen

other

cabbage
before

exhibited
states

Royal Agricultural Society"

their

specimens of crossed
the editor with united that

wheat,
that

together with

parent
in

varieties;

they

were

intermediate

character,

greater vigour

of

growth, which

world, is the result vegetable as in the animal varieties of wheat,^''and also several crossed Knight
the in the in the

in it appears, of a first cross."

he

"

says of

that
corn

blighted, the varieties thus in this neighbourhood, though only, escaped

was

years island

1795

and

1796, when

almost

the

whole
in

crop

obtained, and
sown

these ferent dif-

several

soils and Here

is
a

situations."
case:

syJresand pediinculata, Alnus "ihitinigricans, Quercns and the and crosscampcstris cffiisa; and incana, TJlmus nosa well seeds of the fertilised seeds, as as parent-trees, were pure
tris and
rohnr

remarkable

M.

Clotzsch

"

crossed

Pinus

all
was,

sown

at

the
an

same

time

and

in

the

same

place. The

result
one-

that

after than

interval the pure

of

eight years,

the

hybrids

were

third

taller

trees!

The the
trees
as

facts

above

given refer

to

undoubted

varieties, excepting

ranked nists crossed are by various botaby Clotzsch, which true or species. That strongly-marked races, sub-species, in lose distinct species,though they hybrids raised from entirely constitutional often vigour, is certain. gain in size and fertility, be superfluous to quote any It would facts; for all experimenters, have Naudin, Kolreuter, Gartner, Herbert, Sageret, Lecoq, and the wonderful with been struck vigour, height, size, tenacity of ner hardiness of their and life,precocitj^ hybrid productions. Gart^*

sums
^"

up

his his

conviction
numerous

on

this

head

in

the with

strongest
of the

terms.

Kolreuter and of
"

gives

precise
in his

measurements

Aveight
of their of

both

hybrids height of parent-forms; and

portentosa," Some conspicua"
ease,
see

comparison astonishment speaks with

''

measurements altitudo
case

stritura

their

anihifus
to
^s

rnstissimus the rule in

nc

ralde

exceptions
London's

the

Chaundy's
Gard. 696.
"
' '

Partner.

'Bnstarderzou.irung,'
526,
et srq.

Mag.'
Gardener's

vol.

vii.

1831,

p.

s.
'

250,
5"
'

518,

Forfsetzunsr.'

1763,
s.

s.

20;
06:

Chron.,'

1846, p. 1799,
See.

Dritte
Act.

Fortsetzung,'
Acad. St.

44.

601.
""'

'

Petersburg,*
251:

Philosoph. Quoted
vol. in
'

Transact.,'
Bull. p.

p.

201.
""'

1782, Acta,

part 1793.

ii.,
pp.

p.

301.

304;

'Nova Nova
'

France,'

ii.,1855,

Bot. 327.

Acta,'

1795, pp.

316, 323.

108

GOOD

FROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVIL

hybrids have, however, been noticed the most striking exceptions are that found were Wichura,*" who hybrid willows
very

sterile

Herbert;
in

but

by Gartner given by

and Max tender

generally
size
of

constitution, dwarf,
Kolreuter

and

short-lived.
vast

explains

the

increase result

in
of
as a

the
sort

of

the

roots,
mals aniat

stems,
due

"c., of his hybrids, as in the to their sterility,

are

the
same

compensation
seems

the larger than sight extremely probable,

"

way perfect males.

and

many
This

emasculated view various is

first
thors; au-

has well

been remarked

accepted by
that

but

Gartner"

has

there

much

in fully admitting it; for with difficulty hybrids there is no many the degree of their sterility and their increased parallelism between size and of luxuriant striking instances vigour. The most growth have observed with been not sterile in any were hybrids which extreme Mirabilis, certain usually undegree. In the genus hybrids are their extraordinary luxuriance of growth, together fertile,and with progeny. of their The
enormous

have roots,*^^ all

cases

been

transmitted
in

to

their the

result

in and

saving

nutriment

acting imperfectly or not of good law being

probably part vital force through the sexual at all, but more especially to
from animals
a cross.

is

due

to

derived

For

organs the general it deserves

are

especial attention far from so being

have,
constitutional that under the
as

that

mongrel

and

sterile that

their

is fertility It

plants, which often actually

is not should and
a

previously shown, their vigour generally increased.

an

size, hardiness,
size thus

augmented, and
markable re-

little

accession

of

vigour
of

and

arise

opposite contingencies perfectlywell

pure readily than this fact either ascertained

increased
^*

diminished

fertility.
It is
a

fact
not

that

hybrids invariably
with
a

breed

with
more even

parent,
with

and

rarely

distinct is inclined

cies, speto

one

another.

Herbert

from but a advantage derived explain cross; for it the of the accounts Gartner more by pollen hybrid, justly and degree vitiated, whereas probably its ovules, being in some ovules of both the pollen and parents and of any third species pure

by

the

are

sound.

Nevertheless, there facts, which, as we

are

some

well-ascertained
see,
or

and that

markable rea

shall
to

presently
increase crossed the

show

cross

by itself undoubtedly fertilityof hybrids.

The
same

tends the than has

re-establish of

the
'

law, namely, that

offspring both
holds
as as

rieties va-

and

species are
striking
Mr.

larger

parent-forms,
animals

good
with

1
,

in the

most

manner

with

hybrid
had
*2

well

mongrels.
"0
'

Bartlett, who

such
"

large experience says,

s.

Die
s.

Bastardbefruchtung,'
31. 41, Wichura
(' does 42.

Bastarderzeugung,'
'

394,

"c.,
"'

18G.5,
Max

526.
"^

528.

this
s.

view

fully accepts Bastardbefruchtung,'

the
'

Kolreuter,
p.

Nova

Acta,'
;

1795,
"*

316.
'

43),

as

Rev.

M.

Berkeley, Soc.,' Jan.

in

Journal 1866, p. 70.

of

J. Hort.

Gartner,

Bastarderzeugung,'

s.

430.

Chap.

XVII.

EVIL

FROM

INTERBREEDING.

109

"

Among

all

hybrids
He

of then

vertebrated
enumerates

animals

there

is with

marked

increase

of size."

including monkeys,
On certain

and

with

various

cases many families of

mammals,

birds."*

or

Hermaphrodite Plants which, either normally tinct abnormally, require to he fertilised hy pollen from a disindividual or species.
The

facts

now

to not

is self-sterility

given differ from the foregoing, as here the result of long-continued close
be

with interbreeding. These facts are, however, connected our with a distinct individual is present subject, because a cross shown advantageous. to be either necessary or Dimorphic

trimorphic plants,though they are hermaphrodites, must crossed, one set of forms by the other, in order be reciprocally and in some to be fertile in any gree. decases to be fully fertile, But I should not have noticed these plants,had it not given by Dr. Hildebrand been for the following cases ;
and
^^
"

Pritmda of the other

on

sinensis

is

dimorphic species: Dr. reciprocally

flowers

brand Hilde-

fertilised

twenty-eight
and

of both
full

form,
an

obtained 42.7 seed

the

forms, each by pollen of capsules connumber taining

average

both

fertility. He form, but taken from a distinct pollen of the same an and all only plant, produced capsules containing on average to our immediate ll).6 seed. more point, Lastly, and here we come of both forms with he fertilised forty-eight flowers pollen of the
and
forms

normal with

have plete comper capsule; here we then fertilised forty-two flowers of

same

form

and

taken

from

the

same

flower, and

now

he

obtained

two only thirty-

18.6 on an capsules, and these contained average in than the former So case. that, capsule per with these illegitimate unions, the act of impregnation is less ovules the pollen and assured, and the fertility slightlyless,when when to two distinct than to the same flower, belonging belong has Dr. of the same Hildebrand individuals form. recently made of Oxalis rosea, analogous experiments on the long-styled form

seed,

or

one

less

with

the

same

result."^

It has

recently been
in

discovered country

that certain under

plants,whilst
conditions,

growing
cannot
are

their

native

natural

be fertilised with
so

sometimes
"'

plant. They pollen from the same that, though they can utterly self-impotent,
"
'

'

Proc.
"

Dr. in bv Quoted Murie, Zoolog. 'Soc.,' 1870, p. 40. Jan. Botanische Zeitung,'
'

Monatsberioht

Akiulemie

Wissenschaft,'
372.

Berliu,

1SG6,

s.

1864,

s.

3.

110

GOOD

FROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVIL

readily be fertilised by the pollen of

even

distinct

distinct
a

genus,

yet, wonderful

as

is the

species fact, they never

act

or

produce
moreover,

pollen. In some single seed by their own the plant's own pollen and stigma mutually
in
a

cases,
on

each

other

deleterious

manner.

Most will
commence

of the facts to be with

a

given relate

to
a

orchids, but

plant

belonging

to

widely

different

family.

were

of

Sixty-three flowers of Corydalis cava, borne on distinct plants, with fertilised by Dr. Hildebrand other pollen from plants the same ing obtained, includspecies; and fifty-eight capsules were
"^^

on

an

average

4.5

seed

in

each.

He

then

fertilised

sixteen

with tained one another, but obproduced by the same raceme, of which alone contained only three capsules, one any good seeds, namely, two in number. Lastly, he fertilised twentyits o^^"n seven flowers, each with pollen; he left also fifty-seven

flowers

flowers have touch

to

to ensued

be

spontaneously fertilised, and

if it had

this the

would anthers

seen stigma, but by Dr. Hildebrand nevertheless these it; penetrate eighty-four flowers did not This whole is highly instructive, case produce a single seed-capsule! it shows how as widely dilTerent the action of the same pollen is,according as it is placed on the stigma of the same flower, or on

the

possible, the pollen-tubes were

been

for

not

certainly only

that

of

another

flower Orchids

on

the

same

raceme,

or

on

that been

of

distinct With effective

plant.
exotic several

analogous

cases

have

served, ob-

Scott."^ Oncidium has sphacclatum chiefly by Mr. John pollen, for Mr. Scott fertilised two distinct species with it; the ovules are likewise capable of impregnation, for they were tween readily fertilised by the pollen of 0. divaricatnm; nevertheless, beand two hundred flowers fertilised by their own one pollen did not produce a single capsule, though the stigmas were trated peneof the Royal Munro, by the pollen-tubes. INIr. Robertson Rotanic hundred Gardens
and

of

Edinburgh,
flowers of

also this

informs

me

(18G4)

that

same twenty species were by him with their own pollen, and did not produce a capsule, but eight flowers, fertilised by the pollen of O. divaricafum, produced four fine capsules: again, between two and three hundred flowers of 0. divaricatnm, fertilised by their own pollen, did not set a flowers fertilised by 0. flexiio^Km produced capsule, but twelve potent have three eight fine capsules: so that here we utterly self-imspecies,with their male and female organs perfect,as shown In fertilisation. these fertilisation cases was by their mutual shall effected the aid of distinct a only by species. But, as we

fertilised

^'

International

gress,
69
'

London,
Proc.

burgh,'

May,

Hort. Con186G. Bot. Soc. of Eflin1863: these observa-

tions others of

are are

given
aflcled, of
Linn. p.

in

in

Proc.

and abstract, the Journal Soc.,' vol. viii.

'

Bot.,

1864,

102.

Chap.

XVII.

SELF-IMPOTENT

PLANTS.

HI
of

presently see,
snm, and

distinct

plants, raised

from

seed,

Onciditon

flc.iiiofectly percess. proof 0.

have been probably of the other species, would each other, for this is the natural capable of fertilising that the pollen of a plant Again, Mr. Scott found
was

mk-rochilum he

for eli'ective,

with for

it he

fertilised could be

two

distinct

species; they good, by of these the pollen of one tinct species, and by the pollen of a disthey could not be fertilised by plant of O. microchilvm ; but the of tlie same pollen-tubes penetrated the pollen plant, though has recorded been stigma. An analogous case by M. Riviere," two both selfwith were plants of 0. cavcniVisliianum, which each other. but fertilised x411 these cases refer sterile, reciprocally
its ovules fertilised
to

found

the

genus
"

Oncidium,

but

Mr.

Scott

found

that

Ma.rillarid

atro-

ruhens

was

totally insusceptible
fertilised, and
was

of

fertilisation

with

its

own

pollen," but
species,viz.
As

fertilised
under

by,

widely

distinct
in tliis

M.

scjiiatcns.
had Miiller
one

these
But

orchids
I Fritz

been

hot-houses,
cause.

concluded above taken

grown that their informs

me

unnatural
was

conditions
due in
to

self-sterilitv
that of at

Desterro,
the with
all

Brazil,

he and

fertilised

hundred
from

flowers

above-mentioned its the

own

Oncidium with

Pcxiiosnm,
that those

which

is there

endemic,

pollen,

were plants: other plant of by pollen from any the same fertile. species were During the first three days there of pollen: that in kinds difl'erence the action of the two was no placed on stigma of the same plant separated in the usual manner which into grains, and emitted tubes penetrated the column, and the stigmatic chamber shut itself; but only those liowers which from distinct plant produced had been fertilised by pollen taken a these occasion experiments were seed-capsules. On a subsequent Fritz result. ]\Iiillerfound repeated on a large scale with the same like manner in of Oncidium that four endemic other were species from with that pollen, but fertile utterly sterile with their own likewise of them other produced seed-capsules plant: some any such distinct as of when with widely pollen impregnated genera, fers difcrispum, however, Cyrtopodium, and Rodriguezia. Oncidium in its self-sterility; from the foregoing species in varying much ing pollen, others failsome plants producing fine pods with their own

distinct

former

sterile, whilst

fertilised

to

do

so

in

two

or

three

instances, Fritz
taken
from
a

Miiller distinct

observed flower
on

that

tlie pods produced by pollen flower's own same plant, were larger than those produced by the to orchid In belonging an cinnabarinum, Epidcndrum pollen. the fine of the another division produced by pods were family, half plant's own by weight only about pollen, but they contained fertilised by pollen had been seed much the capsules which as as distinct species; from instance from in one a distinct plant, and a cases nearly all the a moreover, large proportion,and in some very of an destitute seeds were pollen, produced by the plant's own the
^0

Professor

Lecoq,

'

De

la

Fecondation,'

2nd

edit., 18G2, p. 76.

112

GOOD

FROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVII.

embryo.
similar
Another

Some
state.

self-fertilised
made

capsules by
the Fritz

of

Maxillaria

were

in able, remark-

observation that
to

Miiller the
but

on flower, impregnate in an This is injurious or poisonous manner. of the stigma in contact with the pollen, and shown by the surface three to five days dark by the pollen itself, becoming in from and then not brown, and decay are decaying. The discoloration observed caused which Fritz were parasitic cryptograms, by by in only a single instance. Miiller These well shown changes are time, the plant'sown stigma, at the same by placing on the same of and that from distinct the same a other plant species,or of anpollen of another and remote Thus, widely species,or even genus. the stigma of Oncidium on ftexuosum, the plant's own pollen and that from distinct a placed side by side, and in five plant were days' time the latter was perfectly fresh, whilst the plant's own the pollen of a disbrown. On the other tinct hand, when pollen was the Oncidium and of of the fleanosum Epidendrum plant zebra were (nov. spec?) placed together on the same stigma, they in exactly the same behaved the grains separating, emitting manner, and the that the two tubes, penetrating stigma, so pollenafter an interval of eleven days, could not be distinguished masses, of their caudicles, which, of course, dergo unexcept by the difference Fritz Miiller has, moreover, made no a ber large numchange. of crosses between orchids belonging to distinct species and

not

namely, only fails

is acted

with

various

orchids

is highly plant's own

acts

the

pollen stigma,

and

on^

and he finds that genera, fertilised their footstalks

in

all until
and

cases

when to

the

flowers
and

are

not

first

begin
the in

wither;

the

ing witheran

slowly spreads upwards

interval
and
cases,
seven

of

one

or

two

weekSj
even

germens instance one

case,

fall
of

off, after
between
most in

six other sionally, Occathe

weeks;

but and

in

this

latter in

and

the

pollen
however, surface,
the
case

stigma remained the pollen becomes

not in contact

appearance the

fresh.
on

brownish,
with

generally

external

and

stigma,
is of
in

as

is invariably

when observed in
two

the the

Fritz

Miiller the
and

plant's own poisonous

Oncidium

pollen
action Also these
as

applied.

the

plant's own
0.

pollen
pnhes
fourth

in

above-mentioned
two of
same

fiexuosum,
two

unicorne,

{?),
genus
was

unnamed

species.
in
one

species
and
of

of
a

Rodriguezia,
last, it

in in

Notylia,

of all
were,

Burlingtonia,
cases,

the

been might have distinct a expected, fertile with pollen from plant of the same of one flowers of fertilised species. Numerous species Notylia were with from the same in two pollen days' time they all raceme; withered, the germens began to shrink, the pollen-masses became

proved

that

group. flowers the

In

except

the

dark in
more on

brown,
orchid

and the than

raceme

not

one

pollen-grain emitted
action
of

tube.
own

So

that is

this the

injurious
with
were

the

rapid
same

Oncidium

flexnosum.
with

plant's Eight

pollen
a

other

flowers distinct

fertilised

pollen

from

114

GOOD

FROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVII.

is exactly the reverse of what by their own, with all ordinary species. Fof in the latter the two occurs sexual elements individual of the same plant are of course capable of freely acting on each other ; but are so constituted that they are less impotent when more or brought into union with of a distinct species,and produce the sexual elements less sterile hybrids. or more

species than

Gartner from he
were same

experimented separate places, and

with it L.
for

on

two

plants
"^

of Lobelia

fulgens, brought
was

found

that and

their

pollen

good, for
ovules of

fertilised likewise
two

cardiualis

syphilitica ; their

fertilised

good, species; but by their own

with

these

perfect
Tcrhasciim

ease

this

itignim grown T. lyrJinitis and of fertilising

fertilised
be

these by the pollen plants of L. fulgens could not be pollen, as can generally be effected with species. Again, the pollen of a plant of in a pot was found by Gartner" capable
were

they

fertilised

two

F.

austriacnm

; the

ovules

could

be

by the pollen of F. tliapsus; but the flowers could not by their own pollen. Kolreuter, also,'*gives the case of three garden plants of Terbascinn bore during phopniceiun, which two the flowers; these he fertilised successfully with years many of less than four distinct but no not they pollen species, produced seed their with a own apparently good pollen; subsequently these raised from same plants, and others seed, assumed a strangely the male fluctuating condition, being temporarily sterile on or
fertilised female but
summer.

side, or
tAA'o of

on

both

sides, and
were

sometimes

fertile fertile

on

both

sides;
the

the

plants
odorata
own

perfectly
have
and

throughout
individuals the

With sterile
Reseda

Reseda with
Ivtea.

found
so

certain it is with

their The

pollen,
self-sterile

quite indigenous

of
to

plants of both species were fectly perwith other fertile when crossed individual pollen from any observations will hereafter the be pubsame species. These lished
in

another which

work,
Miiller
were

in which

I shall

also

show

that

seeds

sent

caliproduced by plants of Eschsclioltzia quite self-sterile in Brazil, yielded in this were plants which only slightly self-sterile. It appears flowers certain that certain on plants of Liliuin candidum be fertilised more can freely by pollen from a distinct the varieties individual of than So, again, with by their own.
me

by Fritz

fornica country

^^

"'-

'

Bastarderzeugung,'

s.

64,

357. 357. s. Zweite s. Fortsetzung,' 40. Mr. Dritte Forts..' 10; s. fertilised Scott likewise fifty-four flowers of Ycrbascum phoeniccum, two with including varieties, and not their a own pollen,
"

Ibid.,
'

''*

'

single

capsule

was

produced.

of the pollen grains their but tubes, only a them the penetrated stighowever some slight effect mas; of the was as produced, many became somewhat ovaries develAsiatic Soc. Journal Benoped: gal,' 1(57, p. 150. " GiirtDuvernoy, quoted by 334. s. Bastarderzeugung,' ner,

Many

emitted of few

'

'

Chap.

XVII.

SELF-IMPOTENT

PLANTS.

II5
with
"

the says bear

potato.
that
seed

Tinzmann/^
and I have

^vho
found

pollen from
from

another

trials many variety sometimes sorts of

made

this
a

plant,

exerts

influence,

potatoes whicli

ful powerwould not

pollen of their own flowers would bear it with other pollen." It does not, to have been however, appear proved that the pollen which failed to act the flower's in itself good. on own stigma was In the genus Passiflora it has that several long been known not do unless fertilised produce fruit, species by pollen taken from " distinct species found that he could : thus, Mr. not Mowbray get fruit from P. alata and racemosa except by reciprocally fertilising them with each other's similar facts have been served obpollen; and
in P.

impregnation with when impregnated

the

Germany

and
never

France.''* fertilised
case

I have

received from
P.

two
own

accounts

of
of P.

quadrangiilaris
so

producing
in

fruit
one

its

pollen, but pollen

But with
in

doing
other
to

freely w^hen
in

case

with

the

ccerulea, and
cases

another writer
former to in

with

that

of

ediilis. the

tliree
own

this the the

species fruited
one

freely when
case

fertilised

its
to

pollen; and
the Fahr. above With has with the their

attributed

favourable

result
10"

temperature

of the

having been raised from .5" were temperature, after the flowers
house laiiri folia,
*"

ised." fertil-

respect

P.

cultivator flowers
"

of must

much be

ence experifertilised

recently remarked

that

the

other common kind, as pollen of P. cacrnlea, or of some But the fullest details on pollen will not fertilise them." this subject have been Scott and Robertson given by Messrs. *^ Munro: and alata ered flowC(]crulea, plants of Passlftora racemosa, in the Botanic Gardens of profusely during many years Edinburgh, and, though repeatedly fertilised with their own pollen, at once all three never with produced any seed; yet this occurred crossed In the together in various ways. specieswhen they were in the Botanic of P. coenilea three plants, two of which case grew all rendered Gardens, were fertile, merely by impregnating each with pollen of one in of the others. The result was attained same the same with P. alata, but manner only with one plant out of been three. As self-sterile of Passiflora have so species many
own

mentioned, it should gracilis are nearly

from whilst details
a

be
as

stated thus

that sixteen

the their

flowers
own

of

the
as

annual

P. that

fertile with

pollen
an

with
21.3 seed.

distinct

fertilised

plant; produced fruit, each

fourteen P. Robertson
to

flowers
on

spontaneously
average 24.1

self-

containing
flowers

seed,

fruit from from Mr.

crossed Munro.
been

contained

Returning

alata, I have

received Three

England,
""
'

have

already

mentioned
s"
'

interesting (1866) some plants, including one in which were inveterately

Chron./
of
Proc.

Gardener's
Transact.
p.

Chronicle,'
Hort.

1846,
p. vol.

p.

183.
"
'

Soc.,'
'

Gardener's 1068. "i Journal

'

1SGG,
of
'

Linn,

vii., 1830,
''^

95.

Soc.,' vol.
Robertson

viii., 1864.

Professor

condation,
'

De la FeLecoq, 1845, p. 70; Gartner,

s.

Bastarderzeugung,'
"
"

64.

Soc' Bot. p. 399.

Munro. of Edinburgh,

Mr. p. 11(58. Trans, in

vol.

ix.

Card.

Chron..'

1868, p. 1341.

lie

GOOD

FROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVIl.

which, in the found repeated trials during many years, other places, however, this species same predicament. At some its own fertilised with fruits readily when pollen. At Taymouth Castle there is a plant which was formerly grafted by Mr. 13onaldand since the distinct unknown, ever son on a species, name fruit in abundance its has own it by pollen; produced operation that this small and unnatural change in the state of this plant so of the its self- fertility! Some the has restored seedlings from to not found be sterile with Castle were only plant Taymouth their own pollen,but with each other's pollen, and with the pollen the Taymouth from tilise of distinct species. Pollen plant failed to fersuccessful but certain plants of the same was on one species, Gardens. raised Seedlings were plant in the Edinburgh Botanic of their flowers were fertilised by this latter union, and from some found to be as their but with Mr. Munro own pollen; they were self-impotent as the mother-plant had always proved, except when shall fertilised by the grafted Taymouth plant, and except, as we her For Mr. Munro ised fertilwhen fertilised by own seedlings. see, mother-plant with pollen eighteen flowers on the self-impotent able her these from own self-impotent seedlings,and obtained, remarkexcellent fine seed! full of the fact is, eighteen capsules as in regard to plants which shows well with met I have so no case
and self-sterile, after Munro
me

Mr.

informs

of

several

others

have

been

as

this

of

P.

(data,

or fertility

mysterious depends. complete sterility

on

what

small

and

causes

plete com-

The

facts

hitherto

given relate

to

the

much-lessened

or

of pure nated impregcompletely destroyed fertility species when ity with their own pollen,in comparison with their fertildistinct when or impregnated by distinct individuals species; but closelyanalogous facts have been observed with

hybrids.
Herbert states
*-

that
of

hybrid Hippeastrums, species,he found

pollen
which
or
'

having in flower at the same complicated origin, descended

"

time
from

nine
eral sev-

that
cross

almost

from
were

another touched

produced
their he
of
own

every seed abundantly,

flower

touched and

with those
In

with

pollen
size, with
"

either fewer

failed seeds." of

entirely,
the the
to to

formed

slowly

pod
'

of inferior adds the he

Horticultural of another
to

Journal

that

the

admission

len polthe in

cross-bred
one

Hippeastrum
number,
In
a

(however
is almost letter

complicated
sure

cross)
the

any fructification Dr. with

flower of the

check
me

others."

written

1839,

Herbert the

during
them,
82
'

that says five consecutive

same

had

invariable

years, result.
'

and

ments already tried these experihe subsequently repeated

He
of
was

thus

led

to

make

Amaryllidaceae,' ii., 1847, p. 19.

1837, p. 371;

Journal

Horticultural

Soc.,' vol.

Chap.

XVII.

SELF-IMPOTENT

PLANTS.

II7

an

analogous trial
which he
four

aulicum,

pollen,and
hulbulosum,
ovaries few
of

the Hippeastrum pure species,namely, on lately imported from Brazil: this bulb produced of which fertilised by their own flowers, three were the fourth between by the pollen of a triple cross H.
on a

had

regince,
three

and

vittatum;
soon

the

result
to

was,

that
and

"

the
a

the

first flowers

ceased

grow,

after

the pod impregnated by the days perished entirely: whereas made and to maturity, and hybrid vigorous rapid progress bore This is, indeed, as Herbert vegetated freely." good seed, which remarks, a strange truth," but not so strange a^ it then appeared.
"

As

confirmation

of

these

statements,

I may

add

that

Mr.

M.

Mayes,^^ after much experience in crossing the species of Amaryllis the species nor the hybrids will, we (Hippeastrum), says "neither seed well so are produce abundantly from their own aware, pollen of others." from that So, again, Mr. Bidwell, in New as South
Wales,^*
when
asserts

that

Amaryllis
or

belladonna

bears when of
a

many

more

seeds of
some

fertilised Mr.

by the
Beaton

pollen of Brunswigia
of B.

{Amaryllis

authors)
own

josephime

multiilora, than
four the
and

fertilised

by its
with

their

pollen. own pollen, and

on

dusted with

flowers which held

and
same

Cyrtanthus
their These before of

four

pollen of

Vallota

{Aniaryllis)
own

purpurea;

the crossed

seventh their with

to

day
the

"those Vallota

received on."
^^

pollen
which
cases,

slackened
were

growth,
uncrossed

ultimately

perished; those
latter

however,

relate the

species,like
are

those here group

given
to

with

respect
because

to

Passiflora^ Orchids, "c.,

referred

only

plants belong
the
two

to

the

Amarylhad
more

lidacese. In the found been that

on

experiments on the pollen of

certain that kinds

hybrid Hippeastrums, if Herbert

or

three their

kinds
own

alone

had

been

efficient nuitual

than
from

pollen,it might
parentage, explanation
whichever had
a

have closer

argued affinitythan
for the trials difTerent

these,
the
were

their

mixed this

others; but
made and
a

is inadmissible,

backwards reciprocally

and

forwards

taken, cross, hybrids; way add I can gous a striking and analoalways proved highly beneficial. Rev. of the A. made Rawson, from case by experiments of Gladiolus. This with some complex hybrids Bromley Common,
on

nine

skilful horticulturist

ing from
descended descended Mr.
*^

each
from

other G.

possessed a number only in the colour

a

of French and old that

size of the
G.

varieties,diff'erflowers, all
to

Gandavensis,
natalensis

well-known

hybrid, said
of the

be

from

by the
trials,found

pollen of
none

oppositiflorus.^'^
varieties

Rawson,
Loudon's
'

after
'

repeated

Gardener's Magaxi., 183.".,p. 260. "* Gardener's Chronicle,' 18.50, p. 470. *'5 Hort. Journal Soc.,' vol. v. raised The seedlincrs thus p. 135.

zine.' vol.

'

were

given
on

to

the

Hort.

find,

inquiry,
died

fortunately
winter.

that the

Soc; they

but
un-

following

^^ Mr. in ' Journal D. Beaton, of 4.'53. Lecoq. Hort.,' 1861, p. la however Fecond.,' 1862. (' De is that this hybrid p. 369), states and from O. psittacinus descended is opposed cardinnlis to this ; but who found Herbert's experience, former the that not species could be crossed,

118

GOOD

PROM

CriOSSma.

Chap. XVII.

set seed with would their own pollen,although taken from distinct been plants of the same variety (which had, of course, propagated but all with seeded that by bulbs), freely they pollen from any To did other not examples: Ophir variety. give two produce a its own fertilised with of that pollen, but when capsule with and Linne, it produced ten fine Janire, Brenchleyensis, Vulcain Linne good, for when was capsules; but the pollen of Ophir was This fertilised by it seven latter variety, capsules were produced. its own with the other hand, was utterly barren on pollen, which have was seen we perfectly efficient on Ophir. Altogther, Mr. E,awson, in the year 1801, fertilised twenty-six flowers borne by from other with four varieties varieties, and pollen taken every fifty-two flowers single flower produced a fine seed-capsule; whereas the the fertilised at time with their own same same on plants, Mr. did Rawson not yield a single seed-capsule. fertilised, pollen,

in

some one

cases,

the

alternate with their

flowers, and
own

in

other

cases

all

those the when

down

side of the flowers

spike, with

remaining plants their curious the capsules were nearly mature, and arrangement to the mind that at immense an once brought full conviction from derived been crossing these hybrids. advantage had from Dr. E. Bornet, of Antibes, who has Lastly, I have heard made numerous experiments in crossing the species of Cistus, but has not yet published the results, that, v.dien any of these hybrids in be said to to are function, dioecious; fertile, be, regard they may for the flowers sterile when the is fertilised are always pistil by flower from from the the flowers same or on same pollen taken often fertile if pollen be employed from a they are plant. But distinct individual of the same from a hybrid nature, or hybrid made by a reciprocal cross."
"

pollen of other pollen. I saw

varieties, and
these

Conclusion. both sexual

at

"

That

plants should
are

be

self-sterile, although

elements

in

fit state

first

sight opposed

to

for reproduction, pears apall analogy. With respect to

though in this state, alspecies, all the individuals of which are their natural living under conditions, we clude conmay that their self-sterility has been acquired for the sake is closeof effectuallypreventing self -fertilisation. The case ly antilogous with tliat of dimorphic and trimorphic or heterothe

styled plants,which
to
a

longing fully fertilised only by plants bedifferent form, and not, as in the foregoing cases,
can

be

indifferentlyby
these taken

any

other

individual

of the species.

Some

of

which

heterostyled plants are completely sterile with pollen the same from With form. spect replant or from the same under their natural to species living conditions, of : only certain individuals are self-sterile (as with Reseda
'

Chap. XVII.

CONCLUSION.

119
self-sterile uals individ-

lutea),it is probable that these have been rendered

to
ensure

occasional remained

whilst cross-fertilisation, self-fertile to

ensure

other

have the

the

propagation of

with that of plants to be parallel species. The case seems Miiller has discovered, which produce, as Hermann forms two bearing more one conspicuous flowers with their structure adapted for cross-fertilisation by insects,and the other form with less conspicuous flowers adapted for self-fertilisation. The self-sterility, of the foregoing plants however, of some is incidental on the conditions to which jected, they have been sub"

as

with

the Eschscholtzia, the

Y erhascum

of w^hich varied according to (the sterility recovered with the Passiflora alata, which when grafted on a different stock.
It is

phoeniceum the season), and

its

self-fertility
cases

interesting

to

observe

in the

above

several

the

fertilised by their graduated series from plants which, when of seeds, but with the pollen,yield the full number own in stature to plants which when seedlings a little dwarfed self-fertilised yield few seeds to those which yield none, but have their ovaria somewhat developed and, lastly,to the plant's own those in which pollen and stigma mutually another like poison. It is also interesting to act on one of the pollen observe on how slighta difference in the nature ity of the ovules complete self-sterility complete self-fertilor or ual of the above cases. must Every individdepend in some of the self-sterile species appears to be capable of producing fertilised by the the full complement of seed when pollenof any other individual (though judging from the facts
" " "

given with
;

respect
not
one

to

Abutilon individual

the nearest
can

kin

must

be

cepted) exown

but

be fertilised by its
some

pollen. As
every

every

organism differs
of the
same

in

slight degree from

no

other

individual

species,so

doubt

it

we pollen and ovules; and in the above case and must believe that complete self-sterility complete selffertility depend on such slight differences in the ovules and and not their having been differentiated in some pollen, cial spein relation to one another; for it is impossible manner

is with

their

that the sexual elements have been

of

many

thousand
to

individuals other with

should

specialisedin relation

every
as

individual.

la some,

however, of
4a

the above

cases,

certain

Passi-

1^0 floras,an
ovules
amount

GOOD

FROM

CROSSING.

Chap.

XVII.

of differentiation

sufficient for fertilisation is

pollen and gained only by employing

between the

pollen from a distinct species; but this is probably the result rendered somewhat sterile from of such plants having been the unnatural to which conditions they have been exposed.
Exotic animals confined
state
as

in

menageries

are

sometimes

in

nearly the same plants; for, as

self-impotent shall see in the following chapter, certain we the and monkeys, larger carnivora, several finches, geese, together, quite as freely as, or even more pheasants, cross freely than the individuals of the same speciesbreed together. Cases will, also, be given of sexual incompatibility between
certain male
are

the

above-described

and

female

domesticated matched with

animals, which,
any

theless, never-

fertile when kind.

other

individual

of the In

same

the

early part of this chapter it

was

shown

that

the

crossing of individuals
same

belonging
races
or

to

distinct

families

of the

race,

or

to different

and
case

constitutional of crossed

vigour

to

species,gives increased size the offspring, and, except in the

evidence fertility. The the universal testimony of breeders rests on (for it should be observed that I am here speaking of the evil results of not is practically exemplified in the close interbreeding), and

species, increased

higher value
The
with

of cross-bred

animals

for immediate also been

tion. consump-

good
some

results

of

crossing have
and
with

strated demon-

animals

numerous

plants, by

actual blood

weight and measurement. Although animals of pure will obviously be deteriorated by crossing, as far as

their characteristic

to be qualities are concerned, there seems no exception to the rule that advantages of the kind just mentioned thus when there has not been any gained, even are previous close interbreeding; and the rule applies to such

animals
and-in

as

cattle and

sheep, which

can

long resist breeding in-

between the
case

the nearest of crossed

are,

blood-relations.

In

and
in
a

hardiness greater
can or

species,although size, vigour, precocity, with fertility, rare gained, exceptions,

the gain in the

less degree, is lost; but

hardly be attributed to the principle of the compensation; for there is no close parallelism between increased size and vigour of hybrid offspring and their sterilabove

respects

1^^

GOOD

t^UOM

CROSSma.

Chap.

XVII.

vigour,

size, and
in the

fertility; general
have
seen

but

there of
the

is

no ^r

necessary

rioration dete-

form that

body, pigs

in

other

good

qualities.
have

We

with

first-rate close

animals

been

produced they
had
near never

after
become

long-continued extremely
The
be
so

interbreeding,
when

though
with
occurs,

infertile of but

paired
when it
to
tain cer-

their
seems

relations.
to

loss

fertility, only

absolute,
that of
own

relative
to
a

animals
extent cannot

of

the

same

blood;
with

this

sterility is

analogous
fertilised

that

self-impotent pollen,
but

plants
are same

which

be with

by
any

their

perfectly species.
one

fertile The the

pollen of
of of does

other this

individual

of the
nature

fact results

infertility of long-continued
not

peculiar

being
that

of

interbreeding,
by
common

shows and both

time

breeding inter-

act

merely

combining
to at

ing augmentfor

various animals
can

morbid
such

tendencies

parents;

with

tendencies,
their

if not kind.

the

actually offspring

ill,
scended de-

generally
from

propagate
the in
nearest

Although
are

blood-relations yet
some

not

necessarily
that is
powers not

deteriorated
are

structure, liable
to

authors and the

believe this vital

they
probable, imacts

eminently
as

malformations;
which of lessens this and the follows close
very

everything
Instances of

in
in

this the

manner. case

kind
some

have

been

recorded

pigs, bloodhounds,
we

other facts

animals.
now

Finally,
which

when show
evil

consider that

various from

given
and less when

plainly
that
in

good
from with

crossing,

plainly
we

follows that been

interbreeding,
organisms
union of
nature

and

bear

mind have the

many

elaborate of distinct is almost and

provisions
individuals,

made

for of
a

the

occasional law of other

existence that the

great

proved;
which
or even are

namely,
not

crossing
to

animals is

plants

closely related
and is that

each

highly

beneficial

necessary,

interbreeding

prolonged

during

many

generations

injurious.

Chap.

XVIII.

GOOD

FROM

CHANGED

CONDITIONS.

123

CHAPTER
ON THE ADVANTAGES OF life: AND DISADVANTAGES

XVIII.
OF VARIOUS

CHANGED CAUSES.

TIONS CONDI-

STERILITY

FROM

On

the

from of life Sterility good derived slight changes in the conditions from changed conditions, in animals, in their native country and in menageries Loss of secondary sexMammals, birds, and insects ual characters and of instincts Causes of sterility Sterility of domesticate animals from conditions Sexual changed incompatibility of individual animals of Sterility of plants from changed conditions
"
" " "

"

"

"

life

"

"

Contabescence of Double flowers

of the development the primary by buds Incipient sterility

" "

the anthers Monstrosities of sterility a as cause Seedless fruit excessive from the Sterility of vegetation From long-continued propaorgans gation
" "

"

cause

of double

ers flow-

and

seedless

fruit.

On

the

Good
"

derived In

from

slight Changes

in the

tions Condi-

known whether facts were considering' any which might throw light on the conclusion arrived at in the last chapter, namely, that benefits ensue from crossing, and that it is
a

of Life.

law
cross,

of nature
it

that
to

all organic beings should

me

casionally oc-

appeared

probable
conditions
serve

that

derived

from
an

slight changes

in

the

good from of life,

the

being
No
two

analogous phenomenon, might individuals, and still less no two

alike
in

this purpose. solutely varieties, are aband when the

we

constitution

and

structure; element somewhat

germ

of

one

is fertilised by the male that it is acted when

one
on

of another, similar
ner man-

may

believe
as an

in

individual
every

exposed
must

to

slightlychanged
the

tions. condi-

Now,
influence medical who
on

have
a

observed

remarkable
no

convalescents doubts the

of truth

change

of residence, and Small

man

of this fact.
that

farmers

hold but little land

a

are

convinced

their cattle derive

In the case of plants, change of pasture. the evidence is strong that a great advantage is derived from exchanging seeds, tubers, bulbs, and cuttings from one soil or

great benefit from

place to another
The belief has that been

as

different

as

possible.
benefited, whether
from the time of
or

plants

are

thus

not

well

founded,

firmly maintained

Columella,

124

ON

THE

GOOD

DERIVED

Chap.

XVIII.

who it
now

wrote

shortly

after

the

Christian

era,

to

the

present day; and

A
once

England, When observer, Bradley, writing in 1 724,^ says, should at of Seed, we of a good Sort Masters
"

prevailsin

France,

and

Germany.^
we

sagacious
become

least

put
are

it into
as

Two

or as

Three

Hands,

where every

the Year

Soils the
For

and

Situations should
of

ferent dif-

possible;and
by
which for in

Parties
Want

change
the Seed Use
A

with
will

one

another;
maintained have

Means,
their

I find

the and

Goodness of this been

be then

several

Years.

this

many
He modern

Farmers writer
'

failed
own
"

Crops
be
more

great
head.

Losers."

gives

his

practicalexperience on
can

in agriclearly established culture Nothing asserts, of continual one than that the growth variety in the any either in quality or it liable to deterioration district makes same sowed that he close together in writer states Another quantity." the lots of wheat-seed, the field two product of the same same land had been the same and which on of one stock, original grown
the

other the

at

distance, and
seed it his
was

the
to in finds for

difference
A

in

favour

of in

the

from
has who

latter
made

remarkable. raise the it this

gentleman
to

Surrey

crop who

long
has

business realised he that

wheat market

sell for

seed, and

constantly
me

others,

assures

that

higher prices than indispensable continually to

he keeps two farms change purpose in and elevation. much soil difl'ering V/ith respect to the tubers of the potato, I find that at the everywhere present day the practice of exchanging sets is almost of potatoes in Lancashire followed. The great growers formerly from used to get tubers that Scotland, but they found a change vice versa, from the moss-lands, and In sufficient." was generally in France of potatoes in tlie Vosges former times the crop had in in the course become reduced of fifty or the sixty years portion prohis

seed; and

"

from attributed the the has

120-150

to

30-40

bushels;
which he Mr.

and

the

famous
in

Oberlin
to

surprising good
sets.*

effected

large part

changing
A

well-known he of the
same

practical gardener,
witnessed

Robson,"

states positively from

that
bulbs

himself

decided

advantage

obtaining

the
^

various onion, tubers of the potato, and seeds, all of from different soils and distant kind, parts of England.
of Essay Highland Agriii. p. 200. Also Soc.,' vol. Marshall's Minutes of ture.' Agricul1775. November,
cult.
' '

below. For see England, Getreidesee Metzger. For arten.' 63. s. 1841, France, Loiseleur-Doslongchamps (' Conski, los Cereales,' snr 184.3, p. 200) references tliis gives numerous on For Southern France. subject. Florula sfe Godron, Juvenalis,' 1854, p. 28.

For

Prize

Germany,

'

"*

Oberlin's
p.

'

Memoirs.'
For
* Review 295.

Eng.
of ports,' Rep.

translat.,
see

73.
p.

Lancashire,

Marshall's
5
'

'

1808, Cottage
For

Gardener.'
Mr. Robson's
see
'

1850.
quent subse-

'

'

General Treatise of vol. iii. p. r)8. Gardener's Cbvonicle

A

bandry,' Husand

186.

statements,

Journal

of
p.

Horticulture.'
121.
on

Feb. Mr..

18,

1866,

Agricnlt.
and for

Gazette,'
the second

1858,

247; statement,
p. this
same

For

On 1850, p. 702. D. subject, see also Rev.

Ibid.,

grafting, 1865, p. 44.

remarks Abbey's "c., Ibid., July 18,

Walker's

Chap.

XVIII.

FROM

CHANGED

CONDITIONS.

125

He with
have

further the
been

states

that from
to
so

with and

plants propagated

by cuttings, as
manifest vantage ad-

Pehirgonium,
is derived cultivated

especiallythe
"

Dahlia,

place allows, plant on another,

to
a

the

getting plants of the same variety,which in another where the extent place ; or, of from take one cuttings descriptionof soil to the change that seems to afford as so sary necesthe this it
of

the
an

well-being of
be

plants."
nature
or

He
"

maintains forced
on

that the have that

after been
tings cut-

time

whether made

he

exchange prepared
same
"

of

is Mr.

grower,

for

not."

Similar

remarks

by
of

another the

excellent

gardener,

Fisli, namely,

variety
in
own

neighbour,
were

showed his

that this
worn

treated

he obtained Calceolaria, which from of his own some greater vigour than manner," and he attributed exactly the same much

solely to
out
or

plants having
of their

become

"

to

certain of this

extent

tired in

quarters." Something
and

kind

apparently
to

occurs

Mr.
a

Abbey,
distinct than be

on facility

grafting grafts or variety or

on

ing budding fruit-trees; for, accordbuds generally take with greater

even

species,or
from this

on

stock the be

ously previ-

grafted,
which soil and varieties take
more

stocks
and

raised believes
It

seeds
cannot

of

variety

is to

grafted;
the stocks of the
or

he

explained by

in

question being

better

altogether adapted to the

climate

place.
on

grafted

budded

sliould, however, be added, that very distinct kinds, though they may
at

readily and
studied M. the

grow Tessier's
common

first

more

vigorously
often become elaborate

than

when

grafted on
I have
m.ade to

closely allied stocks, disprove

afterwards careful belief shows farm

and

unhealthy. experiments,"
from may whether
a

that

good
that

is derived
same

change
with
on care

of

seed; and
be cultivated the
same

he
on

ceitainly
the
same

the
not

seed

(it is

stated

exactly

Another
same

excellent

conclusion;
"

without loss. soil) for ten consecutive years to the Le Couteur,^ has come observer. Colonel seed be but then he expressly adds, if the same is grown for land land and
on

used,
year becomes with

that
seed

which
seed

land with
But

manured with

from

the

mixen

one

becomes

prepored
on." limits

lime, and
for farm.
a

that land

again
dressed

for
manure,

dressed
so

ashes, then
of the
same

mixed

this in effect is

systematic

exchange
On

of seed, within

the

the whole

the belief, which

has

long been held by

many

that good follow^s from exchanging seed, tubers, cultivators, ble It seems to be fairly well founded. hardly credi"c., seems be due to the seeds, that the advantage thus derived can soil some small obtaining in one especially if very ones, chemical
to

element influence
once

deficient in the other the whole

and

in sufficient quantity

plants after
"
'

after-growth of the plant. As spot, it germinating are fixed to the same

des Scip.
''
'

M^m.

de

I'Acad.

On

the

Varieties

of

Wheat,'

ences,' 17D0, p. 209.

52,

126

STERILITY

FROM

Chap.

XVIIL

anticipated that they would show the good effects of a change more tinually phiinly than do animals which conLife wander about ; and this apparently is the case. play of the depending on, or consisting in, an incessant that their action is most complex forces, it would appear in some stances stimulated by slight changes in the circumway each which to organism is exposed. All forces might have
been

throughout
towards
an

nature,

as

Mr.

Herbert for the

Spencer**remarks,
life of each be checked. should

tend

equilibrium, and

organism
These

it is necessary views and the

one

that this tendency

germ

and

germ
same

the foregoing facts probably throw light,on hand, on the good effects of crossing the breed, for the modified will be thus slightly acted on by new forces ; or the evil effects of close interbreedthe other hand, on ing on the generations, during which prolonged during many will be acted on by a male having almost identically the constitution.

Sterilityfrom Changed
^

Conditions

of Life.
and

will

now

attempt
their

to show

that animals

plants,when

removed
some even

from

natural
or

degree infertile
when

in conditions, are often rendered completely barren; and this occurs have
not

the

conditions
is not

been

greatly changed.
to

This
we

conclusion have
are

necessarily opposed
lesser

that

at

which other

just arrived, namely, that

changes

of

kinds

ject advantageous to organic beings. Our present subis of some having an intimate importance, from nection conwith the causes of variability. Indirectly it perhaps
on

bears
one

to

of species when crossed : for as, on the sterility able hand, slight changes in the conditions of life are favourto plants and animals, and the crossing of varieties adds the size,vigour, and fertility of their offspring; so, on the

the

other
cause

hand,

certain

other
as

changes

in the
ensues

conditions from

of life

and sterility;

this

likewise

crossing

ably

Mr. has Spencer fully and discussed this whole subject in his of 'Principles Biology,' ii. ch. In first 186)4, vol. the x.
of p. from my

"

edition

1859,
effects

267,
of

of Species.' Origin of the spoke good in the slight changes I

'

evil and of the effects breeding, from condiin the fjreat changes and tions from crossing widely distinct series of forms, as a facts connected by together
"

some

common

but

unknown

bond,
to

which

is

essentially
of life."

related

the

conditions

life

and

from

cross-

principle

Chap.

XVIII.

CHANGED

CONDITIONS.

127
a

much

modified

forms

or

series of each

facts, which

have species, we apparently stand

parallel and double

in

close relation

to

other. that many animals, though perfectlytamed, in captivity. Isidore Geoffroy St.-IIilaire* drawn
a

It is notorious

refuse

to

breed
has

consequently
animals which

broad

distinction

between

tamed

mesticat captivity,and truly doanimals which breed freely generally more ly, freein the sixteenth shown chapter, than in a state of naas ture. It is possibleand generally easy to tame animals ; most that it is difficult to get them but experience has shown to breed regularly,or even this subject at all. I shall discuss in detail; but will give only those cases which most seem
"

will not

breed

under

illustrative.

My

materials

are

derived

from

notices

scattered

through

especiallyfrom a Report, kindly for me drawn by the officers of the Zoological Society of up London, which has especial value, as it records all the cases,
various

works, and

during
seen cases

nine

years

from

1838-46,

in

which

the

animals

were

MS.

couple but produced no offspring, as well as the in which far as known, coupled. This as they never, quently Report I have corrected by the annual Reports subse1865." facts are published up to the year Many
to
on
*

given work,
Dr.

the

breeding

of

the

animals

in

that

magnificent

Gleanings from the Menageries of Knowsley Hall,'by Gray. I made, also, particular inquiries from the experienced in of the the old birds dens. keeper Surrey Zoological GarI should ment premise that a slight change in the treatof animals sometimes makes
a

great

difference

in their

and it is probable that the results observed in fertility; in different menageries would differ. Indeed, some animals have become Zoological Gardens our more productive since It is,also,manifest from F. Cuvier's account the year 1846.
of the
9
'

Jardin

des

Plantes," that

the

animals

formerly

bred

de GeneZoologie p. 256. 1" Since of the the appearance first edition Mr. of this work, Sclater has (' Proc. published

Essais

kept, and

rale,' 1841,

Zoolog.
of

Soc'

1868,

p.

62.3)

list

the species of mammals which have in the from bred gardens 1848 to 1867 inclusive. Of the been Artiodactyla 85 species have

1 species in 1.9 of these least bred at during have once 1 of 28 Marsupialia, 20 years the in 2.5 have bred; of 74 Carnivora, Ko52 1 in have bred: of 3.0 and of 1 in 4.7 have bred; dentia, been 75 species have Quadrumana bred. 1 in 6.2 have kept, and 11 du Annales seum,' MuDu Rut, 1807, torn, ix. p. 120.
'

128

STERILITY

FROM

Chap.

XVIII.

freely there than with us; for instance, in the Duck only one species had at tribe, which is highly prolific, that period produced young.
much less

by animals country, which, though perfectly tamed, quite kept in their allowed freedom, are some absolutely incapable of healthy, and in attended who to particularly Paraguay breeding. Rengger,^in this and six quadrupeds he this subject, specifies condition; most Mr. Bates, three others which two mentions or rarely breed. the Amazons, in his admirable work on strongly insists on similar
The
most

remarkable

cases,

however,

are

afforded

native

cases;

"

and
and

he

remarks,
not

that

the

fact

of

thoroughly

tamed

native

mammals

birds

wholly accounted fowd the turkey and for instance, in the interior of In almost part of the world every of the and several in Polj'nesian islands" the natives are Afi-ica, extremely fond of taming the indigenous quadrupeds and birds; in getting them succeed to breed. but they rarely or never of an animal not notorious The most case breeding in captivity is that of the elephant. Elephants are in kept in large numbers Indian their native home, live to old age, and are vigorous enough for the severest labour; yet, with a very few exceptions, they have known both to couple, though been males and females even never their proper have seasons. If, however, we periodical proceed a
be
"

kept by the Indians, cannot breeding when for by their negligence or indifference, for remote tribes. are kept and bred by various

little eastward
"

to

Ava,
female
and must

we

hear

from
or

Mr.
at

Crawfurd in the

"

that

their

breeding in the
in which
occurrence;

domestic Mr. be forest the India

state,
Crawfurd

least

half-domestic he believes

state

the
"

elephants

are

generally kept, is of everyinforms

me

dav that

that the
of

the

difference
to
roam

attributed with far

some

solely to
degree
seems

females freedom.

being
The

allowed
account

the
on

captive rhinoceros,
^^

other

hand,
more

from than

Bishop
the

Ileber's

elephant. readily species of the horse genus have bred in Europe, though here exposed to a great change in their natural habits of life; but the species have been crossed with another. Most one generally of the members of the pig family breed readily in our menageries; the Red River the even hog (Potamocha'rus peniclUatufi), from of West has in the bred twice Africa, sweltering plains Zoological Gardens. Here also the Peccary has bred [Dicotylcs torquatus) several D. the times; but another dered labiatus, species, though rentame to is be said to breed so as so half-domesticated, rarely in its native country of Paraguay, that according to Rengger the fact requires confirmation. Mr. Bates remarks that the tapir,
Four wild
^^ ^'^ von Saugethiere Paraguay,' 1880, s. 49. 106, 118, 124, 201, 208, 249, 26.5. 327.
'

to

breed

in

i*

'

Embassy
vol.

Ava,'
is
'

i. p.

Journal,'

to the 534. volume

Court i. 327.

of page

Naturalist zons,' 1863, vol. i. pp. ii. p. 113.

13

"

The

on

the

Ama-

213.
"
'

99, 193; vol.

Saugethiere,'

s.

130

STERILITY

FROM

Chap.

XVIII.

(Ca?iis argentatus),
Gardens.
how

however,
the

has has

bred bred
ferret

several there.

times

in
one

the
shut

logical Zoo-

Even

otter

Every

knows up

in

readily but miserably small cages; to doxurus absolutely refuse

Genetta
has

the

semi-domesticated
other

breeds, though

breed and

and Paraspecies of Viverra in the Zoological Gardens. in

The

bred
The

both

here

the

Jardin

des

Herpestes produced hybrids. the H. that 1 was were grisens, though many formerly assured bred. in the never Gardens, kept much less under confinement breed The Plantigrade Carnivora be assigned reason can Carnivora, although no freely than other that the bears for this fact. In the nine-year Report it is stated to Gardens in the been had couple freely,but preseen Zoological viously In the Reports pubmost had to 1848 lished rarely conceived. three specieshave since this date produced young (hybrids
in
in in
one

fasciatus has

likewise

Plantes, and bred; but

case), and,

wonderful The

to

produced young.
the

badger
I have

Polar has bear relate, the white {Meles taxus) has bred several times

Gardens;

but

not

heard

of this

occurring

elsewhere

for an be very instance in must rare, England, and the event In worth the been has recording.^* Paraguay thought Germany and native Nasua, though kept in pairs during many years fectly perbeen known, according to Rengger, to breed tamed, has never show Mr. sexual Bates, does or passion; nor, as I hear from any the in Amazonia. Two other this animal, or Cercoleptes, breed in plantigrade genera, Procyon and Gulo, though often kept tame In the Gardens breed there. Zoological Paraguay, never speciesof Nasua and to couple; but they did not Procyon have been seen produce young.
As

domesticated

rabbits, guinea-pigs, and

white

mice

breed

under various so climates, it abundantly when closely confined of the Rodent other members might have been thought that most order would have bred in captivity, but this is not the case. It deserves the capacity to breed sometimes notice, as showing how rodent native of Paraguay, which by affinity,that the one goes there breeds and has freely yielded successive generations, is the Cavia this animal is so closely allied to the guinea-pig aperen ; and that it has been In erroneously thought to be the parent form.^" the Zoological Gardens, some rodents have have but never coupled, have neither some produced young; bred; but a few coupled nor have

bred,

as

the

porcupine

more

than

once,

the

Barbary
several

mouse,

lemming,

chinchilla,and
'

agouti {Dasgprocta
fiir
to
a

agnti)
distinct
the

times.

^^ Archiv. Wiegmann's Naturgesch.,' 1837, s. I(i2. 20 Rengger, Sangethiere,'

'

genus
on

found

gninea-pig.

"c.,
of the
I from and

s.

276.

On

the
see
'

parentage
also

guihea-pig, St.-Hilaire,
sent to

Hist.
I in

Isid. Nat.

Gooffroy
Gen.' of

the the he

H. Mr. lice which wild aperea informs me

Denny
La

Leeds

collected

Plata,

evidence the and is worth guinea-pig; giving, authors as some erroneously supthe bethat since guinea-pig pose has domesticated become ing sterile when crossed with the

important
aperea

is

not

those Is This that the the of parent

from

that

they

belong

aperea.

Chap. XVlIt.

CHANGED

CONDITIONS.

131
in

This

latter
were

animal
born

has

also
and

produced

young

Paraguay, though

they
to houses.
common

Mr.

ill-formed; but in Amazonia, according about Bates, it never breeds, though often kept tame the Nor does the paca breed there. {Cceloyenys paca) The confined has, I believe, never hare when bred in Europe;
to
never a

dead

though, according
rabbit.^^
I

recent

statement,
of
a

it has

crossed

with
in
one

tlie
finement. conception, ex-

have
But

heard

the
more

dormouse curious

breeding
case:

no as

squirrels offer species has bred in

individuals
The S.
nor

with

the has

fourteen

of

8.

palmaruni
this

several
not tame

years. in

cinera

produce
At

young; its native Lord

had

has

Zoological Gardens, yet as many were kept together during been to couple, but it did seen when rendered species, extremely

breed."

kept
that
I have

in numbers,
none never ever

known to America, been ever country, North of kinds Derby's menagerie squirrels were many the superintendent, told me but Mr. Thompson, bred of the has which

there,
bred

or

elsewhere
than

as

far in

as

he

knew.

heard

English squirrelbreeding
more once

confinement.

But

the

species which
is the
one

in

the

Gardens

perhaps might Birmingham;

at
a

have the

been

least
:

Zoological expected,
duced pro-

namely,
bred

the

flyingsquirrel {Sciuropterus
times than she unite
near

vohicella)

it has, also,
never

several
more

but
to

female in

two

American stated of than

home

young bears from

birth, whereas
six from the

its

native

three

Monkeys,
are

in the

nine-year Report
most

to

many heard

individuals

only
A
one

one

freely,but 1 have births. were kept, there were only seven American the Ouistiti, breeding in monkey,
to

young."^ Zoological Gardens, this during period, though

Europe.^*
more

Macacus,
Macacus

according species of this genus

under confinement. from

Flourens, bred
has

in

produced
everywhere

young
shows

Paris; and in London,

a special produced

the especially

rhesus, which
London this

capacity
both in

to

breed and

Hybrids
same

have

been The

Paris
or

genus.
a

Arabian

Cercopithecus have bred in latter species at the Duke of the family of Lemurs Several members of Northumberland's. have It is much produced hybrids in the Zoological Gardens. in breed when confined remarkable that monkeys more very rarely is frequently their native country; thus the Cay {Cehus azarw) and but in Paraguay, completely tamed Rengger ^^ says that it
baboon, Cijnocephalus Jiamadnjas,-^ the Zoological Gardens, and the
and

breeds

so

rarely,that

he

never

saw

more

than
vol.

two

females
p.
'

which
bon Audu-

21 existence of the Although the Leporides, as described by Dr. de Broca (' Journal Phys.,' torn. ii. p. 370), has nied, been positively deDr. ('Annals Pigeaux yet and of Nat. Hist.' vol. xx., Mag. the hare that 18f)7, p. 75) affirms and rabbit have hybrids. produced 22 ica,' Amerof North Quadrupeds and by Audubon Bachman, 1846, p. 268.
'

Hist..'
and

ix.. 1836,

571:
221.

Bachmnn's

Quadrupeds I'lnstinct,'

of

North
2*

America,'
'

p.

"c.,
"

Flourens, 1845, p. 88.

See
'

De

Zoolog. Reports 1864 ; 1863, Times 10, Aug. newspaper, De I'lnstinct,' p. 1847; Flourens,
Annual

Soe.,'
'

1855,
'

1858,
'

85.
2"
"

Saugethiere,' "c.,

s.

34, 49,

"*

Loudon's

'

Mag,

ot

Nat.

132
had

STERILITY

FROM

Chap.

XVIII.

produced
to in the

young.

similar
which
are

observation these
in

has

been

made

with rigines abo-

respect
in
a

monkeys
In

frequently
animals
he

tamed
are so

by the
often the

Brazil."

Amazonia,
Mr. in
Bates

kept
of
never

tame

state, that
thirteen
to

walking
as

through

streets

Para,

counted

species; but,

asserts, they have

been

known

breed

captivity.^*
Birds.

Birds from
under We

ofTer

in

some more

their

breeding
have
seen

than respects better evidence quadrupeds, rapidly and being kept in greater numbers.** that most birds. used
in

carnivorous other It is said

animals

are

more reverse

fertile holds
as

confinement

than

mammals.
^"

The
as

good with carnivorous been species have

that

many

een eight-

hawking, and several ^^ in and been Persia others India; kept in their native have been flown country in the finest condition, and during six, ^of nine there is record their no yet eight, or having ever years; As these birds were formerly caught whilst produced young. at great expense, Iceland, Norway, being imported from young, be there little if doubt and can that, Sweden, they would possible, In the Jardin have been propagated. des Plantes, no bird of prey known No owl has has to been ever hawk, or vulture, couple.^^ in in the Zoological Gardens, or the old Surrey produced fertile eggs sion, occaGardens, with the exception,in the former place on one and Yet kite (Milviis niger). several of a condor a species, tinnunleucocephahis, Faico namely, the Aquihi fiisca, Haliwtus to couple in been seen ruUjarls, have culus, F. suhhutco, and Buteo ^* Morris mentions Mr. the Zoological Gardens. as a unique fact in an bred that kestrel one (Falco tinnuncnlus) a aviary. The known has been dens to couple in the Zoological Garkind of owl which the Eagle Owl {Buho niaximus) ; and this species shows was in captivity; for a pair at Arundel to breed a special inclination
Castle, kept
the
27

Europe they have

for

more

nearly
'

in

state its

of nature
^^

"

than

ever

fell to

lot of
Art. 363. 28 The
'

an

animal

deprived of
Cyclop.,'
the zons,' Ama-

liberty," actually reared

have

their

Brazil,

Penny
on

p.

25.4 Naturalist i. p. 99.

of the bretl from been in
'

vol.
'^'"^

list have

which Gardens
."^ive

has

species of birds in the Zoological inclii1867 1848 to published by Mr. Zoolog.

the first

1 in of 178 Passeres, bred; of 94 have bred; Accipitres, of 1 in 47 have 25 Picarife, bred; and of 35 not Herodiones, one has bred. species in either group 30 of Rural Sports,' Encyclop. p. 691. 21 to Sir A. Burnes According

Sclater

Proc.

Soc.,'
edition Of Co-

(' Cabool,'
cies Sinde.
32

"c.,
used

1869,
of

p.

626,
work

since

are

p. for
'

51), eight hawking

of p.

spe-

in Nat. Muvii.-

appeared. been lumbse 51 species have kept, in and 80 species, and of Anseres 1 species in both these families,
the at 2.6 have bred once 20 years. Of Gallinre, 83 species 1 in 2.7 have have been kept, and least in

this

Loudon's
vol. torn.
'

Hist.,'
33

vi., ix.
p.
'

Mag. 1833,
'

110.
du

F.
The

Cuvier,

seum,'
3*

p.

Annal. 128.

Zoologist,'
2648.

vol.

viii., 1849-50.
35

bred; bred;

of

57

Grallje,

in

have

Knox.
in

of

110

Prehensores,

in

22

bles

Ornithological Sussex,' p. 91.

Ram-

Chap.

XVIII.

CHANGED

CONDITIONS.

133
of this of
a

young.

Mr.

Gurney

has

given another
records

instance the
case

same

owl cies spe-

breeding in confinement; and he of owl, the Strix passerina,

Of
tame

second

breeding in captivity.^^

the in

smaller their

graminivorous

native

highest authority on difficult." The that there is no canary-bird shows uncommonly these in birds inherent breeding difficulty freely in confinement;
"

kinds have birds, many been kept lived long; yet, as countries, and have the cage-birds ^^ remarks, their propagation is

and the
more

Audubon breeds

America

says^^ that the Fringilla (Spiza) The as perfectly as the canary.

which
as more

ciris

of

North

with difficulty is all the be named any

finches many remarkable have

have

been
a

than

dozen the

kept in confinement species could

canary; but

which
of

yielded hybrids
the

with

hardly

these, with

exception of the siskin

Even the kind. reproduced their own has the bred as frequently with canary,
a

{Fringilla spinvs), have bullfinch {Loxia pyrrhiila)

though
of birds

belonging
respect
to
seven

to

distinct in

genus,

as

with

its

own

With species.^* heard that he

the

skylark
years London

{Alauda
an

arvensis),
assured

I have
never me

livingfor
and
a

aviary, which
their

produced

bird-fancier of

young; had never

great
an

known

has been one case corded.*" rebreeding; nevertheless In the the Zoological Society, nine-year Report from which had not bred, twenty-four insessorial species are enumerated and of these only four known to have were coupled. Parrots mentions are singularlylong-lived birds; and Humboldt the curious fact of a parrot in South America, which spoke the Indian of extinct this that bird an tribe, so language preserved the sole relic of a lost language. Even in this country there is
reason one

instance

to

believe

*^

that

parrots have
breed

lived

to

the

age

of

nearly

have so yet they rarely, though many has been been kept in Europe, that the event cording rethought worth in the gravest publications.*^ Nevertheless, when Mr. Buxton turned of parrots in Norfolk, three pairs out a large number years; bred this and
success
"

hundred

reared may the

ten

be

birds in the course young to their free attributed Psittacus

eritJiacus

of two life.*^ breeds

seasons;

and
to than

According
oftener

Beehstein any other

African

the P. macoa tile species in Germany: occasionally lays fersucceeds in this them; bird, however, rarely hatching eggs, has the instinct of incubation sometimes so strongly developed. but
38
"

Ttip
p.

1849-50,
p.

Zoologist,' vol vii.-viii., 25G6; vol. ix.-x., 1851-2, Naturgesch. 1840, s. 20. Biog.,' vol. v.
is
vol. recordetl
'

3207.
3^^

Beehstein,

der
p.
'

Stubenvogel,'
38'Ornith.
*^

517.
The p.

British Hist. 1. p. 412. " tory,' HisLoudon's of Nat. Mag. vol. xix., 1830. p. 347. d'Hist. ^2'Memoires du Museum of five cases Nat.,' torn. x. p. 314:
40

Yarrell's

'

Birds,'

1839,

vol.
'

case

in

parrots
here Brit.
"
'

breeding

in

France
'

are

Zoologist,'
453.

i-ii., 184.3-45,

recorded. Assoc. Annals Nov.

For the siskin vol. breeding, 1075. iii.-iv., 1845-46, p. stein, BeehStubenvogel,' s. 139, of bullfinches speaks making nests, but rarely producing young.
'

also 55oolog.,' 1843.

and

See

Report
Nat.

Mag.
p.

of

Hist.,'
"
"

1808,

311.
s.

Stubenvogel,'

105, 83.

134
that it will hatch and in the the

STERILITY

FROM

Chap.

XVIIl.

Gardens
have

coupled, but, Avith

none

eggs of fowls or pigeons. In the Zoological few some old Surrey Gardens species have three of of the species parrakeets, exception
a as

bred. from

It is

much
I
am

more

remarkable

fact that
and

in Guiana
are

parrots
often

of two

kinds,
the
so are

informed

by

Sir R.

Schomburgk,
reared
in

large they fly freelyabout the houses, when and called to be fed, like pigeons; yet he has never come dent resiof their breeding." In Jamaica, of a single instance heard a birds more no readily submit naturalist, Mr. R. Hill,*"says, of a b ut instance the than no to human parrot-tribe, dependence has been know^n Mr. life Hill in this tame yet." parrot breeding birds in the West native of other kept tame specifiesa number
taken
nests

by

the

Indians

numbers;

they

tame

that

"

with the a striking contrast pigeon family as parrots: in the nine-year Report thirteen species are recorded two is what to noticeable, w^ere seen more only bred, and, having the result. Since above date annual couple without every any of various two cases pigeons breeding. The Report gives many coronuta and crowned victoria') {Goura pigeon magnificent duced prothan a species more hybrids; nevertheless, of the former informed birds were dozen by Mr. Crawfurd, in a kept, as I am a perfectly well-adapted climate, but never park at Penang, under
offers
once

Indies, which The great

never

breed

in

this

state.

bred.

The

Columba

migratoria
two

in

its native

country.

North the

America,
never more

invariably lays
than
one.

The of

eggs, but in Lord fact has been same likewise This

Derby's menagerie
observed show" is with

C.

leiicocephala*'^
Gallinaceous birds

capacity
case

ten

captivity. particularly the with than our English speciesseldom lays more to from in w'hilst is the confinement; eighteen twenty eggs
for

breeding pheasants, yet

in the

many under

genera

an

eminent

usual other

number
to

wild
are

state.*^ certain trials

With and

the

Gallinaceae,

as

with

all

orders, there
the

marked

of fertility
manv

gard inexplicable exceptions in reunder ment. confinespecies and genera

Although

have
even

been when

made

with

the American but

common

partridge, it has
and

rarely bred,
never are

reared

in

large aviaries;
tribe
are

the

hen
or

will

hatch tamed

her

own

eggs.*" The
remarkable
*^

of Guans
*^

Cracidae
Hancock

with

ease,

very
7th

Doctor

Gen. ill. useful birds that indigenous Annals and are 288. 382; pp. Mag. of Nat. to Guiana, are none Hist.,' vol. xii., 1843, p. 453. found tlie Indians: Other to propagate have species of partridge among the fowl Is the common redyet bred; as occasionally reared in abundance throughout legged (P. rubra), when kept in a the eountrv." in nal JourFrance (see large court 40 A at Weeli Port de tom. Royal,' Physique,' xxv. p. in 185.^, p. 7. the dens 294), and Zoological Gar*'' American thology,' Orniin 1856. Atidubon, vol. V. 552, 557, pp. Nat.
merous nu-

of (' Charlesworth's Mag. vol. Hist.' ii., 1838, p. 492), the that, singular amongst

remarks Nat. it is
"

Moubray

on

Poultry,
'

edit., p. 1.38. " Temminck,

Hist.

des

Pigeons,'

"c.,

1813,

tom.

'

'

'

Chap.

XVIII.

CHANGED

CONDITIONS.

135
various

shy breeders formerly made

tribe been bred the
are

in this
to

country;
in
a

^"

but

with

care

species were
Birds of this native have have guish lan-

breed

rather

freely in they
their
never

Holland." condition breed.^^

It

often the

kept
that

tamed perfectly

in their

country

by expected
in and

Indians, but
grouse

might
not to
soon

from

habits

of life would
are

more captivity,

especially as
many
cases are

they

said
of

die.^^

But

recorded

their

breeding:

capercailzie{Tetrao urogaUus) has bred in the Zoological dens; Garit breeds without much when confined in Norway, difficulty and in Russia five successive generations have been reared: Tetrao tetrix has likewise bred in Norway; T. scoticiis in Ireland; T. umhellus at Lord and T. in North America. cupido Derby's; It is scarcely possible to imagine a greater change in habits
than when after forests the that which the in members small
over

of the and have

ostrich
under
a

family

cooped up freely roaming

;

enclosures desert

suffer, temperate climate,

or

must

tropical plains
even

entangled
young in

yet almost
New

all the kinds Ireland. The

frequentlyproduced
the mooruk

{Casuarius ostrich, though perfectly of France, never healthy and living long in the South lays more from to fifteen eggs, though in its native than twelve country it hetinetii)from
African

various

European

menageries,

lays from twenty-five to thirty.^* Here of fertility impaired, but not lost, under flying squirrel,the hen-pheasant, and

we

have

another
as

instance with the American informs

confinement,
two

species
E.
them

of

pigeons.
Most
me,

Waders

can

be

tamed,
their
more

as

the

Rev.
of

S. Dixon
are

with

remarkable
so

facility;but
that breed

several

short-lived
is not
prising. sur-

under

confinement,
The
cranes

in sterility than readily

this

state

other

genera:

Gi'us

in Paris and in the Zoological montigresia has bred several times cutta. and G.ant'Kjone at Calat the latter place, Gardens, as has G.cinerea of this great order, Tetrapterii.r panulhea Of other members

has birds

bred

at

Knowsley,
to

chloropus Jamaica;
Guiana
50

in the
and

Porphyrio ZoologicalGardens.
a

in On

Sicily,and
the other

the

GalUnnla

belonging
about
E.

this order
"

will not is seldom

The

breed often
or

hand, several in their native country,

the
Indians to breed."
'

the

Psophia, though
Dixon.
'

kept by
never

of
^^

their houses,
S.

known
For T.

Rev.

1850,
ton p.

p.

49.

1851, pp. 24.3-2.52. ' 51 Nat. Gen. Hist. Temminck, des Pigeons.' "c., torn. ii. pp. 456, iii. pp. 458: torn. 2, 13. 47. ' " The Naturalist on Bates, the vol. i. p. 193; vol. Amnzons,' ii. p. 112. 53 'Hist. Nat. Gen.,' Temminck, Tetrao ii. p. 125. "c., tom. For ' L. Field urogaUus, sre Lloyd, of North of Sports Europe.' vol. i. ' Bull, de la Soc. 287, 314; and pp. Dovecote,'
d'Acelimat.,'
600. For T.
tom. vii., 1860, p. scoticus, Thompson, of Ireland,' vol. ii.

.Journal 199.
5*

of de

Nat.

Eoscupido, Hist.,' vol iii,

'

Marcel

Serres,

Annales

des
tom.
"

Sci. Nat.,' 2nd xiii. p. 175.

Dr.

series, Zoolog.,
In
'

Charlesvol. ii.,1838, p. 491: R. Hill, ' A Week ' Guide to Port at Royal,' p. 8; the Gardens,' by P. L. Zoological 'The 12: 1859. n, Sclater, pp. Dr. Knowslev Menagerie,' by

Hancock,
of

worth's

Mag.

Nat.

Hist.,'

Grav,
'

1846, 1855.

pi. xiv.;
Soc.

E.

Blyth,

Report

Asiatic

of

Bengal,'

"Nat.

Hist,

May,

4a

136

STERILITY

FROM

Chap.

XVIII.

The their
could two

members
as

of the

great Duck

family breed
and

as

do have

the

Columbae

aquatic and
not

dozen

wandering been anticipated. in the species had bred

and Gallinae; the habits, and Even

finement readily in conthis, considering

nature time

of

their ago

food,
above

some

Selys-Longchamps forty-fourdifferent
Xewton
lias
"

and M. Zoological Gardens; has the recorded production of hybrids from of the family; and to these Professor members
a

added

few

more a

cases.^*^

"

There
is not of

Dixon,''
of the

in the but

word

world, goose that is, capable domesticable;

'"

wide

which

in the

is not," says strict

under

Mr.
sense finement; con-

breeding
bold.
same

this

statement

is

prr^bably
of

too the

The

to

breed

sometimes

varies

in individuals

capacity species; thus

than wild geese eight years some {Anser kept for more but not mate; other of whilst individuals they would the same second I the know during species produced young year. in the whole of but lutely absoinstance one family of a species which in breed refuses to captivity, namely, the Dendrocijijna ridiiafa, although, according to Sir R. Schomburgk,"^ it is easily of Guiana. tamed, and is frequently kept by the Indians Lastly, have been kept in the Zoological with respect to Gulls, though many and in the old Surrey Gardens, no instance fore Gardens was knowi^ beof their coupling or 1848 the year breeding; but since that times period the herring gull (Lanis argentatus) has bred many and at Knowsley. in the Zoological Gardens There is reason that insects are affected to believe ment by confinelike the higher animals. It is well known that the Sphingidse treated. An thus in Paris rarely breed when entomologist"" kept in succeed twenty-five specimens of Satuniia pyri, but did not fertile A number of females of Orthosia getting a single eg,g. Audubon''*

cinKuIoisis),

mnnda

and to

of

Momestra

suasa

reared

in

confinement
a

were

tractive unat-

the

males." due
in

Mr,
to

Newport
habit

kept nearly
not
one

hundred

viduals indi-

of two

species of Vanessa, but

been could their
succeed
never

might
Mr.

have

Atkinson

paired; this, however, the wing.^^ coupling on in India in making the Tarroo
of It appears that
in
a

silk-moth

breed

confinement."^

number
autumn

of
out
case

hatched especiallythe Sphingidse, when of their proper are season, completely barren; in some is still involved obscurit5\"*

moths,

the
this

but

latter

animals Independently of the fact of many under ment confinenot coupling, or, if they couple, not producing young, there
""

is evidence
Newton,
p.

of another
in 330.
and
'

kind

that their sexual

ural

functions
1832,
page

Prof.
'

Proc.

Zo-

History,'
'

vol.

v.,

clop. Soc..' 1860,

"

153.

Tlie

Dovecote

Aviary,' 48,

"i

p. vol.

428.
58
'

p.
"2
'

Zoologist,' 3660.'
Transact.

vols,

v.-vi., 1847Soc.,'

Ornithological
9.

Biography,'
vol.

Entomolog.
60. Linn.

iii. p.
"

iv., 184.5. p.
.

"^

Geograph.
"

Journal,' Mag.
of

vol. Nat-

""

xiii., 1844, p. 32.

""

vii.
"*

p.

Loudon's

Transact. 40. See an interesting

Soc.,' vol.
paper

by

138
under
to
come a

STERILITY

FROM

Chap. XVIII.

confinement failure
into in

has been

sometimes instincts:

attributed this may

their sexual

play, but there is no obvious reason should be especially liable to be affected with fectly pertamed animals, except, indeed, indirectly through the ous Moreover, numerreproductive system itself being disturbed. animals which have been given of various couple cases but conceive if under never ceive confinement, they confreely ; or, fewer these in number than is and produce young, are natural to the species. In the vegetable kingdom instinct of shall presently see that play no part; and we course can from their natural removed fected afconditions are plants when animals. in nearly the same manner as Change of of the loss of fertility, be the cause climate cannot for, whilst animals imported into Europe from extremely different many in their breed freely, many others when confined climates native land are completely sterile. Change of food cannot be
the chief which breed
cause

exclusively occasionally stinct why this in-

for ostriches,ducks, and

many

other animals,
in

must

have

undergone

great

change
confined

this respect,
are

freely. Carnivorous
most
are

birds when

sterile, whilst
be the
to

carnivorous

mammals,
ISTor
can

extremely grades, except plantiof food

moderately fertile.
for
a

the

amount

cause;

sufficient and
be

supply will certainly be given

is
no reason

valuable
more

animals;
food would

there

to

suppose to
our

that choice

much

given
case

to

them

than

domestic
we

productions which
infer and from of
many

retain

may

the

ly, fertility. Lastof the elephant, chetah, various which

are

their full

hawks,
an

animals

allowed
want

to

lead

almost
the

free life in their native sole

cause.

land, that
in

of exercise

is not It

would

appear

that
may

any

change

the

habits

of
to

life,
affect

whatever in
an

these

habits

be, if great enough, tends

of reproduction. The the powers inexplicablemanner the constitution of the species than results depends more on the nature of the change; for certain whole are on groups than others; but exceptions always occur, for affected more fertile groups refuse to breed, and some species in the most sterile groups in the most breed freely. Those animals some which usually breed freely under confinement, rarely breed, I was assured, in the Zoological Gardens, within a year or as

Chap.

XVIII.

CHANGED

CONDITIONS.

139
animal
to

two

after their first

importation.
confinement
not

When

an

which

is

generally apparently do young

been the for
even

sterile under

happens
this and
power:

breed, the
had
are

inherit

for

this uable val-

case,

various

quadrupeds
have animals

birds, which
common.

exhibition,would
"

become
in

Dr. Broca des

affirms

that

many

the Jardin four

Plantes,

successive genhaving produced young or erations, become be the result of too sterile;but this may close interbreeding. It is a remarkable circumstance that and birds have mammals produced hybrids under many confinement more quite as readily as, or even readily than, their have kind. Of this fact many they own procreated have instances and been thus reminded given ; we are of those plants which cultivated when refuse to be fertilised pollen, but can by their own easily be fertilised by that of a distinct species. Finally, we ited must conclude, limthe conclusion of life as is, that changed conditions have of acting injuriously on the reproan especial power ductive The whole is quite peculiar,for these case system. thus rendered though not diseased, are incapable organs, of performing their proper them perfectl imfunctions, or perform
^^

after

for three

Sterility of Domesticated
With

Animals

of orders degree of change. Those the wild speciesbreed most quadrupeds and birds, of which readily in our of domesticated menageries, have afforded us the greatest number productions. Savages in most parts of the world are fond of taming animals; and if any of these regularlj^ produced young,
**

respect mainly depends on we ought not be affected by any

to

domesticated the
to

from changed conditions. their domestication animals, as

"

accident

of their that their

breeding freelyunder
reproductive system

expect

tivity, capwould

moderate

and

were

at

the

same

time

useful, they would

be other
of
young

at

once

cated. domesti-

If, when
""

their

masters

migrated
and

into

countries, they
taming animals,
was

Journal de Physiologie,' tom. 347. " additional evidence For on this in F. see Cuvier, subject, tom. Annales du xil. Museum,' p. 119. " Numerous Instances could be els,' Thus given. Livingstone (' Travthat the King p. 217) states of tribe the inland Barotse, an which had tion communicanever any with white was exmen, i. p.
'

fond
every

tremely
antelope
forms InMr. him. Galton Daniaras that the are me of likewise fond pets. keeping America Indians of South The habit. follow the Capt. same that states the Wilkes sians PolyneSamoan Islands the of ZeaNew the tamed pigeons; and Mantell informs Mr. as landors, of birds. kinds kept various me,

brought

to

140
were

STERILITY

FROM

Chap. XVIII.

in addition found capable of withstanding various climates, valuable; and it appears that the animals they would be stillmore withstand different which breed readilyin captivitycan generally reindeer and such the as climates. Some few domesticated animals, domesticated of rule. our Many camel, offer an exception to this the most unnatural bear with undiminished animals can fertility and ferrets breed in conditions; for instance, rabbits,guinea-pigs, kind of Few European dogs any miserably confined hutches. but without as the climate of India withstand degenerating, long as they survive, they retain, as I hear from Dr. Falconer, their it is, according to Dr. Daniell, with English dogs so fertility; The taken to Sierra Leone. fowl, a native of the hot jungles of in every quarter fertile than its parent-stock India, becomes more north Greenland far advance as as of the world, until we not bird will breed. Both this and Northern Siberia, where direct autumn the I received which fowls and during pigeons, I have, at once Sierra Leone, were from ready to couple.*^" kinds within the common as also, seen pigeonsbreeding as freely Nile. The from the upper guineaa year after their importation of the hot and dry deserts of Africa, whilst fowl, an aboriginal livingunder our damp and cool climate, produces a largesupply of eggs. conditions animals under domesticated new Nevertheless, our Roulin asserts that show occasionally signsof lessened fertility. Cordillera sheep are not fully in the hot valleysof the equatorial ''" fecund ; and accordingto Lord Somerville," the merino-sheep fertile. which he imported from Spain were not at first perfectly It is said " that mares brought up on dry food in the stable,and have The peahen,as we turned out to grass, do not at first breed. It seen, is said not to lay so many eggs in England as in India. and even now was fully fertile, long before the canary-bird was In the hot and first-rate breeding birds are not common." dry province of Delhi, as I hear from Dr. Falconer, the eggs of the turkey, though placed under a hen, are extremely liable to fail. According to Roulin, geese taken to the loftyplateau of Bogota, at first laid seldom, and then only a few eggs; of these scarcely a fourth were hatched, and half the young birds died ; in the second wrote Roulin more fertile;and when they generation they were were becoming as fertile as our geese in Europe. With respect to the valleyof Quito, Mr. Orton says: ''* " the only geese in the valley few imported from Europe, and these refuse to propagate." are a In the Philippine Archipelagothe goose, it is asserted, will not
^^For

analogous
sec

cases
'

with

fowl,

faire Col. and

243; Proc. Sykes, in Zoolog. With Soe.,' 1832, "c. respect to the fowl not breeding in northern Latham's Hist, of regions, see Birds,' vol. viii., 1823, p. 169.
' '

L'Art Reaumur, Eelore,' "c., 1749, p.

the de

des Sciences,' torn, vi., 347. ^^ Youatt on Sheep, p. 181. " Treatise CatJ. Mills, on tie,' 1776, p. 72.
'

Acad,

1835,

p.

'

"

Bechstein,
*

'

Stubenvogel,'
and the Ama-

s.

242.
^*

The

Andes

""^

"

M6m.

par

divers

Savans,"

zon,' 1870, p. 107.

3!

Chap.

XVIII.

CHANGED

CONDITIONS.

14X

breed

or

which,
at

lay eggsJ^ A more according to Roulin, when

even

curious

case

is that

of the
not

fowl,
breed the
at nest

first introduced

would

Cusco

in

English
its full of eggs marked
France

Game

Bolivia, but subsequently became fowl, lately introduced, had

to

quite fertile;and
not
as

yet

arrived
a

for fertility,
was

raise

two
In

or

three

chickens close it has freedom less

out and
our

from

thought
on

fortunate.

Europe
fowl:

confinement been

has found

effect that of

the fowls

fertility of the
allowed

in

with the

considerable allowed

only twenty
forty per
were

per
not

cent,

cent, failed; and

hatched."^ of life

eggs in close So
some we

failed; when
confinement
that
on see

freedom

sixty

of the

hundred

unnatural

changed
most

conditions

produce
as

effect in wild

the
same

of fertility
manner,

thoroughly
in
a

domesticated

animals,
with
no

the

though
males known have
no

far

less

degree,
It is not

captive
means

animals. find certain both

are

by

rare

to

and

females
to

which

will

breed

together, though
males and is caused their

be

perfectly
to

fertile with that

other this in
our

females. animals

We

reason

pose sup-

by these subject.

having

change any related to

innate

habits

of life; therefore The the

cause

present
have for been his

subjected to such cases are hardly apparently lies in an

are

been

sexual

incompatibility of
essay
on

pair which
to

matched. W. C.

eral Sev-

instances

communicated

(well known

and Eyton, by Mr. Wicksted in of relation to horses, cattle, pigs, foxhounds, Chelsfield, Waring In other these either females, which pigeons." dogs, and cases, failed be to to breed were fertile, or proved subsequently previously

me Spooner by Cross-breeding), by Mr. Eyton of other breeders, and especially by Mr.

Mr.

with match

certain them. have

males,
A

with

whom in the

it

was

particularly
of the

desired

to

change
occurred

constitution she
was

female

may

sometimes but known in other

not

cases

to

be

male; put to the second this explanation is hardly tenable, for a female, or unsuccessfully paired seven barren, has been
before the
same

eight

times With

with

male

likewise

known

to not

be

perfectly
with lions, cart-stalthe lesser

fertile. stallions Mr. sexual breeder that

"

will sometimes cart-mares, which bred have but of pure blood, subsequently

breed

with
to

Spooner

is inclined

to

attribute But
I have

the

failure
from

of the race-horse. power the at of race-horses it

one

heard

the Mr.

frequently
or

occurs

with
to
;
a

present day, through to be mare a put

greatest Waring,
times

several

during
power, with

two

seasons

particular stallion
mare

and
some

yet prove
other
so

barren

the

afterwards
are on

horse."

These

facts animal
"
'

show,

like

many

previous facts,
an

acknowledged breeding at once worth recording, as they what slight constitutional

of

differences
^5

the

fertility of
'

often
For

depends.
Chapnis, Beige,

Crawfurd's Indian Bull,

'

the
^e

Descrip. Islands,' 185G,

de la Soc. pp.

mat.,'

torn,

ix., 1802,

Diet, of 145. d'Aecli380, 384.

p.

Le

Pigeon
p.

pigeons, see Dr. Voyageur

1865,

60.

142

STERILITY

FROM

Chap. XVIII.

Sterilityof Plants

from changed Conditions from other causes.

of Life, and

of sterilityfrequently cases vegetable kingdom analogous with those previously given in the animal occur, stances, But by several circumthe subject is obscured kingdom. presently to be discussed, namely, the contabescence

In

the

of the

anthers,
"

as

Gartner

has

named
"

certain

affection

"

monstrosities
"

doubleness
or

of the flower excessive

and

long-continued
that
in not

much-enlarged fruit propagation by buds.

It is notorious

though

preserved
I too do

many the most allude

or

seed.

plants in our gardens and hot-houses, perfect health, rarely or never duce proto leaves, from to plants which run
or

being kept
do not

damp,

too
case

warm,

too

much

manured different.
or

for these
Nor from

allude much

flower, and to fruit not

moisture.

may ripening from many

as

the

be
want

wholly
of heat
not
own

do
and

rotting
their seed.

too

But

exotic from

plants, with
will
set

ovules

pollen appearing perfectlysound,

in many
cases,

any

The

rility ste-

observation, is simply the pollen to carrying proper But after several the the stigma. cases just specified, excluding there are the reproductive system has been plants in which many of life to which they seriously affected by the altered conditions have been subjected. be tedious to enter details. It would Linnaeus on long many with observed that loaded Alpine plants, although naturally ago when cultivated in gardens. But seed, produce either few or none of our the Draba oughly thormost si/Ivestris, one exceptions often occur: son's Alpine plants, multipliesitself by seed in Mr. H. C. Wathas and London; Kerner, who garden, near particularly to the cultivation various attended of Alpine plants, found that themselves." kinds, when cultivated, spontaneously sowed Many in peat-earth are plants which naturally grow entirely sterile in liliaceous fact with several our gardens. I have noticed the same nevertheless plants, which vigorously. grew Too much renders kinds manure some utterly sterile,as I have observed. The myself runs tendency to sterilityfrom this cause in families; thus, according to Gartner,"" it is hardly possible to to most give too much manure Graminese, Cruciferse, and Legusucculent bulbous-rooted minosse, whilst and plants are easily
I know

due

to

the

absence

of the

my insects

for

'*

vol. i., 1739, the same retnnrk in his Travels (Eng. translat.), vol. 1. p. 292. '" A. Die Cnltnr rter Korner, p. 3. makes
' '
'

78

"

Swedish Pallas

Acts,'

p. 1.31: Mr. written on

D. the
'

Cameron,
culture mentions

also, has of Alpine

plants
pp.

in

Gard.

Chronicle,'
a

1848,
few der

25,3, 2("S, and

seed.
"

which
^o

Alpenpflanzen.' son's Cybele

'

1864,

s.

189;

Wat-

Britannica,'

vol.

1.

Kenntniss p.eitriige zur Befruchtung,' 1844, s. 333.

Chap. XVIII.

CHANGED

CONDITIONS.

I43
to

affected.
but

Extreme

poverty of soil is less apt

of Trifolium
never

induce

sterility;
on a me

dwarfed
often

plants
mown

minus

and
were

lawn which

and

manured,
often have

repens, found

growing

by
the

not
season on

to at

produce any

seed.

The

temperature of the soil,and

a

plants are as was fertility,

Mr.

watered,
observed

marked the
case

effect
of

by Kolreuter

in

their Mirabilis."

of Edinburgh, observed Gardens Scott, in the Botanic that not set seed when Oncidium divm'icatum would in a basket grown it throve, but was in which capable of fertilisation in a pot where it
was a

little

damper.

Pelaryonium

fuhjidum,

for

many

after of

its introduction, seeded freely;it then became is fertile *^ if kept in a dry stove during the winter.

sterile; now
Other

years it

varieties

able

pelargonium are to assign any cause. whether plant, planted

difference

sterile

fertile without our being Very slight changes in the position of a

a

and

others

on

bank

or

at

its base, sometimes

make

all the
has
on some

apparently much of plants than a more powerful influence on the fertility Nevertheless it is wonderful that of animals. what changes with few plants will withstand undiminished thus fertility:
Candida,
severest
a

in its

producing

seed.

Temperature

the

ZcphyrantJies of the Plata, sows

Yorkshire from Berberis

native hot

of the

moderately
near seen

warm

banks
and in

itself in the had been

dry country
I have
snow

Lima,
seeds

resists the

frosts, and
with Khasia hot

gathered
weeks.*^ cool

pods which by
our

covered the

during
in

three

wallichii, from Nevertheless,

range

jured India, is uninour

sharpest frosts, and

ripens its fruit under

summers.

climate Chinese seeds

the

I presume must to change of attribute we and o f the Persian sterility many foreignplants; thus, lilacs {Syringa chinensis), though perfectly persica and
never us

hardy here,
with
never

lilac (*Sf. seed; the common vulgaris) the capmoderately well, but in parts of Germany sules

produce
seed.^* due

contain
state

Some the

few

of the have
to

cases,

given
here

in the

last
been

chapter,of
as

self-impotent plants, might

seems

been which

introduced,

their The

to

conditions

they have

subjected.
of plants to liability conditions is the branch of formation
or a

be affected
more

in their

by slightly fertility
as

changed
once

remarkable,
flower-buds be

the
a

in process

is not with

easily injured;
cut

pollen when be plant may

transplanted,
in
once

off and The in the with

placed
female least

the water, and pollen will be matured. be matured, may kept for weeks or even

Pollen, also, when

months.*^
not

plants,when
flag, could
organs
81
'

carefullyremoved
seldom
more

so

that
^^

they did
occurred found
"

be

fertilised; this

even

potted
1844,

are

for Gartner sensitive, Petrop.,' 1793,

p. p.
a
^s

that

dicotyledonous
Chronicle,'
Faivre gives in tliis subject
des

Nova

Acta

391.
pp.

215;

Gardener's 1850, p.
resume

470.
on

Gardener,' Cottage 1856, 44, 109. 83 Dr. AmaryllidaHerbert,

' "

"2

'

good
'

his
""

La p.
'

1868, "c.,

Vnriabilite 155.
zur

Especes,'
Kenntniss/

ceae,' p. 176. 8* Gartner,

Kenntniss,'

"c.,

s.

Beitrage 560, 564.

zur

s.

BeitrJige 252, 333.

144

STERILITY.

Chap.

XVIII.

plants
some

if the

roots

had

grown

out

of

the

hole

at

the

bottom.
did

In not

few

prevent
Brassica

Digitalis, liowever, as with transplantation cases, the to fertilisation; and, according testimony of
rapa

Mawz,

when and

pulled
in

up

by
of

ripened
when

its seed.
off

Flower-steras

cut
cases

placed
that with
after

water

placed in water, several monocotyledonous plants likewise in But produce seed.

roots

its

and

these for

Herbert"
or

I presume found

the the the

flowers

had that

been the

already fertilised,
plants might
would
be
moved re-

Crocus
act

mutilated

of

fertilisation,and

still

perfect their seeds; but that, if transplanted before being fertilised, the application of pollen was powerless. Plants which have been can long cultivated generally endure various and with undiminished fertility great changes; but not in of most climate domesticated cases so animals. as great a change It is remarkable that many these circumstances plants under are affected that much the proportion and the nature of their chemiso cal modified, yet their fertility is unimpaired. ingredients are
Thus,
the in
as

Dr.

Falconer in the

informs

me,

there the

is

great difference
of oil in the
in

in the
seed

character

of the

fibre in

Linum,

hemp, proportion of

in

narcotin of

gluten to starch in wheat, when the plains and the mountains on remain fully fertile.
Cofitabescence. condition When shown but in of the become
state
"

quantity to morphine these plants are

India;

of

poppy, cultivated on

the

nevertheless, they all

this
in

Gartner anthers
brown

has in and

designated by
certain

term which
no

plants,
and the

shrivelled, or
in this sterile

tough,

contain

peculiar they are good pollen.

a

anthers of the most they exactly this subject, has on hybrids. Gartner,*^ in his discussion that plants of many orders are occasionally thus affected; the Caryophyllaceae and Liliacese suffer most, and to these
I

resemble

orders,
affected very

think, the Ericaceae

but
on

may
extent.

be

added.
all

Contabescence flowers
are are

varies

degree,
to

the

same same

plant

the

generally
at
a same

nearlv
recorded

the
in

The

anthers remain

affected the

early period
one

the

flower-bud, and

in

state

affection

exception) during the life of the plant. The and cured is by any change of treatment, In and seed. propagated by layers,cuttings, "c., perhaps even by contabescent ly affected, or mereplants the female organs are seldom become The of this affection cause precocious in their development.
cannot be in

(with

is doubtful, and is different Giirtner's discussion I attributed the unnatural

treatment and of

different but

cases.

Until did

I read to

it, as

apparently

Herbert,

the

plants;
The

its permanence

under

changed conditions,
incompatible
with

the view. in
our

female

this

not being affected, seem organs endemic fact of several plants seems, at first

becoming
"
'

contabescent
of Hort.

gardens
vol.
'

sight, equally
s.

.Tournal
8.3.

Soc.,'

Drittc
'

Fortsotziing,'
'

57.

ii.,1847, p. "s zur Beitrjige 117 -et s. Ac, scq.; Zweite Fortsetzuug,'
' '

Konntniss,'
s.

Amarvllidacesp,' bort, Ueber die Wiegmann.

Her355. Bastardp.

Kolroiiter, 10, 121;

erzeugung,'

s.

27.

146
with
natural
more
or

STERILITY.

Chap.

XVITf.
the
to

respect to peloric flowers, which

structure,
when
"

depart wonderfully
vulgaris
seem

from

those

of Linaria

generally
of

be

mains,
unable

pollen, are perfectly for bees to left when sterile themselves, are fertile,though tubular flower. The peloric flowers into the narrow to crawl
own

before less sterile,whilst those their fertilised with artificially

described

Antirrhinum

of
and
to

Corydalis
sometimes flower

solida, according to Godron,"' are fertile; whilst those of Gloxinia

seed.
truss

sometimes
are

barren known

well

greenhouse Pelargoniums, the informs peloric,and Mr. Masters vain several he tried in to seed from that me during get years vain flowers. I likewise made these times attempts, but somemany from them with in fertilising normal succeeded a pollen flower of another variety; and conversely I several times fertilised I succeeded with in ordinary flowers peloric pollen. Only once from fertilised flower from a a a peloric by pollen plant raising be variety; but the plant, it may peloric flower borne by another Hence w^e added, presented nothing particular in its structure. conclude that rule be laid but no can down; general may any when the reproducstructure, even tive great deviation from the normal yield plenty of
In
our

central

of the

is often

themselves are organs to leads sexual impotence.

Double

not

seriously affected, certainly often

stamens
are

Flowers. becomes

"

When
on

the male

converted

into

petals,

the
and

plant thus changed, the are pistils Symmetrical flowers having numerous
liable to become

the

side

both stamens sterile; when plant becomes completely barren.

stamens and

most organs with

double,

as

being the

most

subject
and become

to

perhaps variability. But

others which
as we are see

follows

from

petals are the all multiple

furnished
in

flowers with

only
or

few

stamens,

asymmetrical
the

structure,
gorse

sometimes

double,
The abnormal

double

Ulex, and
flowers central

Antirrhinum.

called
of

double

by the

are Compositse bear what of the corolla development

their

florets.

Doubleness

is sometimes

connected

with

the continued or prolification,^^ growth of the axis of the flower. is strongly inherited. No Doubleness has produced, as Lindley one flowers remarks,^^ double by promoting the perfect health of the the On unnatural conditions of life favour their plant. contrary, is to believe that seeds kept during some reason production. There and seeds to believed be imperfectly fertilised,yield many years, than double flowers more fresh and perfectly fertilised seed."' freely in rich soil seems to be the commonest Long-continued cultivation A double narcissus and a double Anthemis exciting cause. nohilis,
'

Journal
"5
'

of

Horticulture,' Rendus,'
1039.

July
Dec.

act.

Hort.

Soc.,'

vol.

iii. p.
'

406:

1st, 1863, p. 171.

Comptes
p.

19th, 1864,
"''
'

Gardener's

Chronicle,'
of

1866,
p.

p.

681.
^^
'

Theory

Horticulture,'
in
'

333.
"8

Mr.

Fairweather,

Trans-

Geb. der ii. s. 77. schlchte Natur,' of removal effects of the On the In Mr. Leitner, the see anthers, American Silliman's North xxiii. vol. of Journ. Science,' p. and 47: Des Varifetes,* Verlot, 1865, p. 84.

Bosse,

quoted

by

Bronn.

'

'

Chap. XVIII.

SEEDLESS

FRUIT.

147

been observed to soil, has transplanted into very become poor "" I have and white seen a single; completely double primrose rendered and permanently single by being divided transplanted whilst in full flower. It has been observed by Professor E. Morren and doubleness that of the flowers variegation of the leaves are antagonistic states; but so many exceptions to the rule have lately been be looked at as recorded,^"" that, though general, it cannot invariable. Variegation seems generally to result from a feeble or of the plant, and a large proportion of the atrophied condition seedlings raised from parents, if both are variegated, usually perish at an early age; hence we may perhaps infer that doubleness, which arises from is the antagonistic state, commonly tion. a plethoric condiOn the other hand, extremely poor soil sometimes though ^"^ I formerly described doubleness: to cause some rarely, appears by completely double, bud-like, flowers produced in large numbers amarclla wild plants of Gentiana stunted growing on a poor chalky I have distinct bank. also noticed in a tendency to doubleness the flowers of
a

Ranunculus,
Msculus

(Ranunculus
very With that

repens,

and Horse-chestnut, Staphylea), pavia, and Professor

a

Bladder-nut

growing
^"^

der uneral sev-

unfavourable

conditions.
near

Lehmann

found

wild,

plants growing
cause

hot

spring with

double

flowers.

respect to the

widely different the most probable view

to

of doubleness, which der arises,as we see, uncircumstances, I shall presently attempt to show is that that unnatural
on

conditions
of principle

first

give

tendency
as

and sterility,

then,
do not

the

tion, compensa-

perform their proper functions, into either become developed petals, or additional petals are they been This view has latel}^ formed. supported by Mr. Laxton,^"^ who of some the case advances common peas, which, after long-continued second flowered a time, and produced double flowers. heavy rain, of valuable most Seedless Fruit. our fruits, although Many of widely different are consisting in a homological sense organs, is ously notoriThis few seeds. either quite sterile, or produce extremely the pinewith with the case best pears, grapes, and our apple, figs, banana, bread-fruit, pomegranate, azarole, date-palms, and varieties of these same members of the orange-tribe. Poorer some horticulfruits either habitually or occasionally yield seed.^"* Most
the

reproductive organs

"

89

Lindley's
'

'

Theory

of

culture,' Horti-

10*

Lindley,

'

Theory

of

culture,' Horti'

100

333. Gardener's
p.

626; Verlot,
p.
"1'

1866,
'

Des

Chronicle,' 1865, and 730; 290, Vari^tes,' p. 75.

pp.

'

p. the
*

Gardener's In this 628.

the

Chronicle,'
article
above I

1843,
gested sugon

De Godron. ing, 106; PickerRaces of Man; Gnllesio, della 1816. Teoria Riproduzione.' una 101-110. (' lieise Meyen pp. that Th. ii. s. 214) states Erde,'

175-179; pp. ii. p. I'Espeee,' torn.

'

'

theory

given

of flowers. This doubleness is view Carriere, adopted by Production et Fix. des Varietes,* 1865, p. 67.
102 Quoted by tarderzeugung,'

Manila at is banana

one

variety
of
'

of

the

full

seeds:

and

Gartner,
s.

'

Bas-

567.

Gardener's p. 901.
'

i""

Chronicle,' 1866,

Bot. Chamisso Misc.,' (Hooker's vol. a i. p. 310) describes variety in the Mariana of the bread-fruit ing small Islands with fruit, containwhich are seeds frequently in his Travels Burnes, perfect. remarks th" in on Bokhara,'
'

1-18

STERILITY

FROM

THE

DEVELOPMENT

Chap.

XVIIL

turists fruit
as we as

look
the shall

development of the great size and anomalous the result; but the opposite view, and as sterility cause, is more probable. presently see,
at the

StcTility
Growth
or

from

the
"

excessive
Plants

development
Avhich
from

of
any

the
cause

organs

of
too

Vegetation.
in
excess,

grow
flower

luxuriantly, and
bulbs, "c.,
not

produce

leaves, stems, runners, do not flower, or sometimes

suckers, tubers,
if under their

they

do
mate cli-

To make European vegetables yield seed. to check of India yield seed, i1^4l^necessary one-third
are

the
stems for

hot
and

growth;

and,

when Prof. grew

one once

grown,
or

theyV^taken up,

and

their

roots tap-

cut

mutilatea.^''^^,vSo st^pj until

seedf few

it is with

hybrids;

instance.

Lecoq ^"^ had three plSntsof Mirabilis, which, though they beatquite sterile; but after ing floNVered, were luxuriantly aJBtl^"'Mith
a

branches

alone

were

left,these

at

and
to

produces,..^ supply larj^*^

various

yielded gO"^
obsen

The

of

sugar-cane, succulent
in

which

grows never,

vigorously

stems,

according
which

Cochin

efs, bears Chipa, Mauritius, or

a

seed the

the

West

Indies, Malaga, India,

Malay
are

Archipelago."^ Plants

produce
certain
me as

large number
the

of tubers
common

extent, \vith
the
he sweet
as

that
far

has
but

seen,

potato yields

to a as occurs, apt to be sterile, informs potato; and Mr. Fortune in China {Convolvulus batatas) never, seed. Dr.

Royle
in rich
and to

remarks

"*

that

in lead
an

India
to

the

bulbs,
an

vivipara, grown no seeds; whilst a poor soil In China, according opposite result.
Agave
tiumber of and

when

soil,invariably produces

dry climate
Mr.
in

Fortune,
the
axils

extraordinary
the
in leaves

little bulbs
this

are

developed
not bear and

of

of the
eases,

yam,
as

plant
double

does

seed.

Whether

these

in

those

of

flowers
of the

seedless

fruit,
cause

sexual which favour

from sterility leads

is to

changed
excessive

conditions

of life is the

primary

the
;

development
some

might that perhaps a more probable view method, plants which largely by one propagate themselves namely not sufficient vital power for or by buds, have organised matter of sexual the other method generation. and Several distinguished botanists good practicaljudges believe that long-continued propagation by cuttings, runners, tubers, bulbs, "c., independently of any excessive development of these parts, is the of many cause plants failing to produce flowers, or producing barren only flowers, it is as if they had lost the habit of sexual thus generation."" That many plants when propagated are sterile
of this view. It is
"

doubtful

though

evidence

of tion, vegetaorgans in be advanced

pomegranate

seeding
a

in

Mazen-

demoy.
Soc. vol.
of

deran,
105

as

remarliable in
Hort.
'

ity. peculiarTransact, Soc. of of

dia.' In-

in Transact, Mauritius
'

of
'

the

R.
a

vi.

187.3, pp.
of

(now 60-67,
of in

series),
gives
eral sev-

ingledew, and Agricult.

vol. ii. 100 la De 3088. ^"^ Hooker's
.

large
which

number
never

cases

plants
tius. Mauri-

seed,

including

species Fecondation,'
'

indigenous
Linn.
*

18G2,
108
"

p. p.

Transact.

Soc.,' vol.

Bot.
'

Misc..'
della

vol.

i.

xvii.
103

p.

563. De Herbert

99; Gallesio, Teoria Dr. produzione,' p. 110.

Ri-

Godron,

J. de

Cor-

ii. p.

106;

I'Espece,' torn. In on Crocus,

Chap.

XVIII.

OF

THE

ORGANS

OP

VEGETATION.

149

there this

can

be of

no

doubt, but
is

as

to

whether
actual

the
cause

long continuanee
of

of

form

propagation
the be

the

their

I sterility,
an

will not

venture, from

want

of sufiicient

evidence, to express

opinion.
That the the
state

plants may
aid
case

of sexual with

of nature.

many As I

propagated for long periods by buds, without generation, we may ing safely infer from this bewhich must have in a plants long survived
have

had

occasion

before

to

allude

to

this

I have collected. as subject, I will here give such cases Many ascend mountains the beyond height at which alpine plants they and can species of Poa Festuca, when produce seed.^^" Certain mountain-pastures, propagate themselves, as I hear growing on from Mr. almost Kalm Bentham, exclusively by bulblets. gives a
more

curious

instance marshes

^"

of several in thick

American

trees, which
that

grow

so

in plentifully

well but

or woods, they are certainly stations, yet scarcely ever adapted for these produce seeds; of the when the outside marsh accidentally growing on or are

wood,
Sweden

loaded and

with

seed. but

The

common

ivy
fruits

is found

in Northern

only in the southern extends Acorus calamus The over a provinces. large portion of the globe, but so rarely perfects fruit that this has been seen only by few botanists; according to Caspary, all its pollen-grains are in a a
Russia,
worthless
in

flowers

and

condition."so

The
our

Hypericum
shrubberies
but

itself this in

freely in
blossoms

calycinum, by rhizomes,

which
and

gates propa-

is naturalised

Ireland,

profusely,

rarely

sets

did it set any only during certain years; nor from garden by pollen plants growing at my which is furnished with

any when

seed,

and

fertilised The

distance.

so nummularia, long runners, has Decaisne,"^ who produces seed-capsules, that Professor it in fruit. to this plant, has The never seen especiallyattended Carer fails to perfect its seed in Scotland, Lapland, rUjkla often New in the United States."* and Greenland, Germany, Hampshire The is which periwinkle {Vhica minor), spreads largely by runners, but said scarcely ever this plant reto produce fruit in England; quires

LysimacJiia
seldom

"^

insect-aid al)sent
in
or rare.

for

its

The

be fertilisation,and the proper insects may naturalised Jussia'a f/randiflora has become
has

Southern
of 254: has in he of

France,
Hort.
Dr.
seen

and

spread by

its rhizomes

so

extensively
in
p.
on

'

Jonrnal

l.S4r., p.
what

this

Soc.,' vol. i., Wi,!,'ht. from lieves bein India, Madras view;
'

Acorns,
'

fsee

Dr.

Bronifield

the ^~Cu

iii. vol. Phytoloffist,' Vanoher Also and Lindley and as Acorns, .sec Caspary
'

"Tournnl

Lit.

and

Science,' specifies

vol.

iv., ls.';fi, p. m. 1^" Wahlenber;?

sppr-ies
n.npns'
'

in Tonr

this
see

state in

on

the to

eight land LapLinlated trans-

the below. "3 .Srd Sc. Nat.,' Annal. des iv. 280. torn. series. Zool., p. also to refers Decaisne Professor and with mosses oases analogous lichens
"*

Alps:
bv pp.
Ill
"

Sir

Appendix Lapland,' J. E. Smith,

in

near

Mr.
'

vol.

ii.

man's
"=i

Paris. Tnckermann, Journal American

'

in of

Sillience.' Sci-

274-2S0. Travels

Enjr.
^^^

North America,' vol. iii. p. 175. trnnslat., With to the respect ivy and

vol. xlv. p. 1. E. Sir J. Smith, Flora,' vol. i. p. 339.

English

150
to

STEHILITY.

Chap. XVIll.

as

impede the navigation of the waters, but

The and

never

tile produces fer-

seed."* it bears informs

never common or seen

horse-radish
is naturalised these

{Cochlearia
in various

armoracia) spreads pertinacious of parts Europe; though

flowers,
me

that
its

he

has
65

rarely produce capsules: Professor Caspary this plant since watched 1851, but has
per
cent,

fruit;
but

of its
bears

are pollen-grains

bad.

The

Raniiniulns in

ficaria rarely
1863 I observed
eases

seed
on

in

Switzerland;
near

seeds

several

England, France, plants growing

the

my

house."^

Other

analogous
of
mosses

with and

foregoing
have

could
never

be

kinds given; for instance, some been to fructify in France. seen

of

lichens

plants are probably multiplication by buds, and their nourish seed. But the sterility consequent incapacity to produce and of others more probably depends on the peculiar conditions under which of the ivy in the northern they live, as in the case and of of the trees in the of the United parts Europe, swamps be in some States; yet these plants must respects eminently well for for they hold the stations which their adapted they occupy, host of places against a competitors.
these rendered sterile from excessive

Some

endemic

and

naturalised

often companies achigh degree of sterilitywhich the doubling of flowers,or an excessive ment developof fruit,seldom An incipient tendency at once. supervenes is observed, and continued selection completes the result. The the most view which seems probable, and which connects together all the foregoing facts and brings them within our present subject,is, that changed and unnatural conditions of life first give a tendency to sterility; and in of this, the organs of reproduction being no consequence longer able fully to perform their proper functions, a supply of organised matter, not required for the development of the

Finally, the

seed, flows either into these

ous,
or

organs

and

renders

them

foliace-

fruit,stems, tubers, "c., increasing their size and succulency. But it is probable that there exists, independently of any antagonism between an incipient sterility, the two forms of reproduction, namely, by seed and buds, when either is carried to an extreme degree. That incipient
de Flora Planchon, Montpellier.' 1864, p. 20. ^^"^ On the of non-production seeds in England, Mr. Crocker, see in Gardener's Weekly zine,' MagaHist. 1852, p. 70; Vaueher, Plantes torn. i. Phys. d'Europe,' Bot. 33; Geograph. p. Lecoq, d'Europe,' torn. iv. p. 466; Dr, D.
'

into

the

""

G.

'

Anna], Clos, in 3rd series, Bot.,

p. to
more
on

'

des torn,

So.

Nat.,'
refers

xvii., 1852,

129;
other

this

latter

author

See cases. analogous especially on this plant, and allied Die Naturw.
"

'

other

cases,

Caspary.
hand.

Nuphar,"

'

Professor AbGesellsch. zu
'

Halle,' B. xi. 1870, pp,

40, 78.

Chap.

XVIII.

STERILITY.

151

important part in the doubling of flowers, and in the other cases I infer chieflyfrom the just specified, fertility is lost from a wholly different following facts. When namely, from dency, hybridism, there is a strong tencause, Gartner afiirms, for flowers to become as double, and this tendency is inherited. that Moreover, it is notorious become sterile before the fewith hybrids the male male organs
an
"^

sterility plays

organs,

and
This

with

double

flowers

the stamens

first become flowers

foliaceous. of dioacious

latter fact is well shown

^'^

by the male

first become plants, which, according to Gallesio,"** often insists that the flowers double. Again, Gartner of even utterly sterile hybrids, which do not produce any seed, has generally yield perfect capsules or fruit, a fact which with the Cucurlikewise been repeatedly observed by Naudin bitacete; so that the production of fruit by plants rendered has also sterile through any is intelligible. Kolreuter cause astonishment velopmen deat the size and expressed his unbounded in all exof the certain tubers hybrids; and perimentalis have remarked the strong tendency in on and suckers. Seeing hybrids to increase by roots, runners, that hybrid plants, which from their nature less are more or thus tend to produce double flowers;that they have the sterile, parts including the seed, that is the fruit,perfectly developed, when containing no seed; that they sometimes yield gigantic even roots ; that they almost invariably tend to increase seeing this, and largely by suckers and other such means; facts given in the earlier parts of knowing, from the many all organic beings when this chapter, that almost exposed to
"

^^^

"

unnatural
seems

conditions the
most

tend

to

become

more

or

less sterile,it cultivated

much

probable view
exciting
in
some

that and

with

plants, sterilityis the

rich seedless fruit, and
of

cause,

double

flowers,

cases

largely-developed organs
results
"

vegetation, "c.,
been in
most
man.

are cases

the indirect

these

results having

largely increased

through continued

selection
lis
'

by

Bastarderzeugunsj,'
(Dritte
also

s.

565.
s.

Kolrenter
two
er

Fortesetziiug,
shows
that when

73, 87, 119)

Teoria della Riproduzione Veg.,' 1816, p. 73. ^^o Partner, 'Bastarderzeugung,'

^^^

'

are

theothsingle and species, one crossed, the hybrids double, are double. apt to be extremely

s.

573.
"^

Ibid.,

s.

527.

152

SUMMARY

OF

THE

Chap.

XIX.

CHAPTEK
SUMMARY
OF THE FOUR LAST

XIX.
CHAPTERS,
WITH
REMARKS

ON

HYBRIDISM.

On

the

of domestication influence The effects of crossing on fertility and evil results from conditions Good changed Close interbreeding not crossed ence when of life Varieties invariably fertile On the differvarieties Conclusions crossed and in fertility between species gitimate on hybridism with respect to hybridism Light thrown by the illeof crossed of heterostyled plants Sterility species progeny confined to the Not due to differences reproductive system mulated accuvarieties selection lieasons through natural why domestic
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

are

not

mutually

sterile

"

in fertility between

Too much crossed

stress

has

species and

been laid on the crossed varieties

"

difference clusion. Con-

uals individchapter that when of the same of a distinct variety, are variety, or even mately is ultiallowed freely to intercross, uniformity of character few characters, however, are ble incapaacquired. Some often of of fusion, but these are unimportant, as they are and semi-monstrous have suddenly appeared. a nature,
It
was

shown

in the fifteenth

Hence

to

preserve

our

domesticated

breeds

true,

or

to

prove im-

selection,it is obviously necessary by methodical that they should be kept separate. Nevertheless, a whole be slowly modified, through unconscious body of individuals, may selection,as we shall see in a future chapter, without into lots. Domestic have distinct races separating them often been intentionallymodified by one or two crosses, made with allied race, and some occasionally even by repeated
crosses

them

with

very

distinct and

races

but

in almost

all such

cases,

long-continued
necessary,

careful

selection

has

been

absolutely
spring, off-

owing
due

to the excessive

of the crossed variability In

a

to the

principle of reversion.
retained
a

few

instances,
from

mongrels have their first production.

however,
When much
more

uniform

character

two

varieties
numerous

are

allowed the

to

cross

freely,and
former varieties

one

is

than latter.

other, the
both

will ultimately exist in

absorb

the

Should

151
On the

SUMMARY

OF

THE

Chap. XIX.

other hand, long-continnedclose interbreeding between the nearest relations diminishes the constitutional and occasionally of the offspring; vigour, size,and fertility
terioration to general deleads to malformations, but not necessarily This failure of fertility of form or structure. of shows that the evil results are interbreeding independent
to both augmentation of morbid tendencies common parents, though this augmentation no doubt is often highly

of the

ing injurious. Our belief that evil follows from close interbreedthe experience of practical on rests to a certain extent animals of those who have reared many breeders,especially it likewise but rests of quicklypropagating kinds; on eral sev-

carefullyrecorded

experiments. With

some

animals

be carried on for a long period with close interbreedingmay impunity by the selection of the most vigorous and healthy later evil follows. The evil, ever, howor individuals;but sooner

slowly and graduallythat it easily escapes ous but can be recognised observation, by the almost instantanein constitutional which size, vigour, and fertility manner
comes on so are

regained M^hen animals that have long been interbred

a

are

crossed with These from

two

distinct

family.

namely, the good derived great classes of facts, and the evil from close interbreeding, with the crossing,

consideration of the innumerable adaptationsthroughout for compelling, nature or favouring,or at least permitting, taken together, individuals, lead to the conclusion that it is a law of nature that organic beings shall not fertilisethemselves for perpetuity. This law
was

the occasional union

of distinct

firstplainly hinted at in 1799,with respect to plants, by Andrew that sagacious Knight,^and, not long afterwards, after showing how well the Malvaceae are observer Kolreuter, asks, " an id aliquidin recessu habeat, adapted for crossing,

quod hujuscemodi floras nunquam proprio suo pulvere,sed aliarum eo suae speciei impregnentur,meritoqu8eritur? semper
1
'

Transactions
p.

PMl.

Soc.,'

failed

1709,
'

202. For KfUreuter, see de Mem. St. PetersI'Acad. de bourg,' torn. ill. 1809 (published In 1811), p. 197. reading C. K.
*

meaning
flowers

scribed,
before

fnll the understand of the of the structure which he has dewell so from not always having his mind the key to the to

Das Sprengel's remarkable work, entdeckte Geheimniss,' "c., 1793,

it is curious to

problem,
rived tinct

this

wonderfully

observe acute

how often observer

the namely, good the' crossing of from individual plants,

dedls-

ii

Chap.

XIX.

FOUR

LAST

CHAPTERS.

;155
demur

Certe

natura

nil faclt frustra."

Kolreuter's how
many

saying that

nature

Although we does nothing

organs

may

to

in

vain, seeing
are,

rudimentary
the argument

and from

useless
the

there

yet

doubtedly un-

innumerable greatest

contrivances,
The
most to

which

favour

crossing, is of the

weight.

uniformity of of the same character in the individuals species. In the case of certain hermaphrodites which probably intercross only at long intervals of time, and with unisexual animals inhabiting somewhat which separated localities, can only occasionally into and the contact come pair, greater vigour and fertility of the crossed offspring will ultimately tend to give uniformity of character. when But we beyond the limits of go the same species, free intercrossing is barred by the law of sterility. In searching for facts which might throw light on the of the good effects from crossing,and of the evil effects cause from close interbreeding,we have seen that, on the one hand, it is a widely prevalent and ancient belief, that animals and plants profitfrom slight changes in their condition of life; and it would in a somewhat that the germ, analogous appear is more effectuallystimulated by the male element, manner, when taken from a distinct individual,and therefore slightly
modified
same

important

result of this law

is that

it leads

in nature, been

than

when

taken On the that

from
other

male

having the
numerous are

identical have

constitution.

hand,
animals

facts

given, showing

when

first

in their native land, and although subjected to captivity, even allowed much often their reproductive functions are liberty, Some of animals greatly impaired or quite annulled. groups affected than others,but wdth apparently capricious are more Some animals rarely never or exceptions in every group. or couple under confinement; some couple freely,but never the The nal materrarely conceive. secondary male characters, With functions and instincts, are, occasionally affected. first subjected to cultivation, analogous facts plants, when have double been observed. We flowers, our probably owe rich seedless fruits, and in some cases greatly developed the above nature bined comtubers, "c., to incipient sterility of which Animals with a copious supply of nutriment. have long been domesticated, and plants which have long been

156

SUMMARY.

Chap.

XIX.

ity, cultivated,can generally withstand, with unimpaired fertilof life; though both great changes in their conditions animals the somesometimes what are slightly affected. With gether rare capacity of breeding freely under confinement, tothe kinds which with their utility, mainly determine have We been
can

domesticated.
in
no case

precisely say
an

what

is the

cause

of the
a

diminished

of fertility
first
a

animal
we

when
can

first

captured, or of
infer that
it

plant
caused life.

when

cultivated;
of
some

only

is

by
The

change
remarkable

kind

in the natural

conditions

of

of the reproductive syssusceptibility tem to such to any changes, a susceptibilitynot common other organ, bility, apparently has an important bearing on Variashall see in a future chapter. as we It is impossible not to be struck with the double parallelism the two classes of facts just alluded to. between On the and crosses one hand, slightchanges in the conditions of life, between slightlymodified forms or varieties,are beneficial as far as prolificness and constitutional vigour are concerned. On the other hand, changes in the conditions gree, greater in de" "

or

of have

different

nature,

and

crosses

between

forms

greatly modified by natural in other words, between ous, species, are highly injurimeans, is concerned, and in far as the reproductive system as far as constitutional few instances cerned. vigour is conas some it not Does Can this parallelism be accidental?
which been

slowly and

"

"

rather
out

indicate

some

real bond
so

of connection the vital forces

?
are a

As

unless

it be stirred up,
to

fire goes ing, always tenda

according
unless of other
In

Mr.

Herbert and

Spencer,
renovated

to

state

of the

brium, equiliaction

disturbed

through
to

forces.
some

keep distinct,by breeding at different seasons, by great difference in size,or by sexual preference. But the crossing of varieties,far from of the first union diminishing, generally adds to the fertility all the more and of the mongrel offspring. Whether widely varieties are distinct domestic invariably quite fertile when time do not positivelyknow; much and trouble crossed, we would be requisite for the necessary experiments, and many
cases

few

varieties

tend

difficulties occur,

such

as

the

descent

of

the

various

races

Chap.

XIX.

HYBRIDISM.

I57

aboriginally distinct species, and the doubts whether forms certain ought to be ranked as species or varieties. the wide of Nevertheless, experience practical breeders proves if some that the great majority of varieties,even should fertile inter se, are hereafter prove to be indefinitely not far fertile when crossed, than the vast majority of closely more allied natural ever, species. A few remarkable cases have, howbeen given on the authority of excellent observers, ing showthat with plants certain forms, which undoubtedly must be ranked crossed than varieties, yield fewer seeds when as is natural varieties have had to the parent-species. Other far modified their reproductive powers that they are either so
from
more or

less fertile than

their parents, when

crossed

with

species. cated Nevertheless, the fact remains indisputable that domestidiffer greatly of animals and of plants,which varieties, in structure, from another scended but which one are certainly defrom the same of such as the races aboriginal species, the fowl, pigeon, many vegetables, and a host of other productions, are extremely fertile when crossed; and this seems broad to make and domestic a impassable barrier between varieties and natural species. But, as I will now attempt to portant show, the distinction is not so great and overwhelmingly imas

distinct

it at first appears.

On

the

Difference in Fertilitybetween
when crossed.

Varieties

and

Species

place for fully treating the subject of hybridism, and I have already given in my ' Origin of Species a moderately full abstract. I will here merely the general conclusions which be relied on, enumerate may and which bear on our present point. the laws Firstly, governing the production of hybrids are and vegetable identical,or nearly identical,in the animal kingdoms. first Secondly, the sterility of distinct species when most united, and that of their hybrid offspring, graduate, by an alis not the
proper
'

This

work

infinite number
never

of steps, from
a

zero,

when
never

the

ovule
up

is
to

impregnated, and

is seed-capsule

formed,

158

HYBRIDISM.

Chap. XIX.

We can only escape tlie conclusion that completefertility. fertilewhen crossed, by determining to some are fully species

designate as varieties all the forms which are This high degree of fertility however, rare. is,

quite fertile.

Nevertheless,

conditions, which have been exposed to unnatural plants, that they sometimes a manner, become modified in so peculiar fertile when crossed with a distinct species much more are ing than when fertilised by their own pollen. Success in effectof and the fertility first union between two species, a
their hybrids, depend in an eminent degree on the conditions of hybrids of of life being favourable. The innate sterility the same seed-capsule parentage and raised from the same between two with that of parallel speciesdoes not always run strictly of species known their hybrid offspring. are Many cases which can be crossed with ease, but yieldhybridsexcessively
a

often differsmuch in degree. of Thirdly,the degreeof sterility

firstcross

sterile ; and

which can be crossed with great some conversely but produce fairlyfertile hybrids. This is an difficulty, fact, on the view that specieshave been speinexplicable cially in order to keep them with mutual sterility endowed

distinct. often differs greatlyin Fourthly,the degree of sterility two crossed; for the first will specieswhen reciprocally after fertilisethe second; but the latter is incapable, readily of fertilising the former. hundreds of trials, Hybrids produced two from reciprocal between the same species crosses These likewise sometimes differ in their degree of sterility. the view of also cases on are sterility utterlyinexplicable endowment. a being special the degree of sterility of firstcrosses and of hybrids Fifthly, with the generalor to a certain extent, parallel runs, the of forms which are united. For spesystematic affinity cies those distinct longing beand to belonging can rarely, genera distinct families can however, is far from parallelism,
to

be crossed. The complete; for a multitude

never,

allied species will not unite,or unite with extreme closely whilst other species, other, widely different from one andifficulty, with the culty diffibe crossed ]^or does can perfect facility. for andepend on ordinary constitutional differences, of

Ii

Chap.

XIX.

HYBRIDISM.

I59

and perennial plants, deciduous trees, evergreen plants flowering at different seasons, inhabiting different stations, and naturally living under the most opposite climates, often be crossed with ease. The difficulty can or facilityapparently the sexual constitution depends exclusively on of the species which their sexual elective crossed; or on are i. e., Wahlverwandtschaft of Gartner. As affinity, species in one modified become rarely or never character, without in many time modified being at the same characters,and as similari systematic affinity includes all visible similarities and disany

nual

and

difference

in sexual

constitution

between

two

less close relation species would naturally stand in more or with their systematic position. Sixthly, the sterilityof species wdien first crossed, and that of hybrids, may possibly depend to a certain extent on distinct causes. With species the reproductive organs pure in a perfect condition, whilst with hybrids they are often are A plainly deteriorated. hybrid embryo which partakes of the constitution is exposed to unof its father and mother natural within the conditions, as long as it is nourished

womb,
that

or

egg,

or

seed

of the

mother-form;
induce

and

as

we

know

unnatural

the reprosterility, ductive of this the be early age hybrid might at organs manently perfertilit affected. has no bearing on the inBut this cause conditions often of first unions. The
may

diminished often

number

of the offspring is

from
sometimes

first unions
case,

result, as
death
see

certainly
of the
a

the

from
we

the premature shall

of most that

hybrid embryos.
an

For

immediately

law

of

unknown

more

or

spring apparently exists,which leads to the offfrom infertile, being themselves unions, which are be less infertile;and this at present is all that can
nature

said.

SeventJily,hybrids and mongrels present, with the one in the most striking accordance great exception of fertility, all other respects; namely, in the laws of their resemblance to their two parents, in their tendency to reversion, in their and in being absorbed variability, through repeated crosses by either parent-form. gate led to investiAfter arriving at these conclusions, I was considerable throws light on hybridism. a subject which

160

HYBRIDISM.

Chap.

XIX.

namely, the fertilityof heterostyled or dimorpliic and triunited. I have had occamorphic plants,when illegitimately sion several times to allude to these plants, and I may here Several plants belonging give a brief abstract of my observations. orders present two exist to distinct forms, which
in about in their

equal numbers,

and

which
one

differ in form

no

respect

except

having a long pistil the other a short pistilwith with short stamens, mens; long statriboth with differentlysized pollen-grains. With morphic plants there are three forms likewise differing in and stamens, in the size and colthe lengths of their pistils our other respects; and as and in some of the pollen-grains, reproductive
organs;

in each
are

of the three forms

sets
so

there

are

two

sets

of stamens, kinds
to
one

there

altogether six
organs any
are

of stamens

and
in

three

of

pistils.
another stand
I have

These

proportioned

length

that, in
on a

two

of the forms, half the stamens the

in each

level with

stigma of the third form.

Now

by other observers, shown, and the result has been confirmed with these plants, it is that, in order to obtain full fertility
necessary

that the

stigma of the
the stamens

one

form of

should

be fertilised

by pollen taken

corresponding height in So that with dimorphic species two unions, the other form. be called legitimate, are which and fully fertile, two, may which be called illegitimate,are less infertile. more or may With trimorphic species six unions are legitimate, twelve and less are fully fertile, illegitimate, or or more or
infertile.*
The

from

which be observed in various phic dimorinfertility may and trimorphic plants, when illegitimatelyfertilised, that is, by pollen taken from stamens not corresponding in differs much in degree, up to absolute height with the pistil, and utter in sterility; just in the same manner as occurs in the crossing distinct species. As the degree of sterility latter case depends in an eminent degree on the conditions of life being more less favourable,so I have found it with illegitimate or unions. that if pollen of a distinct It is well known
' observations On the My Character and nature hybrid-like the of the offspring from illegitiand union of mate Dimorphic
'

nean

abstract
same

Soc.,' vol. x. here given

with 6th

in

the

nearly the that which appeared edition of my Origin

'

p. is

393.

The

Trimorphic
lished in the

Plants
'

'

were

pubthe Lin-

of

Species.'

Journal

of

162
inter se, and
are.

HYBRIDISM.

Chap.

XIX.

it is well known

how

sterile these

When, on the other hand, a hybrid is usually much ened lesseither pure the sterility parent-species, it is when illegitimate plant is fertilised by : and so an the sterility of manner as a legitimate plant. In the same of parallel with the difficulty hybrids does not always run the two between the making the first cross so parent-species, of certain illegitimate plants was sterility unusually great,
whilst the
was

latter ally generis crossed with

sterility of the union by

no means

from

which

they

were

rived de-

hybrids raised from the is innately variable, same seed-capsule the degree of sterility it is in a marked with illegitimate manner so plants. Lastly, hybrids are profuse and persistent flowerers,whilst many other and more sterile hybrids produce few flowers,and are with the weak, miserable dwarfs; exactly similar cases occur illegitimateoffspring of various dimorphic and trimorphic plants. and Although there is the closest identity in character behaviour between illegitimate plants and hybrids, it is that the former brids, hyhardly an exaggeration to maintain are but produced within the limits of the same species of certain forms, whilst ordinary by the improper union between sohybrids are produced from an improper union there is that called distinct species. We have already seen first illegitimate the closest similarity in all respects between between distinct species. This will unions, and first crosses more fully apparent by an illustration: we perhaps be made
great.
may suppose

With

that

botanist

found

two

well-marked

ties varie-

phic occur) of the long-styledform of the trimorand that he determined to try by LytJirum salicaria, would He distinct. specifically crossing whether they were find that they yielded only about one-fifth of the proper ber numof seed, and in all the other abovethat they behaved specifiedrespects as if they had been two distinct species. he would his But the case raise plants from to make sure, lings find that the seedsupposed hybridised seed, and he would and and that were miserably dwarfed utterly sterile, in all other respects like ordinary hybrids. He they behaved that he had actually proved, in accordance might then maintain with the common as view, that his two varieties were

(and such

Chap.

XIX.

HYBRIDISM.

l^^

good and as distinct speciesas any in the world ; but he would be completely mistaken. The facts now given on dimorphic and trimorphic plants are important, because they show us, first that the physiological b oth in test of lessened first and in fertility, crosses is criterion of hybrids, no cause specificdistinction;secondly, bewe

may

conclude the

that

there

is

some

unknown

bond

infertilityof illegitimate unions with that of their illegitimateofi^spring, and we led to extend are the same view to first crosses and hybrids; thirdly,because of especialimportance, that two to me we find,and this seems of three forms of the same exist and may differ species may in no in constitution, or respect whatever, either in structure relatively to external conditions, and yet be sterile when
connects

which

united

in

certain

ways.

For

we

must

remember

that of the

it is
same

the union

of the sexual

elements

of individuals

form, for instance, of two long-styledforms, which results in whilst it is the union of the sexual element sterility; proper
to two

distinct
at

forms

wdiich
the

is fertile.
reverse

Hence

the
occurs

case

pears ap-

first

sight exactly

of what of the
same

in the

species,and distinct species. It is,however, doubtful with crosses between whether this this is really so; but I will not enlarge on obscure subject. We tion however, infer as probable from the consideramay, of of dimorphic and trimorphic plants,that the sterility distinct species when crossed, and of their hybrid progeny, of their sexual elements, depends exclusively on the nature difference in their structure and not on stitution. or general conany
ordinary unions
We
are

of the individuals

also led to

this

same

conclusion

by

sidering con-

in which the male of one species reciprocalcrosses, male with the febe united, or only with great difficulty, cannot be of a second cross can species,whilst the converse ner, effected with perfect facility. That excellent observer, Gartsterile crossed are likewise concluded that species when ov/ing to differences confined to their reproductive systems.

whilst for man, principlewhich makes it necessary to keep he is selecting and improving his domestic varieties, On the them

separate, it would

clearlybe advantageous to varieties

ie4
in
state

HYBRIDISM.

Chap.

XIX.

if they could incipient species, be kept from blending, either through sexual aversion, or by it at one time appeared to becoming mutually sterile. Hence might have me probable, as it has to others, that this sterility selection. On this view we been acquired through natural of lessened that a shade mufit fertilityfirst sponsuppose taneously in other certain like modification, appeared, any individuals crossed with other individuals of a species when of the same species; and that successive slight degrees of infertility,from being advantageous, were slowly accumulated. all the more This appears probable, if we admit that the forms of dimorphic differences the structural between and trimorphic plants, as the length and of the curvature "c., have been co-adapted through natural selection; pistil, for if this be admitted, we hardly avoid extending the can conclusion to their mutual same infertility. Sterility, over, morehas been acquired through natural selection for other with neuter and widely different purposes, insects in reference as of plants, the In the case to their social economy. flowers on the circumference of the truss in the guelder-rose of the spike in (Vihurnum opulus) and those on the summit the feather-hyacinth (Muscari comosum) have been rendered sterile,in order conspicuous, and apparently in consequence that insects might and visit the perfect easily discover flowers. But when endeavour to apply the principle of we natural selection to the acquirement by distinct species of mutual with great difficulties. In the first meet we sterility, habited be remarked that separate regions are often inplace, it may of species or by single species, which when by groups less brought together and crossed are found to be more or it could clearly have been no sterile; now advantage to such and separated species to have been rendered mutually sterile, ral consequently this could not have been effected through natuselection ; but it may perhaps be argued, that, if a species sterile with some rendered with were one compatriot, sterility follow as a necessary In other species would consequence. the second place,it is as much ral opposed to the theory of natuselection, as to the theory of special creation, that in the male element of one form should have reciprocal crosses been rendered utterly impotent on a second form, whilst at
a

of nature, that is to

Chap. XIX.

HYBRIDISM.

1^5
of this second form is

the

same

time

the

male

element

abled en-

freely to fertilise the first form; for this peculiar state of the reproductive system could not possibly have been advantageo to either species. In considering the probability of natural selection having into action in rendering species mutually sterile, come one
of the greatest difficulties will be found
to

lie in the

ence exist-

graduated steps from slightlylessened fertility be admitted, on the principle to sterility. It may above explained, that it would profitan incipient species if it rendered in some slightdegree sterile when crossed with were other variety; for thus fewer its parent-form or with some bastardised and deteriorated offspring would be produced to of commingle their blood with the new species in process
formation. But he who will take the trouble
to reflect
on

of many absolute

the

could be increased sterility through natural selection to that higher degree which is common to so many species,and which is universal with species which have been differentiated to a generic or family rank, will find the subject extraordinarily complex. After mature reflection it
seems

steps by which

this first degree of

to

me

that this could Take the and the

not

have

been

effected

through natural
which,
what when
is there

selection.

case

crossed, produce few

which could favour

of any two species sterile offspring; now, survival of those

dividua in-

in a slightlyhigher happened to be endowed thus and which approached infertility, degree with mutual ? Yet an advance by one small step towards absolute sterility of this kind, if the theory of natural selection be brought to with many have incessantly occurred species,for bear, must sterile neuter With a multitude mutually quite barren. are

which

insects
structure

we

have and

reason

to

believe

that

modifications

in

their

ral by natuhave been slowly accumulated fertility from advantage having been thus indirectly selection, an other to which given to the community they belonged over of the same communities species; but an individual animal slightly not belonging to a social community, if rendered not thus other variety,would sterile when crossed with some itself gain any advantage or indirectlygive any advantage to the other individuals of the same variety,thus leading to their

preservation.

166
But it would be

HYBRIDISM.

Chap.

XIX.

superfluous to discuss this question in detail; for with plants we have conclusive evidence that the be due to some of crossed species must principle, sterility Both Gartner and quite independent of natural selection. have Kolreuter proved that in general including numerous when from be formed species which species, a series can never crossed yield fewer and fewer seeds, to species which produce a single seed, but yet are affected by the pollen of
swells. It is here manifestly for the germen species, sterile individuals,which impossible to select the more of sterility, have already ceased to yield seeds ; so that this acme have been alone is affected,cannot when the germen gained through selection; and from the laws governing the various grades of sterility throughout the being so uniform infer that the cause, animal and vegetable kingdoms, we may in all it may whatever nearly the same or be, is the same certain other
cases.

As

species have

not

been

rendered

mutually

infertile

action of natural selection, and as through the accumulative safely conclude, from the previous as well as from we may other and more general considerations, that they have not been endowed through an act of creation with this quality, infer that it has arisen incidentally during their must we slow formation
in in

connection

with
a

other

and

unknown

dentally, quality arising inciI refer to such cases different species of animals as affected by poisons to which and plants being differently they not naturally exposed; and this difference in susceptibility are is clearlyincidental other and unknown differences in on their organisation. So again the capacity in different kinds fers difof trees to be grafted on each other, or on a third species, cidental much, and is of no advantage to these trees but is instructural or functional differences in their woody on need not feel surprise at sterility We tissues. incidentally

changes

their

organisation. By

resulting from
descendants how of

crosses a common

between

distinct species,
"

the modified bear

in mind

progenitor,
"

when

we

is affected by various reproductive system often by extremely slight changes in the conditions causes of life,by too close interbreeding, and by other agencies. It

easily the
"

is well

to

bear

in mind

such

cases

as

that

of the

Passiflora

Chap. XIX.

HYBRIDISM.

X67

from self-fertility being grafted of the cases species plants which normally or a distinct on abnormally are self-impotent, but can readily be fertilised by the pollen of a distinct species and lastlythe cases of individual

alata, which

recovered
"

its

"

domesticated sexual We

animals

which

evince

towards

each

other

incompatibility.
now

dispoint under cussion is it that,with some few exceptions in the case : how of plants, domesticated such as those of the dog, varieties, and fowl, pigeon, several fruit-trees, culinary vegetables,
at
come

last

to

the

immediate

which
many

differ from
are species,

each

other in external

characters

more even

than tile fer-

perfectlyfertile when

crossed, or
a

in excess, in some

whilst

closelyallied species are

almost certain

ably invari-

give

degree sterile? We can, to to this question. answer satisfactory

of external difference
no sure

extent,
over

Passing
between

the
cies spe-

fact that the amount is

two

guide
know

to their degree of mutual

sterility, so
be
no

that similar
sure

differences
we

in the

case

of varieties would
cause

guide,

that
in

with

species the
animals

lies exclusively
Now

in differences conditions
to

their

sexual

constitution. and

the

which

domesticated

cultivated

wards plants have been subjected have had so little tendency toing leadmodifj'ing the reproductive system in a manner to mutual that we have very good grounds for sterility, admitting the directly opposite doctrine of Pallas, namely, that such conditions generally eliminate this tendency; so in their that the domesticated which of species, descendants

natural

state

would

have

been

in

some

degree sterile when

crossed, become

plants, so perfectly fertile together. With far is cultivation from giving a tendency towards mutual that in several well-authenticated already sterility, cases, in often alluded to, certain species have been affected a very different manner, for they have become self-impotent, whilst and being fertilised by, retaining the capacity of fertilising, distinct species. If the Pallasian doctrine of the elimination mitted, be adof sterility through long-continued domestication in the highit becomes est and it can hardly be rejected, should monly comdegree improbable that similar circumstances both induce and eliminate the same tendency; though
43

168
in certain with

HYBRIDISM.

Chap.

XIX.

species having a peculiar constitution, lieve, Thus, as I besterility might occasionallybe thus induced. animals understand we can why with domesticated varieties have not been produced which are mutually sterile ; have been observed, and why with plants only a few such cases namely, by Gartner, with certain varieties of maize and verbascum, by other experimentalists with varieties of the gourd kind of tobacco. with one and melon, and by Kolreuter have originated in a state With respect to varieties which of nature, it is almost hopeless to expect to prove by direct evidence that they have been rendered mutually sterile; for could be detected, such varieties of sterility if even trace a would be raised by almost naturalist to the at once every of distinct species. If, for instance, Gartner's rank ment statewere fully confirmed, that the blue and red flowered sterile when forms of the pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) are
cases,

crossed, I
on

presume

that

all the botanists

two

who
are were

now

maintain

various

grounds that these

at
once

forms

varieties,would
The real

admit

that

they

merely fleeting distinct. specifically

in our difficulty present subject is not, as it appears become domestic varieties have not ally mututo me, why infertile when crossed, but why this has so generally occurred fied with natural varieties as soon as they have been modiin a sufficient and degree to take rank as permanent but species. We are far from preciselyknowing the cause; ence that the species, owing to their struggle for existsee we can have been with numerous exposed competitors, must of life during long periods of uniform conditions to more time make than
a

domestic

varieties

have

been, and
For
we

wide wild

difference animals and

in the result.

this may know how

well
monly com-

ral plants,when taken from their naturendered conditions and subjected to captivity, are sterile; of organic beings which have and the reproductive functions natural ditions conalways lived and been slowly modified under would be eminently sensitive probably in like manner to

the

influence
on

of

an

unnatural

cross.

Domesticated shown the

ductions, promere

hand, which, as by not fact of their domestication, were originallyhighly

the other
to

tive sensinow

changes

in their conditions

of

and which life,

can

170

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

CHAPTER
SELECTION
BY

XX.
MAN.

Selection
with

Eesults

difficult art Methodical, selection of methodical carried Selection on plants

a
" "

unconscious,
Care taken

and in

natural selection
"

selection

"

"

Selection lized semi-civi-

by

people
selection
animals
"

"

Unimportant
circumstances

cliaracters the
on
"

and the ancients often attended to

by
"

Unconscious

As

slowly change,
action the
same

changed
of different

through
breeders selection
in

have so of unconscious

our

domesticated selection ence Influ"

sub-variety
as

by unconscious
amount

Effects

of selection
most

Plants as affected shown by the great

"

of difference

the

parts

valued

by

man.

by man, or brought into play under nature through the struggle for existence and the consequent survival of the fittest, absolutely
power

The

of

Selection, whether

exercised

ability varidepends on the variabilityof organic beings. Without nothing can be effected;slight individual differences, however, suffice for the work, and are probably the chief in the production of new sole means or our species. Hence the causes discussion and laws of variabilityought in on strict order to have preceded the present subject, as well as inheritance, crossing, "c. ; but practically the present arrangement has
not

been
cause

found

the

most

convenient.

Man

does

variability;though he unintentionally effects this by exposing organisms to new of life, conditions and by crossing breeds already formed. But variability being wonders. Unless granted, he works some degree of selection be exercised, the free commingling of the individuals of the have previously seen, the same variety soon obliterates, as we acter slight differences which arise, and gives uniformity of charIn of individuals. to the Avhole body tricts, separated disof different to conditions long-continued exposure life may without the aid of selection; but races produce new to this subject of the direct action of the conditions of life I shall recur in a future chapter. animals When or plants are born with some conspicuous and firmly inherited to new character, selection is reduced
attempt
to

Chap.

XX.

SELECTION.

I7I

preservation of such individuals,and to the subsequent that nothing more need be said ou so prevention of crosses; the subject. But in the great majority of cases ter, characa new some or superiorityin an old character,is at first faintly pronounced, and is not strongly inherited; and then the full of selection is experienced. Indomitable difficulty patience, of discrimination, and the finest powers sound judgment be exercised A clearly predetermust during many mined years. be kept steadily in view. Few object must men are endowed with all these qualities, criminat especiallywith that of disbe acslight differences;judgment can quired very if but of these only by long experience; qualities any be wanting, the labour of a life may be thrown I have away. astonished when celebrated been skill and breeders, whose at exhibitions, judgment have been proved by their success their animals, which have shown me appeared all alike, and for matching this and that indihave assigned their reasons vidual. The importance of the great principle of Selection of selecting scarcely api)reciable mainly lies in this power w^hich nevertheless found to be transmissible, differences, are
and which
to the
can

the

be accumulated

until the result is made

fest mani-

conveniently divided Methodical selection is that which into three kinds. guides who to modify a breed cording acsystematically endeavours a man Uficonscious to some lection sepredetermined standard. follows from is that which men naturally preserving valued and destroying the less valued the most individuals, without thought of altering the breed; and undoubtedly any tion selecthis process slowly works great changes. Unconscious be cases can graduates into methodical, and only extreme or perfect a useful distinctly separated ; for he who preserves it with the hope of getting animal will generally breed from character; but as long as he has not a offspring of the same be said to improve the breed, he may predetermined purpose have Natural seto be selecting unconsciously.^ Lastly, we
be
1

The

beholder. of every principle of selection may

eyes

The been

term

unconscious to
as a

selection
contra-

m;irks up

has

objected

that sand-dunes

wh^n it

the

wind
and the

heaps
uncon-

sifts sand

diction;

but excellent see some this head serrations on by fesor Hist. (' Nat. Huxley view,' Oct. 1864, p. 578), who

obProRere-

sciously
the beach size,

selects

grains

from of

gravel on of equal

172

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

implies that fitted for the complex, and lection,which

to

the
in

individuals the
course

which

are

best

conditions

which

they
a

are

exposed,
domestic
extent

of ages changing generally survive and

procreate
selection

their
comes

kind.
to

With

certain

productions, natural into action, independently

man.

of, and

even

in

opposition to, the will of

selection.
"

Methodical
times in

What

man

has

effected

within

cent re-

selection is clearly by methodical shown by our exhibitions of improved quadrupeds and fancy their With birds. owe respect to cattle,sheep, and pigs, we to a long series of well-known names great improvement ter Bakewell, Colling, Ellman, Bates, Jonas Webb, Lords Leicesand Agricultural Western, Fisher Hobbs, and others.

England

"

writers

are

unanimous

of statements

of selection the power to this effect could be quoted; a

on

any

number fice. will suf-

few

experienced observer, writes,' that which enables the agriculthe principle of selection is turist, not only to modify the character of his flock,but to change it altogether." A great breeder of Shorthorns says,
Youatt,
a

sagacious and
"

"

In the anatomy defect

in

of the shoulder
on

modern

breeders

have

made

great
the

improvement
the

the

Ketton
or

knuckle

by correcting shoulder-joint,and by laying

crop, eye eye

shorthorns

the top of the shoulder more hollow behind the filling up

at

snugly in the
it.
. . .

and has

thereby
ion its fashstanding outeye

The time the

different from

periods:
the

at

one

high and
the

head, and

at

another

time have

sleepy

sunk medium

into the head, but of

a

these extremes

merged
*

into the

clear and prominent eye with a placid look." full, Again, hear what an excellent judge of pigs says : " The legs should be no longer than just to prevent the animal's the ground. The trailing on belly from leg is the least therefore profitableportion of the hog, and we require no of is it than for the more absolutely necessary support of Let
any
one

the rest."

compare

the wild-boar how

with

any

proved im-

breed, and
been
"

he

will

see

effectuallythe legs have

shortened.
Tonatt,
Mr.
'

On

Sheep,'
on

1838,

p.

60.
"

J. in
'

Wright
Journal

Shorthorn

cultural 209. * H.

Soc.,' vol.
D.

vii.
'

pp. On

208,

Richardson

Pigs,*

Cattle,

of

Royal

Agii-

1847,

p.

44.

Chap.

XX.

METHODICAL

SELECTION.

1^3
of the systematic

Few
care

persons,

except breeders,

are

aware

selectinganimals, and of the necessity of having almost prophetic vision into futurity. Lord a clear and well known; Spencer's skill and judgment were and he " It is therefore writes,* desirable, before any very man either cattle or sheep, that he should to breed commences make to the shape and qualities he wishes to obtain, up his mind and steadily pursue this object." Lord Somerville, in ter Leicesspeaking of the marvellous improvement of the New " effected and his successors, It sheep, by Bakewell says, would if they had first drawn seem as a perfect form, and then given it life." Youatt the necessity of annually urges animals will certainly degenerdrafting each flock, as many ate
*

taken

in

"

from

the in

standard his
own

of excellence mind." Even

which
with

the breeder
a

has such

established little
were

bird

of

importance as the canary, established,and a standard

to

long ago (1780-1790) rules of perfection was fixed according

fanciers winner tried of
to

which

the

London

breed
at

the the

several

sub-varieties.^ A
"

great
the

prizes
Almond who

Pigeon-shows,^ in describing
says,

short-faced

bler, Tumare

There

are

many

first-rate fanciers the

ticularly par-

partial to

what

is called

goldfinch-beak,which

is very beautiful; others say, take a full-size round cherry then take a barleycorn, and judiciouslyplacing and thrusting it into the

cherry, form

as

it

were

your

beak

and

that is not

all,for it will form a good head and beak, provided, as I said before, it is judiciously done; others take an oat; but I think the goldfinch-beak the handsomest, I would advise as the inexperienced fancier to get the head of a goldfinch,and keep it by him for his observation." Wonderfully different the beaks of the rock pigeon and goldfinch, the end as are has undoubtedly been nearly gained, as far as external shape and proportions are concerned. animals with the greatNot only should our be examined est
care

should
'
'

their carcases remarks," alive,but, as Anderson " the descendants be scrutinised, so as to breed from whilst
^
'

Journal of Agricult. Royal Soc.,' vol. i. p. 24. " On Sheep,' pp. 520, 319. T Loudon's Nat, of Mag. Hist.,' vol. viii.,1835, p. 618.
' '

Breeding 1851, p.
"
'

Troatise on Almond the

9.

the

Art

of

Tumbler,'

vol.

Recreations ii. p. 409.

in

Agriculture/

174
of such The with
"

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

only

as, in the meat

language of the butcher, cut

"

up

well."

grain of the
and fat,^** of
our

in
or

cattle,and

its

being well marbled

of fat in the

the greater

less accumulation

sheep, have been attended to with success. So with poultry, a writer," speaking of Cochin-China fowls, in the quality of their flesh, which said to differ much are " the best mode is to purchase two young brother-cocks, says, if he be indifferent, kill,dress, and serve similarly one; up dispose of the other, and try again; if,however, he be fine and well-flavoured,his brother will not be amiss for breeding
abdomen
purposes

for the table."

The

great
to

principle of the division

on

of

labour

has
'^

been
"

brought
breeding
persons,

bear

selection.
to

In
a

certain
very

districts

the of

of bulls who
are

is confined

limited attention
to

number
to
a

by devoting their whole

able from
year to year
are

this

partment de-

furnish

class of

steadily improving the general breed of the district." The has long rearing and letting of choice rams of profit to several been, as is well known, a chief source In eminent breeders. this principle is parts of Germany carried with merino point." " So imporsheep to an extreme tant selection of breeding animals is the proper considered, that the best flock-masters do not trust to their own ment judgcalled to that of their shepherds, but employ persons or * who it their special business make to sheep-classifiers,' attend of several flocks, and to this part of the management thus to preserve, if possible to improve, the best qualities or of both parents in the lambs." In Saxony, " when the lambs is placed upon table that weaned, each in his turn are a his wool and form be minutely observed. The finest may
are

bulls which

selected
are one

for
year

breeding

and

receive

first mark.

When

they
close those and third
i"

old, and
defect

examination
in which
no

prior to shearing them, another of those previously marked takes place:

can

be found A few the

receive months

second

mark,
a ewes

the and

rest

are

condemned.

afterwards
rams

last
on

scrutiny is made;
Cattle,
'

prime

and

Youatt

pp.

191,

'

227.
^1

p.

Gardener's 29.
^^

Chronicle,'
'

1844,

Fergnson,
in
'

Prize
Transact.

Poultry, High-

1854, p. 208. 1^ "NVilson.

land

Agricult.

Soc.,'

quoted

in

Simmonrls. in Gard. quoted And for Chronicle,' 1855, p. 037. the second Xouatt quotation, see on Sheep, p. 171.

Chap.

XX.

METHODICAL

SELECTION.

175
slightest blemish
is

receive

third
cause

and

final mark,

but

the

sufficient to

These sheep rejection of the animal." bred and valued almost exclusively for the fineness of are their wool; and the result corresponds with the labour bestowed the
on

their

selection.

Instruments

have

been

invented

accurately the thickness of the fibres ; and " an fleece has been produced of which twelve hairs Australian equalled in thickness one from a Leicester sheep." silk is produced, the the world, wherever Throughout is bestowed from which selectingthe cocoons on greatest care A careful cultifor breeding are to be reared. vator the moths the moths likewise examines themselves, and destroys those that are not perfect. But what more immediately concerns
to
measure
^*

us

is that certain

families

in France
near

devote

themselves

habitant Shanghai, the inof two small districts have the privilege of raising for the whole surrounding country, and that they may eggs this business, they are terdict intime to their whole give up by law from producing silk.'" successful breeders take in matching their which The care birds is surprising. Sir John Sebright, whose fame is perpetuated " " and two Sebright Bantam," used to spend by the three days in examining, consulting, and disputing with a Mr. Bult, the best of five or six birds." friend which were whose exported prizes,and were so pouter-pigeons won many America under the charge of a man sent on to North purpose, for several days before he told me that he always deliberated understand the advice of each pair. Hence matched we can " eminent fancier, who writes,^^ I would here particularly an guard you against having too great a variety of pigeons,
to

raising eggs

for sale.^^ In

China,

"

otherwise
as

you

will know

little of all,but

nothing about
"

one

it

ought
there

to be known."

Apparently
to

it transcends
:
a

of the that

human
may

intellect be
a

breed

all kinds that there

"
'

the power it is possible

few

fanciers

have
are

good general
more

knowledge
1*

of
'

fancy pigeons; but

Vers
'

many

who
vol.

Robinet,

Soie,' 1848,

The

Poultry

Chronicle,'
'

p.

271.
"

i., 1854,
^^

Maladies Les Quatrefagps, du Ver a Soie,' 1859, p. 101. i" la in M. de Bull, Simon, Soc. tom. d'AccUmat.,' ix., 1862,
'

j,

p. f;07. m. Eaton, the

Fancy
'A

Pii?eons,' 3852.
on

Treatise

Treatise on xlv.. and TumAlmond

p.

bier,' 1851,

p.

11.

p.

221.

176
labour under

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

supposing they know what they do not." The excellence of one sub-variety, the Almond Tumbler, lies in the plumage, carriage, head, beak, and eye;
the delusion of

but it is too presumptuous in the beginner to try for all these points. The great judge above quoted says, " There are some
young

fanciers five

who

are

over-covetous,

who

go

for

all the

above

they have their reward by getting properties at once; thus that see fancy nothing." We breeding even smile at the solemnity of pigeons is no simple art: we may these precepts, but he who laughs will win no prizes.
What methodical selection has effected for
our

animals

is

sufficiently proved, as already remarked, by our Exhibitions. So greatly were the sheep belonging to some of the earlier and Lord breeders, such as Bakewell Western, changed, that could not be persuaded that they had not been many persons Our pigs, as Mr. Corringham crossed. remarks,^** during the last twenty years have undergone, through rigorous selection The first together with crossing,a complete metamorphosis. exhibition for poultry was held in the Zoological Gardens in effected since that time has been 1845 ; and the improvement it to me, great. As Mr. Bailey, the great judge, remarked of the Spanish cock was formally ordered that the comb should be upright, and in four or five years all good birds had cock ordered that the Polish upright combs; it was should have no comb nished bird thus furor wattles, and now a would be at once ordered, disqualified;beards were and of fifty-sevenpens out lately (1860) exhibited at the So it has been in many other Crystal Palace, all had beards. But in all cases the judges order only what is occasionally cases. be improved and rendered produced and what can The steady increase in weight during constant by selection. the last few years in our fowls, turkeys, ducks, and geese is " notorious ; whereas four six-pound ducks are now common, As the time required to pounds was formerly the average. make often been recorded, it may be worth a change has not mentioning that it took Mr. Wicking thirteen years to put a clean white head on an almond tumbler's body, " a triumph," another fancier," of which he may be justly proud." says
^" ^3
'

Soc.,'

Journal vol. vi.

Royal
p. 22.

Agricultural

=" Poultry 1855, p. 596.

'

Chronicle,'

yol.

ii.f

178
tions result have
care were was

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX

selected obtained.

and The

propagated by seed,
finest shades and selected with

no

conspicuous
in wheat
as

of difference almost

been
as,

discriminated the
case

much

higher animals, for instance by Col. Le Couteur and more especiallyby Major Hallett. cal It may be worth while to give a few examples of methodiselection with plants ; but in fact the great improvement be attributed of all our to anciently cultivated plants may selection long carried on, in part methodically, and in part the in a former chapter how unconsciously. I have shown weight of the gooseberry has been increased by systematic
in

of the

selection
been

and

culture.

The

flowers size and

"*

of

the

Heartsease

have

regularity of outline. bold enough when the Cineraria, Mr. With was Glenny the flowers were ragged and starry and ill defined in colour, fix a standard considered which then to outrageously was if reached, it was high and impossible, and which, even said, we should be no gainers by, as it would spoil the beauty of the flowers. that he was He maintained right; and the The has proved it to be so." event doubling of flowers has several times been effected by careful selection : the Rev. W. after sowing during several years seeds of Anemone Williamson,"^ additional coronaria, found a petal; he plant with one sowed in the same the seed of this, and by perseverance similarly increased
in
"

course

obtained

several

varieties
rose or was

with
was

six

or

seven

rows

of

petals. The

single Scotch

doubled,

and

yielded
selection ture cul-

eight good varieties in nine bell {C ampanula medium)

in four In generations.^^

ten

The years.^*'

Canterbury

doubled
years

by careful

four

Mr.

Buckman,"^ by

selection,converted parsnips, raised from and good variety. By selection during wild seed, into a new of years, the early maturity of peas has been a long course
and hastened curious

careful

by
case

between is offered

ten

and

twenty-one

days."

more

in
Journal p. 369. " Transact. iv. p. 381. 28 Transact. iv. p. 285.
' ' '

France,
of

vation by the beet plant,which since its cultihas almost its yield of exactly doubled
Gardener's Chronicle,' 1857, p. 550. ^s Gard. Chronicle,' 1862, p. 721. ^^ Dr. in The Bee.' Anderson, In vol. vi. Mr. 96; Barnes, p. Gard. Chronicle,' 1844, p. 476.
. ' ' '

^*

Horticulture,' Soc.,' Soc.,'

vol. vol. in

18G2,

Hort. Hort.

"

Rev,

W.

Bromehead,

Chap.

XX.

BY

THE

ANCIENTS.

1Y9
most

sugar.

This

has

been

effected

by the

careful

selection

the

specificgravity of the
saved for the

roots

being regularly tested,and

the best roots

production of seed.^"
and Semi-civilised

Selection In

hy Ancient

People.

attributing so much importance to the selection of animals and plants,it may be objected,that methodical tion selecwould have been carried on not during ancient times. A distinguished naturalist considers it as absurd to suppose that semi-civilised people should have practised selection of kind. Undoubtedly the principle has been systematically any in acknowledged and followed to a far greater extent withthan at any former the last hundred period, and a years be a corresponding result has been gained; but it would shall immediately see, that its to suppose, as we greater error not recognised and acted on importance was during the most ancient times, and by semi-civilised people. I should premise facts now that care that many to be given only show was this is the case, selection is almost taken in breeding; but when We shall hereafter to be practised to a certain extent. sure better to judge how far selection, when be enabled only try, occasionallycarried on, by a few of the inhabitants of a counwill slowly produce a great effect. in the thirtieth chapter of GeneIn a well-known sis, passage then thought posrules are given for influencing,as was sible, the colour of sheep; and speckled and dark breeds are spoken of as being kept sei)arate. By the time of David the
fleece the
was

likened

to

snow.

who Youatt,^^
to

has Old

discussed

all

passages

in relation that
at

breeding
"

in

the

Testament,

of the best principles early period some have been steadily and long pursued." of breeding must shalt not let It was ordered, according to Moses, that " Thou but mules were thy cattle gender with a diverse kind ; chased,^^ purhave other nations must that at this early period so concludes this
"

crossed
some
30

the

horse

and

ass.

It

is said

^^

that had
'

Erichthonius,
many

generations before
Godron,
' '

the

Trojan
^2

war,

brood-

ii. p. 69; 1854, p. 258.

tom.
ai
'

De I'Espece,' 1859, Gard. Chronicle,' p. 18.

On

Sheep,'

KulturBpitrilge znr gescbi elite,' 1852, s. 47. ^^ of Mitford's History Greece,' vol. i. p. 73.

volz,

'

180
"

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

judgment in the choice of stallions produced a breed of horses superior to any in the Homer (Book v.) speaks of Eneas' surrounding countries."
mares,

which

by his

care

and

horses

as

bred

from

mares
'

which

were

put
to

to

the

steeds
"

of

Glaucus, I see house a great many that you raise at your dogs for the chase. Do you take care about breeding and pairing them ? Among there not always some animals of good blood, are which are " Glaucus To which in the answers superior to the rest ?
Laomedon.

Plato, in his

Republic,' says

affirmative.^* Alexander
cattle to send
to to

the Great
to

selected

the finest Indian

Macedonia

King Pliny ,"*'^

and he

ing improve the breed.^' AccordPyrrhus had an especiallyvaluable breed

not

of

oxen:

did
years

suffer the

bulls

and

cows

to

come

together till four

might not degenerate. gives as strong Virgil, in his Georgics (lib.iii.), modern advice as any agriculturistcould do, carefully to select " the tribe, the lineage, and the breeding stock ; to note
the
sire ; whom
to
"

old, that the breed

reserve

for

husband

of

the

herd

"

"

to

the progeny; to select sheep of the purest white, and if their tongues that to examine are swarthy. We have seen the Romans kept pedigrees of their pigeons, and this would brand have in been
a

senseless

proceeding had

not

great

care

been

taken

Columella gives detailed instructions breeding them. " Let the breeding hens therefore be of about breeding fowls : choice colour, a robust body, square-built,full-breasted, a Those with large heads, with upright and bright-red combs.
are

believed
to

to

be

the

best

bred

which

have

five toes."

"

of their Tacitus, the Celts attended to the races that they paid high domestic animals; and Caesar states for fine imported horses."*^ In regard to prices to merchants plants,Virgil speaks of yearly culling the largest seeds; and

According

Celsus

"

says,

where

the
^'

corn

and

crop

is but

pick out the best ears separately by itself."

Coming
about
34

of

corn,

and

of them

small, we lay up our

be brief.

must

seed

down

the

stream

of time,

we

may

At
ex-

the

beginning of the ninth

iu
37

century
"

Charlemagne
Chronicle,'
'

translated Dally, Review,' Anthropological 1864, p. 101. 35 Beitrage,' "c., Volz,

Dr.
' '

Gardener's
De
pp.

1848,
des p.

May, 1852,
ch. 45.

p.

32.3.
38

Roynier, Celtes,' 1818,

39

I'Economie
on

s.

80.
36
'

Le

Couteur

487, 503. Wheat,

15.

Hist,

of

the

World,'

Chap.

XX.

BY

THE

ANCIENTS.

181

pressly ordered his officers to take great care of his stallions; and if they proved bad or old, to forewarn him in good time before they were in a country so put to the mares.*" Even little civilised as Ireland during the ninth century, it would from ancient verses,^^ some manded dedescribing a ransom appear by Cormac, that animals from particular places, or valued. Thus it is having a particular character, were said,
"

Two

pigs of

the

pigs

of Mac

Lir,

both round and red, and ewe A ram from I brought with me Aengus. and a mare I brought with me a stallion stud of Manannan, From the beautiful from Druim Cain. A bull and a white cow

Athelstan, in 930, received running-horses as a present from and he prohibited the exportation of English Germany; chosen stallions horses. King John imported " one hundred
from
wrote

Flanders."*"
to the

On

June

16th, 1305, the Prince

of Wales

of any of the

Archbishop of Canterbury, begging for the loan and promising its return choice stallion, at the end
season.*^
in

There

are

numerous

records

at

ancient

importation of choice of various animals kinds, and of foolish laws against their exportation. In the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII. it ordered that the magistrates, at Michaelmas, should was the heaths and and scour destroy all mares commons, periods
beneath
a

English

history of

the

certain

size.** Some

of

our

earlier

kings

passed laws

of any against the slaughtering of rams good before that breed seven they they were old, so years time breed. In Ximenes to might have Spain Cardinal issued, in 1509, regulations on the selection of good rams for

breeding.*"
The
"

to have

is said before the year 1600 Khan Emperor Akbar wonderfully improved " his pigeons by crossing the
'

p.

"" Des Michel, Haras,' 1861, 84. " Sir W. an on Wilde, Essay Unmanufactured Animal Remains.' "c., 1860, p. 11. *Col. Hamilton Nat. Smith, vol. Library.' xii.. Horses, pp.
' '

Horse,'
423.
*^

'

Veterinary,'

vol.

xiii.
'

p.

M.
de p.

I'Abbe

nal

Carlier, in vol. Physique,'

Jour-

xxiv.,
con-

135,
" **

140.

Mr.

Des Michel, Baker,

'

Haras,'
'

p.

History

of

90. the

memoir this 181; much information on ancient selection of sheep; not for rams is my authority in England. ing killed j'^oung

1784,

tains

the and be-

182

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

breeds; and this necessarilyimplies careful selection. About the same attended with the^greatest care period the Dutch
to the managers

breeding of these birds.

in France
to get geese

Belon
the

in 1555

examined of
a

colour
and

good of their goslings in

says

that

order

white

colour
to
"

better kinds.

Mark-

ham

in 1631

tells the breeder

enters

select the

largest and
Even

liest goodspect re-

conies," and
to
mer

into minute
^''

details.

with

seeds

of

writing about
most

plants for the flower-garden. Sir J. Hanin " choosing seed, 1660 the year says,
weighty, and
'
"

the

best seed is the most

is had
then

from

the lustiest

vigorous stems ; leaving only a few flow^ers

such details
years
w^ere

and

and

on

gives rules about plants for seed; so that even

he
in
our

attended
In in

to

flower-gardens
has
not

two

hundred

ago.
on

order

to show

that selection it would

been been

silentlycarried expected, I may

in
a

places where
in

have

add

that

the

middle

of the

last century,

America, Mr. Cooper improved by careful selection all his vegetables," so that they were greatly his radishes, When superior to those of any other iDcrson.
remote

part of ]^orth

for instance,
most approves,

are

fit for

use,

he

takes

ten

or

twelve

that

he

and
at the

plants them
same

at least 100

yards from
manner

others

that blossom all his other

time.

In

the

same

he treats

plants, varying the circumstances

"

according

to

their nature."
In the

published in the last century is chieflycompiled from cient anby the Jesuits, and which " it is said that with sheep proving imChinese encyclopaedias, the breed consists in choosing with particular care for propagation, in nourishing which destined the lambs are them well, and in keeping the flocks separate." The same applied by the Chinese to various plants and principleswere fruit-trees.""* An the choice of imperial edict re ommends seed of remarkable size; and selection was by practised even imperial hands, for it is said that the Ya-mi, or imperial noticed at an ancient period in a field by the Emperor rice, was
great
work
on

China

Khang-hi,
has
*"'

was

saved valuable

and from

cultivated

in his

garden, and
which
1800,
p.

since

become

being the only kind

Darwin's 451.
^^
' '

p.

of

Gardener's Chronicle,' 1843, 389. *^ Communications Board to in Dr. Agriculture,' quoted

'

Phytologia,'

1786,

tom.

Memoire les sur xi. p. 55; tom.

v.

Chinois,' p. 507.

Chap.

XX.

BY

SEMI-ClVlLlSED

PEOPLE.

l83
with the flowers,

will grow
tree

north

of the Great has

Wall."
been

Even

Chinese

(P. moutan) cultivated, according to between 1400 for 200 and 300 vatraditions, years; rieties have been raised, which cherished like tulipsforare merly by the Dutch.^** were to semi-civilised Turning now it people and to savages:
pseony to
me,

occurred South

from

what

I had

seen

of several

parts

of

mals America, where fences do not exist,and where the aniof little value, that there would be absolutelyno are in breeding or selectingthem ; and this to a large extent care is true. Roulin,^^however, describes in Columbia naked a of cattle,w^hich are not allowed to increase, account race on

of their delicate constitution.

are

often do

born
not

in

Paraguay
that
a

horses According to Azara with curly hair; but, as the natives

are

"

like them,
states

they
race.
a

hand, Azara
and
in

destroyed. On the other hornless bull,born in 1770, was served preI

was

propagated

its

informed with

of the existence

Banda

Oriental

of

breed

reversed

hair; and
have since

the extraordinary niata been

cattle first Plata.

appeared and
certain have
so

kept

distinct

in La

Hence

conspicuous
been ally habitulittle favourable

variations

have

been

preserved,and
We have

others
are seen on

destroyed,in these countries, which

for careful selection.
sometimes

also cattle

that the inhabitants

their
estates to

introduce

fresh

prevent the evil effects of close interbreeding.

On the

the other Gauchos

hand, I have
of the

heard
never

on

reliable authority that

take
any

selecting the best bulls or stallions for breeding; and this probably accounts in horses for the cattle and being remarkably uniform of the Argentine character throughout the immense range republic. " The Looking to the Old '^orld, in the Sahara Desert Touareg is as careful in the selection of his breeding Mahari is in that of his of the dromedary) as the Arab (a fine race dary The horse. a dromepedigrees are handed down, and many boast a genealogy far longer than the descendants can Pampas pains
in
"
'

Recherches

sur

I'AfirriculL. D'Herp. 229.

see

ture
vey

des

With

Chinois,' Saint-Denys, to respect

'

par

=" Anderson, act.,' vol. xii. "

'

in p.

'

Linn.

Trans-

2."'".3.

1850,

Mem. toni. Des

de

I'Acad.'

("|ivers
p. dn 3:W. rara-

Kliang-lii,

savants),
""'

vi., 1835, li. pp.

Hue's

Chinese

Empire,'

page

Quadnipedes

^1,

guay,' 1801. torn.

333, 371,

4Q

184
of the

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

Darley Arabian."
endeavour
to

"

According
Yaks
or

to

Pallas

the

lians Mongobuffaloes

breed, the

horse-tailed

with
as

tails,for these are sold to the Chinese and Moorcroft, about fly-flappers; seventy
white that white-tailed animals
were

mandarins
years

after for

Pallas, found

still selected

breeding.''*
We have
seen

in

the

chapter
America
as

on

the and

Dog
in

that

savages
cross

in their

different

parts of North
wild

Guiana

Gauls, according This done to give their dogs strength and to Pliny. was the keepers in large warrens as now vigour, in the same way I informed their ferrets (as have been sometimes by cross " devil." Mr. Yarrell) with the wild polecat, to give them more

dogs with

Canidae,

did

the

ancient

According
crossed
same

to

Varro, the wild

the
as

ass

with

tame at

animal

to

formerly caught and improve the breed, in the

was

manner

the present

day the natives

to
cross

of Java with

times some-

drive

their

cattle into

the forests

the wild

the Siberia, among Banteng (Bos sondaicus) !"" In Northern but Ostyaks, the dogs vary in markings in different districts,
in each

place they
manner

are

spotted black
"''

and this

white fact

in

ably remarkwe

uniform infer careful

and

from

alone

may

dogs of one for their superiorthroughout the country localityare famed ity. I have heard of certain tribes of Esquimaux who take of dogs being uniformly coloured. In pride in their teams informs me," the dogs of the Guiana, as Sir P. Schomburgk Indians Turuma are highly valued and extensively bartered: the price of a good one is the same that given for a wife : as they are kept in a sort of cage, and the Indians " take great the female when is in season to prevent her uniting with care of inferior description." The Indians told Sir dog a an Robert that, if a dog proved bad or useless, he was not killed, left to die from but was sheer neglect. Hardly any nation than the Fuegians, but I hear from barbarous is more Mr.
breeding,
more
"
'

especially as

the

Rev. 238.
5*

The H.

Great Sahara/ B. Tristram,

'

by 1860,

the p.

'

Indian
see
56

Varro, beria,'
453.
^^

196: Field,' 1859, p. tit supra. Pallas,

'

for Sii.
p.

Erman's

Travels

in

Pallas,

Act.
'

Acad.

tersburg,'
and

1777,

Trebeck,
from

p. 249, Travels

St. PeMoorcroft
in the

Eng.
also

translat.,
*

vol.

See

Himala.van ^* Quoted

Provinces,'

1841. Raffles, in

graph.
the 65.

Soc.,' vol.

Journal of R. xiii. part

Geoi. p.

186
others
set at

SELECTION.

Chap. XX.

liberty. The
old males and

various females
a

kinds
were

of

deer

were

amined; ex-

the
"

likewise
number

but

the

young

females, with
the
most

certain and

of

killed; males,

given strong," were their freedom. Here, then, we have selection by man aiding natural followed selection. So that the Incas exactly the
reverse

selected

from

beautiful

system of

of

that

which

our

Scottish

sportsman In

are

accused

following, namely,
causing the whole
llamas Incas
was

of

steadily killing the

to

finest

stags, thus
to

race

degenerate."
were

the domesticated
the time
one

and

alpacas, they
to

regard separated
if

in

of
in
a

the

according
born

colour:

and

by
was

chance

flock

of the

wrong

colour, it
"

eventually put
In
co

into

another

flock. there and

the

genus

Auchenia wild

and

Vicuna, found
and
These

forms, the Guanaundoubtedly distinct species;

are

four

the

Llama

Alpaca,
four

known

only in
appear
so

domesticated

dition. con-

animals

different, that
studied
these
are

most

naturalists, especiallythose who

in

have that

animals

their

native

country,

maintain

they

specifically

distinct, notwithstanding that no one pretends to have seen llama or alpaca. Mr. Ledger, however, who has closely a wild
studied
to

these

animals

both who

in Peru

and

during their exportation

many
*"

Australia, and

has

made

experiments
which
seem

on

their
me

propagation,
of the
we

adduces the and that

llama the

arguments
is the

to

conclusive, that
guanaco,

domesticated

ant descendAnd

alpaca of the
animals
ago,
were

vicuna.

now

that
and

know

these

systematically
is

bred

selected
in

many

centuries
amount

there

nothing they

prising sur-

the

great

of

change

which

have

undergone.
It ancient

appeared
and

to

me

at

one

time

probable that, though

have attended
to

semi-civilised

people might

the

in essential points, useful animals improvement of their more have disregarded unimportant characters. yet that they would is the same But human nature throughout the world : fashion

everywhere
he
may

reigns

supreme, possess.

and We

man

is apt to value

whatever
in

chance
the niata
Natural p.

to

have

seen

that
not
la

South useful
d'Accli-

America
"
'

cattle,which
History
476. of

certainly are
^'

made
Soc.

The

Dee

Side,' 1855,

mat.,'

Bull, torn,

de

vii., 1860, p.

457,

Chap.

XX.

OF

TRIFLING

CHARACTERS.

i87

faces and upturned have been by their shortened nostrils, of South Africa value their cattle preserved. The Damaras for uniformity of colour and enormously And I long horns. is hardly any will now show that there peculiarity in our useful animals most which, from fashion, superstition,or other motive, has not been valued, and consequently presome served. With respect to cattle, an early record," according " white cows with red ears to Youatt,^^ speaks of a hundred as being demanded compensation by the princes of North a
"

and

South

Wales.
were

If
to

the

cattle

were

of

dark

or

black
was

colour, 150
attended Central

to in Wales

represented." So that colour before its subjugation by England.

be that

In

Africa,
in

an

ox

beats
some

the

ground
Kaffirs

with

its tail is

killed; and
eat

South
a

Africa
ox.
"

of the

Damaras

will not
an

the
a

flesh of musical
a

spotted
excited
up
^

The
a

value

animal the

with low

voice ; and

at

sale in British admiration

Kaffraria that
a

of

heifer
sprung

so

much

sharp

competition

possession,and she realised a With considerable price." respect to sheep, the Chinese with without horns; the Tartars prefer them prefer rams the hornless horns, because are thought to spirally wound
lose Some courage.''^ of the
In Damaras
to

for her

will not
at

eat

the of
as

flesh the Hart

a

of hornless fifteenth
pomme

sheep.
most

regard
of
in

horses,
colour

the

end

century
were
"

animals valued

the

described The Arabs

France. with four

'*''

have

proverb,
carries
seen,

Never

buy
with

horse
him
"

white

feet, for he
we

his

shroud

the

Arabs with

also, as

have

despise dun-coloured
others
at
an

horses.

So

dogs, Xenophon

and

ancient
;

period
white
or

were

certain
were

colours

and
"^

"

prejudiced in favour of slate-coloured hunting dogs gourmands

the
most

not

esteemed."
to

Turning
that the

poultry, the old Roman

a

thought
In
are

liver of

white

goose

was are

savoury.

Paraguay
thought
63 6*
'

black-skinned
more

fowls

kept
their

because

they

to be

productive, and
Travels,
Lake 57.
^^

flesh the most

Jesuits), 1786,
torn.

proper
xl.
p. pp.

Cattle,' p. 48. Livinjjstoue's

'

(by the p. Ngami,'

to the

Andersson, 576; With 18.56, p. 222. in sale Kaffraria,

Review.'
^^
'

F.
50.

Michel,
Hamilton

'

Des

Haras,'

respect
see
'

47,
"

Quarterly
in

1860,
Memoire

p.
sur

1.39. les

'

Col. Nat.

Lib.,'

Smith. volume

Doffs,
x.

page

Chinois

'

103.

188

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

for invalids.^* In Guiana,

as

am

informed

by Sir R. Schom-

of the burgk, the aborigines will not eat the flesh or eggs fowl, but two races are kept distinct merely for ornament.

Philippines, no less than nine sub-varieties of the be separategame-cock are kept and named, so that they must ly
In

the

bred.
At
are

the present time in Europe, the smallest peculiarities useful animals, either most carefully attended to in our

from

fashion,
could of
as

or

as

mark
; two

of

purity of blood.
"

Many

amples ex-

be

given
as

will suffice.

In
a

the
white

Western

counties

England

the

prejudice against

pig

is

in Yorkshire." In against a black one " of the Berkshire one sub-breeds, it is said, the white should be confined to four white feet, a white spot between the eyes,

nearly

strong

and

few
"

white three
this

hairs

behind
"'

each

shoulder."
one

Mr.

Saddler
was

possessed
marked
in

hundred manner."

pigs,

every

of

which

the close of Marshall, towards the last century, in speaking of a change in one of the Yorkshire breeds of cattle,says the horns have been considerably modified, as " a clean, small, sharp horn has been fashionable for the last twenty of the Race

years."
are

'"

In

part of

de Gfoehl have horns

valued
a

for many

Germany the cattle but good qualities,

they
much
wrong

must
so

of

that

mechanical
;

and tint, so particular curvature means applied if they take a are inhabitants
"

direction

but

the

consider bull
is

it

of

the be

highest importance flesh-coloured, and

condition.

that

the

nostrils

of 'the

should
an

the
A

eyelashes light; this

calf with
very
or

pensable indisnot

blue low

nostrils would
"

be

purchased,
no man

or

say

purchased at a that any point

to and

price."

Therefore

let

character selected

is too

to be trifling

methodically attended
Unconscious
more

by breeders.
I mean,
man as

Selection.

"

By

this term

already
of the uals, individ-

than

once

explained, the preservation by

the destruction conscious
of

most

valued, and
without
any

the least valued

on

intention

his

part of altering

the breed.
Azara, Parapunv.'
69 "*

It is difficult to offer direct

'

proofs of the results

Economy
ii. p.
et

Qnaclrnpprles
ii. p.

torn.

Sidney's

edit,

du .324. of Youatt,

"'^

'

Rural
vol.

of
'

York-

shire.'
^i

182. Du

Moll
p.

Gayot,

Boeuf,'

1860, pp.

24, 25.

1860,

547.

Chap.

XX.

UNCONSCIOUS

SELECTION.

139
the the indirect
one case

which

follow

from

this kind
In

of

selection;but
that
other in

evidence
man

is abundant.

fact, except
in the

acts

intentionally,and
between
man

unintentionally,
and

there

is little difference
In

methodical
preserves

unconscious which

selection.
are

both
or no

cases

the

animals

most

useful
But

pleasing
doubt than

to
a

him, and
far
more

the from
"

others.

destroys or neglects rapid result follows

selection. the destruction
mares,
are

methodical
"

from

unconscious

The

roguing
in

of

plants by gardeners, and

VII.'s the
reverse

by
stances in-

law

Henry
of
a

reign of all under-sized

of
to

process

selection the
same

in

sense

of the influence

word, but
is well
a

leading
shown of black

ordinary general result.

the

The

of the destruction

of individuals

character
every

by the
about
on

lamb

with

trace

having a particular of necessity killing in order to keep it,

the average height of jN'apoleon, by
ones

the flock white of the which

men

; or

again, by the effects

of the destructive
were

of France tall
men

wars

many

the short killed,

This

being left
conclusion

to

be the fathers
some

of families. who have

at least is the

of
scription; con-

of those and

closelystudied
that since

the

effects of the
time

it is certain

Napoleon's

the

standard

for the army has been lowered three times. two or selection blends with Unconscious methodical, so that it

is

When fancier long a scarcely possible to separate them. unusually short an a pigeon with ago first happened to notice though w4th the tail-feathers unusually developed, albeak, or one

he bred of

from
the

these

birds

with

the

distinct

intention

propagating
a

make

variety, yet he could not have intended to far from tumbler short-faced fantail, and was or a
that he had
seen

knowing
If

made the

the

first step from with what

towards would
we

this

end. been

he

could with

have

final result, he but

have of

struck habits

astonishment,

know

the

of fanciers, probably not

in

admiration. have infer

Our been both

lish Engly greatfrom

barbs, and short-faced carriers,

modified the
same

tumblers
as we

manner,

may

the historical and from

given in the chapters on the Pigeon, the comparison of birds brought from distant countries.
evidence been with

So from

it has the old

dogs;

our our

present

fox-hounds
have

differ become

English hound;

greyhounds

190

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

has been modified, and is now lighter: the Scotch deer-hound those which Our formerly were rare. bulldogs differ from do used for baiting bulls. Our pointers and Newfoundlands in the counfound not tries closelyresemble any native dog now These have been whence changes brought. they were the result has but in every effected partly by crosses; case Nevertheless, there been governed by the strictest selection. cally that man is no intentionally and methodito suppose reason As our the breeds made are. exactly what they now

horses

became

fleeter,and

the
were

country

more

cultivated and

and

produced, but they distinctly foreseeing what one probably without any Our would become. pointers and setters, the latter almost from large spaniels, have been greatly certainly descended
smoother, fleeter fox-hounds
desired modified
in

accordance

with

fashion

and

the

desire

for

creased in-

have become extinct, and so has the speed. Wolves bulls are no longer baited, wolf-dog; deer have become rarer, answered to and the corresponding breeds of the dog have the change. bulls will
now

But
were

we no

may

feel almost

sure man

that when, said to thus

for instance,

longer baited, no

himself, I
create

breed
race.

my

present
and With

As

dogs of smaller size, and circumstances changed, men

their
course

the

unconsciously
followed their
genitors. pro-

slowly modified
race-horses

of selection.

selection
our

for swiftness
now

has been
surpass appearance

methodically, and
The

horses

easily
different
observer

increased led

size and
a

of the
to
our

English
"

race-horse
any
one

good
were

in

India
at

ask,
horses, race-

Could

in

this year

of 1856, the
mare

looking
of
This
"

conceive

that and

they

result ?"

the

union

of

the Arab
it is

horse

the African

change

has,

as

lection, selargely effected through unconscious that is, by the general wish fine horses to breed as with possible in each generation, combined training and

probable, been

their to give to them high feeding, but without any intention the introduction According to Youatt,''* present appearance.
in

Oliver

Cromwell's

time

of three

lions celebj'ated English stal-

speedily affected the English breed ; " so that Lord Ilarleigh,one of the old school, complained that the great horse
"

'The

India
'

Sport.
Stud

Rev..'

v.

181;

Cecil,

The

Farm,'

ii. 58.

''^

'

The

Horse,'

p.

22.

Chap.

XX.

UNCONSCIOUS

SELECTION.

19^^ proof how

was

fast

disappearing." This
must

is

an

excellent

fully care-

selection
care,
soon

have small

been
an

attended

to; for without of Eastern

such

all traces have been of

of

so

infusion lost.

blood would that the

absorbed has

and

Notwithstanding
esteemed

climate favourable methodical the Arabs

in
'*

particularly to horse, yet long-continued selection, both and unconscious, together with that practised by during a still longer and earlier period, has ended
never

England
the

been

giving us the best breed of horses in the world. whose lay remarks, " Two men authority on such
was

Macau-

subjects
and Sir

held

in

great

esteem,

the

Duke

of

Newcastle

hack ever ported imFenwick, pronounced that the meanest from than Tangier would produce a finer progeny could be expected from the best sire of our native breed. They would not readily have believed that a time would come when the princes and nobles of neighbouring lands would be as eager horses from the Engto obtain England as ever lish had been to obtain horses from Barbary." The London in appeardray-horse, which differs so much ance from any natural species, and which from its size ha's so astonished Eastern probably formed by princes, was many the heaviest and most powerful animals having been selected and during many generations in Flanders England, but without the least intention or expectation of creating a horse If we such as we back to an now see. early period of go history,we behold in the antique Greek statues, as Schaaffhas remarked," a horse equally unlike hausen a race or dray from breed. and horse, existing differing any The results of unconscious selection,in an early stage, are well from shown the
same

John

in

the

difference

between

the

flocks

descended ers. breedin

"

stock, but gives

an

separately reared
instance

by careful
of this fact

Youatt

excellent

the

have sheep belonging to Messrs. Buckley and Burgess, which for been purely bred from the original stock of Mr. Bakewell There is not a suspicion existing in upwards of fiftyyears. the subject that of any the mind at all acquainted with one the from
7*
'

owner

of either blood
of

flock has of Mr.

vol.

deviated

in

any ;

one

instance

the pure
History
316.

Bakewell's
"
'

flock

yet. the

differder

England,'

Ueber

Bestiindigkeit

i. p.

Arten.'

192
ence

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

between
'"

the

by these sheep possessed

two

gentlemen is

of beingquite different so great, that they have the appearance varieties." I have seen several analogousand well-marked
cases

with

I : for instance, pigeons

had

from those long bred by Sir family long bred by another fancier,and the two families and a more plainlydiffered from each other. Nathusius
" "

scended family of barbs deJ. Sebright, and another

a

competent witness could not be cited observes that,though the Shorthorns are remarkably uniform in appearance cept (exin colour), individual the character and wishes of yet each breeder become impressedon his cattle, so that different herds differ slightly from assumed

another.'^ The Hereford catone tle their present well-marked character soon after the year 1769, through careful selection by Mr. Tomkins,'' and the breed has latelysplit into two strains one strain it is said,'* in having a white face,and differing slightly,
"

: but there is no to believe that this reason points the of which is unknown, was origin split, intentionally with it much attributed be made; to more probability may some

other

different breeders

having attended

to

different

points. So

again, the Berkshire breed of swine in the year 1810 had changed from what it was in 1780; and since 1810 at greatly least two distinct sub-breeds have arisen bearing the same name.*" Keeping in mind how rapidly all animals increase, be annuallyslaughtered and that some must and some saved for breeding, breeder during a long course then,nf the same
settles which shall be saved and which of years deliberately shall be killed, it is almost inevitable that his individual will influence the character of his stock, of mind out withturn his having had any intention to modify the breed. selection in the strictest sense Unconscious of the word, useful animals and the neglect that is, the saving of the more slaughter of the less useful,without any thought of the or

future, must

have

gone

on

from occasionally barbarous

are

the remotest

period and amongst the most often suffer from famines,and

Youatt ' Ueber 1857, s. 51.
T7 " 78

nations. Savages sometimes expelled by war

'

on

Sheep,

p.

315.
p.

"

Quarterly
von
. . .

Review,'
Nathnsins,
'

1849,
Vor-

Shorthorn
'

Rindvieh,'
Ani-

892.
^"

H.
s.

Domesticated mals,' 1845, p. 363.

Low,

studien

Schweineschiidel,'

1864,

140.

194
the wild

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

pear?
on an

Alphonse de Candolle
ancient
as

informs
a

me

that he has

latelyseen
the
are

mosaic

at Rome

melon: silent
on

and

who were Romans, that the melon this fruit, he infers the

representation of such gourmands,

has been

greatly ameliorated since the classical period. Coming to later times, Buffon,**' on comparing the flowers,
vegetables which were excellent drawings made a hundred
was

fruit, and

then and

cultivated

with

some

struck been

with

surprise

at

the

fifty previously, years which great improvement

that these
ancient

had and

effected; and

remarks be

flowers
a

vegetables would now but by a villagegardener.

of

rejected, not
the time

only by
of Buffon
gone
on.

florist

Since

the work

improvement
compares

has

steadily and
our

rapidly

Every

florist who
books

present flowers with

those

long since, is astonished at A well-known in speaking of the varieties of Pelargonium amateur,**^ raised by Mr. Garth only twenty-two before, years " What excited had attained : surely we remarks, a rage they of the flow^ers of not said; and now perfection, it was one But none the less is the debt those days will be looked at. of gratitude which what to those who to be we owe saw was done, and did it." Mr. Paul, the well-known horticulturist, in writing of the same he remembers when flower,^* says being delighted with the portraits in Sweet's work; young " but what they in point of beauty compared with the are did not advance Pelargoniums of this day? Here again nature by leaps; the improvement was gradual, and if we had have foregone neglected those very gradual advances, we must the present culturist grand results." How^ well this practical hortiappreciates and illustrates the gradual and accumulative published
not

figured in the change.

force

of selection !
manner;

The line

Dahlia of

has

advanced

in

beauty

iii

like

the

improvement

being

guided by fashion, and by the successive modifications which A steady and gradual change the flower slowly underwent.
has been noticed
in many

other

flowers

thus

an

old

florist,**
were

after describing the leading varieties of the Pink

82

which

The
'

passasre

is of

Soc.
"3

d'Acclimat..'
Journal
p. 394.

Bull. sriven, 1858, p. 11. Horticulture,'

'

1862,
"*'

Gardener's

Chronicle,'

1857,

See Mr. Wildmnn's address the Florienlt. Soc. in Gardener's Chronicle,' 1843. p. 86. "" Journal of Horticulture,' Oct. 24th, 1865, p. 239.
to
' '

*'

p.

85.

Chap. XX.

SELECtlON.

^[05
be of have the

grown

in

1813, adds,
grown
as

scarcely
so

pinks of those days would now border-flowers." The improvement

the
more

"

the

many

flowers raised

and

number

of the varieties which

we

been

is all the

striking when
in

hear
at

that

earliest known dates

flower-garden
the year

Europe, namely

Padua,

only from

1545."^

hy the parts most valued presenting the greatest amount hy man of difference. The of whether methodical long-continued selection, power or conscious, unboth combined, is well shown in a general way, or the namely, by the comparison of the differences between varieties of distinct species,which valued for different are parts, such as for the leaves,or stems, or tubers, the seed, or
"

Effects of Selection, as

shown

fruit, or
will be With

flowers. found
to

Whatever present for

in

part the their

man

values
amount

most,
of

that part difference.

that those

greatest

trees

cultivated

the fruit is cultivated

larger than

fruit, Sageret remarks the parent species, whilst with

with

for the seed, as

seed

nuts, nuts, walnuts, almonds, chestis

"c., it is the
seed
in the

itself which fruit in the

larger; and
case,

he

counts ac-

for this fact by the

one

and
to

by the
and
lected se-

other, having been carefully attended the Gallesio has made during many ages.
Godron
insists
on

same

servatio obin

the

diversity of
of the

the

tuber

the potato,

of the bulb
on

in the

onion, and

fruit in the parts in

melon; and
these
In
same

the

close

similarity of the
far
my
own numerous

other

plants.*^
to

order
was

judge
I
to

how

impression
varieties

on

this

subject
same

correct,

cultivated
one

of the of the

species close
of difference
vague;

another.

The

comparison
organs

amount

between

widely different
seen

is

sarily necesa

I will therefore

give the results in only

in

few

cases.

W^

have

previously
of
of

the

ninth

greatly the varieties

Prescott's ico,' vol. ii. p.
^^
'

the
Mex-

cabbage

differ in

chapter how their foliage

given
I with
can

8^

'

Hist,

61. Phvsi-

I have chapters the and potato; similar the how far to

details
confirm

on

Sacreret. Pomologie 1830, 47; ologique,' p.

'

remarks
onion. I

respect
also shown in

to

Gallesio,
'

have

Teoria
p.

della

Riproduzione,'
De I'Es-

1816,

?ece,' In 0, my

88; 1859,

Godron,
torn.

gard
melon.

Naudin the

concurs

re-

varieties

of

the

tenth

ii. pp. 63, 67, and eleventU

196

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

closelythey seeds. resemble in their flowers, capsules, and another one In seven varieties of the radish, the roots differed greatly in tected could be decolour and shape, but no difference whatever
and

stems, which

are

the selected

parts, and

how

in

their

foliage, flowers, or
any

seeds.

Now

what

trast con-

presented, if we compare of these two plants with those of or flower-gardens for ornament;
is with
are

the flowers

of the

varieties
in
our

speciescultivated
we

if

compare

their

seeds

those

of the varieties
and shown

valued
it
was

cultivated that the

of maize, peas, beans, "c., which In the ninth for their seeds. ter chapvarieties of the
pea

differ but

little

except in the tallness of the plant,moderately in the shape of

and these pod, and greatly in the pea itself, points. The varieties,however, of the Pols these in their pods, and differ much chemin more
the and
are sans are

all

lected se-

par-

eaten

valued.
one

cultivated Dwarf
two
an

twelve

varieties differed
in the the

of

the

common

bean;

alone, the
appearance;
one

Fan,
differed

considerably
colour of

in

general
flowers,
instead in the

their

being

albino, and

other

being
in

partially purple; several shape and size of the pod, but

of

differed
far
more

wholly considerably
the
bean

this is the valued selected part. and Toker's itself, and broad bean, for instance, is twice-and-a-half as long and the horse-bean, and is much and thinner of a different as

shape.
The

varieties of the gooseberry,

much
or

organs

fer formerly described,difin their fruit, but hardly perceptibly in their flowers of vegetation. With the plum, the differences likeas

w^ise appear leaves. On

to

be greater
other

in

the fruit than

in

the flowers

or

the

hand, the seed of the strawberry, which

plum, differs hardly at all ; whilst every knows how that is, the one greatly the fruit enlarged receptacle differs in several varieties. In apples, and peaches the flowers and leaves differ considerably, pears, but not, as far as I can judge, in proportion with the fruit. Chinese The double-flowering peaches, on the other hand, show that varieties of this tree have been formed, which differ in in flower than fruit. If, as is highly probable, the more descent of the almond, a surprising peach is the modified of change has been effected in the same amount in the species,
" "

corresponds with

the fruit of the

Chap.

XX.

SELECTION.

197
and in the

fleshy covering of
latter.

the

former

kernels

of

the

relationshipto each other,such the seed and the fleshy covering of the fruit (whatever as its homological nature be), changes in the one may are in modifications the other, though usually accompanied by the plum-tree, for not degree. With necessarilyto the same varieties produce plums which instance, some are nearly dissimilar in stones alike, but include extremely shape; whilst other varieties dissimilar fruit conversely produce with barely distinguishable stones; and generally the stones, been subjected to selection,differ though they have never greatly in the several varieties of the plum. In other cases which not manifestly related, through some are known unorgans bond vary together,and are consequently liable, without intention man's part, to be simultaneously acted on by on any the varieties of the stock (Matthiola) have Thus selection. been selected solely for the beauty of their flowers,but the in size. seeds differ greatly in colour and somewhat ties Varieselected solely on of the lettuce have been of account likewise differ in colour. their leaves, yet produce seeds which a Generally, through the law of correlation,when variety in fellow-varieties from its differs greatly character, one any
it differs to observed of the
same a

When

parts stand

in close

certain fact when

extent

in several

other

characters.
many

this

I cultivated I used from

together
a

varieties
rieties va-

species,for
differed of

first to make each other

list of the

which
and
most
manner

most

in

their foliage

in

that differed of those growth, afterwards and lastly in their seed-capsules, their flowers,then
names seed; and I found that the same in two, three, or four of the successive

in their mature

erally gen-

occurred Nevertheless varieties that part When

was or we

lists. the

the

greatest
for which in mind
to

amount
as

of difference far
as

between

always exhibited,
organ

I could

judge, by

bear

plant was cultivated. vated at first cultithat each plant was

the and
that its variation
we was a

because

useful
a

man,

subsequent, often
the greater
amount

long subsequent, event,

of

cannot

explain
parts

diversity in
with
were

the
an

valuable

by

supposing that species endowed in any particular manner vary

especialtendency to We originallychosen.

198
must

SELECTION.

Chap.

XX.

attribute

the

result

to

the

variations

in

these

parts

having been
;

successivelypreserved, and thus continually augmented whilst other variations, excepting such as inevitably
through correlation, were
most

appeared
may

neglected and

lost.

We

therefore

infer that

long-continued selection, to
another which
in
any
are

plants might be made, through different from as yield races one

they
now are

character

as

in

those

parts

for

they

valued
we

and
see

cultivated.

With

animals

nothing
are

of
not

the been for

same

kind; but
for

a a

sufficient number fair wool

of

species have
in the

domesticated their

comparison.
differs much

Sheep
more

valued several

wool, and
the

the
in
are

races

than

hair

cattle. valued breeds

ISTeither sheep, goats, for their fleetness

or

European
like

cattle,nor
we

pigs

strength; and
respects
the

do not

possess

differing in
But
we

these

the
are

race-horse valued

and

dray-horse.
and and
But

fieetness and have

;

strength
former

in camels

dogs; and heavy camel

with

the swift

dromedary
and mastiff.

Vv^ith the latter the greyhound

even

dogs are valued qualities and senses;

differ in these
is

in

and

higher degree for their mental knows how one greatly the every
a

races

respects.
serve

On for

the

other
as

hand,
the

where

the

dog

to kept solelj''

food,
as
"

in

Polynesian
as

islands

and

China,
have

it is described

an

mal.^'' extremely stupid ani-

Blumenbach

remarks
a

that

many

dogs, such
so

the

badger-dog,

build

so

marked

and

appropriate for

find it very difficult to that I should particular purposes, dental accian persuade myself that this astonishing figure was Had Blumenbach of degeneration." flected reconsequence have the great principle of selection, he would not on
*"

used

the

term

degeneration,
other
the
we

and

he

would should

not

have

been lently excel-

astonished

that dogs and whole

animals
man.

become

adopted for
On the character
is most

service
may
"

of

conclude whether

that the

whatever

part

or

valued

bulbs, flowers, fruit, or

will almost
"9

seed
or

leaves, stems, tubers, of plants, or the size, strength,

"

fleetness, hairy covering,

intellect of animals
to
of

that

acter char-

invariably be found
I'Espece,'
torn.

present

the greatest
1856,
p.

Godron,
27.
'

'

De

il. p.
"o

tises 292.

Blumenbach,'

The

Anthropological

Trea-

Chap.

XX.

SELECTION.

;[99
and

amount

of
may

difference be

both

in

kind
to
man

degree.

And

this

result
a

safely attributed
of

having preserved during

which
were

long course useful to him, and

I will conclude

generations the variations

remarks the

neglected the others. this chapter by some

animals such
as

on

an

portant im-

subject. With
the whole
structure

of which giraffe,

is

admirably co-ordinated
that

for certain

poses, pur-

all the parts must have been supposed simultaneously modified; and it has been argued that,on the principleof natural selection,this is scarcelypossible. But in thus arguing, it has been tacitlyassumed that the variations have No must been abrupt and great. doubt, if the neck of a ruminant suddenly to become were greatly elongated,
it has been

the

fore

limbs

and

back

would

have

to

be

simultaneously

be denied that an strengthened and modified; but it cannot animal might have its neck, or head, or tongue, or fore-limbs

elongated

modificacorresponding tion in other parts of the body; and animals thus slightly modified would, during a dearth, have a slight advantage,
a

very

little without

any

and
A

be enabled mouthfuls

to

browse
more or

on

few

higher twigs, and less every day would

death.

thus
make

survive.

all the

difference
same

between and would

life and

By the repetitionof the

intercrossing of the
slow
and
vivors, sur-

process,

by the occasional
be
some

there

progress,

fluctuating

though

it would

be, towards
If

of the
its small

giraffe.
small been
a

ture admirably co-ordinated structhe short-faced tumbler-pigeon, with

the

conical

beak, globular head, rounded

feet
"

body, short
all in harmony

wings, and
"

characters

which

appear

its whole would structure species, have w^ell fitted for its life; but in this case been viewed as know that inexperienced breeders are urged to attend to we point after point, and not to attempt improving the whole time. Look at the greyhound, that structure at the same natural and vigour; no perfect image of grace, symmetry, admirably co-ordinated structure, speciescan boast of a more its tapering head, slim with body, deep chest, tucked-up limbs, all adapted abdomen, rat-like tail,and long muscular

had

natural

for

extreme

fleetness, and
what
we we see

Now,
from

from what 47

weak down running prey. of the variability of animals, and for which different
men

know

of the method

fol-

200
low
in

SELECTION

Chap.

XX.

chiefly attending to one some improving their stock point, others to another point, others again correcting defects
"

by

crosses,
see

and
the

so

forth line

"

we

may

feel of
a

assured

that

if

we

could
up to

long

of ancestors

first-rate greyhound

its

wild

wolf-like of the sometimes

infinite number character

our as

and

should behold progenitor, we an finest gradations, sometimes in one in another, but all leading towards

present

perfect type.
we

By

small

and

doubtful

steps such

confidentlybelieve,has progressed, and development. of improvement on A similar line of reasoning is as applicable to separate has recently to the whole organisation. A writer as organs " it is p"robablyno maintained that exaggeration to suppose the eye at all,it that in order to improve such an as organ probabili And the imbe improved in ten different ways at once. must of any complex organ being produced and brought is an such way to perfection in any improbability of the kind and degree as that of producing a poem or a same
these, nature, as her grand march
may
"^

mathematical
on

demonstration table." doubt

If
many

by
eye

throwing
were

letters

at

dom ran-

a
no

the

abruptly and
have should
to

greatly
able. service-

modified,

parts would
organ

be

ously simultane-

altered,in order that the

But
persons

remain

is this

the
see

case

with

smaller
in

who

can

distinctlyonly
believe, on
to

There changes? dull light,and a sensitiveness

a

are

this of

condition

depends,

the abnormal

the retina, and

is known

be inherited.

ISTow if

bird, for

seeing well in instance, receive some great advantage from sensitive rewith the most the twilight, all the individuals tina best and be the most would succeed likely to survive;
and

why should
a

not

all those
the

itself be
were

little larger, or

happened to have the eye pupil capable of greater dilatation,

which
or

likew^ise

preserved, whether strictly simultaneous?

intercross and
in

not

these

modifications would

The

individuals

sequently sub-

blend
his

their
more

respective advantages.
caTitionsly givon
Pres. in

"^

Mr.

openinj;
'

.1. .7. address

Murphy,
to the

by
sermon

the

Belfast

jjiven in the Nat. Hist. Soc., as Nov. Northern Belfast Whig^.' folhere Mr. 19, 18G6. Murphy of lows the line arjrument and views previously against my

C. Pritohard, Astronomical Soo.,

Ilev.

Royal
beat

his

(Appendix,
fore the

p. British

33)

preached
Association

Nottingham,

1866.

202

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

CHAPTER
SELECTION,
Natural
appear nature
"

XXL continued. productions

importance
"

selection

as

aflfecting domestic
often
man
" "

Characters

which the

of trifling value to selection by of the The

"

of real

Facility in
attention

Circumstances preventing crosses, and

"

vourable fa-

conditions When the

Close of
a

production
no

large number
liable of each
to

favourable formed
man
"

selection animals

and perseverance of individuals is applied, distinct races

sable indispenespecially
are

not

Highly-bred
carry to

degeneration
to
an

"

Tendency
"

in

to

selection

character

extreme

point,

Characters of character, rarely to convergence diVergence leading have in which direction already they continuing to vary in the same of intermediate varied Divergence of character, with the extinction Limit in our to the domestic races varieties, leads to distinctness in which mestic doManner of time selection of important Lapse power have originated Summary. races
" " " " "

Natural

Selection, kept by
own

or

the
"

Survival We have know

to

of the
little on

Fittest,

as

affecting domestic
But
as

productions.
savages

this head.

animals their

the year
can

food

either that

entirely or
in

provide throughout to a large extent, it

countries, varieties
characters would

hardly be doubted
in

different
in

differing
succeed
is that the
as

constitution
so

and

various

best, and
been

naturally selected. Hence perhaps it few domesticated animals kept by savages partake,
be remarked of their

has

by

more

than and

one

writer, of the wild

resemble
at

appearance

masters,

likewise

natural
in

species.
wilder

Even

in

long-civilised countries,
selection must
act very
on our

least

the

parts, natural
that and

domestic

races. stitution, con-

It is obvious

varieties

having
For

different
best
on

habits,

structure, pastures.

would

succeed

mountains

and

on

rich

lowland
were

ter example, the improved Leices-

formerly taken to the Lammermuir Hills; " but an intelligentsheep-master reported that coarse our lean unequal to the task of supporting such were pastures into heavy-bodied sheep; and they gradually dwindled away
sheep
less and

less bulk:
one;

each

generation
the

was
was

inferior
severe,

to

the

ceding premore

and

when of the

spring

seldom
ravages

than

two-thirds

lambs

survived

the

of

the

Chap.

XXI.

NATURAL

SELECTION.

203
Wales and

storms."

So

with

the mountain found

cattle of North that

the Hebrides, it has been

they could

not

withstand

delicate lowland larger and more Two French breeds. naturalists, in describing the horses of situdes vicisthat, subjected as they are to extreme Circassia, remark of climate, having to search for scanty pasture, and danger from wolves, the strongest and exposed to constant

being

crossed

with

the

most

vigorous alone survive.'' have been must Every one

struck

with

the

surpassing
its bold

grace,

strength, and
confident

vigour

of the

Game-cock,

with

and

air, its long, yet firm

neck, compact

body,

powerful and

closelypressed wings, muscular thighs, strong beak, massive at the base, dense and sharp spurs set low on the legs for delivering the fatal blow, and its compact, glossy, the EngNow and mail-like plumage serving as a defence. lish game-cock has not only been improved during many
years

by

man's

careful

selection, but
a

Tegetmeier has remarked,^by

the strongest, down their
most

kind

addition, as Mr. of natural selection,for

birds have stricken

in

active and

courageous

antagonists in the cockpit,generation after generation, and have subsequently served as the progenitors of
The the
same

their

race.

kind

of double

selection has their

come

into

play with
inferior without their
In
race.

carrier

pigeon, for during

home

birds

fail to return

and

are

training the lost,so that even

selection

by

man

only

the

superior birds propagate

times, almost every district had its own breed of cattle and sheep ; " they were nous indigewhich on to the soil, climate, and pasturage of the locality for it and by they grazed : they seemed to have been formed it." But in this case quite unable to disentangle we are of life, of the effects of the direct action of the conditions
Great

Britain, in former

"

use

or

habit which

"

of natural
we

selection is

"

and

of that

kind

of

lection se-

have
even

followed Let
1

by
us

man

occasionallyand unconsciously during the rudest periods of history.

seen

now

look to the action

of natural
^
.

selection

on

spe-

Quoted
See

p.

325.
2

tie, pp.
MM.

62,

Quatrefages, climat.,' torn, viii., 1861, p. 311.

bv Youatt on Sheep, also Youatt Caton 69. De and Lherbette ' in Soc. Bull. d'Ac-

12.3.

tj^^ Mr.
or

Homing
pp.
*

ISOO. Book.' p. Poultry The Tojjetnioior, Carrier Pigeon,' 1871,

'

45-58.

Youatt

on

Sheep,

p.

312.

204:
cial characters.
man

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

Although

nature

is difficult to

resist, yet
with
seen our cess. suc-

often

and sometimes strives against her power, From the facts to be given, it will also be

that tic domes-

natural selection would powerfully affect many productions if left unprotected. This is

of
a

interest,for

we

thus

learn

that

differences

point of much apparently of very

the survival of a slightimportance would certainlydetermine form when existence. It may forced to struggle for its own it formerly did to me, have occurred to some naturalists, as would that, though selection acting under natural conditions the structure of all important organs, determine yet that it could
not

affect characters

which

are

esteemed which
we are

by
are

us

of little

importance; but this is an error from our liable, ignorance of what

to each

to

eminently
of real value

characters

living
man

creature.

When defect

attempts
or or

to

make

breed

with

some

serious several much selection. Yorkshire

in structure, will

in the

mutual

relation

of the

parts, he We have

partly
that
an

completely fail, or
a

encounter

difficulty ; he is in fact resisted by

seen

form
once

of natural made
in

attempt

was

to breed
so

to

buttocks, but the cows perished often in bringing forth their calves, that the attempt had In rearing short-faced be given up. tumblers, Mr. Eaton
enormous
"

cattle with

says,"

am

convinced

that better
ever
were

head

and

beak the

birds
reason

have ing beand is

a

perished
that break
more

in the the

shell than

hatched;
bird
so

amazingly
case,

short-faced

cannot

reach
Here
comes

the

shell with

its beak, and

in

perishes."
selection

curious
at

which

natural
time:

into

play only
the
as

long intervals of
can

Niata from

cattle 1827
to

graze

as

well

as

during ordinary seasons others, but occasionallj'-,

Plata suffer from
up: at

1830, the plains of La

and the

longsuch

continued times
common

droughts

pasture

is burnt

perish by the thousand, but survive by browsing on twigs, reeds, "c. ; this the many well effect from Niata cattle cannot their upturned jaws so and the shape of their lips attended to, ; consequently, if not cattle. before the other In Columbia, according they perish of to Roulin, there is a breed nearly hairless cattle, called but are Pelones; these succeed in their native hot district,
^
"

cattle and

horses

Treatise

on

the

Almoud

Tumbler,'

1851, p. 33.

Chap.

XXI.

NATURAL

SELECTION.

2()5

found natural

too

tender

for the

Cordillera; in this
only
as

selection that

determines
a

the
races

range

however, of the variety.

case,
never
"

It is obvious
in
a

host of artificial
"

could

survive

state

of nature; toothless

such Turkish

Italian
"

dogs, cannot barbs and Polish fly well against a strong wind, fowls, with their vision impeded by their eye wattles and
"

and

almost

greyhounds, hairless fantail pigeons, which

great
cannot

topknots, hornless
"

bulls and

rams,

which have
many
a

consequently
poor

cope

with

other
"

males, and

thus

chance such

of

leaving offspring, seedless plants, and

Colour
is

other

cases.

by the systematic naturalist generally esteemed as unimportant : let us, therefore, see how far it indirectly affects our domestic productions, and how far it would affect if they were them left exposed to the full force of natural In a future chapter I shall have to show selection. that constitutional of bility peculiarities the strangest kind, entailing liaof certain to the action poisons, are correlated with I will here give a single case, on the colour of the skin. the he informs that, Wyman; me high authority of Professor in being surprised at all the pigs a part of Virginia being black, he made inquiries,and ascertained that these animals
feed their
on

the bones

roots

of the Lachnanthes

tinctoria,which
of
as

colours black of the

pink, and, excepting in the case the hoofs to drop off. Hence, varieties,causes
squatters

the
one

select the black members of the remarked, " we litter for raising, as they alone have a good chance of living." So that here we have artificial and natural selection working hand
in

hand.

may

add

that

in

the

Tarentino

the

habitant in-

the Hypericum sheep alone, because crispiirnabounds there; and this plant does not injure black time.* in about a fortnight's sheep, but kills the white ones believed to certain diseases, are Complexion, and liability Thus white and the lower animals. to run together in man terriers suffer fatal
a more

keep black

than

those

distemper.^In
which
Heusinger,
fiir
s.
'

North

of any America

other

colour
are

from

the

plum-trees
caused

liable to

disease
"

Downing^

believes
"
'

is not
The

by insects;
of Ainor-

Dr.

schrift

die 279. on

WochenBerHeilkunde,' p.

ica,' 1845, p. 270:

466.

Fniit-troes for

peaclies,

p.

lin, 1S4G.
^Youatt

tlie Dog,

232,

206
the have kinds
never

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

bearing purple fruit

known the other
green sorts
or

are

most

affected," and
varieties filled with America
seems

we

yellow fruited
first become
in North

fected in-

until knots." much On from

to

the
the
a

had

the

other hand, called

peaches
the

suffer
to

disease that
"

yellows, which
more

be

peculiar
of the
-

continent,
when the

and

than

nine-tenths
were

victims,

disease

first
-

appeared,
fleshed of the have

the
are

The yellow fleshed peaches. much more rarely attacked; in never."

years

white
some

kinds

parts

In been

Mauritius,
so

the

white

sugar-canes

country of late

severely attacked by a disease, that many riety planters have been compelled to give up growing this vafor (although fresh plants were imported from China trial) and cultivate only red canes." Now, if these plants forced other competing plants had been to struggle with
and flesh
are

enemies, there
or

cannot

be

doubt

that
as

the

colour

of the

skin

of the

fruit, unimportant
have

these

characters their

considered, would

rigorously determined

existence.

Liabilityto the attacks of parasitesis also connected with colour. White chickens subject than certainly more are
dark-coloured
worm

chickens

to the gapes,

which

is caused

by

asitic par-

in the trachea.^' that

in

On the

the other

hand, experience

caterpillarswhich produce white cocoons resist the deadly fungus better than those producing cocoons.^^ observed facts have been yellow Analogous with plants : a new and beautiful white onion, imported from alone attacked France, though planted close to other kinds, was by a parasiticfungus.^^ White verbenas are especially Near liable to mildew." Malaga, during an early period of
France
" the vine-diseases,the green and red and sorts suffered most ; fered black grapes, when interwoven with the sick plants,sufeven

has

shown

not

at

all."

In

France

whole

groups

of varieties

were

comparatively free, and others, such as afford a single fortunate exception ;

whether
^
'

the but

Chasselas, did
T do
not

not

know

any

correlation
Roval
of Soo.

between
Arts

colour and

to disease liability
a

Proc.

of

and p.
10

Sciences
cxxxY.

Mauritius,'

1852,

p.

'Gardener's 379.

Chronicle,'
'

1856, Ac-

du tuelles Ver 12, 214. 1-' Gardener's p. 59.5. " 13 Journal

Soie,* 1859, Chronicle,'

pp.

1851,

of

Rorticulturp,'

1^

Quatrefages,

Maladies

1862, p. 476.

Chap.

XXL

NATURAL

SELECTION.

207
was

was

here

observed.
liable certain
even one

In

former

chapter it

shown
to

how

curiously
It
range

variety of the strawberry is

that insects

mildew.
cases

is

regulate in
of the Under in

many

the

and

the

existence

higher animals, whilst

domestication

living under

their natural

conditions.
most:
or

light-coloured animals
do not
are

suffer

much

more

like grey, troubled black

"

white,
An

habitant Thuringia'* the inbecause they pale cattle,

by various
sensitive
"

kinds

of flies than
negro,

the been

brown,
In

red,

or

cattle.

Albino
to

it has

remarked,''was
the West work The
are

peculiarly
those
are

the

bites of

insects. cattle
in

Indies
are

it is said that which have

the

only horned
deal
of

fit for them. and

good

black

white weak

they
In

Devonshire

terribly tormented by the insects; and sluggish in proportion to the white." there is a prejudice against white pigs,
that the
man sun

because out;

it is believed and
I knew
a

blisters them
not

when

turned

keep white pigs in The scorching of flowers by the Kent, for the same reason. likewise to depend much sun seems on colour; thus, dark suffer and from various it is pelargoniums accounts most; clear that the cloth-of-gold variety will not withstand a which other varieties enjoy. to sunshine degree of exposure Another that not amateur asserts only all dark-coloured
the sun : " the scarlets, suffer from paler kinds stand better, and pale blue is perhaps the best of all." So (Viola tricolor); hot again with the heartsease

who

would

verbenas, but

likewise

weather

tiful destroys the beauother kinds.'"* During one markings of some extremely in Holland all red-flowered cold season served obhyacinths were inferior in quality. It is believed by many to be very climates is hardier in northern that red wheat agriculturists white

suits the blotched

sorts, whilst

it

than
1*'

wheat.^"
analogous
mankind facts
in my

Gardener's Chronicle,' 1852, 435, 691. pp. ^5 DeutschBechstein, 'Natnrg. lands,' 1801, b. i. s. 310. i" tory HisPriehard. Physical of Mankind,' 1851, vol. i. p.
'

in

Man,'
"
'

2nd edit. p. of Journal

pp.

the case Descent 19.5.

'

of

of

1862,
'

100.
"

G.

and
1*

dence Lewis's of ResiJournal in West Home Indies,' Col. Library,' p. 100. edit, of Youatt on Sidney's
' '

With Gardener's 628. 20 Des

'

Hortictilture, 460 1865. 476, 498; p. heartsease the to respect

Chronicle,'
Jacinthes. 53: p. de
on

186.3,

ture,'

1768,

Cul leur wheat

tbe

Pig,

p.

24,

have

given

'Gardener's 653.

Chronicle,'

1846,

208
With the
In
most

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

animals, white
liable to be

varieties from attacked

being conspicuous
and birds
of

are

by

beasts

prey.

where hawks and Germany abound, perparts of France sons Parmenwhite advised not to keep pigeons; for, as are " the white in flock tier says, it is certain that a alway-ofirst fall victims have white Prof.
which is the G.
to

the

kite."

In

Belgium,
same

where

so

many

cieties so-

been
one

established colour which whilst

for the

flightof carrier-pigeons,
reason

for the

is disliked.'^ four

Jaeger''
been he

fishing
and

found all
were

pigeons

had

killed by hawks, examined

occasion feathers white

or

of the

pigeons which

white; on another the the eyrie of a hawk, and all of a had been caught w^ere

On the other hand, it is said that the yellow colour. land sea-eagle (Falco ossifragus, Linn.) on the west coast of Ire" the villagersavoid picks out the blacks fowls, so that M. Daumuch possible rearing birds of that colour." as as in Russia, remarks din,"^ speaking of white rabbits kept in warrens that their colour is a great disadvantage, as they are be seen thus more during bright exposed to attack, and can A gentleman in Kent, who failed to nights from a distance. stock his woods with a nearly white and hardy kind of rabbit, for their early disappearance. accounted in the same manner Any one who will watch a white cat prowling after her prey will soon perceive under what a disadvantage she lies. The white Tartarian cherry, " owing either to its colour like that of the leaves, or to the fruit always being so much appearing from a distance unripe," is not so readily attacked The yellow-fruited raspberry, which by birds as other sorts. generally comes nearly true by seed, " is very little molested by birds, who evidently are not fond of it; so that nets may be dispensed with in places where nothing else will protect This the red fruit." immunity, though a benefit to the be a disadvantage in a state of nature gardener, would both to the cherry and raspberry, as dissemination depends
^*

on

birds.
"

I noticed

during several winters

'

that
^i^
la

some

trees

of

B. Fielfl,' Feb.

W.

Te^etmeier,
25,
1SG5. fowls, Willi
sec
'

The
re-

spect

to

black

quotaHist.

in Nat tion Thompson's of Ireland,' 1849, vol. i. p. 22 In Darwin's Sachen tra Wigand,' 1874, p. 70.
'

22.
con-

cTAccliSTO. 24 Transact. Hort, Soc.,' vol. i. 2nfl For series, 1835, p. 275. Gard. see Throniraspberries,

23

"

b^iu^

Soe.

mat.,'

toin.

vii., 1860,

p.

"

'

cle,' 1855, 24o.

p.

154, '

aud

1863,

p.

210
varieties of the
in

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

apple enjoy,
parts
the

as

we

have

seen,

various On

of the world
a

of not

vantage the great adbeing infested has been Winter

to the
an

by the
Nelis

coccus.

other hand,

particular case
kind
in
on

recorded

in which

aphides confined
touched
no

themselves

pear

and The

other

extensive leaves of

orchard.^"

existence

of minute

glands

the

by apricots,would not be esteemed botanists as a character of the least importance, for they are descended sub-varieties in closely-related absent or present that the same from parent-tree ; yet there is good evidence is highly injuriof glands leads to mildew, which the absence ous

peaches, nectarines, and

^^

to these

trees.

difference
in

either

in

flavour
causes

or

in the amount
to

of nutriment

certain

varieties enemies

them
any

be

more

eagerly
of the

attacked
same

by various

than

other

varieties

(Pyrrhula vulgaris) injure our species. Bullfinches fruit-trees by devouring the flower-buds, and a pair of these " birds have been seen to denude a large plum-tree in a couple " of the bud ; but certain varieties of days of almost every especially apple and thorn (Crataegus oxyacantha) are more served obA liable to be attacked. striking instance of this was of a particuin Mr. River's garden, in which two lar rows variety of plum^^ had to be carefully protected, as they usually stripped of all their buds during the winter, were them whilst other sorts growing near escaped. The root (or turnip is preferred by enlarged stem) of Laing's Swedish
^^

hares, and
and v/hen rabbits both of
are

therefore
eat
grow

suffers
common

more

than
rye

other

varieties.

Hares

down

before south the

may

St. John's-day-rye, of France, when

nuts not
an

together.'*In
"

the

orchard

almond-trees
sown,
"
'"'

is formed, order
see

of be

the

bitter

variety
almonds. Other

in
we

that the
use

they

devoured

by field-mice

so

of the bitter

principle in

slight differences, which

Chronicle,' 1849,
'

would
^^

be

thought quite

p.

30'Gardener's 755. 31 Journal

'

The

.Tounial
=5*

September
.see

of Horticulture,' 254; 26tli, 1865, page references

27, 1804,
Mr. R.

de Reine Claude Bavay, Dec. of Horticulture,' p. 511. of in Journal Pusey,

' '

other
X.
3^

given
'

in

chap. ology
vol.

Mr.
and

Selby,

in

ii., 1838.

Botany,' p. 393.

Zoof Mag. Edinburgh,

Soc.,' vol. vi. p. 179. Gard. For Swedish turnips, see Chron.,' 1847, p. 91. ^^ De Godron, I'Esp^ce,' torn, ji, p. 98.
Agricult.
'

Chap. XXI.

NATURAL

SELECTION.

211

of great service both unimportant, are no doubt sometimes to The Whitesmith's plants and animals. gooseberry, as formerly stated,produces its leaves later than other varieties,

and,

as

the flowers
In
one

are

thus

left unprotected, the fruit often

to

variety of the cherry, according the petals are curled backwards, and much Kivers,^"
of this the
a severe

fails.

Mr.
sequence con-

in

stigmas

were

observed

to

be

killed by

with

frost; whilst at the same incurved petals,the stigmas

The
in
straw

time, in another
were

variety
jured. least inequal un-

not

in

the

of
a

the

Fenton

wheat observer

is

remarkably
that

height; and

competent

believes

this

the ears from variety is highly productive, partly because at various being distributed heights above the ground are

less crowded the

together. The

same

observer

maintains

that in

serviceable by are upright varieties the divergent awns breaking the shocks when the ears are dashed together by the wind.'^ If several varieties of a plant are grown together, and the seed is indiscriminately harvested, it is clear that the hardier and more ral productive kinds will,by a sort of natuthe others; this takes selection, gradually prevail over in our believes,^'' place, as Colonel Le Couteur wheat-fields, in character. for, as formerly shown, no variety is quite uniform Avould The same thing, as I am assured by nurserj^men, take place in our flower-gardens, if the seed of the different varieties were When of the the eggs not separately saved. wild ducks and
not

and

tame

almost

together, the young invariably perish, from being of smaller

are

duck

hatched

wild
size

getting their fair share of food.^"

in

Facts

sufficient number selection often

have

now

been

given showing

that natural man's

a

checks, but
These

power

of selection.

lesson, namely, that in judging what of importance in a cautious characters are have to struggle and plants,which state of nature to animals
for existence from
the

valuable

occasionally favours, facts teach us, in addition, we ought to be extremely

hour

of their
on

birth

to

that

of their which

death,
"

we

are

depending profoundly ignorant.

their existence
Chronicle,' Chronicle,' 18C6, 1862,
*

conditions, about

38

p.

Gardener's 732. "'Gardener's

'

p.

pp.

820, 821.

Varieties of Wheat,' ^s'On the 59. ^9 in and others, ]vjr_ Hewitt of Hort.,' 1SG2, p. 773. Journal

212

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

Circumstances The

favourable

to Selection

by Man.

and this, variability, shall see in the following chapters, mainly depends on we as plex comchanged conditions of life,but is governed by infinitely of selection possibility
rests
on

and

unknown

laws.

Domestication,
but
goose
a

even

when

long

continued, occasionally causes

as

small
and

amount

bility, of varia-

in

the

case

of the

turkey.

The

slight

mal anihowever, which characterize each differences, in most, probably in all,cases suffice for and plant would the production of distinct races through careful and prolonged selection.
mere

individual

We

see

what

selection, though
effect when families been
men

acting
of

on

differences,can have sheep, pigeons, "c., of the same race, of years bred during a number by different
individual
wish
on

cattle, separately
any
same

without
see

their

part

to

modify
between
in many

the

breed.

We

the

fact

in

the

difference

hounds other

bred such

for
cases.

hunting result, it

in

different
In

and districts,*'^ that the

order

selection

should

produce
races

any

is

manifest

that

crossing of distinct

must

be

vented pre-

in pairing, as with the pigeon, is highly facility ; in pairing, as with favourable for the work; and difficulty of distinct breeds. On nearly cats, prevents the formation the same principle the cattle of the small island of Jersey have been improved in their milking qualities" with a rapidity in a widely extended that could not have been obtained

hence

country
on

like France."
one a

*^

Although
one can

free crossing is
see, too

danger

the is

side which

every
on

close interbreeding
ditions con-

hidden

danger

the other

side.

Unfavourable Our

of life overrule

the power

of selection.
not

improved
formed

heavy breeds
on

of cattle and

sheep could
nor

have

been

dray-horses have and inhospitable land, such as the barren been raised on a the light horses of La Plata Falkland Islands, where even impossible to preserve rapidly decrease in size. It seems the several English breeds of sheep in France ; for as soon as
mountainous

pastures;

could

lambs
**'
"

are

weaned
of

their
Rural
'

vigour

decays
Roy.
43.

as

the

heat

of

the

Encvclop.
'

Sports,'
Journal

Agricult.

Soc.,' vol.

Iv.

p.

p.

405. *^ Col.

Le

Couteur,

Chap.

XXI.

FAVOURABLE

CIRCUMSTANCES.

c^\^

impossible to give great length of wool to sheep within the tropics; yet selection has breed kept the Merino nearly true under diversified and
summer :

increases

"

it would

be

unfavourable that breeds

conditions.
of the

The

power

of selection

is

so

great,

dog, sheep, and

short

smallest with

size,long and though

poultry, of the largestand beaked pigeons, and otljerbreeds

had their characteristic qualities
way

opposite characters,have
augmented,
to

treated and

in every

alike,being
same

posed ex-

the

same

climate

fed

on

the

food.

lection, Se-

however, is either checked or favoured by the effects of use habit. Our wonderfully-improved pigs could never or if they had been forced to search have been formed for their food; the English race-horse and greyhound could not own have been improved up to their present high standard of excellence without constant training. As conspicuous deviations of structure occur rarely, the of each is generally the result of the breed improvement selection of slight individual differences. Hence the closest of observation,and indomitable attention, the sharpest powers are indispensable. It is,also,highly important perseverance, that many individuals of the breed which is to be improved
should be raised
;

for thus

there will be
in

better chance

of the

appearance

of variations

the right
manner

or

varying in an unfavourable destroyed. But that a large

necessary

uals direction,and individmaybe freely rejected of individuals should vour faof life should

number

be raised, it is the

that the

conditions

the peacock been propagation of the species. Had should probably ere this have reared as easily as the fowl, we the importance of a large We had many distinct races. see number of plants, from the fact of nursery gardeners almost of new varieties. in the exhibition always beating amateurs estimated" and 5000 that between 4000 In 1845 it was goniums pelarseed in England, yet were annually raised from At Messrs. variety is rarely obtained. a decidedly improved such flowers as the Lobelia, Carter's grounds, in Essex, where for seed, by the acre Nemophila, Migonette, "c., are grown " kinds without being now some scarcely a season passes
"

Malinsrit'-Nouel,
vol.

Journal

R.

"""'

Agricult. Soc.,' 215, 217. pp.

xiv.,

1853,

p.

Gardener's 273.

Chronicle,'

1845,

214

SELECTION.

Chap. XXI.

raised, or
Kew,
as

some

improvement
Beaton

effected

on

old

kinds."

**

At
mon com-

Mr.

forms of Laburnums, plants are So with animals : Marshall," Spiraeas,and other shrubs." in speaking of the sheep in one part of Yorkshire, remarks, " they belong to poor people, and are mostly in small lots, as Lord Kivers, when asked how be improved." can they never first-rate greyhounds, anin always having he succeeded swered, " and hang many." I breed many, This, as another
"^

remarks, where raised, " you see new

many

seedlings of

man

remarks, "was
be found
in

the

secret

of his
"

success;

and

the

same

will breed

exhibiting fowls,
*

successful

competitors

largely,and keep the best."

from

capacity of breeding at an with pigeons, rabbits, "c., as early age and at short intervals, made faciliates selection; for the result is thus soon visible, in It the work and perseverance can hardly be encouraged. accident that the great majority of the culinary and agricultural an have yielded numerous races are nuals anplants which or biennials, which therefore are capable of rapid propagation, and thus of improvement. Sea-kale, asparagus, mon comIt follows this that the and Jerusalem

artichokes, potatoes, and

onions,

must

be

excepted, as they are perennials: but onions are propagated like annuals, and of the other plants just specified, with none, the exception of the potato, have yielded in this country more In varieties. the Mediterranean than two one or region,
where artichokes
as are

often
Mr.

raised

from

seed, there
No doubt

are

several

kinds,
which host

I hear

cannot

fruit-trees, be propagated quickly by seed, have yielded a

not

from

Bentham.

of

varieties, though

permanent

races;

but

these,

judging from prehistoric remains, have been produced at a comparatively late period. will A species may be highly variable,but distinct races selection be not applied. It not be formed, if from cause any in fishes from would be difficult to select slight variations is extremely their place of habitation; and though the carp attended variable and is much to in Germany, only one wellhas been formed, as I hear from Lord A. Russell, marked race
4*
'

Jonrnal

of

Horticulture,'
p.

"'A

1802, p. 157. ''"' Cottage

p. o08.

Gardener,'

1860,

Review 406. *^' Gardiner's

of

Reports,'

1808,

Chronicle,' 1853,

p. 45.

Chap.

XXI.

PAVOUKABLE

CIRCUMSTANCES.

215

namely the spie g el-carp e; and this is carefullysecluded from the common On the other hand, a closelyallied scaly kind. the gold-fish, from being reared in small vessels, species, and from having been carefully attended to by the Chinese, has Neither the bee, which has been semiyielded many races. domesticated from an extremely remote neal period,nor the cochicultivated cans,*^ insect, which was by the aboriginal Mexihas yielded races be impossible to match ; and it would the queen-bee with any particulardrone, and most difficult to cochineal insects. match Silk-raoths,on the other hand, have been subjected to rigorous selection,and have produced Cats, which from their nocturnal habits cana host of races. not be selected for breeding, do not, as formerly remarked, within the same yield distinct races Dogs are held country. in abomination in the East, and their breeding is neglected; kind consequently, as Prof. Moritz Wagner" remarks, one
alone exists there. and
poor

The it is
an

ass

in

England

varies much and

in colour

size; but
not

as

animal
no

of little value

bred

by

people, there has been

been
to

selection, and
not

distinct

races

have of
our

formed.

We

must

attribute the

inferiority

smaller climate, for in India they are of even size than in Europe. selection is brought to bear But when the ass, all is changed. Near Cordova, as I am informed on (Eeb. 1860) by Mr. W. E. Webb, C.E., they are carefully 200Z. having been paid for a stallion ass, bred, as much as and they have been immensely improved. In Kentucky, asses have been imported (for breeding mules) from Spain, Malta, than fourteen and France ; these " seldom averaged more hands high: but the Kentuckians, by great care, have raised sometimes them to sixteen. to fifteen hands, and even up The prices paid for these splendid animals, for such they much how they are in request. One really are, will prove thousand sold for upwards of one male of great celebrity, was sent to cattle-shows, are pounds sterling." These choice asses
asses a

day being given for their exhibition.

Analogous
Isidore Hist. ' On 49. p. sect,,' p. 46.
*8

facts

have

been

observed
nnd
""

with

plants: the
der

Geoffroy
Nat.

laire,

"

Gp'n.,' torn.

the

Snint-Hiiii. InCoeliineal

das

Oij^anismen.'
Cnpt.
in
'

MioT.ntionscresetz 1S68. p. 19.

Marryat,
Journ. p.

quoted
Soc.

by
of

Blvtti

Asiatic

*"

'

Die

Darwin'scUQ

Theorie

Bengal,' vol. xxviii,

229"

4^

^16
nutmeg-tree
there The has
common

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

in the
no

Malay archipelago is highly variable,but

selection,and
there
are no

been

distinct

races."

conspicu mignonette {Reseda odorata), from bearing in" flowers, valued solely for their fragrance, remains in the same condition when first duced." introas unimproved forest-trees Our are common variable, as very in every extensive nursery-ground; but as they be seen may like fruit-trees,and as they seed late in life, not valued are selection has been applied to them; consequently, as Mr. no Matthews remarks,^^ Patrick they have not yielded distinct different to leafing at different periods, growing races, We sizes, and producing timber fit for different purposes. fanciful semi have and monstrous gained only some doubt varieties, which no see appeared suddenly as we now
"
-

them. Some strong

many
a

botanists

have

tendency to species long

cultivated have
not

have so argued that plants cannot is generally supposed, because as vary

in

grown year

botanic

gardens,

or our

tentionally unincorn

crops,

produced

after year distinct races

mingled with
; but

this is accounted and

gated. propa-

for

by slight variations not having been Let a plant w^hich is now grown
any
common

selected
in
a

botanic

garden,

large scale,and Jet a sharp-sighted gardener look out for each slight variety and the seed, and then, if distinct races not produced, the are sow
or

weed, be cultivated

on

argument The

will be valid.

ering by considimportance of selection is likewise shown breeds of For instance, with most special characters. and the colour of the plumage of the comb fowls the form have been attended eminently characteristic of are to, and each
race;

but

in

Dorkings,

fashion

has

never

demanded

diversity in colour; and the utmost or uniformity of comb these double-combs, cuprespects prevails. Rose-combs, in purely be seen combs, "c., and colours of all kinds, may bred and closely related Dorking fowls, whilst other points, of body, and the presence of an the general form such as attended been additional are invariably to, and toe, have
"

Mr.
p

Oxley,
645.

'

Journal

Indian

Archipelago,'
Mr.

of vol.

the

Horticulture,'
430.
"3
'

Dec.

1,

1863,

p.

ii.,
of

1848,
62

On

Naval

Timber,'

1831, p.

Abbey,

in

'

Journal

107.

218

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

Horse,
has

sums

up:

"It

must

have
there
**'

been

observed

in

the

ceding pre-

pages

that, whenever

has been

neglect,the breed

If a considerable number proportionally deteriorated." of improved cattle,sheep, or other animals of the same race, allowed with breed to were selection, but no freely together, with no be no change in their condition of life,there can doubt that after a score hundred or generations they would be very far from excellent of their kind; but, from what we of the many of dogs, cattle,fowls, pigeons, see races common without have "c., which particular care long retained any

character, we have no grounds for believing nearly the same that they would altogetherdepart from their type. It is a general belief amongst of breeders that characters all kinds become fixed by long-continued inheritance. But I in the fourteenth have attempted to show chapter that this belief apparently resolves itself into the following proposition, namely, that all characters whatever, whether recently acquired
w^hich
or

ancient, tend

to

be

transmitted, but

that

those

and

all counteracting fluences inalready long withstood will,as a general rule, continue to withstand them, consequently be faithfully transmitted. have

Tendency

in Man

to

carry

the

'practice

of Selection

to

an

extreme

point.

It is
man

an

of selection important principle that in the process almost invariably wishes to go to an extreme point.
no

Thus, there is
horses and

limit to his desire to breed

as

certain

kinds

of

possible,and others as strong as possible; certain kinds of sheep for extreme fineness, and others for extreme length of wool; and he wishes to produce fruit,grain, tubers, and other useful parts of plants, as large excellent and animals bred for amuseas possible. With ment, the same principle is even more powerful ; for fashion, in our This view to extremes. dress, always runs as we see has been Instances expressly admitted by fanciers. were the the but here is another in : Mr. chapters on pigeon, given Eaton, after describing a comparatively new variety,namely,
as
57
'

dogs

fleet

Tijg

Veterinary,'
For tUe

vol.

xiii.

cattle,
51.

see

Youatt

on

Cattle, p.

p.

720.

Glamorganshire

Chap.

XXL

CARRIED

TO

AN

EXTREME.

219
intend

the

Archangel, remarks,
am

"

What

fanciers

doing with

they intend to breed tumbler's head to beak, or carry it out to the carrier's head and beak; leaving it as they found it, is not progressing." Ferguson, speaking of fowls, says, " their peculiarities, whatever they may be, must sarily necesbe fully developed: a little peculiarity forms nought but ugliness, seeing it violates the existing laws of symmetry." So Mr. Brent, in discussing the merits of the sub-varieties of the Belgian canary-bird, remarks, " Fanciers indefinite always go to extremes; they do not admire properties." This principle,which necessarily leads to divergence of of various character, explains the present state domestic
at
a

this bird I
it down

loss to know, whether

and

the

^*

races.

We

can

thus

see

how

it is that

race-horses

and

dray-

mastiffs,which are opposed to each character, how varieties so distinct as Cochinchina fowls and bantams, or carrier-pigeonswith very long with excessively short beaks have been beaks, and tumblers from derived the same stock. As each breed is slowly improved, the inferior varieties are first neglected and finally lost. In a few cases, by the aid of old records, or from intermediate ions varieties still existing in countries where other fashenabled have are partially to trace the prevailed, we graduated changes through which certain breeds have passed. methodical whether unconscious, always tending or Selection, towards extreme an point, together with the neglect and slow
other in every
"

horses, greyhounds

and

extinction

of the unlocks

intermediate the

and of

less-valued
how
man

forms, is the
has

key which
such
In
purpose,

mystery

i^roduced
a

wonderful
a

results.

few
has

instances led
to

guided by utilityfor selection,

convergence
races

single
proved im-

of

character.

All

the has

and

different

of the each

pig, as
in

Nathusius

well

shown,^*closely approach
shortened rounded
convergence
58

legs and
bodies, and
in the
'A page and

character, in their hairless, large, muzzles, their almost We small tusks. degree of some see
other outline
on

similar
Treatise

of the
'Cottage
p.
'

body

in

well-bred
October,

J.

M,
on

Fancy
guson,

Eaton, Pigeons,'
'

the

Gardener,'
des

S2;
Prize

Fer-

1860,
*^

Rare

try,'

page

162;

Mr.

Ponlin Brent,

1860,

13. Racen Die s. 48.

Schweines,

220
cattle
cases.

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

belonging to

distinct

races.*"*I know

of

no

other

such

deed divergence of character depends on, and is ina clear proof, as previously remarked, of the same parts direction. The tendency to continuing to vary in the same of organisation can plasticity or tainly cergeneral variability mere

Continued

be inherited,

even

from

one

parent,

as

has

been

shown

by Gartner
from

and
two

Kolreuter, in the production of varying hybrids

variable. It species,of which one alone was has varied in any is in itself probable that, when an organ if the condiin the same tions it will again vary manner, manner, the being to vary which first caused remain, as far as This is either tacitly or expressly be judged, the same. can admitted by all horticulturists : if a gardener observes one or additional petals in a flower, he feels confident that in a two few generations he w^ill be able to raise a double flower, of the seedlings from the weepcrowded with petals. Some ing Moccas oak were that crawled so they only along prostrate the ground. A seedling from the fastigate or upright Irish is described as differing greatly from the parent-form yew " by the exaggeration of the fastigatehabit of its branches." Mr. Shirreff, who has been highly successful in raising new kinds of wheat, remarks, " A good variety may garded safely be re^^

as

the

forerunner

of

better the
same

one."

^"

great
with

rose-

grower, to
roses.

Mr.

Rivers, has made

remark

respect

large experience, in speaking of fruit-trees, of the future progress observes that the most " that the more important principle is plants have departed from their original type, the more they tend to depart from is apparently much it." There truth in this remark; for we understand the surprising amount in no other way of difference can varieties in the parts or qualitieswhich between are acter. valued, whilst other parts retain nearly their original charThe what

Sageret," who

had

foregoing discussion naturally leads to the question, of variation in any is the limit to the possible amount
'

60 remarks See on some good de this head Quatrefa,c"es, by M. Unite de Humaine,' I'Espece 1861, p. 119. "i Des Varietes,' 1865, Verlot,
' '

^^ ^j. Gardener's

Patrick

Shirreff, Chronicle,' 1858,

in p.

771.

"'Pomologie
p.

Physiolog.,' 1830,

106.

p. 94.

Chap.

XXI.

SELECTION.

221

part
than

or

quality,and, consequently, is there

can

any

limit to what fleeter

selection

effect? Can

Will

race-horse

ever

be reared

and sheep be stillfurther Eclipse? our prize-cattle Will a improved? than gooseberry ever weigh more that in 1852? Will the beet-root in produced by "London France yield a greater percentage of sugar? Will future varieties of wheat and other grain produce heavier crops than These be positively our questions cannot present varieties? answered; but it is certain that we ought to be cautious in lines of variation answering them by a negative. In some the limit has probably been reached. Youatt believes that of bone in some the reduction of our sheep has already been carried so far that it entails great delicacy of constitution."* But seeing the great improvement w^ithin recent times in our cattle and sheep, and especiallyin our pigs; seeing the wonderful in weight in our increase kinds of all poultry during
"

the last few that

years

he would

be

bold

man

who

would

assert

It has often been said that perfection has been reached. and never will be, beaten in speed by any Eclipse never was, other horse; but on making inquiries I find that the best The judges believe that our present race-horses are fleeter.*^" to raise a new more productive variety of wheat attempt ly than the many old kinds, might have been thought until latequite hopeless; but this has been effected by Major Halmals lett, by careful selection. With respect to almost all our aniand plants, those who are best qualified to judge do not believe that the extreme point of perfection has yet been

reached
to
a

even

in the

characters
For

which

have

already been

ried car-

high standard.
has been
"

instance, the short-faced

bler-pigeon tum-

according greatly modified ;nevertheless, to Mr. Eaton,'"' the field is still as open for fresh competitors it was hundred again ago." Over and over as one years it has been said that perfection had been attained with our ly Hardreached. been has soon but a higher standard flowers, fruit has been more improved than the strawberry, yet any " that be concealed not a great authority remarks," it must
we are

far from
on

the extreme

limits at which
^"
'

we

may

arrive."

"* "5

Youatt
See

ish p.

Rural

Sheep, p. 521. Britalso Stonehenge. of 1871, Sports,' edition

'

Tumbler,'
"

M.

Almond the Treatise on p. i. Gard. in J. de Jonphe,

'

384,

Chron.,'

1858, p. 173,

222
No
cannot extreme

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

doubt be

there modified of
is

is

beyond which the organisation compatibly with health or life. The

a

limit

degree
animal

fleetness, for

capable, may
as

instance, of which have been acquired

has

restrial terour

by

present
the unlimited whether been And doubt

race-horses; but
interests in
any

Mr.
"

Wallace is not

well

remarked,"'
and

question that
change
such

us,
or as

whether
is

indefinite

all directions do
occur

possible,but
could have

differences
the
our

in

nature

produced by
in the
case

accumulation domestic

of varieties

by selection."
can man

of

productions, there
to
a

be

no

that

many

parts of the organisation, to which

been
thus

has

attended, have
the

modified
in

greater

degree than
same

corresponding parts
or even

the

natural
see

species of the
form beak and and
in the

genera

families.

We
or

this in the
"

size
many

of

our

light and
characters

heavy dogs
of
our

horses,
"

other
many

fruits, in
"

pigeons, comi^arison with

in

the

size and

quality of
to

the

species belonging

the

same

natural is
an

groups.

in the formation of our important element domestic it permits innumerable individuals to be as races, born, and these when exposed to diversified conditions are

Time

rendered

variable.

Methodical
an

selection

has

been

ally occasioneven

practised from

ancient

period

to the

present day,

by semi-civilised people, and during former times will selection will have effect. Unconscious produced some still more effective; for during a lengthened period the individual animals will occasionally have valuable of saved, and the less valuable neglected. In the course
different will also have been
more or

have been
more

been

time, in the less civilised countries, varieties, especially

less modified

through natural
on

selection. have little

It is
or no

generally believed, though

evidence, that having
new

this head
in

we

characters

time it

come be-

fixed ; and after possible that under new variable. How

long remained

fixed

seems dered ren-

conditions

they might again be

been since
man

great the lapse of time

animals and
the

has

first domesticat
to

cultivated

plants, we

begin dimly
were

see.

When
'

lake-dwellings of 'Switzerland
to tlie

inhabited
edit., 1871,

"8

Contributions

Ttieory

of

Natural

Selection,'

2ud

p.

292.

Chap.

XXI.

SELECTION.

223

during the Neolithic

period, several animals were mesticat already docultivated. various and The science of plants that of tells the art ploughing and sowing the us language had been already land was followed, and the chief animals doniesticated, at an epoch so immensely remote, that the
Sanskrit, Greek,
had
not

Latin, Gothic, Celtic and their as yet diverged from

the
ways
we

Sclavonic
common

guages lan-

parent-

tongue.

scarcely possible to overrate occasionally carried on in various of generations. All that thousands
It is

effects of selection and

places during

stronger the

degree, all that

our

we

do

not

know, and, in a still know,^" of the history of

of
our more

great majority of
agrees

breeds, even
that their and When
the them

modern

breeds,
almost

with

the

view

the action

of unconscious

production, through has been methodical selection,

a man

insensibly slow.
is usual
to to
sure

attends of his

rather

more

closely than
almost

They are in his immediate in consequence valued neighbourhood, and ever bred by others; and their characteristic features, whatare these may be, will then slowly but steadily be increased, sometimes and almost always by unconscious by methodical improve
extent.

breeding to a slight

animals, he

is

selection.

At

last
a

strain, deserving
more

to

be

called

sub-

variety, becomes
name,

slow

widely known, receives a local and spreads. The spreading will have been extremely is rapid. during ancient and less civilised times, but now
little time
that the
new

By

the

breed

had

assumed

somewhat

at the time, chai'acter, its history, hardly noticed remarks," will have been completely forgotten; for, as Low

distinct

"

We

know

how

quickly the
new

memory

of

such

events

is

effaced." As the
same soon as a

breed break

is thus
up

formed, it is liable through

new

process

to

into
are

strains

and

ties. sub-varie-

For

different

varieties

suited Fashion

under, different circumstances.

a

for, and are valued changes, but should

so

fashion

last for

even

moderate

length of time,
some

strong

is

the

principle of inheritance, that

of 'Science Miiller, 1861, p. 223. on Cattle, 116, 128. 188.

effect will

probably
p.

"Max

'^i

'

Domesticated

Animals,'

Language,' ^o'Youatt

224

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

increasing how in number, and history shows us wonderfully they have As each new increased since the earliest records.'' variety is produced, the earlier,intermediate, and less valuable forms not will be neglected, and perish. When being a breed, from evitably invalued, is kept in small numbers, its extinction almost
be

impressed

on

the breed.

Thus

varieties

go

on

follows of destruction

sooner or

or

later,either from
close of well-marked
a new

accidental
and

causes

from
case

interbreeding;

this

is

an

event

which, in the
The birth
or

breeds, excites
domestic
or race

tion. atten-

production of

is

so

slow

notice ; its death that it escapes is comparatively sudden, is often recorded, and
a

process

destruction
too

when

late

sometimes Several

regretted.
authors natural have
races. a

drawn The

wide latter

distinction
are more

between
in

artificial and

uniform

of high degree the appearance natural species,and are of ancient origin. They are generally in less civilised countries, and have probably been found by natural selection, and only to a small largely modified selection. and methodical extent They by man's unconscious have, also, during a long period, been directly acted on by of the countries which the physical conditions they inhabit.

character, possessing in

The

so-called

uniform such
as
^'

artificial races, on have in character; some the

the
a

other

hand,

are

not

so

semi-monstrous

character,

ing," wry-legged terriers so useful in rabbit-shootPolish fowls, sheep, niata oxen, turnspit dogs, ancon fantail-pigeons,"c. ; their characteristic features have generally been acquired suddenly, though subsequently increased which Other cases. by careful selections in many races, for they have been largely be called artificial, certainly must selection and by crossing, as the Engmodified lish by methodical werp race-horse, terrier-dogs, the English game-cock, Antbe said to cannot carrier-pigeons, "c., nevertheless have
seems races. an

"

unnatural
to me,
can

appearance;

and between

no

distinct and

line,

as

it

be

drawn

natural

artificial

It is not
'

surprising that domestic

zur s.

races

should
'

generally
of Rural

" Beitrage Volz, turgeschichte,' 1852, passim.

Kul99
et

''^

Blaine,
p.

Encyclop.

Sports,'

213.

226

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXL

scent. divergent line of deHe shown in the earlier chapters, concludes, as was he has long attended that all the chief breeds to which original abare the productions. The systematic naturalist, on other hand, who ing, generally knows nothing of the art of breedhow the several who and when does not pretend to know links
in

rieties, connecting the

each

domestic

races

were

formed, who
these
races

cannot not
are now

have

seen

the intermediate

gradations, for they do

feels
source. no

doubt But

that ask

exist, nevertheless from single a sprung

him

whether

the
not turn

closely allied
have will descended

natural from
a

species which he has studied may common progenitor, and he in his

notion with
scorn. a on

perhaps rejectthe
and breeder
may

Thus useful

the

naturalist each
"

mutually Summary

learn

lesson from

other.
can

Selection selection
was

hy Man.
has

There and

be

no

doubt

that methodical results. It

effected

will

effect wonderful

occasionally practised in ancient times, of and is still practised by semi-civilised people. Characters of triflingvalue, have others the highest importance, and
been has attended been
has
so

to, and often

we

modified.
on

I need

not

here

repeat Avhat
tion selecbetween slow
many ported trans-

said
see

played:
as

the part which its power in the

unconscious difference

flocks

which

have

been

changes,
animals

circumstances

separately bred, and in the have slowly changed, which

in the
same see

have
into
a

undergone foreign land.

unconscious

country, the

or

when

We

combined

effects of

selection,in the great amount of difference in those parts or qualitieswhich valued by are in comparison with the parts w^hich are not man valued, and Natural selection to. consequently have not been attended
often
err

methodical

and

determines

man's

power

of

selection.

We

sometimes

considered are as imagining that characters, which fected unimportant by the systematic naturalist,could not be afby the struggle for existence, and could not be acted have been given, on by natural selection; but striking cases
in

showing
The

how

great

an

error

this is.

possibilityof selection coming into action rests on variability; and this is mainly caused, as we shall hereafter of life. Selection is by changes in the conditions see, rendered sometimes or even difficult, impossible,by the con-

Chap.

XXL

SELECTION.

227
character
or

ditions

being opposed
checked which That

to

the desired

quality. It

is sometimes

constitution

by the lessened fertility and weakened follow from long-continued close interbreeding.
selection
may

methodical
and

be

the successful,

closest attention

with unwearied discernment, combined and patience, are these same absolutely necessary; ties, qualithough not indispensable,are highly serviceable in the
case

of unconscious

selection.

It is almost be

necessary

that

large number
will be
a

of individuals

should

reared;

for thus

there

any

ing, arisnature of and individual with the slightest blemish in every or degree inferior being freely rejected. Hence length of
is

fair chance

of variations

of the desired

time

work.

important element of success. Thus, also,reproduction at an and short at intervals favours early age the in Facility pairing animals, or their inhabiting a confined is advantageous as check free crossing. to a area,
an

Whenever
races one are

and
not

wherever formed

selection
the

is not
same

practised, distinct
When
any
mains re-

within
one or

country.
attended

part of the
either
at

body or unchanged
time

quality
varies

is not
a

to, it

in

fluctuating manner,
other

whilst become

the

same

other

parts

and

qualities may

But from the permanently and greatly modified. and to continued those tendency to reversion variability, which parts or organs are now undergoing rapid improvement much. to vary through selection,are likewise found when generate deConsequently highly-bred animals neglected soon
but
we

have

no

reason

to

believe

that

the

effects of life

of

long-continued selection
the
same,

would, if the conditions

and
to

remained Man

be

soon

always tends

to

go
or

completely lost. extreme an point

in the

tion, selecand
it
to

whether

methodical

unconscious, of all useful

an

pleasing qualities. This

leads
to

is

important principle, as
and
in
some rare cases

continued of

divergence
character. The

convergence

possibility of
in

continued
or

divergence rests on the tendency manner varying in the same go on

varied; and that this occurs, of many gradual improvement
is

each
in

part
the

organ

to

which

it has

already

proved by
animals and

steady and plants during

ter, lengthened periods. The principle of divergence of characcombined with the neglect and final extinction of all prQ^

228

SELECTION.

Chap.

XXI.

vious, less-valued, and

amount

intermediate
the

varieties, explains
of
our

the

of difference
we

and

distinctness the
utmost
we

several
to

races. tain cer-

Although
reached,
the selection how

may
can

have be

reached

limit
are

which

characters
as we

modified, yet
good by
reason

far

from

having
limit between stand undermeans

have
cases. on

to

believe, the
the difference
we can

in

majority
as

of

Finally, from
man

carried it is that
in

and
races

by nature,

domestic

often, though
from

by

no

always, differ species. Throughout

selection
as on

general

aspect

closely allied
I have action

natural

this

chapter and
power,
our

elsewhere

the

paramount
we

yet

its

spoken of absolutely
or

depends
accidental build The
the the
an

what

in

ignorance
an

call be

spontaneous

variability. Let
edifice of with
uncut

architect fallen be

compelled
a

to

stones,
may

from

precipice.

shape
nature

each has

fragment
been

shape of each
of the

determined the

accidental; yet by the force of gravity,

"

called

rock, and
between

slope of the precipice, depend

laws the
on

events

and there which

manner

circumstances,
is
no

all of which

natural the

laws;
purpose

but for
same

relation

these

and builder.
are no

each the and

fragment
variations

is used of each but

by

In

the

creature

determined relation the

to

by
the

fixed

immutable which

laws;
is

these

bear
up

living
If the

structure

slowly built
or

through
noble

power

of selection, whether
our

this be natural succeeded

in

artificial selection.
a

architect

rearing
for
we

edifice,using longer
his skill

rough
in

wedge-shaped
lintels, and degree higher

fragments
so

the should used

arches, the
admire
stones

stones
even

for the
a

forth,
if he

shaped for So it is with the applied by selection, whether purpose. for although variability is indispensably by nature; man or and look at highly complex some we yet, when necessary, to quite variability sinks a excellently adapted organism,
than had subordinate in used with

position
the
same

in
manner

importance
as

in

comparison

with

lection, se-

the is

shape of each

by

our

supposed

architect

unimportant

fragment in comparison

his skill.

Chap.

XXII.

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

229

CHAPTER
CAUSES

XXII.
OF VARIABILITY.

Variability does

not

necessarily accompany
"
"

reproduction
"

"

Causes

assigned
"

Individual differences by various authors Variability of every kind due to changed conditions of life On the nature of such changes of nutriment Climate, food, excess Effects Slight changes sufficient of grafting on the variability of seedling-trees Domestic productions habituated conditions to changed become On the accumulative tion acof changed conditions Close interbreeding and the imagination of the mother supposed to cause of variability Crossing as a cause
"

"

"

"

"

"

the appearance of characters of the

causes

of and which

new

from

characters reversion

"

Variability from
On the
manner

"

the commingling and period of action the

ductive repro-

either

system, induce

directly,or variability.
as

indirectlythrough

We almost The
our

will

now

consider,
an

far
our

as

we

can,

the

causes

of the

universal is

variabilityof
obscure S6me
one;

domesticated
it may

productions.
to

subject

but

be useful

probe

Dr. authors, for instance Prosper Lucas, look at variabilityas a necessary contingent on reproduction, and as much ance. an aboriginal law as growth or inheritOthers have of late encouraged, perhaps unintentionally, this view by speaking of inheritance and variabilityas equal and antagonistic principles. Pallas maintained, and he has had some ly followers, that variability depends exclusivethe crossitigof primordially distinct forms. Other on authors attribute variabilityto an of food, and with excess animals of exercise to an excess relatively to the amount That taken, or again to the effects of a more genial climate. these causes all effective is highly probable. But we are must,
I

ignorance.

think, take

broader

view, and

conclude

that organic

beings, when subjected during several generations to any the kind in their conditions, tend to vary; change whatever in a far of variation which cases ensues depending in most of the being, than constitution higher degree on the nature or the nature of the changed conditions. on
Those each authors who should believe differ that
in it is
some a

law

of nature

that

individual

slight degree from

230

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

Chap.

XXII.

other, may maintain, apparently with truth, that this is the fact,not only with all domesticated animals and cultivated plants, but likewise with all organic beings in a state of nature. The and Laplander by long practice knows to each gives a name reindeer, though, as Linnaeus remarks, " from another to distinguish one multitudes such among like ants on an was beyond my comprehension, for they were anthill." In Germany shepherds have won by recogwagers nising in each sheep flock of a hundred, which a they had until the previous fortnight. This power of discriminat never seen however, is as nothing compared to that which florists have some acquired. Verlot mentions a gardener who could distinguish 150 kinds of camellia, when in not flower; and it has been positively asserted that the famous old Dutch florist Voorhelm, who kept above 1200 varieties of in knowing the hyacinth, was deceived each vahardly ever riety
every

by the bulb
bulbs of the

alone.

Hence

we

must

conclude

that

the

and leaves of the hyacinth and the branches camellia, though appearing to an unpractised eye absolutely undistinguishable, yet really differ.^ As
I may

Linnasus add that

has compared each

ant

the

reindeer
its fellow
ants to

in number of the the

same same

to

ants,
munity. com-

knows I

Several

times from of
one

carried ant-hill of

of

species
parently ap-

{Formica
were

rufa)
by
tens

another, inhabited
but the

thousands

ants;

strangers

ants instantly detected and killed. I then put some taken from large nest into a bottle strongly perfumed a very with assafootida, and after an interval of twenty-four hours them returned to their home; at first threatened they were to recognised and allowed soon by their fellows, but were ITence each ant certainly recognised, independently of pass. odour, its fellow; and if all the ants of the same community have not some countersign or watchword, they must present to

each
The

other's

senses

some

distinguishable character.
or

dissimilarity of brothers seedlings from

the
same

sisters of the

same

family,
in

and
1
'

of
Des

capsule,
Smith,
ment in

may

be

part

Jacintlies,' "S:c, AmsterDes 1768, p. 4.3; Verlot. the 86. On "e.. Varietes,' p. Tonr in see Linnaeus, reindeer,
dam,
'

vol.

i. p.

'

herds of Dr.

regard is given
Weinland.

state314. The German sliepthe on authority to

]Laplaud,' translated

by

Sir

J,

E.

Chap.

XXII.

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

231

by the unequal blending of the characters of the two lees complete recovery or parents, and by the more through reversion of ancestral characters on either side; but thus only j)ush the difficulty further back in time, for we
what the the parents or their progenitors different ? Hence belief^ that an innate tendency to vary exists, dently indepenof external
seems differences,

accounted

for

made

sight probable. in the same the seeds nurtured But even jected capsule are not subto absolutely uniform conditions, as they draw their from different points; and nourishment shall see in a we future chapter that this difference sometimes suffices to affect of the future plant. The greater dissimilarity the character of the successive children of the same family in comparison
at

first

with

twins, which
mental
a

often

resemble

each

other

in external
so

pearance, ap-

disposition,and

constitution,in

ordinary extra-

that the state of the apparently proves of period of conception, or the nature parents at the exact the subsequent embryonic development, has a direct and pow^erfulinfluence on the character of the offspring. ISTeverreflect on the individual when differences between we theless,
manner,

organic beings in
animal
2

state mate

knowing its
'

of nature, ; and when

Eng.
voir
et

as we

shown reflect
ce

by
on

every

wild

the infinite
a

Miillor's

Physiology,'
ii. p.

de

frere

alors

Vienne,
'

1G62. With respect to the similarity of twins Dr. in constitution, William Ogle the tract has me follov^ing exgiven Trousseau's Professor from Lectures ('Clinique'*- Medicale,' ous curitorn. i. p. 52.3), in which a " J'ai is recorded: case freres soins deux doDue mes ii deux si extraortons jumeaux, dinairement ressemblauts qu'il les m'etait de reconimpossible I'un moins de les voir a naitre, k c5te Cette de I'autre. ressemblance s'eteudait plus physique loin: ils avaient, permettez-moi

translation,

vol.

J'ai effet" en qui lui ecrivait dois tu la mon avoir ophthalmie, tienne.' Quelque singulier que ceci le fait n'eu puisse paraitre, est I'a pas pas
vu

moins

raconte,
d'autres Ces aussi

exact: je I'ai

on

ne

me

ai

analogues
deux deux tons

et vu, dans

j'en
ma

"

pratique.
etaient

jumeaux
asthma-

a un tiques, et asthmatiques Originaires froyable degre. n'ont ils jamais Marseille,

efde
pu

cette dans ville, oil demeurer les souleurs interets appelaieut

vent,
ces:

sans

une I'expression, thologique plus

similitude

pacore. en-

remarquable
d'eux
a

Aiusi

I'un neothermes

que rhiimace

je

n'en epronvaient il leur mieux. a Bien Paris. Toulon suffisait de pour gagner de leurs etre attaques gu^ris de

jamais

etre ils

pris

de

leurs

ac-

voyais
malade tisraale

aux

Paris
ment mo-

Marseille.
et dans tons

Voyageant
pays pour

sans

cesse

d'une
me mon

ophthalmie En disait,
'

leurs

faires, af-

frere
comme

ophthalmie
et
comme

doit avoir une la mienne;

'

montrait
une

je m'etais recrie, il me jours quelques apres lettre de recequ'il venait

que 6taient leur certaines il3 dans d'autres funestes, que de tout etaient pU6exempts
nomene

ils

avaient localites

remarqu6

d'oppression."

49

232

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

Chap. XXII.

diversity of the
we

many

varieties be inclined

of
to

may

well

productions, exclaim, though falsely as

our

domesticated

ultimate be looked at as an believe,that Variability must fact, necessarilycontingent on reproduction. Those authors who adopt this latter view would probably exciting deny that each separate variation has its own proper seldom the precise relation trace can cause. Although we between and effect,yet the considerations presently to cause be given lead have
its
own

to

the

conclusion
cause,

that

each

modification

must
we

distinct

and

is not

the result of what

blindly call accident.

communicated
as

to

twins, and in both hands fingers on

has been following striking case born by Dr. William Ogle. Two girls, me all respects extremely alike, had their little The

crooked;

and

in

both

children

the

second side in
in
a

bicuspid tooth of the second dentition, on the right the upper misplaced; for,instead of standing jaw was
the

line with

others, it

grew

from

the roof of the mouth

nor

behind
members

the first bicuspid. of the

Neither

the parents

any

other
any

exhibited known to have family were of one of these girls had similar peculiarity; but a son tooth same similarly misplaced. Now, as both girls
in

the
were

affected
at must
once

exactly the
and
some

same we are

manner,

the

idea

of accident that

is

excluded: have existed

a

compelled to admit precise and sufficient cause

times, would
have

there

which, if

it had

occurred

hundred

given crooked

fingers and
It is of
course

reversion much think

to

children. misplaced bicuspid teeth to a hundred have been due to possible that this case may some long-forgotten progenitor, and this would
the

weaken of the

value

of the argument.

I have

been

led to

probability of reversion, from having been told of twin girls born with their case by Mr. Galton of another from little fingers slightly crooked, which they inherited
their maternal We will
now

grandmother.
consider the

general arguments, which pear apin favour of the view that to have to me great weight, variations of all kinds and degrees are directly or indirectly of life to which each being, and caused by the conditions especiallyits ancestors, have been exposed. more doubts that domesticated No one productions are more have never been removed variable than organic beings which

234

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

Chap. XXII.

sudden
return

appearance to
a

of

moss-rose

on

Provence-rose

is

former
no

state, for mossiness

of the

observed
to

in

natural

species;
laciniated

the

same

calyx has been is applicaargument ble

the for
ance appearon

variegated and
of nectarines
on

can leaves; nor peach-trees be accounted

the

principle of reversion.
concern

But
occur

bud-variations far
more

more

ly immediate-

frequently on plants which have been highly cultivated during a length of time, than on other and less highly cultivated plants ; and very few well-marked have been observed instances with plants growing natural conditions. under I have strictly given one of an instance ash-tree growing in a gentleman's pleasureand be seen, on beech grounds; and occasionally there may other trees, twigs leafing at a different period from the other forest trees in England branches. But our hardly be can considered as living under strictlynatural conditions; the raised and seedlings are protected in nursery-grounds, and often be transplanted into places where wild trees of must It would be esteemed the kind would not a naturally grow. prodigy if a dog-rose growing in a hedge produced by budwild bullace or wild cherry-tree variation a or a moss-rose, yielded a branch bearing fruit of a different shape and colour if be enhanced The prodigy would from the ordinary fruit. found these varying branches capable of propagation, were by seed; yet analogous not only by grafts, but sometimes of our with many have occurred highly cultivated trees cases
us,
as

they

and

herbs. These several considerations kind

is

alone

render

variability of

every

directly or

probable that indirectly caused by

it

under of life. Or, to put the case other anchanged conditions all the individual possible to expose point of view, if it were of a species during many generations to absolutely be no variability. of life, there would conditions uniform

On

the

Nature

of

the

Changes
induce
to

in

the

Conditions

of Life

which

Variability.
present
as

From and

remote

period
as

the

circumstances

different

organic beings of all kinds, when

day, under climates it is possible to conceive, domesticated cultivated. or

Chap.

XXII.

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

5435
domestic
of

have

varied.

We
and

see

this with

the

many

races

quadrupeds gold-fishand
various Africa the

belonging to different orders, with silkworms, with plants of many kinds, raised in
of the world. In

birds

quarters

the

deserts

of northern

date-palm the fertile plains of India

of rice and of
a

has

yielded thirty-eightvarieties; in
it is notorious how
in
many
a

varieties

host

of other

plants exist;
of
the

single Polynesian
of the

island, twenty-four varieties

same

bread-fruit,the
varieties

number
are

of the banana, cultivated

and

twenty-two
the

arum,

by
in

the

natives;
many

mulberry-tree in
serving
as

India

and

Europe has yielded

and used for various

varieties

food

for the bamboo and

silkworm;
are

China

sixty-threevarieties of the domestic purposes.^ These facts,

could
in

innumerable of almost

others which
any
"

be added, indicate conditions

that

change
to
cause

kind

the

of life suffices

variability different changes acting on different organisms. attributed the variation of both animals Andrew Knight abundant and plants to a more supply of nourishment, or to a favourable climate, than that natural to the species. A more the genial climate, however, is far from more necessary; and kidney-bean, which is often injured by our spring frosts, peaches, which require the protection of a wall, have varied in northern in England, as has the orange-tree much Italy, overlook the where it is barely able to exist.^ Nor can we with fact, though not immediately connected our present shells and of Arctic that the the plants regions are subject, that a eminently variable.^ Moreover, it does not appear less genial,is one of the more or change of climate, whether of variability;for in regard to plants most potent causes
^
'

^ On Annals

1854,

the see date-palm, of Nat and Mag. Indian On 460. p.

F.

Vogel,
Hist.,'
ties, varie-

Dr.

Hamilton,

'Transact.

On Linn. Soc.,' vol. xiv. p. 296. varieties cultivated in hiti,, Tathe in don's LouDr. see Bennett, of N. Hist.,' vol. v., Mag. Also 1832, p. 484. Ellis, sian Polyne' '

ii. p. volume Chinese Empire,' 307. " of Culture the Treatise on .3. the "c., Apple,' p. ^ RiTeoria della Gallesio, Veg.,' p. 125. produzione 8 See Memoir on Hooker's Dr.
' ' '

Arctic

Plants vol. and not be

in

'

Linn.

act.,' Trans-

xxiii.
a

375.

Researches,' On twenty
and

vol.

i.

pp.

370,

Woodward,
can

Mr. ii. part ity authorhigher

Pandanus Marianne

varieties trees other

'

Islands,
vol.

see

Miscellany,'
the bamboo

i.

p.

in

China,

of the in the Hooker's On 308. Hue's see

quoted,
mollusca

speaks

of

the
'

Arctic

Treatise.' Rudimentary subject remarkably as 355) variation.

his (in is.'i(), p. to

236

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

Chap.

XXII.

Alph. De

repeatedly Geographie Botaniqiie,' in most of a plant, where shows that the native country cases it has yielded it has been longest cultivated, is that where Candolle, in his
in the nature of the food

of varieties. the greatest number whether It is doubtful a change

is
a

variability. Scarcely any domesticated the pigeon or the fowl, but than animal has varied more their food, especiallythat of highly-bred pigeons, is generally cattle and sheep have been subjected the same. Nor can our in all these cases But to any great change in this respect. less varied in kind than that which the food probably is much consumed was by the species in its natural state."* induce of food, which Of all the causes excess variability, whether not changed in nature, is probably the most or held with regard to plants by was powerful. This view held by Schleiden, more Andrew Knight, and is now cially espefood.^" elements of the In the in reference to inorganic food it suffices in most order to give a plant more to cases it separately,and thus prevent other plants robbing its grow It is surprising, as I have often seen, how vigorously roots. selves, wild planted by themspecies flourish when common our land; separate growth though not in highly manured We the converse see is,in fact, the first step in cultivation. lowing of food induces variabilityin the folof the belief that excess statement by a great raiser of seeds of all kinds : " desire to keep a It is a rule invariably with us, when we it on land kind of seed, to grow stock of any true one poor for quantity, we act conwithout we trary, dung; but when grow ing have dearly to repent of it." Accordand sometimes has had also to Carriere, who great experience with en general les plantes de flower-garden seeds, " On remarque le mieux celles qui conservent leurs sont vigeur moyenne
potent
cause

of

"

caracteres."
In
"

the

case

of animals
'

the

want
169.
'

of
See

proper
also

amount
Braun.

of
in

Bechstein,
der

schichte
s.

some 238, has his that He states this subject. in varied cauarv-birds colour, food. uniform kept on though 10 Tjjg Schleiden, Plant,' by translated 1848, p. Henfrey, by
'

in his NaturgeStubenvogel,' 1840, on good remarks

Alex.

Bot.
"

Memoirs,'

Ray

Soc.,' 1853,
and

p.

313. Messrs.
in

Hardy
'

Maldon, 1856, p.
tion
et

Gard.

Son, of Chronicle,'
'

1865, p.

458. Carriere, Fixation des 31.

Produc-

Variet6s,'

Chap.

XXII.

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

237

pendently perhaps played, indeof any lar particuin an important organ, part causing variability. We can in a vague see the organised and manner that, when trient nufluids of the body are used during growth, or by not the wear and tear of the tissues, they will be in excess; and growth, nutrition, and reproduction are intimately allied as this superfluity might disturb the due and processes, proper of the direct effects of the disuse action of the reproductive organs, and character of the future offspring. But neither
an excess

exercise, as

Bechstein

remarked, has

consequently affect
it may

the

be argued that

superfluity in the organised fluids of the body necessarily induces variability. The goose and the turkey have been well fed for generations, yet many
nor a

of food

have which

varied
are so

very

little.

Our

fruit-trees

and

culinary plants,
an more

variable,have been cultivated from period, and, though they probably still receive
than
in their natural

ancient
ment nutri-

state, yet

they

must

have

received

during many generations nearly the same and it amount; be might thought that they would have become habituated to the excess. the whole. Knight's view, that JSTevertheless, on
excess

of food
as

is
as

one

of the most
can our

potent

causes

of

variability,

appears,

far
or

I
not

judge, probable.
various cultivated been all have
are

Whether

nutriment of various and

grown

in excess,

plants have received exposed to changes

on

kinds.

Fruit-trees soils.

grafted
seeds of
to

different stocks,

in various

The from of

plants
last century used have been the

are

carried

place
our

culinary and agricultural and place; during

and the
manures

the

rotation

crops

greatly changed. often suffice to induce variability. Slight changes of treatment The simple fact of almost all our cultivated plants and domesticated animals having varied in all places and at all times, leads to this conclusion. from Seeds taken mon comtheir native climate, under English forest-trees, grown otherwise not treated, yield artificially or highly manured extensive in every be seen seedlings which vary much, as may seed-bed. I have shown in a former chapter what a number of well-marked and (Cratccgus single varieties the thorn oxycantha) has produced; yet this tree has been subjected to I carefully examIn Staffordshire hardly any cultivation.

238
ined

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

Chap.

XXII.

plants,namelj Geranium vated. have been highly cultiand pyrenaicuin, which never phwum These plants had spread spontaneously by seed from garden into an open plantation ; and the seedlings a common varied in almost single character, both in their flower every I have and foliage,to a degree which seen exceeded; never great change in yet they could not have been exposed to any
a

large number

of two

British

their conditions. With

respect to anim_als,Azara
whilst the feral of three

has horses

remarked
on

with

much
are

that, surprise,^^

the

Pampas

form colours, and the cattle always of a unithe unenclosed bred on colour, yet these animals, when can hardly be called estancias, though kept in a state which

always

one

apparently exposed to almost identically play when conditions the same as they are feral, nevertheless disSo again in India several a great diversity of colour. fish are only so far treated artificially, species of fresh-water that they are reared in great tanks; but this small change is
domesticated,
and sufficient to induce Some facts
on

much the

variability.^^
effects of

grafting, in regard

to

the

Cabanis that asserts variabilityof trees, deserve attention. w^hen certain pears are grafted on the quince, their seeds of varieties than do the seeds of the yield a greater number variety of pear when grafted on the wild pear." But same distinct species,though so closely the pear and quince are as related that the one be readily grafted and succeeds mirably adcan the other, the fact of variabilitybeing thus caused on is not surprising; as w^e are here enabled the cause, to see different nature of the stock and namely, the very graft. Several North American varieties of the plum and peach are well known to reproduce themselves ing truly by seed ; but Down" that when asserts,^^ of these graft is taken from one a and another trees stock, this grafted tree is placed upon of producing the same found to lose its singular property like all other worked trees ; variety by seed, and becomes
"
"

12

'

Quadrupedes

guay,'

1S01, torn. 13 M'Clellaud Asiatic rinidpp.

'

dn Paraii. p. 319. Indian on CypResearches,' pp.

" Quoted by Phys.,' 1830. p. ment, however, by Decaisne. ^^

"

Sageret,
43.

'

Pom. fituto-

This
not

is

believed

vol.

x'x.

part

ii., 1839,

266,

rpj,^

Fruits

of

America,'

268, 313.

1845,

p.

5.

Chap.

XXII.

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

239

Another highly variable. case Lalande is worth giving : variety of the walnut-tree leafs between 15th, and its seedlings inApril 20th and May variably inherit the same habit; whilst several other varieties leaf in June. of the walnut JN^ow,if seedlings are raised the May-leafing Lalande from variety, grafted on another May-leafing variety, though both stock and graft have the yet the seedlings leaf at various same early habit of leafing,
the

that

is, its seedlings become

times,
are

even

at

late

as

the 5th
on

of June.^" obscure

Such and

facts

as

these

w^ell fitted to

show

what

slight causes

depends. variability
I may

here of first

just allude
and
seems

to of
a

the

varieties which France

asserts at
a

fruit-trees

of new appearance wheat in woods and

most

and
Avaste

valuable

places,
In covered dis-

sight

anomalous the best

so

circumstance. pears have

been

considerable

number

of

this has occurred in woods; and " that improved varieties of our
"

that frequently, cultivated the has fruits other been

one

Piteau

rarely
no

originate with
instance and with wood of Mr. of
a

In England, on nurserymen." been found wild good pear having informs

me

hand,
recorded

Rivers

that Bess
This

he

knows

of
was

only

instance
in
tries couna

apples, namely, the in Nottinghamshire.

may be in but there

Poole, which
difference

discovered the two favourable of

between

France,
made

for by the more part accounted from the chiefly great number in the
a

climate from

seedlings whicli
case a

spring up
remark

woods. number the

I infer

that

this is the

by

French
a

who gardener,^^

calamity

that

such

regards it as a national of pear-trees are periodically cut

borne fruit. been is the The
new

doAA'n for firewood, before which thus spring up in any

excess

they have

varieties
have to of
are ceived re-

of

woods, though will have nutriment,

but

they

cannot

exposed
cause

ruptly ab-

changed

conditions,
doubtful.
^^

whether These

this
kinds

their

production is very all descended

orchards,
^^
"

varieties, however,

from

old cultivated Avhich

circumstance
in
'

Avill account
of Rivers information.

probably in growing adjoining for their variability;

Gardeninjr,' given me
'

M.

Cardan,
Dec.

Rendus,'
'

1848,

Gard. Chronicle,' i'^ M. mentions Alexis Jordan in four found excellent pears alludes in France, to woods and others de Acad, (' INIem Lyon,' torn. Poiteau's ii. 1852, p. 159). in is quoted Gardener's remark f^er, Ma^.,' vol. iv.. 1828, p. 385. Gard. 1862, p. 335, Chronicle,' for another of a new riety vacase in of found the a pear in Also for hedije France. other anEnLondon's see case,
' ' '

Comptes in quoted 1849, p. 101.

cvclop.
Mr.

p.

901.

has

similar

18

Duval,

Hist,

du

Toirier,'

p. 2. fact 19 is the this that I infer statement CArMons' Van from i. p. 18.35, tom. Fruitiors,' bres woods in the linds he that 446) the all resemblinc: seedlings

1849,

races cultivated chief and apple. the pear at lookod however,

of Van those

both

Mons, wild

varieties

as

aborigiual species.

240
of

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

Chap.

XXII.

and
a

out

vast of

number the

of

varying
of
a

trees

there

will kind.

always
In

be

good

chance where

America,
the in
a

appearance fruit-trees frequently

was

valuable

North

Washington
wood.^** With

pear

found

in

spring up in waste places, hedge, and the Emperor peach

^^

an

the

writers have spoken respect to wheat, some in be to found varieties event for new ordinary discovered Fenton wheat was growing certainly
detritus

as

if it

were

waste
on

basaltic would Chidham Hunter's is not

in

probablj^
wheat wheat said that

receive
was

quarry, sufficient a from

an

but

in

such
amount
ear

situation of

places; a pile of the plant

The and it

nutriment.
on a

raised discovered latter

found where

hedge;

was

by the

roadside

this

variety grew

in Scotland, but it was found."

Whether

our

domestic
to

productions would
the conditions
no

ever

become
which
means are

so

completely habituated
now

under

they
for
never

live,as to cease varying, we have domestic judging. But, in fact, our

a

sufficient

productions

conditions, and length of time to uniform it is certain that our most anciently cultivated plants,as well gone as animals, still go on varying, for all have recently underIn few marked however, some improvement. cases, conditions. habituated to Thus, become new plants have

exposed for

great

Metzger,
numerous

who

cultivated

varieties
states

Germany of wheat, brought

kinds
instance
were

in

during
from

many

years
tries," coun-

different

that
in

some one

at

first extremely variable,

an

but

gradually,

after

interval

of twentythis

that and it does not appear five years, became constant; forms. constant resulted from the selection of the more On the
We

Accumulative have

Action

of changed
that

Conditions

of

Life.
"

good grounds for believing

the influence

duced changed conditions accumulates, so that no effect is proa species until it has been exposed during several on versal Unicultivation or domestication. generations to continued troduced flowers are first inexperience shows us that when new but ultimately into our gardens they do not vary; to a greater or less extent. with the rarest exceptions,vary all, of generations, as well the requisite number In a few cases

of

Downing, North Araerion,'

'

20

Frnit-tvpps Foley, p. 422;

of in p.

22

'Qj^rrlener's

Chronicle,'
700; 1854.
p.

1841,
650.
s.

3S3;
23
"

1850,
^ie

p.

Transact. 412.
21
'

Hort.

Soc.,' 1847,

vol.

vi. 244.

Getreirlearten,'

1843,

p.

66, 116, 117.

Gard.

Chron.,'

p.

242

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

Chap.

XXII.

varied
^

quickly
But from
Dr. the

or

slowly when
Bachman
eggs
'^

first

subjected
he has

to

new

condi-

tions. raised

states

that

seen

turkeys

of the

wild

tints and Mr. bred

become
many

spotted with
j^ears
ago

species lose their metallic white in the third generation.

me

Yarrell
on

informed

that the wild had

never

ducks been
true

the

ponds
a

in St. James's

Park, which

crossed, as

it is believed, with after few ducks

domestic

ducks, lost their

excellent
eggs

plumage
who and

generations. An
from that the there

obsei'ver,*"
wdld

has who

often
took

reared

of the be
no

bird,

crossing with domestic breeds, has given, as previously stated, full details on the changes which He they gradually undergo. precautions
found than that he could five
or

should

not

breed
"

these wild
as

ducks

true

for
so

more

six

generations,
The white broader

they then
the
more

proved
neck

much lard mal-

less beautiful. became

collar round and

of the

irregular, and white feathers appeared in the ducklings' wings." They increased less fine,and they lost also in size of body; their legs became their elegant carriage. Fresh then procured from were eggs Vv'ild birds; but again the same result followed. In these of the duck and turkey we that animals, like plants, cases see do not depart from their primitive type until they have been On subjected during several generations to domestication.
the other

much

hand, Mr.

Yarrell

informed

me

that the

Australian

invariably dingos, bred in the Zoological Gardens, almost in the first generation puppies marked with white produced and other colours; but these introduced dingos had probably been procured from the natives, who in a semikeep them domesticated It is certainly a remarkable fact that state. changed conditions should at first produce, as far as we can see, absolutely no effect;but that they should subsequently cause In the chapter on panthe character of the speciesto change. genesis I shall attempt to throw little this fact. a light on

Returning

now

to

the

causes

which
^^

are

supposed
that
'

to

duce in-

variability. Some
=""
"

authors

believe
^^

close

interConsan-

of the CharExamination of and acteristics Genera Species: ' Charleston, 1855, p. 14. ' 30 of Journal Mr. Hewitt,

97, 125. tion I haA'e found naturalists of the

Devay, guins,' pp.

Mariages
In two
same

conversaor

three

opinion.

Hort.,'

1863, p. 39.

CuAP.

XXII.

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

243
to

breeding gives this tendency, and

monstrosities.
were

leads

the production
some new

of

In

the

seventeenth

chapter

facts

advanced, showing that monstrosities are, as it appears, be no occasionally thus induced; and there can doubt that close interbreeding causes lessened fertility and a weakened lead to variability: constitution; hence it may but I have
not

sufficient

evidence

on

this

head.

On

the

other

hand,

interbreeding, if not carried to an injurious extreme, far from tends to fix the character of causing variability,
close each It breed.
was

still held by some formerly a common belief, sons, perthat the imagination of the mother affects the child in is evidently not the w'omb.^^ This view applicable to the lower animals, which lay unimpregnated eggs, or to plants. Dr. William Hunter, in the last century, told my father that in a large London woman during many Lying-in years every asked before her confinement whether Hospital was anything had speciallyaffected her mind, and the answer written was instance could a down; and it so happened that in no one coincidence abnormal structure, belief in have be detected structure; she between when the woman's she
knew
answer

and

any

but

the

nature
cause.

of the The

fresh frequently suggested some of the mother's the power imagination from the children of
a

may

perhaps
bling resem-

arisen the

second

marriage

occurs, previous father, as certainly sometimes with the facts given in the eleventh chapter. accordance

in

Crossing this chapter

If

as

a was

Cause

of Variahility.
"

In
a

an

early part of
other
to ralists natu-

it

stated that Pallas that

""

and

few

maintain this in
means our

variabilityis wholly due

characters
but
never

crossing.

that

new

spontaneously appear
are

domestic certain
for

races,

that they

rived all directly de-

from than

absurd;

the doctrine is littleless aboriginalspecies, like Italian greyit implies that animals hounds,

pug-dogs, bull-dogs, pouter and

were mean
32

fantail pigeons, "c.,

But

able to exist in

state

of nature.

the doctrine
the

may

something
Muller
has

widely different, namely, that

ar'

crossing

couclusively

^^

'

Act.

Acadomie

gued
ments

this belief, against of transUit., Phys,' Eng. il.

Ele-

burg,'
"c.

1780,

part

PetersSt. ii. page 84,

vol.

1842,

p.

1405.

244
of distinct

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

Chap. XXII.

of of the first appearance species is the sole cause could not have new characters,and that without this aid man formed his various characters breeds. As, however, new have

by bud-variation, we may appeared in certain cases clude confor variability. with certainty that crossing is not necessary It is, moreover, certain that the breeds of various animals, such as of the rabbit, pigeon, duck, "c., and the
of several

of a plants, are the modified descendants single wild species. Nevertheless, it is probable that the both have forms, when one long been or crossing of two spring, domesticated cultivated, adds to the variabilityof the offor independently of the commingling of the characters the two derived from parent-forms; and this implies that characters not forget the actually arise. But we must new in the thirteenth facts advanced chapter, which clearlyprove varieties that the act of crossing often leads to the reappearance or in it characters ; and would of long-lost most cases
to
version re-

be
cient an-

impossible
characters.
new

distinguish between
and the

the

reappearance

of

characters

first appearance new Practically,whether

in which

to the breed Gartner

absolutely new old, they would be or they reappeared.

experience is of the highest value crossed native had plants which
saw manner

of

such been

declares,^*and a point, that, when cultivated, he never

but from that the
from

liis he
once

on

not

in

the
in

offspi'ing any
which the sometimes

new

acter; charrived de-

the
were

odd

characters

appeared as if new. crossed cultivated When, on plants, he that new characters admits appeared, but he is strongoccasionally ly their appearance to attribute inclined to ordinary variability, An not in any to the cross. opposite conclusion, however, apway pears the more to me probable. According to Kolreuter, hybrids and Mirabilis almost he describes in the genus new infinitely, vary the characters in the form of the and in colour of seeds, singular the anthers, in the cotyledons being of immense and size, in new highly peculiarodours, in the flowers expanding early in the season, in their closing at night. With lot of these and respect to one that they presented characters hybrids, he remarks exactly the been have from their of what reverse expected might parentage.^* effect in regard to Professor Lecoq speaks strongly to the same that of and the asserts this same hybrids from many genus,
^'^ 3*
'

parents

combined, the other hand, he

they

Bastarderzeugung,'
Nova

s.

249,

pages

307,
'

313,

316

1787,

page

255
35

295
'

407.

Acta,'
page

burg,'

1794,

St. 378

Peters;

^'s dq
p. 311.

la

Fecondation,'

1862,

1795,

Chap.

XXII.

CAUSES

OP

VARIABILITY. might easilybe mistaken

245
for distinct

Mirabilis

jalapa

and
adds

multiflora

that they differed in a greater degree than species,and the other M. jalapa. species of the genus, from Herbert, also, has described
^^

species." experience of floriculturists proves that the crossing and the recrossing of distinct but allied plants, such as species of Petunia, Calceolaria,Fuchsia, Verbena, "c., induces excessive variability; hence the appearance of quite new characters is probable. has M. Carriere^ this subject: he states lately discussed that Erythrina cristagalli had been multiplied by seed for many years, but had not then crossed with yielded any varieties: it was the
a

others, in

hybrid Rhododendrons foliage, as if they had been

certain

as

being

"

as

unlike

all

separate

The

common

allied

E.

herhacea,
were

and

"

the

resistance flowers of

was

now

overcome,

and

varieties

produced

with

extremely

different

size,

form, and
From

colour." the of distinct

belief that the general and apparently well-founded besides their crossing species, characters, commingling adds greatly to their variability,it has probably arisen that some botanists includes The have
a

gone
made

so

far

as

to

maintain when
cannot

^*

that, when
never

only proposition
true is

single species,this
so

cultivated be

genus varies. it is vated culti-

broadly

admitted;
genera

but when

probably

that

the

variability of monotypic

generally less than that of genera including numerous this quite independently of the effects of crossing. species, and I have in my shown of that the species belonging Origin Species,' to small of varieties in a generally yield a less number genera
'

state

of nature cultivation

than genera than

those

species of small
under

have Although we crossing of species,which

Hence the belonging to large genera. it is would, probable, produce fewer varieties the already variable species of larger genera. not at present sufficient evidence that the have
never

been

cultivated,
does

leads
occur

to

the with

in some degree variable already rendered Hence crossing, like any other change in the through cultivation. conditions of life,seems to be an element, probably a potent one, of distinBut have the means in causing variability. seldom we of really the appearance guisliing,as previously remarked, between evoked and of the characters characters, new long-lost reappearance instance culty I of the diffiwill give an through the act of crossing. be The in distinguishing such cases. species of Datura may with flowers white those divided into two sections, having green brown stems: now and stems, those having purple flowers with Datura Naudin Iwvis and belong to crossed ferox, both of which have been
^ "
'

appearance species which

of

new

characters,

this

apparently

Amaryllidaceae,'
in
'

1837,

p.

viii.
'

362.
3s

De

p. la

405.

in Puvia, Degeneration,'

his

worlc, 1837, p.

Abstracted

Chronicle,'
39

1860,

elder Die.
'

This was De Candolle, Class. d'Hist.

Gardener's p. 1081. the of the opinion

as

quoted Nat.,' torn.

in

this discussed same tias 37, point. *" NovemRendus,' Comptes bre 21, 18G4, p. 838.
'

246
the white

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

Chap.

XXII.

section, and
had the
two

raised brown

from
stems of

them and the

205

hybrids.
section
so

Of

these
so

hybrids, every one that they resembled

and
at
not

bore

purple flowers;
of

their he

own

species parents.
led that the

other
was

the

Naudin

much
both of D.

genus, astonished

this
and

fact, that
after

he

was

carefullyto
had pure dark

observe

cies, parent-spe-

mediately fcrox, imseedlings purple stems, extending germination, and the from to that this tint the young roots cotyledons, up round the the base of of remained afterwards stem as a ever ring shown in I thirteenth have the the plant when old. Now chapter the is so that retention or exaggeration of an early character under that it related to comes reversion, evidently intimately the same probably we ought to look at the purple principle. Hence

discovered

flowers due
to

and

brown

stems
as

of
a

these
return

hybrids, not
to of what the

as

new

characters of
some

variability,but

former

state

ancient

progenitor.
of the may
to

Independently
a

few
on

words the proper

be the

appearance to added combination

two

new

characters has been Wlien said

two

from in

ing, cross-

fonner of the

chapters
characters
races are

unequal

and

transmission

parent-forms.

species or

crossed, the offspring of the first generation are erally genuniform, but those subsequently produced display an almost He who infinite diversity of character. wishes, says Kolreuter,*^

hybrids should cross is also much There them. and recross hybrids variability when with either absorbed or by repeated crosses or mongrels are reduced of and still a variability when higher degree parent-form; pure all when four most of distinct three species, are species,and ner,*crosses. blended Beyond this point Garttogether by successive statements the whose are made, never foregoing on authority Wichura united six distinct in effecting a union; but Max succeeded the The of into sex of willows a hybrid. single species the bility variaof in degree an inexplicable manner parent species affects a brid hyof hybrids; for Gartner** repeatedly found that when
to

obtain

an

endless

number

of varieties

from

''^

was or a

iised

as

father the
or

and
as

either the

one

of the the used

pure
as as

parent-species,
more

third

species,was
when

used
same

mother,
was

offspring were
the the the raised
Max

variable either

than pure
from

hybrid
same

mother,
father:

and thus
D.

parent

the

third variable

species
crossed than

seedlings
latter insists

Diantlius
were more

barbatus

by
those

hybrid
from Wichura

cMnensi-barbatus

this
*^

hybrid

fertilised
on an

strongly
Gartner*'^ in

Again
differs
*i
'

asserts

by pure analogous result with his hybrid willows. that the degree of variability sometimes
from

the

D.

barbatus.

hybrids
Acta,'

raised
St.

reciprocalcrosses
**
'

between

the

same

Nova
p. 891.

Petersburg,
s.

Bastarderzeugung,'
Die

s.

452,

1794,

507.

"''

Bastarderzeugung,'
'

507,
s.

"

'

Bastardbefruchtuug,'
s.

516,
*3

572. Die
8.

56.
*"
'

BastardbefruclituDg,'
24.

Bastarderzeugung,'

423.

"C., 1865,

Chap. XXII.

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

^47
the
On
one

two

species;and
as

here

the

sole and

difference then
as

is, that
mother.
of is
new

spocies
wliole

is first used
we see

the

father

the

the

that, independently of the appearance crossed generations variability of successive

characters,the extremely com[)lox,

of the from

partly
the

from

two

the offspring partaking unequally more parent-forms, and especially

to

cliiiracters of
their

unc(iual
ancient

tendency to revert progenitors.

On which the Manner induce and
are we

such

characters

or

to

those

of

more

and

on
"

the Period

Variability. This is an need here only consider, whether

to
or

of Action of the Causes ject, extremely obscure subinherited after

tions variaon

due

certain

parts being acted

they have

fected through the reproductive system being afin the former their formation; and before at case what period of growth or development the effect is produced. shall see in the two following chapters that various agenWe cies, abundant such as an ferent to a difsupply of food, exposure been

formed,

disuse of parts, "c., proclimate, increased use or longed during several generations, certainly modify either and it is clear at the whole organisation or certain organs; least in the been
case

of bud-variation

that the action

cannot

have

through the reproductive system.

the reproductive system takes respect to the part which have in the in causing variability, we seen eighteenth chapter in the of conditions that even life able remarkhave slight changes a in causing a greater or less degree of sterility. Hence power not improbable that it seems being generated through a sj'stem so affected be should themselves fail to affected, or should easily With

inherit,
We know
in

or

inherit that

in

excess,

characters of

proper

to

their
with much

parents.
tions excepmore

certain group,

each

groups have their

organic beings, reproductive systems

but than than other

easily
and

affected

by changed
birds

conditions

more readily readily than pigeons; and this fact harmonises parrots more with and the apparently capricious manner ous degree in wliicli variof under domes^tication. and animals plants vary groups " struck Kolreuter the parallelism between the exwith cessive was and recrossed in of various crossed when variability hybrids loss these hybrids having their reproductive powers or more ways, affected, and the variability of anciently cultivated plants. Max ** of Wichura has gone one step farther, and shows that with many
" "

carnivorous

stance, ingroups; carnivorous manmrals,

for

"

'

1766,
*8
'

s.

Dritte 85. Die

s.

Fortsetzung,' Bastardbefruchtung,'
92:
see

"c.,

the same M. J. Berkeley on of Royal Journal ject, iu See.,' 1866, p. 80.

'

siib-

Hort"

"c., 1865,

also

the

Rev,

248

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

Chap.

XXII.

our

auricula, highly cultivated plants,such as the hyacinth, tulip, there is no to believe reason snapdragon, potato, cabbage, "c., which have anthers been the contain len-grai hybridised, irregular polmany in hybrids. He finds in the same also in cerstate as tain
wild

forms, the
a

same

coincidence of

between
as are

the
in not many

state

of

the

pollen
Rubus;

and
but

high degree
R.

variability,
idceus, which

in

ca'siiis and

species of highly variable

It is also notorious that many vated cultispecies,the pollen is sound. and such the others as banana, pine-apple,bread-fruit, plants, so seriously previously mentioned, have their reproductive organs when affected to be generally quite sterile; and as they do yield of cultivated the large number seed, the seedlings,judging from in an extreme be variable which races exist, must degree. These

facts
not

indicate
conclude

that that

there
and

is
a

some

relation
to

between

the

state
we

of the
must

reproductive organs
cultivated

tendency

but variability;

is strict. of our the relation Although many have their in deteriorated a pollen plants highly may have previously seen, they yield more condition, yet, as we seeds, animals than the and are more our prolific, anciently domesticated The corresponding species in a state of nature. peacock is almost is believed to be less fertile under tlie only bird which tion domestica-

than small

in

its

native

state, and
these
not

it has either

varied it
to

in
would

remarkably
seem

degree. changes in the conditions

or

From

considerations that

that bility, varia-

of life lead that

or sterility

to

to

both;

and

the

whole

it is

probable

induces sterility variability.On of cause affecting the organs any

likewise affect their reproduction would offspring thus generated. the causes The period of life at which obscure an subject, which act, is likewise various authors.*"
In
some

product,
"

that

is, the

that has be

induce
been

variability
discussed

of the

cases,

to

chapter, of modifications
conditions, which
causes are on

from
mature

the

by followgiven in the ing of changed direct action

be
no

inherited, there
the
or

can

doubt

that

the On

have other

acted

nearly

mature

animal.

the from

cannot be distinctly hand, monstrosities, which separated jured often caused lesser variations, are by the embryo being in-

whilst Saint-Hilaire their in The

in the
""

mother's that the forced

to monsters

womb poor mothers

to

or women

in the

asserts and and

Thus I. egg. who work hard

Geoffroy during
troubled
more

pregnancy, their minds

of

illegitimatechildren
their
in

conceal than
women

state,
easy

are

far

liable to

give
of

birth
the

circumstances.

treated placed upright or otherwise eggs monstrous chickens. It would, unnaturally frequently produce that complex monstrosities induced quently freare more however, appear during a rather late than during a very early period of some one partly result from part, embryonic life; but this may which has been injured during an early period, affecting by its fowl when
Lucas has P. a given of tliis subon history opinion iect: 'H6red. Nat.,' 1847, i. p. 175.
*^

Dr.

^^

'

iii. p.

Hist, 499.

des

Anomalies,'

torn,

250

CAUSES

OF

VARIABILITY.

Chap.

XXII.

on

life, but
been

results

from

the

conditions of
any

to

which
in the

the

parents

have
of

exposed.
extremely
Excess

Changes
slight
of
cause.

kind often

conditions
to
most
cause

life,

even

changes,
is

suffice
the

variability. single
be variable but

nutriment

perhaps
and

cient effito

exciting
for the
an

Animals

plants
their
are

continue
first

immense

period
to

after

cation; domestinever

conditions
constant.

which
In the
so

they
course

exposed
of
time

long
be

remain habituated and

it

quite
to

they
less

can

certain

changes,
that when

as

to

become domesticated

able; vari-

is

possible
even more

first than
at

they
There
lates; accumu-

may

have

been

variable
power
or

present.
conditions
must

is

good

evidence
so

that two,

the

of
more

changed

that
new

three,

generations
any

be

posed ex-

to

conditions distinct
in

before which

effect

is

visible. become
to

The able, variriability, va-

crossing

of

forms,
the

have the

already

increases

offspring

tendency
of of
new

further characters

by
the and
two

the

unequal by
the

commingling
reappearance

the

of

parents, the
are

long-lost
characters. of
or on

characters,
Some ing surroundparts

by

appearance

of

absolutely
the
direct

variations

induced
on

by
whole

action

the

conditions

the

organisation,
appear
to

certain

alone; through
is

other the
the

variations

be

induced

indirectly
as we

reproductive
case

system
various

being beings,
become

affected,
which sterile. when

know

often

with

removed The
causes

from which

their induce

natural

conditions
act
on on

variability probably,
effected.

the sexual

mature

organism,
before

on

the

embryo,

and,
has

the

elements

nation impreg-

been

Chap.

XXIII.

CONDITIONS

OF

LIFE.

251

CHAPTER
DIEECT AND DEFINITE
ACTION OF

XXni.
OF LIFE. THE

EXTERNAL

TIONS CONDI-

Slight modifications
"

in plants from the definite action of changed tions, condiin size,colour, chemical properties, and in the stiite (jf the tissues Local diseases Conspicuous modifications from changed climate of birds aflected or food, etc." Plumage by peculiar nutriment, and of poison" Land-shells" by the inoculation Modificatiojis of organic beings in a stivte of nature through the definite action of external conditions of American and Comparison Is European trees" Crjil
" "

"

of parasitic fungi" Considerations opposed to tlie belief in the of changed external conditions" potent infiuence Parallel series of varieties of variation Amount does not correspond with the Effects
"

in the conditions" of change Bud-variation" unnatural treatment by iSummary.

"

Monstrosities

degree produced

why this or tliat character has been modified under domestication, we are, in most cases, lost in darkness. utter Many naturalists, especiallyof the French to the " monde school,attribute every modification ambiant," that is, to changed climate, with all its diversities of heat and cold,dampness and dryness, light and electricity, to the
we

If

ask

ourselves

nature

of the
term

soil, and

to

varied
as

kinds used
in

and
this
many

amount

of food.
mean

By the
an

definite action,
a

chapter, I

action
same

of such

nature

that, when

individuals

of

the

variety are exposed during several generations to all or nearly particular change in their conditions of life, any all the individuals, are The in the same modified manner.
effects of habit,
organs,
or

of the increased been

to

use

and

disuse this
a an

of various but
it

might

have

included
this

under

head;
action another

will be convenient

discuss

subject in
I
mean one see

ter. separate chapwhich vidual indi-

By the
causes one

term

indefinite
to
as

action
in

individual another
way,

vary
we

way

and

in

often

with
some

after

they have
laws of

been

subjected for
But
to
we

mals plants and anito generati(^ns

little of the

changed
causes

conditions

of life. of variation

know
a

far too

and

make

sound

classification.
to

The

action

changed conditions, whether

leading

definite

252
indefinite

DEFINITE

ACTION

OF

THE

Chap.

XXIII.

from results, is a totally distinct consideration the effects of selection; for selection depends on the preservation of certain individuals, or on their survival by man
or

under
no

complex natural relation whatever to the primary

and
I will first

various

circumstances, and has of each particular cause

variation.

give in detail all the facts which I have been able to collect,rendering it probable that climate, food, "c., have acted so definitely and powerfully or the organisation of domesticated sub-varieties or races our productions, that new
have
been I thus

formed then

without

the

aid of selection

by

man

or

nature. to
as we

give the facts and considerations posed opthis conclusion, and finallywe will weigh, as fairly
the evidence
we on

will

can,

both

sides.
races

When

reflect that animals exist

distinct
in

of almost

all

our

mesticat do-

in each formerly even strongly inclined to attribute their origin to the definite of the physical conditions of each country; and this

kingdom of Europe, and district of England, we at first are

tion ac-

each

has

been

the

conclusion that
man

of many

authors.
to choose

But

we

should animals

bear shall

in mind

annually has
that both

which shall and

are
now

be We

preserved for breeding, and

have also
were seen

which

be

slaughtered.
lection se-

methodical

unconscious

formerly
most

practised, and
races,

occasionally
greater
tent ex-

practised by the
than
to

barbarious been

to

much

might

have

anticipated. Hence
in the in

it is difficult

judge how
the

far differences several

conditions

stance, between, for in-

districts

England,

have

sufficed

to

It may have been reared in each. modify the breeds which be argued that, as numerous wild animals and plants have ranged during many throughout Great Britain, and still ages retain the same tween becharacter, the difference in conditions

the marked and

manner

several

districts

could native

not
races

have

modified

in

the various The

same

of cattle,sheep, pigs, definite action of

horses.

of distinguishing between difficulty selection and

in
a

the effects of natural conditions

we

the

ternal ex-

is encountered

still

higher degree when

closely allied species inhabiting two countries, America such North and do not differ as Europe, which of soil, natural "c., for in this case greatly in climate, nature
compare

Chap.

XXIII.

CONDITIONS

OF

LIFE.

253

rigorously have acted during a of long ages. Prof. Weismann has suggested ' that when a variable cies speenters and isolated country, although the variaa new tions
succession
may

selection

will

inevitablyand

be of the that

same

general

nature

as

before,yet

it h

in the same they occur proportional After a longer or shorter period, the species will tend to become in character nearly uniform from the incessant crossing of the varying individuals; but owing to the proportion of the individuals varying in different ways not should
numbers.

improbable

being the
In

same

in the two
two

cases,

the

final result will be different from

one

the
other. an-

production of
cases

forms

somewhat it would

of this kind induced

conditions

had

certain

definite

falselyappear as as wheremodifications,

if the

only excited indefinite variability,but with the in slightly different proportional numbers. variations This view throw some light on the fact that the domestic may animals which fonnerly iiihabited the several districts in Great Britain, and the half wild cattle latelykept in several British parks, differed slightly from another; for these one
animals and
were

they had

prevented from

wandering
have

over

the whole

try coun-

intercrossing,but would each district or park.

From caused the of judging how difficulty

crossed

freely within

far

changed conditions
it will
be

have
to

definite
as

modiiications

of
as

structure,

advisable

possible,showing that extremely within the differences same slight country, or during different ties certainly produce an appreciable effect, at least on varieseasons, in which unstable condition. Ornamental an are already flowers are good for this purpose, as they are highly variable, and that cerAll floriculturists are unanimous tain are carefully observed. in differences the nature varieties are affected by very slight in which and of the artificial compost by the they are grown, well as natural soil of the district, as Thus, a by the season. where and Picotees,* asks skilful judge, in writing on Carnations be Admiral Curzon seen can possessing the colour, size, and Flora's Garland Where it has in Derbyshire? can strength which do Where be found high-colouredllowequal to those at Slough? in no Yet and at Woolwich revel better than Birmingham? ers varieties attain an two equal degree of these districts do the same of be of excellence, although each receiving the attention may give large
a

body

of facts

*'

'

Urung

Ueber auf

den die

Einfluss

der

Iso-

'
-

Gardener's

Chronicle,'

1853,

Artbildimg,'

1872.

p.

183.

254

DEFINITE

ACTION

OP

THE

Chap.

XXIII.

the

most
to

skilful
endeavour

cultivators."
to

The the

same

writer kinds of

then

recommends
manure, of

plants hope of eral genSo it is with the Dahlia: will be vain." the Lady success near London, but does admirably in other Cooper rarely succeeds holds districts; the reverse good with other varieties; and again, there are others which succeed situations. equally well in various A skilful gardener that he procured cuttings of an states old and well-known from ing havvariety (pulchella) of Verbena, which been propagated in a different situation presented a slightly
to

every " and

cultivator

keep
for

five different without such

soil and all

suit

respective appetites
attention

the

you

are

dealing with,

dili'erent shade

of colour; the

two

varieties

were

afterwards

plied multi-

by cuttings, being carefully kept distinct; but in the second in the third year no and hardly be distinguished, year they could could one distinguish them.
The varieties
nature

of
next

the

season

has
LS41

an

especialinfluence
varieties
two
were were

on

certain

of the the
amateur
untrue

Dahlia: year
^

in

two
same

good, and
A
came

these
that
"

pre-eminently pre-eminently bad.

of the Rose

famous
so

asserts

in 18G1 that it
not
was

many seldom
amateur"

varieties entertained
states trusses of

them,

and

in character, the thought

hardly

possible to
that

was

nise recogthat the

in 18G2

had lost his tally." The same grower two-thirds of his Auriculas produced such
seasons season

central

flowers, and

trusses

keep true; and he adds that in some certain varieties of this plant all prove good, and the next the all prove reverse bad; whilst exactly happens with
are

liable not

to

other tended
sorts

varieties. how
to do
assume

In

1845

the
was

editor that form.

of the this With

'

Gardener's
^

Chronicle Calceolarias the blotched weather

soon as

'

remarked

singular it
a

tubular their

year many Heartsease until marks hot

not

acquire

in; whilst
occurs.

other

varieties have

proper lose their been

character beautiful

sets

as

this

Analogous
asserts
^

facts

observed

with

leaves: six

Mr.

Beaton

he raised Shrubland, during twenty years, had the Punch Pelarg'onium, and not one seedlings from in at but or even one-third, Surbiton, Surrey, variegated leaves; a variety were greater proportion, of the seedlings from this same district in Surrey soil of another less variegated. The more or from formatio inhas a variegation, as appears strong tendency to cause Verlot^" that states the given me by Sir F. Pollock. in a as long as grown variegated strawberry retains its character loses it when planted in fresh and humid dryish soil, but soon for his success in cultivating is ^^"ell known soil. Mr. Salter, who that
at

thousand

Mr.

Wildman,
Feb. 7.

'

Floricultiiral

"

'

Journal

of

Hort.,'

1862,

Soc.,'
*

184.3.

reported
'

in

p.

83.
'

Gard. * Mr.

Chron.,'
Robson,

1843,
in

86. p. .Tonrnal

of p.

Horticulture,'
122.
5
'

Feb. of

13th,

1866,

1861,

Journal p. 24.

Horticulture,'

Gardener's 1845, Chronicle,' 660. " Ibid.. 1863, p. 628. " of Hort.,' 1861, pp. Journal 64, 309. " Des Vari6tes,' "c., p. 76.
'

p.

'

'

Chap.

XXIII.

CONDITIONS

OF

LIFE.

255
strawberries
and at

variegated plants,
planted
distances
and

informs in the several

me

that

rows

of

wero

in in

his
one

garden
row,

1859, in the
case more

usual

way;

various gated; variegated varie-

plants simultaneously became

all extraordinary,
were

what

made

but
row

These preciselythe same manner. plants were during the three succeeding- years other plants in became
row

in

removed,
the
same

variegated,
aflected.

and

in

no

instance and to

were

the of

plants
are

in any often is

adjoining
The modified said
not

chemical

by
to

qualities,odours, seems change which

in innocuous in

tissues
us

plants
The The culture. of the

slight.
Tlie
root

Hemlock Acouitum medicinal

yield conicine
of the suit facts have of the is

Scotland.

naiJeUus
Pistacia climate in

becomes lentiscus
must

properties

frigid climates. Digitalis are easily affected by grows abundantly in the South
it, but
the could been it be

yields

no

mastic.
to and

The

As the of France, the Laiinis fras sassa-

Europe
similar

loses

odour

proper that

it in

North

America."

Many
would The in

given, change

they
in

it

might
been wood

thought

definite either

are remarkable cause bechemical compounds

have

little liable to American

quality

or

quantity.
grown

Locust-tree

{liohinia)

when

nearly worthless, as is that of the Oak-tree when at the of Good and Cape I hear Hope.^^ Hemp flax, as grown from Dr. Falconer, flourish and yield plenty of seed on tlie plains of India, but their fibres are brittle and useless. Hemp, on the oilier hand, fails to produce in England that resinous matter which is so largely used in India as an intoxicating drug. The fruit of the Melon is greatly influenced by slight differences in culture and climate. Hence it is generally a better cording plan, acto Naudin, to improve an old kind than to introduce a into any The of seed the Persian Melon new one locality. duces profruit inferior to the poorest market Paris kinds, but at near Bordeaux yields delicious fruit.^^ Seed is annually brought from Thibet to Kashmir," and produces fruit weighing from four to ten pounds, but plants raised next year from seed saved in Kashmir to three two give fruit weighing only from pounds. It is well known the that varieties of American tive Apple produce in tlieir naland brightly-coloured fruit, but these in magnificent and In Hungary there England are of poor quality and a dull colour. remarkable for the of the kidney-bean, varieties are beauty many that their of their M. J. Berkeley^'* found seeds, but the Kev.
"

England

Engel,
rles

'

Sur

les

cales 2.5.

On

Plantes,' in changes

Prop. 1860,

Medipp.

"

Hooker,

'

Flora

ludica,*

p.

see ExperiInquoted by Beckman, ii. vol. .344; and ventions,' p. Bull, Sc. des Nees, in Ferussac, With i. p. 60. Nat.,' 1824, tom. the to "c., see rhubarb, respect also Gardener's Chronicle/ 1849, p. 355; 1862, p. 1123.

plants,

the Dalibert's

odours
'

10. of

32.
dos Sc. Annalos Naudin, torn, xi., Nat.,' 4tii series, Hot., ChronlGardener's 1859, p. 81. cle,' 1859, p. 4("4. " "c., Travels, Moorcroft's
^^
' ' '

ments,

'

vol. p.

ii.

p.

143.

"'Gardener's
1113.

Chronicle,

1861,

'

256
could

DEFINITE

ACTION

OF

THE

Chap.

XXIII.

beauty
cases

hardly
was

ever

be

preserved
what
a

in

England,
have and
seen

and

in

some

the

colour

greatly changed.
to to

We

in the effect

ninth
trans-

chapter, with respect portal from the north

on

wheat,
the the south

remarkable

of France,

conversely, produced

the

weight
can

of

grain.

perceive no change in plants or animals climate to different have which been or exposed to a new sometimes change. insects can perceive a marked treatment, Canton, Manilla A cactus has been imported into India from
When
man

Mauritius, and
a

from

the hot-houses
kind

of Kew,
was

and

wise there is like-

so-called South

native

which

formerly introduced
to

from

America;

all these

plants belong
but
on

the

same

species and are flourishes only

the

alike in appearance, the native kind, on remarks barefoot

"

the

cochineal
it thrives
"

insect

which white

giously.' prodiin

Humboldt torrid
zone

that with

men

born

impunity in the same where a European, recently landed, is exposed to apartment of the Pulex the attacks penetransJ^ This insect, the too therefore be able to perceive what well-know^n chigoe, must delicate chemical the most analysis fails to discover, namely, and the blood or tissues of a European difference between a ment the discernborn in the tropics. But those of a white man of the chigoe is not so surprising as it at first appears; of men the blood with different for according to Liebig emits a country, complexions, though inhabiting the same
walk
'^

different
Diseases

odour.

be here

peculiar to certain localities,heights,or climates, may stances brieflynoticed, as showing the influence of external circumthe human of confined to certain races on body. Diseases of the race do not concern man play us, for the constitution may determined and this have been the more important part, by may The Plica Polonica unknown stands, in this respect, in a causes. habit innearly intermediate position ; for it rarely affects Germans, who the neighbourhood of the Vistula, where Poles so are many

grievously affected; neither does to belong to the same original

of
i*"

it affect stock the

niss
cow,
^^
'

Russians,
the Poles/" of

who The

are

said tion eleva-

as

district
'

often

governs

appearance
der

diseases; in
'

Protlnctlve Reof India,' p. 59. sources ^^ Personal En?. Narrative,' 101. This vol. v. translat., p. been statement has confirmed Kenntzur (' Beitrag by Karsten

Royle,
'

Rhynchoprion: 1S64, s. 39). and by Organic Chemistry,'

edit.,
'

Mosothers.

Eng.
of

translat.,
^^

1st Prichard,

p.

369.
Hist,

Phys.
vol.

Mankind,'

1851,

i. p.

155.

258

DEFINITE

ACTION

OF

THE

Chap.

XXIII.

the
to

species by the
the The colour and

flowers of the

alone. Vilmorin

Many
could
and

similar be

facts

with

respect
and and other

size of flowers
abundant

given.
on a

experiments
prove effect the that
on

Buckman

carrots

parsnips
inheritable

nutriment

roots, with

produces scarcely any change

definite in

the colour of the plant. Alum directly influences flowers of the Hydrangea.'^ to favour seems the Dryness generally of hairines found that or villosity plants. Gartner hybrid Verbascums became in Mr. Masters, extremely woolly when pots. grown

parts

of

on

the in

other with
a

hand,

states

that

the hairs
none

Opimtia
when of this

leucotricJia

"

is
^*

well

clothed but

beautiful

white exhibits

grown

heat,

dry

heat

in a damp peculiarity."

of many kinds, not worth Slighj.variations specifying in detail, retained in certain are soils, of only as long as plants are grown which instances from his own gives some Sageret experience. insists strongly on the permanence of the varieties of Odart, who
'^

the in

admits grape, climate or the tint have in the of

*^

that fruit that

some

varieties, when
in

grown
a

under

ferent dif-

treated

differently, vary

the

authors

denied

slight degree, as in and the of period ripening. Some the slightest difference even grafting causes
is sufficient in size the the of in and evidence that the fruit in

scion; but

there in

is sometimes

slightly
the be in
no

aft'ected from but the

flavour, the

leaves first

duration,
There that instincts
are a

and
can

flowers

appearance.^'
facts
in

doubt,

given

in the

ter, chap-

European
but
a

dogs deteriorate
that in

India,

not

structure;

nature, primitive form, as

the

of such

they may
case

changes which be partly due

feral animals.
"

only in their they undergo

to

reversion
In

to

India how

turkey
over

becomes beak

reduced

size,

with
^^

the We

parts of pendulous
have
seen

appendage
soon

the wild From

enormously
when direct
or

developed."
changed
of
in
a

the the

duck,
the

domesticated,
action

loses

its true
or

acter, char-

from

effects of abundant

food,
humid size in

from the

taking
and wise like-

little exercise.

climate

pasture the horse rapidly decreases poor I have information which From Islands.
to

Falkland
seems

received, this
with

be

Climate the in West about

25
'

a sheep case definitely influences the hairy covering of animals; in Indies a great change is produced in the fleece of sheep,

the

to

certain

extent

in Australia.

three
of

generations.
Hort.
on

Dr.

Falconer

states
facts.

^^

that
Andrew
Hort.
so

the

Thibet

i. p.
26

.Journal 100.
See

Soc.,' vol.
(in
'

Lecoq.

the

Villosity
torn.
'

of Plants. Bot.,' 'Olograph. iii. pP287, 291; Gartner,

'

Bas-

on Masters, tarderz.,' s. 261; Mr. in icle,' ChronGard. the Opimtia, 1846, p. 444. 27 Pom. Phvs.,' p. 136. 28 1849, Ampelographie,' p.
" '

corded
Transact,

Knight Soc.,' vol.

to

ii. p.

160)

goes

far

as

tain main-

that

few

varieties

are

lutely abso-

when

permanent propagated
Blvth,

in

by
'

character buds

or

grafts,
30

Mr,

in

Annals
xx.,

and

19.
29

Gartner,
has

606,

Bastarderz.,' all collected nearly

'

s. re-

of Nat Mag, p. 391. 31 Natural 1862, p. 113.

'

Hist.,'

vol.

1847,

History

Review,'

Chap.

XXm.

CONDmONS

OF

LIFE.

250
tho
Air. to lliinnlriya

mastiff

and lose the

goat, when
their
fine

brought
wool.
have fine At

down

from

Kashmir,
attributes

shepherd-dogs and
silky
the removed lustre
into to

cats,
hot

Angora not fleecy hair, and

the
severe

only goats, hut

Ainsworth
and
" "

thickness the

of the
summers.

fleece to

winters,

its

Burnes Even
wool

states

positively
fleeces

that
when

Karakool I have

sheep lose their

any been assured other
that

peculiar black
within of two the

curled

country.
flocks

the breeds

limits
of

land, Engslieepwjis

of

ties.** being pastured in diflerent localiasserted on It has been good authority ^^ that horses kept of Belgium become during several years in the deep coal-mines like that the mole. with covered These on velvety hair, almost in the natural stand close relation to cases change of probably

slightly changed

by

the

coat

in winter have that

and

summer.

Naked related

varieties there the

to

of

several
no reason

domestic
to lieve be-

animals
to

occasionally appeared; but

way

is

exposed.^" size, the sight probable that the increased and of our altered forms the to fatten, early maturity tendency improved cattle, sheep, and pigs, have directly resulted from their This is the opinion of many abundant competent supply of food. far as form is true. But to a great extent as judges, and probably
which It appears
at

this is in any they have been first

nature

of the

climate

is

concerned,
use on

we

must

not

overlook
and

the

more

potent
moreover,
a

influence
as

of
as

lessened
size is

the

limbs
that

lungs.
is

We

see,

far

powerful of for thus for account can food, we supply large only agent of Mr. and remarked to the the existence, as me by Blyth, largest fowls smallest breeds of sheep in the same countr3^ of Cochin-China and small Bunt Tumbler all of and large pigeons, kept Bantams, nourishment. Nevertheless together and supplied with abundant
more

concerned,
a

selection

apparently

than

there
the

can

be little doubt
to

that

our

domesticated
or

animals
use

have
of

been

modified,

independently of the
which

increased
have

lessend

parts, by

the aiil subjected, without that the bones For instance, Prof. Riitimeyer " shows of selection. of domesticated quadrupeds can be distinguished from tluxse of wild It is animals by the state of their surface and general appearance. ** an.l Nathusius's excellent read Vorstudien,' to scarcely possible abundant races' of the pig, doubt that, with the highly improved of the the general form food has produced a conspicuous eff"ect on the teeth. and on and of head even the face, body, on the breadth Berkshire of a purely bred i)ig, the case rests much Nathusius on conditions

they

been

'

32

cal
33

Journal Soc.,' vol.

'

'

of

Travels

Rov. Geogrrnphiix., 18.39. p. 275. vol. in Bokhara,'

the
on

^^

Azara
on

has du
an

remarks

rnpedes
3?,7. Sre
"

"?oo(l some sultject. Qmul11. p. toni. PuraKuay,'

made this
'

'

151. 34 See

account

of

faniily
Knjr-

marshy Godron,
22

also, on pastures
'

influence
the torn. ii.

of

of

wool,
p.

In mice naked produced i'roc. land, Zoolog. Soc, 38.

37
'

18,)b,

L'Espece,'

p.

Pie

Faun.i
s.

, der

,.,

, ,, Pfahlhau-

'35 Isidore

laire, p. 438,

'

Hist.

Nat.

Saint-HiGeoffroy Gen.,' torn. iii.

ten,'
^s
"

18"1,

15.

Schweineschhdel,

I8b4,

s,

99,

200
when
and

DEFINITE

ACTION

OF

THE

Chap.

XXIII.

which organs,

two
was

months

old for

became observation

diseased until

in

its

digestive
months
of the

preserved

nineteen

old; at this age it had lost several breed, and had acquired a long, narrow
to

characteristic

features

head, of large size relatively

and in in this ease body, and elongated legs. But acters charcertain others that, because some we ought not to assume of under course one reversion, are lost, perhaps through at first directlyproduced by that they were treatment, therefore

its small

an

opposite treatment.
In

the

case

of the
we are

rabbit, which
at

has

become

feral
to

on

the tints the

island
the of

of

Porto
and

Santo,
"

first

strongly tempted
size, the
it has
in

attribute

whole

change
the of the
cases

the
loss

greatly
of certain
to
more

reduced
to

altered
"

the
in to

fur,
all

characteristic which
less

marks
been

to

definite

action

new we

conditions
have

such

consider
or

addition
and

exposed. But the tendency

the natural

reversion The Pallas saline the other

me some

to

progenitors
finest shades of the
or

remote,
either
close

tion selec-

of the

of difference. sometimes in
some

nature

food

induces definitelj^ relation removed that this with from

occurs

tain cer-

peculiarities, long ago asserted

and
lose

stands that
enormous

them. generate dewith certain

to

the

fat-tailed tails when

states

sheep of Siberia

their

certain

recently pastures; brought sheep when Kirg-isian

and known
to

Erman^''
to

Orenburgh.
bullfinches has the of the of and communicated
same

It is well birds of much

that

hemp-seed
Mr.

causes

become
more

black. remarkable

Wallace facts feed

fat

nature.

The

natives the birds

the

Amazonian treated become

region
with the

common

large beautifully variegated with red and In the Malayan archipelago, the natives of Gilolo yellow feathers. of another colours the parrot, namely, alter in an analogous manner
(Chnjsotis festiva, Linn.)
thus the
Lor ills

parrot green Siluroid fishes, and

(jarruliis,Linn., and
These in

thus

produce
Islands

the and

Lori

rajah
ica, Amer-

or

King-Lory.
when

parrots natural on vegetable food, such as by the natives Mr. Wallace has, colours. rice and plantains, retain their proper S. Indians "The fact. (of still recorded*" more a singular also, colours the which art have curious they change a by America) of many birds. of the feathers They pluck out those from the part with the milky they wish to paint, and inoculate the fresh wound
fed secretion brilliant from the skin
colour does not

the

Malay

South

of

a on

small

toad. fresh

The

feathers

groAV

of

yellow colour, and

same

being plucked out, it is said, grow

any

again

of the

without entertain

operation."

from seclusion that any light affects, at least temporarily,the colours of cage-birds. affected by are that the shells of land-mollusca It is well known Isidore districts. in lime different Geoffroy of the abundance Bechstein" doubt
39
'

Travels

iu

Siberia,'
volume
'

Engi.
p.
on

the

Amazon
*^
'

and

Rio

Negro,'

p.

lish

trauslatiou,
*"

204. der Natnrgeschichte 1840, s. 262, 308. benvogel,' Stu-

228. A. R.

Wallace,

Travels

Chap.

XXIII.

CONDITIONS

OF

LIFE.

2G1
has
to

Saint-Hilaire
been

*-

carried
and

from in this

gives the Spain

has

case

of Eelix the
now

laden, which
of

recently
the Kio

to

South food

France
a

and

Phita,
but

both

countries resulted

presents
or

distinct

whether

from

climate

is not

appearance, known.

With

oyster, Mr. F. Buckland informs respect to the common me that he can generally distinguish the shells from different districts; and laid down in beds where oysters brought from Wales young in the short space of two natires are months indigenous, begin
" "

to

assume more

the shells

"

native
from
once

"

character.
case

M.
same

Costa

**

has

recorded

much young

remarkable taken
at

of

the

the
altered

shores
their

Mediterranean,
Mediterranean forms of it is well known either themselves in colour.^* how
It

namely, that of England and placed in the of growth and manner formed
on

nature,

prominent diverging growth,

was

rays,
The

like
same

those before

the

shells

of

the

oyster.
that

individual
a on

shell, showing
food

proper both

exhibited

society in Paris.
different
or

Lastly,
ing differ-

caterpillarsfed
different

sometimea

acquire a

colour

produce moths

travelling beyond my proper limits here to discuss are definitelymodified organic beings in a state of nature of In conditions. Species I have given a Origin by changed my have shown this point, and of the facts bearing on brief abstract of residence of birds, and of light on the colours near the influence the of the lurid tints succulency of insects, and on the sea on ^^ Spencer has recently discussed with much plants. Mr. Herbert stance, subject on general grounds. He argues, for inability this whole
would be
far
' '

that

with acted

all animals
on

the

external

and

internal

tissues

are

by differently invariably differ in intimate

lower these in surfaces
assume

the

surrounding
structure.

conditions, and

they

of true leaves, as and the function with in differ

well

as

again the upper and when and of stems petioles,

So the
to

occupy

differentlycircumstanced
consequence admits, it is most the which effects of accumulation
are

respect

positionof leaves, are light,"c., and apparently

as

structure. But, difTicult in all such cases definite

to

Mr.
to

Spencer distinguish between

Herbert and the

the

action the

of

physical conditions
of and inherited which have

through
serviceable the

natural

selection

variations
arisen

organism,
mat.,'

independently of
42
'

definite
tom.

action
iii.

of these

conditions.
viii.

Hist. Bull,
tom.

Nat. de

Gen.,'

torn.

p.

402.
"
'

climat.,'
"

la See. Imp. viii. p. 351. of Mr.

d*Ac-

son's

Gregacconnt an the Ahraxus on experiments Proc. Eutomolog. grossulnriata, periments ex1862: these 6th, Soc.;' Jan.
Sec
'

I":jhllM"m analogous wood's West see Hvmenoptera, on vol. Insects.' of Class, Modern Moiler. L. Dr. also See 98. ii.
facts
' '

p. from

-)6.^

For

p. Die
45

Abhiingigkeit
s.
*

der
^

lusecteu,'
", , .

1867,
vol.

70.

have

been
in
'

confirmed
Proc.

PriiH'iples of Biology, The present c-hapii., 1866.

The
were

by
the

Mr.

Greening, Northern Entoraolog.

28th,
on

of

ters

Soc.,'
effects ous curia
in

rend

Mr.
so

I hM"I before written Ilerhert Sp"Micer s not

use

July
of
*

1862.
bv la

For

the
see

work,
able
as

food

caterpillars,
M. Soc.

to I

account

Michely,

have I that much so make otherwise should

been of It

probably

Bull,

de

Imp.

d'Accli-

have

done.

2^2

DEFINITE

ACTION

OP

THE

Chap.

XXIIl.

Although
action

we

are

not

here of life much

on

concerned
on

with

the
in
a

definite
state

of the
I
may

conditions
state

organisms
evidence has

of

nature,

that
years

been

gained

subject. In the United States, for instance, it has been clearly proved, more cially espediffer by Mr. J. A. Allen, that, with birds, many species in tint, size of body and of beak, and in length of tail,in that proceeding from the JSTorth to the South; and it appears
during
last few
this

the

these

differences

must

be

attributed
to

to

the

direct

action

of

what plants I wdll give a someMr. Meehan,^' has compared twentyanalogous case: of American with their nearest nine kinds trees European in all close and under as allies, proximity nearly as grown In conditions. the American species he possible the same

With temperature.'**

respect

exceptions, that the leaves fall earlier in and assume the season, before their fall a brighter tint; that they are less deeply toothed or serrated; that the buds are finds,with
the
rarest

smaller; that the

fewer in

trees

are

more

diffuse
the

in

growth and
are

have
"

branches;

that and, lastly,

seeds

smaller

all

corresponding European species. Now considering that these corresponding trees belong to several distinct orders, and that they are adapted to widely ences different stations,it can hardly be supposed that their differin the IsTew and Old of any special service to them are have been worlds; and if so such differences cannot gained be attributed to the through natural selection, and must action of a different climate. long continued class of facts, not relating to cultivated Anothei Galls. I allude to the production of plants, deserves attention. knows the curious, bright-red,hairy progalls. Every one ductions the various wild and the different galls on rose-tree, Some of latter the oak. the resemble fruit,with produced by face as rosy as the rosiest apple. These bright colours one service either to the gall-forming insect or to be of no can the tree, and probably are the direct result of the action the apples of Nova Scotia in the same of the light, as manner comparison
"

with

the

Weismann Professor comes with conclusion rethe same butcertain to European spect in valuable terfiies his essay, den Ueber Saison-DimorphisI might also refer to iDus"' 1875.
40

the

recent
on

to

authors

works the
to

of

several
'

other

present

for
unci
^^

instance,
schlechte
'

'

Proc.

PhiladelpWa,'

Kerner's 1866. Arten.' Acad. Nat. Soc. Jan. 28tb, 1862.

subject Gute

of

Chap.

XXIII.

CONDITIONS

OF

LIFE.

2G3

or

Canada
to

brighter coloured than English apples. According Osten Sacken's latest revision, less than fiftyno
are
*"

eight kinds of galls are produced on the several species of oak, by Cynips with its sub-genera ; and Mr, B. D. Walsh states
that he
can a

add

many

others to the list. One

American

cies spe-

of of

willow, the Salix

leaves which differ

humilis, bears
spring from

ten

distinct kinds

galls. The

the galls of various

completely in shape from the natural leaves. The young shoots of junipers and firs, when tured punccertain by insects,yield monstrous growths resembling flowers and fir-cones; and the flowers of some plants become the same from Galls cause wholly changed in appearance. are produced in every quarter of the world; of several sent to me were as by Mr. Thwaites from Ceylon, some cal symmetriflower when in others smooth and as a bud, composite sphericallike a berry; some protected by long spines,others of long cellular hairs, others clothed with yellow wool formed with galls the internal regularly tufted hairs. In some is simple, but in others it is highly complex; thus structure has figured in the common M. Lacaze-Duthiers ink-gall no concentric layers, less than seven composed of distinct tissue, intermediate, namely, the epidermic, sub-epidermic, spongy, of curiously thickened and the hard protectivelayer formed the central mass, abounding with and, lastly, woody cells, starch-granuleson which the larvae feed. Galls are produced by insects of various orders, but the by species of Cynips. It is impossible to greater number discussion and doubt that the poiread M. Lacaze-Duthiers' sonous the secretion of the insect causes growth of the gall; how virulent is the poison secreted by knows and every one with Cynips. and bees, which belong to the same group wasps with extraordinary rapidity,and it is said that Galls grow they attain their full size in a few day -^ it is certain that they are almost completely developed before the larva? are extremely are gall-insects hatched. Considering that many minute; small, the drop of secreted poison must be excessively
*" '''

English willows

exD. "Walsh's Mr. B. See P]ntomoin ' Proc. eellent papers Dec. 1866, log. Soc. Philadelphia,' wilto the With respect p. 284. low, see ibid., 1864, p. 546.
48

des Nat.

Galles,'
Bot.,'
p.

in

'

Annal.

"lt's toui.
. .

So.

3rd

series,

xix.,
,, Kn-

1853.

273.

*"

See

Uis

admirable

'

Histoire

and ^"Kirby 1818, tomology,' Lacaze-Duthiers,

Spence
vol. 1.

P-

4..U;

Ibid., p. -ia4,

51

264:
it

DEFINITE

ACTION

OF

THE

Chap. XXIII.

probably

acts

on

one

or

two

cells
"

normally alone, which, being ab-

of selfstimulated, rapidly increase by a process division. remarks, afford good, constant, Galls, as Mr. Walsh and definite characters, each kind keeping as true to form does any comes as independent organic being. This fact behear that, for instance, still more remarkable when we of galls produced on of the ten different kinds out seven Salix humilis are formed by gall-gnats(Cecidomyidce) which " though essentially distinct species,yet resemble one other anit is difficult, and in closelythat in almost all cases most cases impossible, to distinguish the full-grown insects For in accordance from the other," with a wide-spread one sects safely infer that the poison secreted by inanalogy we may in nature; differ much not so closely allied would ferent widely difyet this slight difference is sufficient to induce In some results. few cases the same species of gallbe cannot gnat produces on distinct species of willows which distinguished; the Cynips fecundatrix, also, has been known the Turkish to produce on tached, oak, to which it is not properly atoak.^^ kind of gall as on the European exactly the same These latter facts apparently prove that the nature of the poison is a more powerful agent in determining the form of the character of the tree which is acted on. gall than the specific As the poisonous secretion of insects belonging to various of affectingthe growth of various orders has the special power of the poison plants ; as a slight difference in the nature suffices to produce widely different results; and lastly, as we that the chemical know compounds secreted by plants are eminently liable to be modified by changed conditions of life, believe it possiblethat various parts of a plant might we may
so
"

be modified

of its own altered secretions. through the agency and viscid calyx of a mossCompare, for instance, the mossy which suddenly appears through bud-variation on a rose, Provence-rose, with the gall of red moss growing from the inoculated leaf of
a

wild
a

rose,

with

each

filament

cally symmetri-

microscopical spruce-fir, bearing a matter.^ Or glandular tip and secretingodoriferous gummy

branched
51
'

like

Proc.

Philarlelphia,'
"

Mr.

B.

Soc. Entomolog. 1804, p. 558. D. ibid., p. Walsh,

18G4,
180G.
"

pp. p.

.M5, 411, 495;

278.
ISee

also

and Dec. Lacazepp.

Duthiers.

633, and
"Mr.

Dec,
B.

1866, p. 275. D. Walsh,

Lncaze-Duthiers,
"

ibid.,

ibid.,

"""

2m
and such

DEFINITE

ACTION

OP

THE

Chap.

XXIII.

differences
with

we

feel at

first inclined

to

attribute,
rounding sur-

probably often
there

to the definite action of the justice,

conditions.

But

it must

be

borne

in

mind

that

exist many animals and plants which widely and range have been exposed to great diversities of climate, yet remain in character. uniform Some authors, as previously remarked,
account

for

the

varieties

of

our

culinary and

plants by the definite action of the conditions have been exposed in the different parts of Great Britain; in every which but there are about 200 plants found are and these plants must have been exsingle English county; posed for an immense considerable differences of to period climate and soil,yet do not differ. So, again, some animals and plants range over a large portion of the world, yet retain
"^

agricultural to which they

the

same

character.

Notwithstanding the facts previously given on the occurrence and of highly peculiar local diseases the strange modifications on in plants caused of structure the inoculated by poison of insects, and tions"such other still there multitude of variaare a analogous cases;
as

the

modified

skull

of the

niata

ox

and

bulldog, the
solid-hoofed

long

horns of the

of Caffre

swine, the immense

cattle, the conjoined toes crest and protuberant skull

of the

of Polish

fowls, the
"

which pouter-pigeon, and a host of other such cases crop the to attribute definite in the before we can sense action, hardly conditions of life. No doubt in every specified,of the external there must have been but merable innucase some as we see exciting cause ; and individuals to the one same conditions, exposed nearly alone it has
is

affected,
is of far

we

may

conclude

that than
to

the the be
one

constitution conditions
a

of
to

the

individual been

higher importance
It seems, have

which
out
can

exposed.

indeed,
been

general rule that

alone
as we as

conspicuous variations occur of millions, though all may to the same judge, nearly marked variations graduate led by the same train of are
much
more

rarely,and
conditions.

in

individual far
most

exposed,
As

the

strongly

insensibly into the most thought to attribute each

differences action conclusion
of

we trifling, tion slight varia-

to

innate definite
same

constitution, however

surrounding conditions. by considering the cases, varied and have formerly alluded to, of fowls and pigeons, which will no doubt varying in directlyopposite ways, though kept go on conditions. Some, during many generations under nearly the same for instance, are born their beaks, wings, tails, legs, "c,, a with little longer, and others with these same By parts a little shorter. of such the long-continued selection differences slight individual
caused,
We
to
are

than

the

of the

led

to

the

67

Hewett

C.

Watson,

'

Cybele

Britannica,' vol. i.,1847,

p. 11,

Chap.

XXIII.

CONDITIONS

OF

LIFE.

2C7

which
could
as

occur

in birds

kept

in the
and

certainlybe formed;
result, does
to
we

same aviary, widely difToront races long-continued selection, iniijortant

is the

it appears arise, as In these cases indefinite

is

nothing but preserve us, spontaneously.

see

the

variations

whidi

that

domesticated

animals treated
as

number the

of

particulars, though
hand, there
and
are

in vary unifornilv

an
as

possible. On
both

other

instances

of

animals' and

exposed to very ditVorcnt conditions, domestication, have varied in Mr. manner. lie has that nearly the same Layard informs me observed amongst the CafTres of South Africa a dog singularly like arctic an Esquimaux dog. Pigeons in India present nearly the wide diversities of colour in Europe; and I have as same spcn barred and with and blue and chequered pigeons, simply pigeons from Sierra Leone, Madeira, England, ami white India. New loins, varieties of flowers are continually raised in diflferent parts of of these Great found Britain, but many are by the judges at our
under nature

plants, which,

though

they have

been

exhibitions of in North
new

to

be

almost these

identical and

with

old

varieties. have varieties in

that

vast

ber num-

fruit-trees America:
as

culinary vegetables
differ from
has

been

produced
same

European
raised

in the

general manner
one

the
no

several
one

varieties
ever

Europe diffor from

the climate any
of

another;
has

and which

pretended
American

America character facts

to

given

to

the
can

by previously
to

they
and

advanced

respect
affirm
course

American that of ages

a

recognised. Nevertheless, from the on authority of Mr. IMeohan be European forest-trees it would
in the
two

many be

varieties

general
the
with rash in

varieties
assume

raised
a
^*

countries this seed

would
Dr. M. he

not

the has

distinctive

character.
on

Masters
raised

recorded and

striking fact

bearing

subject:
collected

numerous

plants of Hybisciis si/riacus

the
to

from

in South

Carolina been from leaves leaves We of the from series both and and

exposed

have the parent-plants must Holy Land, where considerably different conditions; yet the seedlings

localities

broke less

into

two

similar

strains,
the other

one

with

obtuse

purple
more

or

crimson

flowers, and
flowers.

with

elongated

or

may, the of

also, infer the

over cases an

pink prepotent
definite the

influence of the earlier

of the

constitution
of

organism
several

the

action

conditions
of to be

life,

varieties,"

given in important subject,

of the other

chapters
kinds

parallel
more

hereafter limited been

shown

fully discussed. gourds, peaches, and

varieties resemble
or

Sub-varieties

several
a

of
extent

wheat,
subto

of the
or

plants, and to fowl, pigeon, and dog, have

one

either

to

difi'er from In

another
cases,
a

in

parallelmanner.
a

other

closely corresponding sembles revariety of ono spenes

a

distinct
one

species:or
from

the

varieties these
to
cases,

resemble doubt
common

another. result

Although
reversion in other

ilistinrt species no resemblances parallel

of two

often

the

former
new

eliarai-ters

of

progenitor; yet
68

when 1857, p.

characters

first

'Gardener's

Chronicle,'

G29.

268

DEFINITE

ACTION

OF

THE

Chap.

XXIII.

appear, similar the

same same

the

resemblance
and

must

be

attributed

to the

inheritance

of

consequently to a tendency to vary in We same manner. see something of a similar kind in the times in the monstrosity^ appearing and reappearing many Masters has remarked species of animal, and, as Dr. Maxwell
constitution,
in the
same

to

me,

speciesof plant.
least

of modification conclude, that the amount under mesticat doanimals and plants have undergone which does not correspond with the degree to which As we they have been subjected to changed circumstances. We
may at

know
most

the parentage

of domesticated
we

birds

far better

than

of

glance through the list. The than almost other in Europe more any bird; yet it is a native species,and has not been exposed to fowl The has extraordinary change of conditions. any varied equally, or almost equally, with the pigeon, and is a the peacock, a native Neither of the hot jungles of India. the guinea-fowl, an inhabitant native of the same country, nor of the dry deserts of Africa, has varied at all, our. or only in colThe turkey, from Mexico, has varied but little. The duck, on the other hand, a native of Europe, has yielded some quadrupeds, pigeon has varied
will well-marked have habits been
than
races;

and

as

this far
even

is
more

an

aquatic bird, it
serious

must

nevertheless fowl, which have varied in a much higher degree. The goose, a native of Europe and aquatic like the duck, has varied less than any other domesticated bird, except the peacock. Bud-variation of view.
same

subjected to a the pigeon or

change

in

its

the

is, also,important under

few
cases,
as

our

present
eyes
same on

point
the

In

some

when

all the
on

tuber
or

tree, varied

of the potato, or all the flowers on

same

all the fruit the it

same

the

plant, have

plumsuddenly

tion might be argued that the variahad been definitely caused tions by some change in the condithe to which plants had been exposed; yet, in other such an admission is extremely difiicult. As new acters charcases, sometimes by bud-variation, which do not occur appear allied species, in the parent-species or in any we ject, remay the idea that they are due to reat least in these cases, version. it well worth while is reflect Now to maturely on of bud-variation, for instance that of the some striking case
manner,

in the

Chap.

XXIII.

CONDITIONS

OF

LIFE.

209

peach.

by the million in parts of the world, has been treated differently, grown its own and roots grafted on various stocks, planted
against sub-variety keeps
of
a

This

tree

has been

cultivated

ous varion as
a

standard, trained
of each
at

wall, or under
to tree
a

true

glass ; yet each bud its kind. But occasionally,

in

long intervals
this

time,
of

England,
afterwards

or

under

the

widely different climate

and

Virginia, produces
ever one

single bud,
bc.-arsnectarines.

yields a

branch

which

ISTectarines
in
so

differ, as
size, and
botanists So

every

knows, from
that

peaches

their

smoothness,
some

flavour; and
have maintained
are

the dift'erence is

great that

they

are

distinct. specifically

permanent

the

characters

thus

tion suddenly acquired, that a nectarine produced by bud-variahas propagated itself by seed. To guard against the fundamental tween distinction besupposition that there is some bud that and seminal have

variation, it is well
been

to

bear

in

mind

produced from the stone of the peach; and, reversely,peaches from the stone of the is it possible to conceive tions condinectarine. Now external closely alike than those to which the buds on the more tree are same exposed? Yet one bud alone, out of the many thousands borne by the same tree, has suddenly, without any is even But the case produced a nectarine. apparent cause, flower-bud has yielded a than this, for the same stronger fruit,one-half or one-quarter a nectarine, and the other half eight varieties of or or three-quarters a peach. Again, seven the necnectarines: the peach have yielded by bud-variation tarines other; anthus produced, no doubt, differ a little from one there must Of course nectarines. but still they are internal or external,to excite the peach-bud to be some cauise, change its nature ; but adapted to force on
w^e

nectarines

likewise

I cannot
our

imagine
the
are

ter class of facts betthat

cases

minds

conviction
in many

what

call the external

conditions

of life

quite

parison insignificantin relation to any particular variation, in comof the being with the organisation or constitution

which

varies. that the labours of Dareste of Geoffroy and

It is knowTi and the

Saiiil-llilaire,
eggs

recently from

those

others, that
chickens.

of
in

fowl, if shaken, placed upright, perforated, covered

part with

varnish, "c., produce

monstrous

Now

270

BEFIXITE

ACTION

OF

THE

Chap.

XXIII.

these monstrosities unnatural

not

may

be said to be

directlycaused
thus

by such
are

conditions, but the modifications

definite nature.
"

induced

of

An

excellent

remarks Dareste,''*
are

that

the various

observer,M. Camille species of monstrosities

the external

not

determined the

by specific causes;
of the

agencies

embryo act development modify in the normal causing a perturbation a perversion the result to what we development." He compares
"

which

solely in
course see

of

in illness:

sudden of
or

alone

out

many,

individual chill, for instance, affects one matism, causing either a cold, or sore throat,rheuof the

inflammation
in
an

lungs

or

pleura. Contagious
We
may

matter
more

acts

analogous manner."*
:

take

still

specificinstance
"

seven

pigeons

were

struck
;
some

snakes by rattlehad their

some

suffered

from

convulsions

coagulated, in others it was perfectly fluid; some the tines, showed heart, others on the intesecchymosed spots on visible lesion in any "G. ; others again showed no in drinking causes ferent difthat excess It is well known organ. diseases in different men ; but in the tropicsthe effects of intemperance differ from those caused in a cold climate; of opposite in this case the definite influence and we see The conditions. foregoing facts apparently give us as good idea as we likely for a long time to obtain, how in are an nitely, external conditions act directly, though not deficases many of structure. in causing modifications
blood
"

doubt, from the facts given tions in this chapter, that extremely slight changes in the condiof life sometimes, probably often, act in a definite manner of action the domesticated productions; and, as our on Summary.
"

There

can

be

no

changed

conditions
so

in
may

causing
be with

indefinite their

variability is

cumulative, ac-

it

definite action. of structure

a

Hence

considerable follow
5"
'

and

definite modifications conditions

Product ion
sur

probably

from
Meinoire

altered
siir

acting during
cal 483.
*'i

long series of
1853,
vol. i.
p.

la

Pathology,'
'

Ax'tificielle

des
'

Mon?itrnosites,'
Reclierches

1862,

8-12; les Conditions, 1863, Monstres,'

pp. stract
'

"S:c.,
p. of

chez An in p.

les abEx-

om

Rosearches the upon of the Rattle-snake,'

Ven-

Jan.,

6.
son.

1861,
^-

is

given
bv
'

Geoffroy's 1847,
on

his periments "c.. Travaiix,' Vip. ^^ Lectures Paget,

his 21"0.

Mitchell, p. 67. in British Sedgwick, and Foreign ReMedico-Chirurg. view,' July, 1863, p, 175.

by

Dr.

Mr.

'

Surgi-

Chap.

XXIII.

CONDITIONS

OF

LIFE.

271

few instances a marked effect has been generations. In some produced quickly on all,or nearly all,the individuals which have been exposed to a marked change of climate, food, or This has occurred other circumstance. with European men in the United States, with European dogs in India, with horses in the Falkland mals Islands, apparently with various aniat Angora, with foreign oysters in the Mediterranean, climate with maize and to another. transported from one that the chemical have seen We compounds of some plants affected and the state of their tissues are by changed readily A relation conditions. certain apparently exists between characters and certain

conditions,
"

so

that

if the

latter be

changed the character is lost as with the colours of flowers, the state of some culinary plants,the fruit of the melon, the the peculiar fleeces of other tail of fat-tailed sheep, and sheep. The production of galls,and the change of plumage in inoculated fed on peculiar food or when by the parrots when what to us great and mysterious poison of a toad, prove be the definite result and colour, may changes in structure
of chemical We
state
now

changes
almost
may to

in the nutrient

fluids that

or

tissues.
in
a

certainly know
be modified which and
in

organic beings
definite ways

of nature conditions
case

various been

by
in

the the

they have
other

long exposed,
in the northern
trees

as

of the birds United

animals

and

southern with

States, and

of American

in

comparison
cases

their

is most

representativesin Europe. difficult to distinguish between

conditions, and
of indefinite the variations which

But

in many

it

the definite result of

changed
selection

accumulation
have

through

natural

able. proved service-

instead of an profiteda plant to inhabit a humid might possibly arid station,a fittingchange in its constitution If it result from
we

the direct action

of the environment,

have

no

kind

would
a

grounds for believing that variations frequently with plants inhabiting more occur
little
more

though of the right

a

station

humid

than

the station was plants. Whether variations adapting the plant in a occasionallyarise,as we have good habits of life would what actually see in other cases. we to believe from reason

other with usual, than unusually dry or lunnid, posite slightdegree for directly op-

272
The acted the

DEFINITE

ACTION

OF

THE

Chap.

XXIII.

is of the being which organisation or constitution than is generally a much important element more on,
of the

nature

changed
We

conditions, in
have evidence modifications modifications

determining
of this under
under in

the the

nature appearance

of the of

variation.

nearly similar
of different

different

conditions, and

apparently

of We have still better evidence conditions. nearly the same this in closely parallel varieties being frequently produced distinct distinct races, from even species; and in the or

frequent

recurrence

of also

the
seen

same

monstrosity
the
not to

in
to

the which

same

species.

We

have

that

degree
stand

mesticat dolation re-

birds with
the

have
amount

varied, does
of

in any

close

change

which

they have
When
we

been

subjected.
To
on recur once

again
of buds bud has

to

bud-variations.
many
we

reflect

the

millions
one

which

trees
are

have

fore produced, bewonder Let

as us

some

varied,
of each

lost in
can

to
call re-

what

the the

precise cause
case

variation

be.

given by Andrew

Knight

of the old

tree

bonum plum, an yellow magnum stocks for a very various has been propagated by grafts on America, and on long period throughout Europe and North bonum. which single bud suddenly produced the red magnum a of the We and
even

forty-year-old variety which

should distinct

also bear
"

in

mind

that

distinct

varieties,

of peaches, nectarines, species, as in the case though aland camellias, and apricots, of certain roses of generations from any separated by a vast number versifi diunder and although cultivated progenitor in common, closely conditions, have yielded by bud-variation
"

"

analogous

varieties.

When

we

reflect

on

these

facts

we

come be-

deeply impressed wdth the conviction that in such cases tions of the variation the nature depends but little on the condithe plant has been exposed, and not in any to which special manner
on on

its individual
nature
or

character, but
of the
in in

much whole

more

the

inherited

constitution

group

of allied beings to which

are

the

plant
that

question belongs.
most
cases

We

thus of

driven

to
a

conclude

the
any

tions conditicular para

life

play

subordinate
like

part
which
a

in

causing
the
nature

modification;
mass

that

spark
"

plays, when
of

of

combustibles

bursts

into

flame

the

27i

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

CHAPTER
LAWS OF VARIATION USE

XXIV.
"

AND

DISUSE,

ETC.

Nisus

of the organisation On the forma tivus, or the co-ordinating power habits of and disuse of organs eflects of the increased Changed use methods and Various animals with life Acclimatisation plants by of development Arrests which this can be eiiected Eudimentary
"
" " "

"

"

organs.

following chapters I shall discuss,as of the subject permits, the several laws well as the difficulty the be grouped under which Variability. These may govern and disuse, including changed habits and aceffects of use climatisatio correlated variation of development arrest of multiple the variability of homologous parts the cohesion 'U'ith the position of buds compensation of growth parts tion. analogous variarespect to the axis of the plant and lastly, another several subjects so graduate into one These
In

this and

the two

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

that their distinction It

may

is often

arbitrary.

be convenient

first

brieflyto discuss

that
a

nating co-ordi-

or

in which is common, reparative power lower degree, to all organic beings, and which was nisus formativus. designated by physiologistsas

and

higher
ly former-

Bhimenbach

and

others

have

insisted

that

the

principlewhich

cut into fragments, to develop itself into Hydra, when is the same with two that which more animals, or causes perfect in the higher animals to heal by a cicatrice. wound Such a cases evident! j'' analogous to the spontaneous that of the Hydra as are division wise or fissiparousgeneration of the lowest animals, and likeof plants. Between to the budding these extreme and cases cicatrice we that of a mere have gradation. Spallanzani,^by every of cutting off the legs and tail of a Salamander, got in the course three months six crops of these members; that 687 perfect bones so animal At whatever were season. reproduced by one during one and the limb cut the deficient was off, was no point part, more, diseased bone has been a removed, a exactly reproduced. When

permits

'

An

Essay
translat.,
on

Eng.
'

Lectures

Generation,' 18; Paget, PatholoSurgical

on

p.

* An Essay production,' Eng.

'

on

Animal

Re-

translat.,

1769,

79.

gy,' 1853, vol.

i. p.

209.

Chap.

XXIV.

NISUS

FOP.MATIVUS.

275
regular form,
as

new

one

sometimes
'

"gradually
of muscles,

assumes

the

nml

all
as

the

attachments
This

ligaments,

"e., become

complete

belore."

of re-growth does not, however, always act iicrpower the tail of lizard differs in the form a fectly; reproduced of the from the normal tail: with certain scales Orthopterous insects the large hind legs are reproduced of smaller size: * the wiiitc^ cicatrice in the higher animals which unites the edges of a deep wound is not

formed

of
"

long

afterwards.^ Its

perfect skin, for elastic tissue is not produced till The activity of the iiisus foriiuitifus,'^ says
"

Blumenbach,

is in

an

inverse also

ratio

to

the

age

of the

organised

greater with animals, the lower they power animals stand in the scale of organisation; and low in the scale to the correspond with the embryos of higher animals bcIdiiLriiig observations" afford illustiation of class. a same good Newport's that whose for he found this fact, myriapods, highest development generate rebeyond the larvae of perfect insects, can scarcely carries them

body."

is

"

limbs
and not
so can

and

antennse

up
true

to

the

time

of

their
in

last

moult;

"

the
mature

larvae

of
larvae

insects, but, except

in

one

order,
both
so

in the the

insect.
or

Salamanders of the the

correspond

developnu'nt
the juries. inare

with
mature

possess

tadpoles to a large
tailless When

extent

power

tailless Batrachians, and of re-growth; but not

Batrachians. often
a

Absorption
absorbed ends
and

plays

an

important part in the

and does
not

repair of
the

bone

is broken that

unite,

ends

rounded, so unite, but overlap, the

bone varicose will form
But

a joint is formed; or if the A removed.' projecting parts are

false

dislocated and which

for

itself
new

new

socket. into

dons Displaced ten-

veins

excavate

channels
comes

in the bones action,

as

against
Virchow

absorption press. growth of bones; parts which are solid during the normal for the medullary tissue as the out hollowed during youth become wellthe many understand to In increases in size. bone trying sliould member rewe aided by absori)tion. of re-growth when adapted cases whilst retaining all parts of the organisation, even that almost that a so part constant renewal; the same form, undergo would be liable to absorption. renewed is not which formatinis, the so-called "/.s-//.s under classed Bome usually eases,

they

remarks,

under first appear to come but new structures reproduced,

at

distinct
structures

head;
are

for

not

only

are

old after

formed. with
"

Thus,

inflammation

"false and
nerves,

membranes,"
are

furnished
or a

blood-vessels,

lymphatics,

developed;
the

fa^tus

Fallopian tubes,
Carpenter's Physiology,' Comp.
3

and
'

falls into

abdomen,
^

the from escapes out a nature pours Marcy's

of the La

of Principles 1854, p. 479. ^ Charleswortli's 'Ma:? of Nat. Hist.,' vol. i.. 1837, p. 145. 5 Surgical Lectures on Paget, vol. i. p. 239. Pathology,' 'Comp. "Quoted by Carpenter,
'

on

Professor tlie i.ower of all parts excellent

.lis.Missl..u
.m a

o-a.laptM

o';^'='V'.^""*" J,^ AnlMachine

ix ^r".

male,'
also 257.

1873, Paget,

chapter

Lectures,

in.., p,

Phya.,'

p. 479.

276

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

quantity of plasticlymph, richly supplied with

for and which
a

which

forms of
are

itself into
and

organised
f(Etus is the
new

brane, memished nour-

blood-vessels,"
cases

the

time.

In

certain in the

hydrocephalus

open

dangerous
interlock

spaces
the

skull

by perfect serrated

filled up with sutures." But most

bones,

gists, physiolo-

now Continent, have given up the belief in " maintains Virchow that plastic lymph or blastema, and every is formed the o f new or old, structure, proliferation pre-existing by false membranes, like cancerous cells. On this view other or tumours, are developments of normal merely abnormal growths; on especially

and

we

can

thus
;

understand

how
a

it is that
"

they
membrane

resemble

adjoining
the
serous

structures

for

instance, that

false

in

cavities
covers

become those No

acquires a covering of epithelium exactly like that which of the iris may adhesions the original serous membrane; black like apparently from the production of pigment-cells
uvea." the
^"

of the doubt

reparation, though not always perfect,is for admirable an provision, ready for various emergencies, even at time.^^ intervals such of Yet this is as occur only long power and of than wonderful the growth not more development every of those which are single creature, more propagated by especially fissiparousgeneration. This subject has been here noticed, because is either greatly increased infer that, when we part or organ may any variation and in size or tinued conthrough suppressed wholly of the organisation will selection, the co-ordinating power continually tend to bring again all the parts into harmony with
power
one

of

another.

On

the

Effectsof the Increased notorious, and

use or we

Use

and

Disuse

of Organs.

It is that

shall

increased

action that been

immediately adduce proofs, strengthens muscles, glands,

on

sense-organs,

"c.; and
them. It has the flow

disuse,
is

the

other

hand, by

weakens

experimentally proved

Eanke'"
any

that

part which
increase
'"

part is at rest.
vessels

greatly increased towards the is performing work, and sinks again when Consequently, if the work is frequent, the
of blood
in

size

and

the

part

is better

nourished. hairs old-

Paget
which
8

also accounts

for the
even

long, thick, dark-coloured

in
young
^'
'

occasionally grow,
cases are

children,

near

These

given
'

by
on

Bhimenbacli

in
pp.

his

Essay

der

Generation,'
"
'

42, 1860,

54. trans.

by
10

CeUnlar Dr. Chance,

'

Pathology,'
pp.

Lectures on Paget, gy,' vol. i.,1853, p. 357. " Paget, ibid., p. 150.

441. Patholo-

27.

"c. Die Bhitvertheilung, by as 1871, quoted Organe,' Sachen In Darwin's,' Jaeger, also See H. Spencer, 1874, p. 48. vol. of Biology,' The Principles 3-5. ii. 18G6, chap.
' '

"

'

1853, vol.

Lectures i. p.

on

Pathology,'

71.

Chap.

XXIV.

EFFECTS

OF

USE

AND

DISUSE.

277

standing inflamed
flow of blood
spur

surfaces
to the

or

fractured
When which

bones

by

an

creased in-

part.

Hunter
is well

inserted the

of

cock

into
grew

the
in

comb,
one case

blood-vessels, it inches, and

bird
to

in
not

another touch

case

spirally to a forward, like a horn,

with its beak. of M.

supplied with length of six

so

that

the

could

the

ground

According
a

the of

interesting observations
one

Sedillot,'* when
an

tion por-

of the bone

bones

of the leg of it has

animal
a

the associated of the two This

enlarges till it attains

to

removed, bulk equal to that

tibia

is

bones, of which
exhibited
in

perform the functions.

the has been
filiis

is best

dogs

in

which

removed;
ftirm size is at
on

the companion
not

bone, which
size of the

naturally almost
soon

acquires a that of the tibia. equal to or greater than Now, it first difficult to believe that increased weight acting bone could, by alternately increasing and straight
the
pressure,
cause

and

one-fifth the

other,

diminishing
more

in the vessels which nutriment

to

permeate
the
bone.

freely the periosteum and thus supply

more

the blood

to flow

Nevertheless

the

observations

adduced bones

the strengthening of the bowed on by Mr. Spencer,^" of rickety children, along their concave sides,leads to

the belief that this is The

manner

possible.
stem

rocking of the
the Prof. Sachs

of

tree

increases

in

marked
are signs, asre-

growth of the woody

this is due
to

strained. that Uixed

tissue in the parts which he which believes, from reasons the

as

pressure

of the bark
IT.

being

in such
to
an

parts, and

not

Knight and

Spencer

tain, main-

increased

the trunk.^'' But

the

of flow of sap caused by the movement withbe developed out hard woody tissue may
we see

aid of any as movement, In all such old wall. to an

between the

with

tached ivy closelyat-

cases,

it is very action
H.

difiicult to

distinguish
and
or

effects of
the

long-continued selection
of the part,
knowledges ac-

those which

follow
some

from other

increased
Mr.
as an

directly from
this
trees

cause.

Spencer"
the

and gives difliculty, shells of

nuts.

instance
we

tli^ms

on

and

the

Here

have
any
ii. p.

extremely
movement,
200: Snch**.

hard
1*
'

woody
Cnmptes
1S64.
H. p.

tissue without
Rendus/
539.
'

the

of possibility
i"
'

Sept. Principles

Ibid.,

26th,
15

of

Spencer, Biology,' vol.

The

Text-book 734.
^^

vol. of vol.

Botnuy,'
ii. p.

1S";", p.

ii. p.

243.

Ibid.,

2i3.

278 /

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

/
and
cause;

without, as far
and the
as

as

we

can

see,

any

other

directlyexciting

the hardness
may

to

plant, we

of these parts is of manifest ice servlook at the result as probably due to variations.

the selection knows

epidermis on the hands; and when hear that with infants, long before birth, the we epidermis is thicker on the palms and soles of the feet than other part of the body, as was observed with admiration on any we are by Albinus,^* naturally inclined to attribute this effects of long-continued use to the inherited or pressure. We view even to the hoofs of are tempted to extend the same how far natural quadrupeds ; but who will pretend to determine
have aided in the formation selection may such obvious importance to the animal?
That artisans
use

of so-called spontaneous that hard work thickens the

Every

one

of structures

of

strengthens the
follow the

muscles

may

be and

seen

in the
a

limbs

of is
are

who

different

trades;

when
to

muscle

strengthened,
the
not

attached, become
blood-vessels

tendons, and the crests enlarged; and this must

and
nerves.

of bone likewise

which be the when

they
case a

^\ith is

On

the

other when

hand,
the

limb

used,
nervous

as

by

Eastern

with So

power

is

the again, when atrophied, sometimes is furnished

^^

nerve fanatics, or supplying it wither. effectually destroyed, the muscles is the becomes optic nerve destroyed eye

even

in

the the

course as

of well
was

few
as

months.^^

The

Proteus Schreibers

with that when

branchiae

with

lungs:
to

and in

found

animal

compelled

live

were deep water, the branchiae developed to thrice their ordinary the other size, and the lungs were on partially atrophied. When, the animal live in shallow to was hand, water, the lungs compelled became vascular, whilst the branchiae larger and more disappeared in a more less complete degree. Such modifications these are, or as of little for value do not actually however, comparatively us, as we know that they tend to be inherited.

In various But

many

cases

there

is

reason

to

believe

that

the

lessened
in the

use

of

affected the corresponding that this ever good evidence of a single generation. It appears, in the as that several generations variability, changed habits for any appreciable result. have and almost lost, not only ducks, geese do of flight; for we in the race, their power organs there is
has
no
18 Paget, thology.' vol. 1^
'

parts
case

offspring.
course

follows of be
must

in the

general or
subjected

definite into

Our in the not

see

domestic individual
a

fowls,
but

young

fowl,
of the

Lectures il. p. 209.

on

Patrans-

Miiller's
pp.

lat,.
has

'Phys.,' Eng. Professor 54, 791. (' Physiological given

account limbs destruction

ous

the

of of

of the atrophy after rabbits the nerve.

'

Reed and
a

in G$oQuoted by Lecoq, graph. Bot.,' tom. i.,1854, p. 182,

-"

Auat.

Researches,'

p.

10)

curi-

Chap. XXIV.

EFFECTS

OF

USE

AND

DISUSE.

070
Ht-nco

when
led and

frightened, take flightlike a young carefully to compare the limb-bones

rabbits, with
measurements need

pheasant.
of wihl

was

fowls, ducks, piireons

the
and

same

bones

in

the

the

parent-species' As
of

chapters I

here

weights w^ere fully given in the earlier only recapitulate the results. With domestic
the
tail
as

the length of the sternum, pigeons, the prominence the length of the scapuhe and furculum, the lemrlh of
measured

from

its crest win"'s as feathers little connection

tip

to

tip of the radii, are

wild in of the
of

all reduced

rehitivefv to

the

same

parts in the
are

pigeon. wings
exercise in the
of the
or

The this

wing
may the it has

however,
a

increased the the

use

length, but

and have

with

tail,as
which

dog with
feet often of

amount

lengthened hair on habitually taken

races,

The is

pigeons, except
fowls the
or

long-beaked

are^-educed

in size.

With

crest

distorted

monstrous;

sternum is less prominent, and the wing-bones have become

are

lighter relativelyto the leg-bones, and shorter in comparison with those of the
hankli-a.
same manner

apparently
the

little (!uUns
in

parent-form,
is
a

With
as are

ducks,
in the all

the

crest

of the

sternum the

fleeted

the

foregoing cases:
in

and bones bones the

scapulee
the of the in the the

reduced
and

weight
are

furculum, coracoids, relatively to the whole

and and "lighter, each with

skeleton:

bones the

of the whole

wings

shorter

the
and

legs longer
wild-duck.

relativelyto
bones, in

to heavier, relatively in skeleton, comparison

other,
the

same

The
cases,

foregoing
of

size of weight and is probably the indirect result muscles

on

decreased

the of
to

reaction

the

weakened

the
tame

bones.
and

I failed
wild

the feathers of the compare but Gloger^^ asserts that in feathers also reach duck
on

wings
the end

of

the duck the

wild of

tlie

tips

of the in

duck; Mingmestic do-

almost

to

the

tail, whilst

the

He remarks they often hardly reach to its base. the greater thickness of the legs, and ming that the swimsays between domesticated the
toes

membrane detect With this latter the

is reduced; the

but

was

not

abk-

to

difference. rabbit

body, together with the whole skeleton, is generally larger and heavier than in the wild animal, and the leg-bones are heavier in due proportion; but wliatcver lli"' of standard comparison be taken, neither the leg-bones nor in length proportionally with the increased scapulae have increased
diniensions marked results We of the
rest

of the

skeleton.

The the

skull that

has

become of
narrowness
on

in

manner

narrower,
we

and,

from

measurements this

its

capacity formerly given,

from have the decreased life led
in the

may size of

conclude,
the

brain.

consei|Uent

tlie

animals. by these closely-confined have which that silk-moths, eighth chapter from been centuries closely confined, emerge kept during many often their cocoons with their ^ings distorted, incapable of flight, in size, or rt'lages. ipiite according to (Jiiaf even, greatly reduced be largelyowing to rudimentary. This condition of the wings may

mentally

inactive
seen

"i

Das

Abandern

der

Vogel,* 1833,

s.

74,

280
the
same

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

often affects wild Lepidoptera monstrosity which be in part due from reared the cocoon; it may when or artificially is the of many inherent females to which to an common tendency, in less have their to a more or rudimentary wings Bombycidae, to long-continued be attributed state; but part of the effect may kind of disuse.

From
our

the foregoing facts there

can

be

no

doubt

that with

or

creased animals, certain bones have inin size and weight owing to increased decreased or but they have not been modified, as shown decreased use;

anciently domesticated

in the earlier

chapters, in shape
would
to

or

structure. to

With
severe as

animals
tition compe-

living
an

free life and reduction

to

occasionally exposed
tend have
to

the

be greater,

it would

be
perfluous su-

advantage
part
on

them

saved.

With

development of every highly-fed domesticated

the
seems

mals, ani-

the
nor

other
any to

hand, there
to

to

be

no

economy

of

growth,
details.

tendency
this

the

elimination

of

superfluous

subject I shall recur. to more general observations, l^athusius has Turning now of the pig, the shortened that the improved races shown legs and of the articular condyles of the occiput, snout, the form and the position of the jaws with the upper canine teeth projecting
But
in
a

most

anomalous attributed For

of
to

manner

in

front
not

of the

lower

canines,
travel
in

may

be

these

parts the of

having been
races

fully exercised.
search

the
nor

highly-cultivated
root up

do with

not

food,
These

ground

their which

ringed
are

muzzles.'^

modifications

structure,

all
so

breeds,
domestic

several strictly inherited, characterise that they cannot have been derived from stock. With

improved
any

single
Tanner

respect

to

cattle, Professor

has remarked

lungs and liver in the improved breeds " found to be considerably reduced in size when are compared "^^ with those possessed by animals having perfect liberty; of these organs affects the general shape and the reduction of the reduced The cause of the body. lungs in highly-bred animals which take little exercise is obvious; and perhaps
Nathusius, 18G0, Schweines,'
22
'

that the

Die
s.

Racen

53, 57;

'

des Vor-

'

Der
^^
"

Schadel 1870. Journal of

des

Maskenof p.

schweines,'

studien

....

Sehweineschadel,'
130,
and Von 133. Prof. extends the Nathusius:

1804.

s.

Lucae conclusions

103, supports
of

Higliland
321.

See.,'

Agriculture July, 1860,

282
countries have
use

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap. XXIV.

dependent
their
ears

ears.

"With
to

wild catch

animals, which
every

constantly sound, and

comes,

like funnels
ascertain

passing
it

especially to
is not,
as

the

direction

whence

Blyth has remarked, any species with pacity the incadrooping ears except the elephant. Hence is certainly in some to erect the ears the result manner of domestication; and this incapacity has been attributed by various authors to disuse, for animals protected by man are their Col. not Hamilton to use compelled habitually ears. in Smith that ancient of the dog, " with the states effigies exception of one Egyptian instance, no sculpture of the earlier Grecian era produces representations of hounds with completely half pendulous are drooping ears; those with them missing in the most ancient ; and this character increases, by of the Roman also degrees, in the works period." Godron has remarked that the pigs of the ancient Egyptians had not their it is remarkable But ears enlarged and pendent.'' that the drooping of the ear is not crease accompanied by any dein size; on the contrary, animals different as fancy so certain Indian breeds of the goat, our rabbits, petted spaniels, blood-hounds, and other dogs, have enormously elongated
Mr.
'* ^* ^"

there

ears,

so

that

it would

appear

as

if their

weight

had

caused

them

to

droop, aided
of the skull. tail of
no

drooping of the much

structure

With rabbits,the perhaps by disuse. has affected even the elongated ears

to me animal, as remarked by Mr. of dogs have races pigs and some Blyth, is curled; whereas This curled. their tails much deformity, therefore,appears

The

wild

to

be

the

result with

of domestication,
the

but

whether

in

any

way

connected The
one

lessened
on our

use

of the
is

tail is doubtful.

epidermis

hands

In a knows, by hard work. have " horny callosities that defend their habit of kneeling arise from

easily thickened, as every district of Ceylon the sheep

their down

knees, and
to crop

which
short

the

herbage, and
2*'

this
as

distinguishes the Jaffna

quoted
1-12.

flocks from

those

Youatt

Livingstone, on Sheep,
'

by

p.

Hodg-

Asiatin Soo. of in Journal son, vol. of xvi., 1847. p. Bengal,' the other On "c. "c lOOn. Wilckens Dr. argues hand. belief that Strongly against the

the is the of enrs der Jahrbnch disuse: 1860. Viehzuoht.' deutsehon =9 'Naturalist's Library,' Dogs, 104. vol. ii.. 1840, p. ^o torn. dq i., I'Espece,' the

drooping:
of

result

'

"

1859, p. 367.

Chap.

XXIY.

EFFECTS

OF

USE

AND

DISUSE.

283
stated whether

of other
this

portions of the island peculiarityis inherited.^^

mucous

"

but

it is not

The

membrane
the

which skin

lines the of the

stomach

is

tinuous con-

with
not

external

body; tlierefore

it is

surprising
of the

that

its texture but

should

food

consumed,
follow. stomach
a

be affected by tlie nature other and more interesting

changes likewise
muscular w^hich had
coat

Hunter of

long
a

ago

observed

that the

of the

been

fed for
to Dr.

year

gull (Larus tridactylus) chieflyon grain was thickened ;

a

and, according
occurs

Edmondston,
in

similar
in

change periodically
stomach

in

the

Shetland

Islands the The

the

of the
fields corn-

Larus

argeniatus, which
and feeds great
on

spring frequents the

same

the

seed.

careful of
a raven

observer which
an

has had

change In the been long fed on vegetable food. grallaria), similarly treated, Menetries
a

noticed

in the stomach

case

of

owl the

(Strix
form

states coat

that

of the stomach and

in

was

changed,
w^ould known.

the

inner

being leathery,
of generations

the liver increased the

in size.
^^

Whether
in

these modifications
course

digestive
inherited

organs

the

become

is not
or

The
which

increased

diminished from

length of the
changed diet, is
a

intestines,
more markable re-

apparently
case,

results

because

it is characteristic

of certain
must

animals be

in

their

domesticated The

condition, and
absorbent
are

therefore the

herited. in-

complex
muscles,

system,

blood-vessels,

together necessarily all modified with the intestines. According to Daubenton, the intestines of the domestic one-third cat are longer than those of the wild cat of Europe; and although this species is not the animal, yet, as Isidore Geoffroy parent-stock of the domestic has remarked, the several species of cats are closelyallied so increased The that the comparison is probably a fair one. cat being less strictly to be due to the domestic length appears stance, wild feline species; for incarnivorous in its diet than any ily kitten eating vegetables as readI have seen a French
nerves,

and

as

meat.

According

to
Tenstate-

Cuvier, the intestines

'

of the do-

.T. E. Sir bv Cevlon,' 1859, vol. H. p. 531. '2 the For foregoinfr Hunter's see ments, Essays

31

'

nent,

'

and ii. p.

Observations,'

1861,

vol.

as (inutnl Edniondsloii, 329; Dr. I^ritisli Rinls.' in Macgillivniy's as Menotries. 550: vol. v. p. (Joscbichto in Broiin's quoted der Natur,' b. ii. s. IIU.
'

284
mesticated the wild
an

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

pig exceed greatly in proportionate length those of

boar. In the tame and wild rabbit the change
is of

opposite nature, and probably results from rabbit.^^ food given to the tame

the nutritious

Changed
far
as

and

inherited
powers

the mental

of Life. This subject,as of animals concerned, so blends are

"

Habits

into instinct,that I will here

cases or as

only

remind

the

reader
"

of such

the

tameness

of
"

our

domesticated

animals

the pointing

mals retrieving of dogs their not attacking the smaller aniand forth. How much of these kept by man so habit, and how much changes ought to be attributed to mere
"

to

the

selection
manner,

of individuals

which the

have

varied

in the

sired de-

irrespectivelyof
they have
been

special circumstances
seldom
may

under
We
a

which have

kept, can
animals

be told.
be

already

seen

that

habituated

to

additional instances may be given. changed diet; but some In the Polynesian Islands and in China the dog is fed exclusively on vegetable matter, and the taste for this kind of inherited.'* Our food is to a certain extent sporting dogs will not touch the bones of game birds, whilst most other dogs devour them with greediness. In some parts of the world hog is sheep have been largely fed on fish. The domestic fond of barley, the wild boar is said to disdain it; and the disdain is partiallyinherited, for some wild pigs bred young in captivity showed aversion for this grain, whilst others an of
some

the

same

brood

relished
a

it.^^ One
sow

of

my

relations

bred

young

pigs from
in

Chinese

by
so

wild

they live free

to the house
was

to

park, and were be fed ; but they would

unnatural

the

tame not

Alpine boar; that they came

swill,which
once customed ac-

touch

devoured
to

by the other
an

pigs. An animal can diet, which

when

during youth, dislikes its proper had long lanzani with a j^igeon which found to be the case Individuals of the same been fed on meat. species take to
new

effected only

generally be food, as Spal-

food

with
statements

different
on

degrees of readiness;
in-

one

horse, it
vol. ii.

33 These testines

the
'

tory
p.

are

taken

from

Geoffroy
Nat. toire 427. 441. ^* Gilbert

Saint

Hilaire,
torn.
'

Gen.,' White,

Isidore Hisiii. pp. His-

of 121.

Selborne,'
'

1825,

^s

Bnrdnch.
ii. p.

torn. P.

Liicas,
388.

'

Traite de Phys.,' 267. as quoted by Dr. L'Hered. Nat.,' torn.

Natural

i. p.

Chap.

XXIV.

CHANGED

HABITS

OF

LIFE.

285

it stated, soon

learned

to eat

meat, whilst

another

would

have

perished from hunger rather than have partaken of it." The of the Bomhyx caterpillars hesperus feed in a state of nature the leaves of the Cafe diahle,but, after having been on reared the would on Ailanthus, they touch the Cafe diahle,and not died of actually hunger." possible to accustom marine fish to live in fresh water; but as such changes in fish and other marine animals have been chiefly observed in a state of nature, they do not properly belong to our present subject. The period of gestation and of maturity, as shown in the earlier chapters, the season and the frequency of the act of breeding." have all been under greatly modified domestication. Willi the Egyptian goose the rate of change with respect to the
"

It has

been

found

season

has

been

recorded.^** The
drake
is

wild

drake

pairs with
Certain The
paces

one

female, the
of fowls have

domestic

polygamous.

breeds of tlie
of tlie

lost the habit

manner

of incubation.

horse, and
have

the been

of

flight of certain

breeds

and are inherited. pigeon, Cattle,horses, and pigs have learnt to browse under in the St. John'.^ water River, East Florida, w^here the Vallisneria has been largely modified naturalised. The
cows were

observed
"

by Prof.
differs

Wyman
from
in

to

keep to thirty-fiveseconds."
kinds and of fowls and others

their heads

immersed
^'^

for The

period varying
voice Some and varieties
common

fifteen
tain cer-

much
are

pigeons.
the

ous clamoror

silent, as

Call
one

duck,
how of
or

the

Spitz and
the

pointer dog.
one

Every
another

knows

the breeds

of

dog differ from

in their ardour

in their

manner

hunting,
vermin.

and

after different kinds

of game

plants the period of vegetation is easily changed and winter wheat, of summer and is inherited,as in the case barley, and vetches; but to this subject we shall immediately Annual come beacclimatisation. under plants sometimes return
With

perennial under
Hooker
5"

new

climate,
stock and

as

hear

from
in

Dr.

is the
and

case

with
other
'

the
cases

mignonette
viii.,
'

Taspage

This

several

tion,'
563.
^^

torn,

ISGl,
de
70.

are

given
des

by

Colin,

Comp.
tom.
'

i. p. M. de Miehely Bulletin Society

"

Animaux 426.

Physiolojrie 1854, Dom.,'

Cayenne, d'Acclimain

Quatrefages.
Hnmaine,'
"

TTnit6
p,

I'Es-

pece
^9

1S61,

The

Ap.

1874,

p.

American 237.

Naturalist,'

286
mania.
as

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

On

the other

hand, perennials sometimes

in

become

nuals, an-

with
*'

the Ricinus

England,

and

as,

according

to

varieties of the heartsease. Captain Mangles, with many Von from of Verhascum raised seed Berg phxniceum, is usually a biennial, both annual which and perennial varieties. Some Rice India which deciduous bushes become
evergreen

in hot
one

tries." coun-

requires much
can

water, but there is

w^ithout other cereals could

variety in
rieties va-

be

grown

Certain irrigation.*^
are

of the oat certain animal

and

of

our

best fitted for be

soils." Endless
and

similar

facts

given

in

the

cause vegetable kingdoms. They are noticed here bethey illustrate analogous differences in closely allied such natural changed habits of life, species,and because due
or

whether

to

habit,

or

to

the direct

action

of external be

ditions, con-

to

so-called

spontaneous
of structure.

would variability,

apt

to

lead to modifications

Acclimatisation.

"

Erom much

naturally led
There from
are

to

the

we previous remarks are disputed subject of acclimatisation.

the

two
same

distinct

questions: Do

varieties

descended

of living under species differ in their power different climates ? And secondly, if they so differ,how have thus adapted ? We have seen that European dogs they become the
do
not

succeed

well in India,
in

and

it is

that asserted,^^

no

one

has there but

these then

succeeded
it may

northern

keeping the ISTewfoundland long alive; be argued, and probably with truth, that breeds distinct from the naare specifically tive
flourish in India.
to

dogs which
made
with
to

The
of
"

same

remark

may

be
cording ac-

respect
the

different
one

breeds

sheep, of which,
torrid

brought a the But out year," Zoological Gardens. capable of some sheep are degree of acclimatisation, for Merino sheep bred at the Cape of Good Hope have been found far better adapted for India than those imported from
climate
lasts

not Youatt,*^

from

second

in

England.*"
*"
'

It is almost

certain

that
"

all the
R.

breeds
'

of

the

Flora,' 1835, b. ii. p. 504. de Candolle. GeoAlph. ii. p. 1078. graph. Bot.,' torn. " of Illustrations the Royle, of the Botany Himalaya,' p. 19. *3 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1850, 204, 219. pp.
"i
'

As. 10.
^^

Rev. Soc. Youatt

Everest,

of

Bengal,'
on

vol.

Journal iii. p.
p.

'

Sheep,

1838,

491.
**" 'Prod. Royle, India,' p. 153.

Resources

of

Chap.

XXIV.

ACCLIMATISATION.

2s7

fowl which

are

descended there

from

one

is good from

reason so

Mediterranean,*^ though
suffers
more

species; but the Spanlsli breed, to believe originated near the fine and vigorous in England,
any

frost than from

other

breed.

The

Arrindy

Bengal, and the Ailanthus moth from the temperate province of Shan Tung, in China, belong infer from their identity to the same as species, we may and mature in the caterpillar, states ; cocoon, yet they differ
*^

silk moth

introduced

much
warm

in constitution

the Indian other is

form

"

will flourish

only in

latitudes,"the
rain.
are more

quite hardy and

withstands

cold and
Plants The latter

strictlyadapted to climate
domesticated Avithstand such

than

are

animals.

great diversities of find nearly tlie same in perate climate, that we species tropical and temwhilst the cultivated countries; plants aie widely dissimilar. for inquiry in regard to the acclimatisaHence tion a larger field is open It is no of plants than of animals. exaggeration to say that has long been Avith almost cultivated, varieties plant which every
exist which
are

when

endoAved
to

Avith constitutions
fcAV

fitted
more

for very

dilVerent
as

climates;
AA^ould be
trees

I Avill select

tedious been

only a give all.

and
"

of the North

strikingcases,
numerous

it

In lists
severe

America

fruit-

have

raised,

in the

horticultural
are

stance, publications," for in-

in that
are

by Downing, Many
American
oAvn

given of the varieties Avhich

climate of the until and
can

best

able

to withstand in their that the the

of the northern pear, Avith and

States

and
are Avas

Canada. excellent knoAvn than also

not

varieties

succeeded

country, but in England;

here is not

plum, peach recently, hardly one

not apples,^"
a one

succeeds. Avinter have A\dde have

Though
ours,

American
summer

varieties Avith

Avithstand

severer

hot

enough.
here
do

Fruit-trees
not

originated
much The
and

in

Europe
pear is the and
and

different

constitutions, but

tliey are
areas.

noticed, because
Forelle this of
France

nurserymen

supply
floAvers
served, ob-

floAvers early, and critical

to 14" in

Avhen
have

the

Just set,
both in
a

period, they
Avithstand

been

England,
even or

Avith

complete
the of
kinds

impunity

frost

18"

flowers, Avhether

fully expanded

Fahr., bud, of all other

and
Ave

Avhich

killed

pears.^*^This poAver in the not invariably depend, as producing fruit does good authority,^^on general constitutional vigour.
nortliAvard, the
"

floAver of

resistingcold

afterwards
know
on

In

number
'

of

varieties
the
p.

Avhich
'

are

found

proceeding capable of
184S,
p. and

Tegetmeier,
p. Dr.

Poultry
in
Bot.
a

Book,'
paper of Soc.

Gardener's
'

Chronicle,'
,

1866,
*8

102.
R.

5.
"o

Paterson,
to

communicated

038.
"'J.

Gard. Romnrks
from dc

Chronicle.

1S(.0,

by
of

Kditor

Canada, qiiotorl in ISth. 1863, Nov.

*9

the

'

Reader,'
in

quotation
'

Docnisno.

Jon^die.

IjrussolsIn
18o7,
p. ")1-.

See

remarks

by

Editor

Gard.

Chronicle,

288 resisting the

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

in the be seen rapidly decreases, as may of the can list of the varieties cherry, apple, and pear, which Near cow, MosStockholm.^^ of in the cultivated be neighbourhood Prince Troubetzkoy planted for experiment in the open ground climate several varieties withstood
other of

the

Pcpins, fruit-trees,like distinct

from each

the

pear, of cold

but

one

alone,
We

the
see

Foire that

sans
our

winter.^*
same

thus

species of the

in

their

constitutional

certainly genus, adaptation to different

differ

climates. often

plants, the adaptation to climate is that proved by repeated trials very for vation cultiof wheat varieties if are of the English adapted few any is at first only in this case but the failure in Scotland; in the quantity, though ultimately in the quality, of the grain from India wheat-seed produced. The Rev. M. J. Berkeley sowed would ears," on land which the most certainly and meagre got In from wheat.^^ these cases have a English good crop yielded
With the varieties close.
Thus

of many it has

been

"

"

"*

"

varieties the
reverse

have

been case,
as

carried
"

from

Avarmer was

to

cooler

climate; in

when Indian

wheat

France barren
while Here

into

the
or

West seed

Islands,

it

imported produced

directly from
either

wholly
**"

spikes
West is
a

either climate
true

as

with seeds, only two or three harvest." by its side yielded an enormous mate; of close adaptation to a slightly cooler clianother case used be in England may which kind of wheat indifferently under the warmer sown or summer a winter variety, when if it had been a in behaved as of Grignan, exactly France, furnished Indian wheat." believe that all the varieties
in

miserable

winter Botanists

belong to the America, in proceeding same species; and we have seen in each zone produce their northward, the varieties cultivated shorter periods. So shorter and flowers and ripen their seed within in do not succeed varieties that the tall,slowly maturing southern in the New New England varieties do not succeed England, and"^
of maize that North Canada. varieties the
I
are

have

not

met

with
or

actually injured
varieties the been
and learn
can

statement any killed by a

that

the

southern which

degree

of cold

northern
but

withstand of considered

probable;
varieties
Hence

production
to
be

impunity, though this is early flowering and early seeding

with
as one

deserves

form
to

it has further
as we

found from
has

according possible,
northwards evidence since in the the

of acclimatisation. Kalm, to cultivate In

de

maize

further

America. end
.'' of

Europe,

also,
the

given by Alph.
On

culture

of maize

extended

Candolle, the last century

thirty leagues north

"

of its former
Bot. 26.

boundary
^"

the

authority of
of

Ch.
'

Cotes
63

Voyage Martins, Sept. de la Norvege.'

de

'

On

Journal

Gand,'
1859 396
"

quoted
p

in

I'Acad. Gard.
'

p. Hort.

quoted
p.
'

the in

authority
'

Gard.

Chron.,
^

Labat, 1862, Colin, series,

337.
r. ,"

de

Chron.,' 1851,
p.

"

235. MM.

Annal.
^^
'

and Edwards So. Nat.,' 2nd des

v.

5*'' Gard.

Chronicle,'
p. 235.

Bot

torn.

p.

22.

Geograph.

Bot.,

p.

Ibid., 1862,

290
does
on a

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

not
^

ripen its
"it

fruit till very

late in the

season,
a

even

when southern of

wall;

is, therefore, only fit for

a

very A
a

hot

grown mate." cli-

I will

brieflygive
by
that

few M. which

other

cases.

variety
can

Magnolia
several With
1860

grand

iflora, raised

Roy,

withstands other
in

temperature
resist. One
of

degrees
camellias

lower of In the

than
is

there
and

much

any diHereuee

variety
hardiness. the
severe

particular
of the there which other settes." Noimon comare are

variety
"

Noisette hale York

to sweet
as

rose a
"

A\'ithstood universal yew down." is I Irish

frost but

untouched

amidst the be well

cut

destruction

New the

quite hardy,
may add

yew varieties suited

is liable of

that

potato
as

for warmer,

{Convolvulus batatas) for colder, climates."^

have been found plants as yet mentioned capable of unusual resisting an degree of cold or heat, when fully The refer to plants whilst young. following cases grown. In a large bed of young Araucarias of the same growing age, close together and after observed,''^ equally exposed, it was the unusually severe winter of 1860-61, that, in the midst of the dying, numerous individuals remained which the on frost had absolutely made kind of impression. Dr. Lindno ley, after alluding to this and other similar cases, remarks, the lessons w^hich the late formidable winter has "Among in their power dividual of resisting cold, intaught us, is that, even of the same ent." species of plants are remarkably differ!Near Salisbury, there w^as a sharp frost on the night of May 24th, 1836, and all the French garis) beans (Phaseolus vul"

The

in

completely
but
two

killed except On the same escaped.**^

were

bed

in
rows

the

year

1864, there

of scarlet-runners
390

thirty, which month, day of the same frost in Kent, and was severe a (P. muUiflorus) in my garden,
about
one

in

containing
were

plants of the
and killed
"

same

age

and about

all blackened
an

except

equally exposed, dozen a plants.

"

of Fulmer's dwarf garis), bean adjoining row (P. vulfrost one single plant escaped. A still more severe four days afterwards, and of the dozen plants wdiich occurred
Gard, 271. 1865. p. *^ For ttie magnolia, Lousee don's 'Gard. Mag.,' vol. xiii.,1837, For 21. camellias and p. roses, Gard. see .384. Chron.,' 1860. p. For Journal of the Hort.,' yew, March For 3rd, 1863, p. 174.
"56

In

Decaisne,

quoted

in

'

sweet

potatoes,
in
The p.
'

see

Col.

von

Siep.

Chronicle,'

bold,
822.
^s

Gard.

Chron.,'
'Gard.

1855,

Editor,
'

Chron.,' Mag.,'
vol.

1861,
^^

"

239. London's
p.

'

xii., 1836,

Gard. 378.

Chap.

XXIV.

ACCLIMATISATION.

291

previously escaped only three survived; these were not or more vigorous than the other j^oung plants,but they the tips of their leaves escaped completely, with not even It was browned. impossible to behold these three jihiiits, with their blackened, withered, and dead brethren all around, and not see at a glance that they differed widely in constitutional of resistingfrost. power This w^ork is not the proper place to show that wild plants of the same species,naturally growing at different altitudes different latitudes, under become to a certain extent or matised, accliis as proved by the different behaviour of their seedlings
taller when raised
in

had

another
to must
some

country.
cases,

In

'

my

Origin
add
many

of

Species
others.
states

'

I have

alluded

and

I could

One that from

instance

suffice: Mr. the Scotch

G rigor, of from
is the

Forres,'"
forests of
one-

seedlings
seed from

of

fir (Pinus
and

sylvestris)^

raised

the Continent
"

two-year-old seedlings; but the the second effects of the winter formly year's growth almost union make those from the Continent quite brown, and so of March saleable, they are quite undamaged, that by the month
so

Scotland, differ much. year-old, and more

The
in

difference

perceptiblein

while the
same

the

plants from
and rather
can

the native

Scotch

pine, under
siderably conso

treatment,

standing
stouter

alongside, although
and from

shorter, are
the from been beds the of the
one

quite
the

green,

that
seen

be known
a

other

when facts

distance with

of

mile."

Closely similar

have

observed

seedling larches.
would alone
be

Hardy
whilst be

varieties but

valued

or

noticed would Loudon^*

an

in

tender

varieties, requiring
such the often
elm

more

warmtli,
Thus

Europe, genernlly
descii])es
nnd that of

neglected; Cornish a variety of v/hich the shoots' are

timber
are

occasionally arise.
which killed

is almost the know

but

evei-green,

by

autuniniil all the

there
and
not

frosts,
some

so

its
the

is of little value.
more are more

Horticulturists
than than others: thus

that

varieties
of

much

tender tender

varieties
is much
foniid
ni a

broccoli
"

cabbages;
difference
ness

dilTerfrn-Mt
lin i.nt or tnoni
.

^0 Gardener's isnr.. p. Chron..' Mr. 699. G. Maw gives (' Gard. of Chron.' 1S70, p. 895)' a nnmber home he bronght striking cases; northand from southern Spain Africa several ern plants, which in he cultivated alongEngland northern from gide specimens

districts;

lie

only
tlie
of

tli.-ir Iimt.

dnring
tiohavionr
the
''^
'

winter,
some

the

during

snnuner.
_

Arhorct_nm

et

^. Frutioetnm,
^

vol. iii. p. 1370.

292
this

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

ence

in

respect in the
kinds
are a

sub- varieties than

on

of the the the

broccoli;
white thermometer tender much

the

pink
falls

and
"

but

purple they
24" and

little hardier be

Cape broccoli,
than the

are

not
"

to

depended
varieties

after

below

Fahr. there the

;
are

the

Walcheren

broccoli
which

is less

Cape,
cold than
raised

several

will stand seed

more

severer

than

Walcheren.'''^
one

Cauliflowers instance the than

called

cabbages." To give from a hollyhock,

to

with

freely in India flowers: eleven plants

of
the

Queen
various With

Whites,''* were

found
may under

be

much

more

tender all tender than

other
would

seedlings.
succeed
is

It

be
a

presumed
climate that hot-house certain

that
warmer

varieties

better
well

ours.

fruit-trees, it

known
in
a

better

of the peach, stand varieties, for instance than this shows either others; and constitutional difference. The

ing forc-

bility plia-

same organisation or some forced, has been observed cessive during succherry-tree when its to of F ew change vegetation.'^'^ gradually period years Alba of but resist the heat a Multiffora stove, pelargoniums can stand skilful gardener asserts, will, as a most pine-apple top and heat the whole bottom drawn winter, without looking any more if it had than in a common and Blanche Fleur stood greenhouse; for growing in winter, if it had been made as on seems purpose There like many can bulbs, and to rest all summer." hardly be a must the have doubt that Alba a Midtiflora pelargonium widely

of

individual

"

^**

different

constitution it would have

seen

from

that withstand

of

most
even an

other the
"

varieties and

of

this

plant;
We

probably
that been

equatorial climate.
vine West
two

according
to observed at

to

Labat

wheat

quire re-

acclimatisation facts have

one

in order

succeed

in the
:

Indies.

lar Simi-

Madras

Europe, the of below that temperature is much at the same time: both sown they vegetated equally all died off a few favourably, but the former days after they appeared above ground; the latter still survive, and are vigorous, healthy plants." So again, tiirnipand carrot seed saved at Hyderabad to answer found better at Madras than seed from are Europe from the Cape of Good Mr. J. Scott of the Calcutta or Hope." Botanic that seeds of the sweet-pea {Lathyrus Gardens, informs me odoratus) imported from England thick, produce plants, with blossom and rigid stems and small leaves, which never rarely yield seed blossom seed; plants raised from French sparingly,but all the flowers are sterile; on the other hand, plants raised from sweet-peas near Darjeeling in Upper India, but originally derived from grown be successfully cultivated the plains of India; for England, can on
other

direct

from

parcels of nonettemigat Bangasaved lore

(of which Madras), were

the

mean

"

in Robson, Horticulture,' 1861, p.

^'

"

Mr.

'

Journal
23.

of

'"'

Mr.

Beaton,
March Mab

in

'

Pottage

of the Bonavla, Report 1866. See. of Agri.-Hort. Oudh,' ^* Cottage Gardener,' 1860, April 24th, p. 57. "'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1841,
'
'

Dr.

1860, p. 377. staud will also Queen stove See heat. Gardener's Chronicle,' 1845, p. 226. ^7 Q^rdener's Chronicle/ 1841, p. 439.
' "

Gardener,'

20th.

p. 291.

Chap. XXIV.

ACCLIMATISATION.

293

they flower
dent.
to me,

and

seed of the

and profusely,

their
as

stems

are

hix has
to

and

scan-

In the

some

foregoing
may

eases,

Dr.
be

Hooker

remarked the
seeds

greater
more

success

perhaps
a

attributed

fully ripened under this view but can hardly be extended plants, which, from being cultivated
their native
one,

having been

more so

favourable

cliiiiiite;

to under

cases, many iiuluding climate hotter than

become
to

fitted for that climate

cases

still hotter
can

climate.
certain colder

We
extent

may
come betin-ir

therefore

safely conclude
a

plants
either have

to

a or

accustomed
own;

hotter
more

than

although the latter We

will
now

been

frequentlyobserved.
acclimatisation of varieties the effects of
that

consider

the

means

by which
appearance

may

be

effected, namely, through the

a

having
habit.
a

different

In

constitution, and through regard to new varieties,there is no

the
constitution

evidence

change
in

in
any

of with

the

offspring necessarily
of the climate that it is certain

stands

direct

relation On

the nature

inhabited

by the parents.
tender varieties New
to

the contrary,
same

hardy and
same

of the

country. fitted

varieties

in the species appear come thus spontaneously arising be-

slightly different climates in two different either as seedlings or have the power, they may ; firstly, ways cow when full-grown, of resisting intense cold, as with the Moskinds of of resistingintense heat, as with some or pear, withstand frost, as severe Pelargonium, or the flowers may become with the Forelle pear. adapted Secondly, plants may from flowering to climates widely different from their own, In both and fruiting either earlier or later in the season.
these
cases

the the

power

of

acclimatisation

by

man new

consists varieties. of

simply
But
a

in

selection
any

and

preservation of
on

without hardier

direct

intention

his

part

be variety, acclimatisation may seed, and by effected by merely raising tender plants from occasionallyattempting their cultivation further and further

securing unconsciously

northwards,

as

in

the

case

of

maize, the
to

orange

and

the

peach.
How habit is
a or

much
custom
more can

influence
in the

ought

be

attributed
of animals
many
come

to

inherited and

acclimatisation

plants
natural

much

difficult

question. In
failed to have

cases

selection

hardly have
weather and

complicated the result.

resist
severe

It is notorious
storms

of

snow

play and that mountain sheep would which destroy

into

294
lowland

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap. XXIV.

breeds; but
from
been

then

mountain

sheep have
all delicate

been

thus

exposed
will with have
the

time

immemorial,

and

individuals So
can

destroyed, and the hardiest preserved. and India; who Arrindy silk-moths of China
far natural of the
two

tell how formation

selection
races,

may

have
are

taken
now

share

in the

which

fitted for

such the

widely different climates ?

many

It
so

seems

at first probable that

summers

fruit-trees which cold

success

are

well fitted for the hot

and
poor

winters
under when

of North
our we

habit; but
unless
mere

with their America, in contrast climate, have become adapted through reflect on the multitude of seedlings and that
none

annually raised
born habit On bred Good
a

in that country,
a

would

succeed

with
may

fitting constitution,
done

it is

possible that
Merino

have

nothing towards
when
we

tion. their acclimatisathat

the other
no

hand,

hear

during
Hope
"

great number
some

of generations cooler of

at

that

European
the

plants raised
parts
much

sheep, the Cape of during only

the

few

generations imported
to

in

India, withstand
than
must
same races

the hotter
or some

parts of that country

better
we

sheep

seeds

directly from
habit. We
are
^^

England,
that the

attribute conclusion of

influence
we

led to the

when

hear

from

JSTaudin

melons,

have long been cultivated in squashes, and gourds, which ISTorthern Europe, are comparatively more precocious, and ties less heat for maturing their fruit,than the varieneed much of the same speciesrecently brought from tropicalregions. of summer and winter wheat, barley, In the reciprocalconversion into each vetches and other, habit produces a marked few generations. The of a very same effect in the course of the varieties with maize, which, thing apparently occurs States of America, or into the Southern carried from when

Germany,

soon

became
to

accustomed
the

to their

new

homes.

With which

vine-plants taken
are

West than

Indies

from

Maderia,
in

said to succeed
nee,
we

better
some

plants brought directly from

the
new

Era

have

degree of acclimatisation

dividual in-

independently of the production of

seed.
The
'"^

varieties

by

common

is of experience of agriculturists
Asa

some

value,
1865,

Quoted

by

Gray,

in

'

Am.

Joiirn.

of

Sci.,'2ncl

series, Jan.

p. 106.

Chap. XXIV.

ACCLIMATISATION.

205
in trying llin
ancient

to be cautious they often advise persons in another. productions of one The country

and

a^'ri-

cultural

writers

of China

recommend

the

preservation and

cultivation the

of the varieties

peculiarto each country.

"

Durinj;
pecus

period, Columella wrote, peregrino longe praestantius est."

^^

classical

Vernaculum

I
or

am

aware

plants has
in most

that the attempt to acclimate called a vain chimera. been

cases

either animals No doubt

the

attempt

deserves

to be thus
new

called,if made

dependen inwith

of the
a

production of
With

varieties endowed

different

constitution.

rarely produces any generations. The laurel, bay, through successive seminal the Jerusalem laurestinus, "c., and artichoke, which are tender as propagated by cuttings or tubers, are probably now first introduced; and this appears to be in England as when until recently was seldom with the potato, which the case plants propagated by seed, and multiplied by seed. With unless with animals, there will be little or no acclimatisation either intentionallyor unconindividuals the hardier sciously are vanced kidney-bean has often been adpreserved. The dier harhas not become instance of a plant which as an
habit since its first introduction
on

plants propagated by buds, effect;it apparently acts only

into

Britain.
some

We

ever, hear, how-

excellent
from

that authority,^"

very

ported fine seed, im-

abroad, produced plants " which blossomed most nearly all abortive, whilst plants grown profusely, but were

English seed podded abundantly;" and this lish degree of acclimatisation in our Engapparently shows some plants. We have also seen that seedlings of tbe kiilneyof resisting with a marked bean occasionally appear power far as I can separated hear, has ever frost: but no as one,
alongside from

hardy seedlings,so as to prevent accidental crossing,and after then gathered their seed, and repeated the process year It may, however, be objected with truth that natural year. selection ought to have had a decided effect on the hnrdin(^s3 have of our kidney-beans; for the tenderest individuals must spring, and the hardier presevere been killed during every
such
^"

For

China,

see

les Chinois,' torn, p. Carlier, is quoted Columella by ia ' Jour, de Phys.,' t, xxiv., 1784.

Memoiro xi., 1780,

'

Rur

so
"

Mossrs.

Ilnnly

niiil

Son,

In

00.

Gardeuer's 589.

Cbrouicle,'

1S50,

p.

53

296
served. increased But

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

it should

be borne

in

mind

that

the

result

of

simply be that gardeners, who are their would sow always anxious for as early a crop as possible, seed a few days earlier than formerly. Now, as the period of the soil and elevation of each district, on sowing depends much
hardiness would and often been varies with
the
season;

and

as

new

varieties

have

feel sure that our we imported from abroad, can hardier ? I have not been able, kidney-beans are not somewhat this question by searching old horticultural works, to answer

satisfactorily.

given show that,though habit towards does something acclimatisation, yet that the appearance of constitutionally different individuals is a far As no single instance has been recordeffective agent. ed more ing either with animals plants of hardier individuals havor been long and steadily selected, though such selection is of any admitted to be indispensable for the improvement has done little other character, it is not surprising that man
On
now

the whole

the facts

in the acclimatisation

of domesticated

animals

and

cultivated
nature
new

plants. We
races

need

not,

however, doubt
become

that under

and

new

species would

climates, by variation, aided

natural selection.

adapted to widely by habit, and regulated by

ent differ-

Arrests

of Development:
of structure
as

Rudimentary
from
to

and

Aborted

Organs.
so

Modifications
or so

arrested called

development,
are

great
not

serious

to

deserve

be

monstrosities,

frequent infrom

with any the normal whole

and
are

animals, but, as they differ much structure, they require only a passing notice.
may limbs be

domesticated

Thus

head the

sometimes

represented by a soft nipple-like tion, projecof limbs rudiments by mere papillae. These in a dog." inherited, as has been observed
appear
arrest to to be

Many
What the
case

lesser anomalies
cause

due

to arrested seldom

development.
except in
does not
cause

the

of the
at

of direct
act

injury
an

be, we may the embryo.

seldom

know,
the

That

generally
infer

early embryonic period we may being wholly aborted, a rudiment ears are being generally preserved. The external sented reprein in another Chinese breed of and a vestiges by mere sheep ;
from the affected
organ
"

extremely

breed, the tail is reduced

si

"

to

little button,
'

suffocated Transact.,'

in

man-

Hist torn.

"

Isid. Geoffrov Saint-Hilaire, Nat. des Anomalies,' 1836, 11. pp. 210, 223, 224, 395;

Pliilosoph.

1775,

p.

313.

298

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

laws

govern

the

changes
in the

which

natural of

species and

artificial varieties

of the Comone undergo, species to the abortion of the be traced positae,a tendency pappus may to the centre in of the disc as extending from the circumference the so-called of the same doubling of the liowers in the members is only family. Thus, according to A. de Jussieu,** the abortion in C. lanatus; for extended creticus, but more partial in Carthamus three of the central seeds in this species only two furnished or are the seeds either with or a surrounding being quite naked pappus, furnished the vrith a few hairs; and lastly in C. tinctorius, even central seeds destitute of pappus, and the abortion is complete. are under animals and when With domestication, an plants organ has the loss disappears, leaving only a rudiment, generally been

that

Carthamus,

sudden,
be ranked the loss has with have

as

with
as

hornless

and

tailless been and of

some

breeds;
But

and

such few

cases cases

inherited

monstrosities.
and has

in of

some

may the We been

been

gradual, rudimentary
that the

effected Avattles

partly by selection, as
certain birds of fowls. have the

combs

also

seen

wings

domesticated

slightly
in certain aided

reduced

by disuse, and silk-moths, with mere

the

great

reduction

wings
been

rudiments

left, has

probably

by

disuse.

species in extremely common.

several
not

With

state

of nature,
organs
;
are

rudimentary

organs

are

Such have

naturalists

observed

generally variable, as for, being useless, they are

regulated

by natural
The become

liable to reversion.

parts which
We do
not

have knoAv have

and they are less selection, more or rule certainly holds good with same rudimentary under domestication.
what

through

steps under

nature

tary rudimen-

passed in being reduced to their present condition; but we incessantly see in species of the same group the finest gradations between in and an a rudimentary organ must perfect state, that we are led to believe that the passage have been extremely gradual. It may be doubted whether a change of structure so abrupt as the sudden loss of an organ would be of ser\'^ice to a species in a state of nature ever ; for the conditions all organisms to which are closely adapted did suddenly usually change very slowly. Even if an organ individual disappear in some by an arrest of development, one intercrossing with the other individuals of the same species would tend its that its to cause partial reappearance; so final reduction could only be effected by some other means. The rudimost probable view is, that a part which is now
organs
*"
'

Annales

du

Museum,'

torn.

vi. p.

319.

Chap.

XXIV.

ARRESTED

DEVELOPMENT.
to
same

200
hal)its of

mentary,
used

was

less and

formerly, owing less, being at the

at

changed
time

life,

reduced

disuse, until
But
as

last it became
or

quite useless and

are

by superHuous.
into action action

in size

most
an

parts
their

organs

not
or

brought
decreased

during
not

disuse early period of life,

to

will
at
a

lead

reduction
age; ages
same

until

the

organism
will

arrives

somewhat
at to

advanced

and

from

the

ance principle of inheritbe transmitted

the
or

corresponding offspring at the

organ

the reduction advanced

stage of growth.
the As rudiments.

The

part
as a we

will
to be

thus
case

retain

its full size in

most

embryo,
soon as

know

the

with

part becomes
will
come

useless, another
into

growth,
an

play, as
to
severe

principle,that of economy of it would be an advantage to

competition
and
to
save

organism
of

exposed
any

the

velopme de-

useless

part;
a

individuals

having the
over

part less developed will have

slight advantage

others.

justly remarked, as soon as a part is much reduced, the saving from its further reduction will be be effected by natuutterly insignificant ral ; so that this cannot selection. This holds if the part be manifestly good formed of mere cellular tissue,entailing little expenditure of
as

But,

Mr.

Mivart

has

nutriment.

How

then reduced under

can

the

further

reduction That

of

an

ready alcurred oc-

somewhat

part be effected?
Nature
organs

this has

repeatedly
which
merest

is shown
in
a
'*''

by the many

tions gradaand the

exist between

perfect state
His
:

much
can

Mr. Romanes vestiges of them. light on this difficult problem.

has, I think, thrown view,

an as

far
are

as what some-

it

be

given in
when it is
a

few

words, is
in

as

follows round

all parts

variable

and

fluctuate

size

average
cause

point.
to

Now,
great

part has
direction

very

already begun from any improbable that the variations

of increase that
as

crease, deas

should

be

in the

of diminution; have
not

for its been

to

previous reduction
favourable for its
'

shows

circumstances whilst
wouUl,
three to

development;
'

there
owinp:
hut

is nothing
to intcrrrossdrcroase. comuuinirn-

89 I suffgestecl in Nature (vol. with viii. pp. 482, 505) that organunfavourable isms to subjected would all the conditions parts that tend towards and reduction,

tion
In

slowly inj,',
tions

stcailily

subsequ"'nt

April
Romanes

0.

under

such

circumstances
was

part which its standard

not

kept
natural

up

any to

TJ, 'Nature' (.Mai"'h Mr. and .July L\ is.lt. his luipruved gives

view,

size

by

selec-

300
check
the

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXIV.

variations

in

the

opposite direction.
greater

If

this

be

so,

long
an

with

continued crossing of many fluctuates in a which organ than towards With

a

individuals

furnished

degree towards

decrease

increase, will slowly but

steadily lead
absolute

to its diminution.

respect to the complete and

abortion
in

or

which will be discussed principle, the chapter on into action. pangenesis, probably comes With animals and plants reared by man there is no severe the principle of recurrent struggle for existence, and of
a

part,

distinct

economy
an

will not will not

case,

come

into

action,
So few

so

that

the

reduction

of

organ

thus in

be aided.
some

far, indeed, is this from

organs,

being the

that

instances

which

are

naturally rudimentary partially in the domesticated descendants. Thus redeveloped cows, other ruminants, properly have four active and two like most but in our domesticated rudimentary mammae; animals, the latter occasionally become considerably developed and yield milk. The atrophied mammae, which, in male domesticated have in some to full animals, including man, rare cases grown The size and secreted milk, perhaps offer an analogous case. of a fifth toe, hind feet of dogs naturally include rudiments in certain mentary, and large breeds these toes, though still rudibecome considerably developed and are furnished
become parent-species,
with

in the

claws.

In

the
in

common

Hen,
breeds

the

spurs

and

comb

are

rudimentary, but
of age stallion has

independently disease of the ovaria, well developed. The or of has only traces canine teeth, but the mare
certain

these

become,

the alveoli,which,
Mr.

as

am

informed

by the eminent

arian veterin-

irregular frequently contain minute become of bone. These nodules nodules, however, sometimes developed into imperfect teeth, protruding through the gums and coated with to a enamel; and occasionally they grow in the third of the length of the canines fourth even or a whether the redevelopstallion. With ment plants I do not know of rudimentary organs occurs more frequently under be culture than under nature. Perhaps the pear-tree may wild it bears thorns, which consist in point, for when a case
G. T. Brown, of branches
in
a

rudimentary
the
tree

condition

and

serve are

as

tion, protec-

but, when
into branches.

is

cultivated,they

reconverted

Chap.

XXV.

CORRELATED

VARIABILITY.

;.,,|^

CHAPTER
LAWS OF

XXV.
"

VARIATION,
of term

Continued

correlated

varlvbility.

Explanation
tions lated

correlated variation

Between the skin and dermal Between tlie appendages of and Correlated modifications sight hearing in tlie organs organs of plants Correlated monstrosities Correlation between the skull and and Skull of feathers crest Skull ears and horns Correlation of growth effects of natural complicated by the accumulated tion selecColour correlated with constitutional as peculiarities.
" " " "

the structure extremities

correlation" Connected with development MtMlificuwith the increased decreased or size of parts" Corn-of homologous Feathered feet in birds assuming parts of the Correlation between the liead ami wings thu
"
" "

"

"

"

"

"

All

parts of the organisation

are

to
may

certain

extent

nected con-

together; but the connection

be

so

slight that

it

hardly exists, as with

same

at
or

the buds on the animals compound or Even in the higher animals tree. various parts are not all closely related; for one be wholly suppressed part may

rendered

monstrous

without
in
some

any

other
when
one

part of the

body

being affected.
other
vary;

But

cases,

part varies, certain

always, or nearly always, simultaneously tion. they are then subject to the law of correlated variaThe whole body is admirably co-ordinated for the peculiar
parts
of life of each of

habits the Duke

organic being, and

'

may

be said,

as

Argyll insists in his Reign of Law,' to be correlated for this purpose. of animals Again, in large groups certain structures always co-exist: for instance, a peculiar form of stomach tures with teeth of peculiar form, and such strucmay
cases

in
no

one

sense

be said

to

be correlated. with
we

But
to

these be cussed dis-

have

necessary

connection

the
not

law know

in the initial
any way
or

present

chapter; for
of

do

that the
were

primary
related:

variations

the

several

parts

in

was

ences individiinl differor slight modifications and then in another have been preserved, first in one may part, until the final and perfectly co-adnptod stru(^tiire acquired; but to this subject I shall presently recur. in many
groups

Again,

of animals

the

males

alone

arc

fur-

302
nished and with

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXV.

weapons,

or

are

ornamented

with

gay

colours;

tion sort of correlamanifestly stand in some for when with the male the latter reproductive organs, shown destroyed these characters are disappear. But it was in the twelfth peculiarity may chapter that the very same these characters become attached
at
any

age to

to

either
same

sex,
sex

and
at
a

afterwards

be

exclusively transmitted
age.

the

corresponding
by both
sex

In
age
;

these but the

we

cases

we no

have
reason was

inheritance for

limited

and
cause

have

of

variation
organs,
or

supposing that the original with the necessarily connected

reproductive
In
cases see

of true the nature from

us, say
a

the age of the affected being. correlated sometimes variation, we are of the connection
; but

with

able to

in most

cases cases.

it

is hidden

and

certainly differs in different

of two correlated
or

We

can

seldom induces effects of

which

parts whether

first
the

ries, va-

and
are

change in the other;

common cause.

two

the
an

some

Correlated

variation

important subject for us; for when one part is modified either by man under selection, through continued or nature, other parts of the organisation will be unavoidably modified. From this correlation it apparently follows that with our domesticated animals fer difand plants,varieties rarely or never from another one by a single character alone. is that a modiof the simplest cases of correlation fication One which arises during an early stage of growth tends to the subsequent influence development of the same part, as of other well as and intimately connected parts. Isidore that this may states Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire constantly be in the animal with monstrosities observed kingdom ; and Moremarks, that, as with plants the axis cannot quin-Tandon it in some without become monstrous affecting the organs way subsequently produced from it, so axial anomalies are almost in the alw^ays accompanied by deviations of structure zled appended parts. We shall presently see that with short-muzof the dog certain histologicalchanges in the basal races
is
^ ^ ^
'

iii. p.

plies oonnting
though

Hist, 392. the

Anomalies,' ties Professor Huxley

same

torn. ap-

tem
on

for

the

in acprinciple remarkable,

normal,
of

arrangement

differences the nervous

in

the

sys-

in his paper Molhisca, of the Morphology Cephain TransIons Phil. Mollusca, act.,' ^853, p. 56. ^ Elements de Teratologie Veg.,' 1841, p, 13. the
' "

in

the

Chap.

XXV.

CORRELATED

VARIABILITY.

303

elements

of the
this

bones

them,

and

affects the

veloped molar
insects.
too

teeth.

development and shorten position of the subsequently duIt is probable that certain modifications
arrest

their

in the larva? of insects But

we

would

affect the structure

not to extend

of the

ture ma-

must

be careful
course

this view

far, for
pass

during

the normal
an

of

development,certain

species
whilst

other

of change, extraordinary course and closelyallied species arrive at maturity with

through

little change Another

or

of structure.

simple
decreased

case

of correlation

is that

with
or

the

creased in-

dimensions
organs
are

of the whole increased Thus

or

body,

particular part, certain

number,
have have
in
gone
seen or
on

of any diminished in

are

otherwise

modified.

selecting pouters
their vertebras
are

pigeon-fanciers for length of body, and we

that in

generally increased
bodies, and
their

not

only
and

size but been

number,

and

their ribs in breadth.

Tumblers
ribs

have

selected

for their small

are

primary
Fantails with tails,
are

wing-feathers
have been
numerous

generally lessened in number. selected for their large widely-expanded

tail-feathers,and
the caudal have have vertebra) been
lected se-

increased for

in

size and

number.
their

Carriers tongues
the

length of beak, and

not

becr)me

longer, but
In

in strict accordance and

on

with

length of beak.
ber num-

this latter breed of the scutellse

in others

having large feet,the

is greater
cases

the toes

than

in tlie breeds be

with

small

feet.

Many

similar

could

given.

In

Germany

it has

been

observed

that the

period of gestation is

our longer in large than in small breeds of cattle. With highly-improved breeds of all kinds, the periods of maturity with respect to the age of and of reproduction have advanced the animal; and, in correspondence with this, the teeth are developed earlier than formerly, so that, to the surprise now the ancient rules for judging of the age of of agriculturists, an

animal

by the

state

of its teeth

are

no

longer trustworthy.
Parts."
manner;

Correlated
are

Variation
been
on

of Homologous
in the
same

Pavt^ and
are

which
this
is

homologous tend
might
Prof J. B.

to vary

what
"
"

have

expected,for
the

such
Ox,

parts
Sheep,

identical
In

Simonrls,

Age

of

the

"c., quoted

Gard.

Chronicle,'

1854,

p. 588.

304

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXV.

in

form

and

structure
are

development, and
conditions. The

during exposed

an

early period of embryonic

or

symmetry,,

the egg in most kinds

in

womb of

to

similar

animals, of the

the right and left corresponding or homologous organs on in point ; but this symsides of the body, is the simplest case metry with sometimes rabbits having only one as fails, ear, or horn, or with many-horned one stags with sheep which sometimes heads.
With
carry
an

additional which
in

horn

on

one

side

of

their

flowers
vary

have
same

regular corollas,all the

manner,
as we see

the flowers, for symmetrical pattern, on instance, of the Chinese pink; but with irregular flowers, though the petals are of course homologous, this symmetry often

petals generally complicated and

the

in

the

fails,as with
or

the varieties of the Antirrhinum

or

dragon, snap-

that

variety of the
the

kidney-bean (Phaseolus)
and hind limbs
are

which

has

white the and

standard-petal.
Vertebrata front ogous, homolsee

In

in the

they tend to vary in the same as we manner, long and short legged, or in thick and thin legged races
horse and

of the

dog.

Isidore

Geoflroy* has

remarked

on

digits in man tendency of supernumerary the right and left sides, but on the on
Meckel the
arm

to appear, upper

not

only
tremities. ex-

and

lower

has

insisted

that, when

the muscles

of

from their proper or depart in number arrangement always imitate those of the leg; and so type, they almost conversely the varying muscles of the leg imitate the normal muscles of the
arm.

pigeon and fowl, the legs and the two outer toes are heavily feathered, so that in the like little wings. pigeon they appear trumpeter In the " " the boots feather-legged bantam or feathers,which grow from the outside of the leg,and generally from the two outer the excellent to toes, have, according authority of Mr. Hewitt,'been seen to exceed the wing-feathers in length, and in one case were actually nine and a half inches long! As Mr. these leg-feathers resemble to me, Blyth has remarked the primary wing-feathers, and are totally unlike the fine
*'Hist. i- P- ^"5'4.
"

In several distinct breeds

of the

des

Anomalies,'
Isid. 635.

torn.

'

Quoted
torn.

by
1. p.

Geoffroy,

W. 250.

tj^^ B.

Ponltrv

Tegetmeier,

Book,' 1866,

by
page

ibid.,

306
selected

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXV.

disuse, have feet, notwithstanding In the following in size through correlation.

point, the

creased incase

some

kind

of correlation

is

seen

to exist between

the

feet and

beak:

several

different have ducks the

seen

specimens have been sent to Mr. Bartlett at and fowls, and I ducks times, as hybrids between these were, as might be expected, ordinary one;
a

in

semi-monstrous between
in all the

condition, and
the beak
toes
was was narrow

in

all of

them
or

swimming-web much reduced, and

With the tongue
increases

quite deficient
and
in

the increased
in

length of the beak

ill-shaped. pigeons, not only

length, but likewise the orifice of the But the increased nostrils. length of the orifice of the nostrils perhaps stands in closer correlation with the development of the corrugated skin or wattle at the base of the beak, the eyes, the eyelids are wattle round there is much for when in length. doubled greatly increased or even tween in colour becorrelation There is apparently some even
the head and
or

the
on

extremities. the forehead white

Thus is

with

horses

large white star by white

marks In often and black
tan

blaze

feet." With
on

panied generally accomrabbits and cattle,dark ears

co-exist

the

tips of the

and

on

the

feet.

spots dogs of different breeds, tan-coloured feet almost tan-coloured and invariably go the eyes over be of connected latter cases colouring may together. These due either to reversion or to analogous variation, subjects to but this does not necessarily which I shall hereafter return, Mr. H. the question of their original correlation. determine
"
"

W.

Jackson

informs

me

that

he

has

observed

many
or

hundred less neck

spicuously conor

white-footed

more cats, and he finds that all are the front of with white marked on

the

chest. of the immense ears lopping forwards and downwards of fancy rabbits seems partly due to the disuse of the muscles, have and partly to the weight and length of the ears, which generations. ISTow, been increased by selection during many not size and changed direction of the ears with the increased become changed in outonly has the bony auditory meatus The
9
'

vol. who

Naturalist,' and Farrier The A gentleman i.. 1828, p. 456, this to attended point, has

tells me of white

that

faced

three-fourths about white horses have

legs.

Chap.

XXV.

CORRELATED

VARIABTTilTY.

OA'r oq

"

greatly in size, but the whole skull has been slightlymodified. This could be clearlyseen in half" in that rabbits with only one is, lops ear lopping forward for the opposite sides of their skulls were not strictly metrical. symThis seems to me curious instance of a correlation, hard bones and organs between soft and flexible, so well as as under so unimportant a physiological point of view, as the external The result no doubt is largely due ears. to mere
"
"

line, direction,and

mechanical
same

action, that is, to the weight of the

that the skull of
a

ears,

on

the

principle
by
skin

human

infant

is

easily

modified The

pressure.

and

the

appendages
over

of

horns, and teeth,are

one

homologous
colour
so

hair, feathers, hoofs, the whole body. Evory

and that
of the hair
to

knows
vary

that

the

of the that

skin

usually
the skin

together ;
the mouth should
not

Virgil advises the shepherd

of the
ram are

look whether lambs and

are

and be

tongue

black, lest
of the

purely white.
emitted
even

The

colour

hair, and
said^** to

the

odour

by the glands of the

in

skin,
men.

be

connected,

the

same

race

of

all over the Generally the hair varies in the same way and curliness. The same rule holds body in length, fineness, with the laced and frizzled see good with feathers, as we breeds both of fowls and pigeons. In the common cock the the neck and loins are feathers always of a ])articulnr on in the Polish breed, both sexes are shape, called hackles : now characterized correlation of hackles.

by
The

tuft of feathers

on

the head, and

thr()nn:h
the form

these feathers

in the male

always

assume

parts
or

not

short
case

The and has

tail-feathers, though arising from homologous, vary in length together; so that long winged pigeons generally have long or short tails. curious, for the wing of the Jacobin-pigeon is more wing
and
are

tail feathers arisen

on

remarkably
with

in

correlation

long; and this apparently reversed the elongated and

form the hood.
a

feathers The careful horses and

the back and

of the neck, which hair

are

homologous appendages; and observer, namely, Azara." states that in Paraguay

hoofs of various colours
on

are

often born
of
^^
'

with
negro.

their hair curlc^l This

du

twisted
'

like that
Sur

the head
torn.

pcculiarPuraguay,'

lOGodron, U. p. 217.

I'Espece,'

Quadnipedes
ii. p. 333.

torn.

308

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXV.

ity is strongly inherited.

hoofs The of these hair horses
"

But
are manes

what

is remarkable

is that the
a

absolutely like those of

and four
to

mule."

also of their

tails is invariably much twelve inches

are

shorter

than
so

usual, being only from

curliness and

in

length;
as

that

shortness

of the hair
"

here,

apparently correlated. remarks that With respect to the horns of sheep, Youatt " multiplicity of horns is not found in any breed of much value; it is generally accompanied by great length and Several of the fleece." tropical breeds of sheep coarseness most alhair instead of wool, have horns clothed with which are Sturm like those of a goat. expressly declares that in
with the negro,
"

different
horns
are

races

the

more

the

wool

is curled

the

more

the

in the third chapWe have seen ter, spirallytwisted. where other analogous facts have been given, that the for its fleece, had breed, so famous parent of the Mauchamp The inhabitants of Angora assert peculiarlyshaped horns. the fleece in have horns wear that only the white goats which much the long curly locks that are admired; those which so From horned not having a comparatively close coat." are
"

these tend

cases

we

may

infer that the hair correlated

or

wool

and who

the horns have tried

to vary

in
are

manner.^^
the whatever

Those

hydropathy
water

aware

that

frequent application of cold

stimulates
as

stimulates
to increase

the skin; and the

the skin sho^vn

in

tends the

growth of the hair,

of hair
near

is well

abnormal Professor

growth
Low'^
of the
a

old that and

inflamed with the

surfaces. different
on can

Now,
races

is convinced
skin

of British

cattle thick climate climate the

the thus
first
12 "

humidity
see

which

long hair depend We they inhabit.

on

how

humid

might
and
"lang

act

the horns

"

in the

place directly on
'

skin

hair, and

secondly by

"c.,
1*
'

On Sheep,' p. Ueber Racen, 1825, s. 24.

'

142.

Kreuzungen,'

in from Conolly, Indian 1859, Field,' Feb. ii. p. 266. vol. 15 I have third In the chapter horns hair and said that the each to related are so closely that other, apt to vary they are Dr. Wilckens (" Dartogether." vrin's Jahrbuoh der Theorie." 1. Dentschen 1866. Viehzucht,' into words translates Heft) my

Qiioted

The

solThiere und grobhaarige iind len sein, lange geneigter and Horner viele zn bekommen," he then osition; justly disputes this propI have but what really the with thorities ausaid, in accordance I quoted, may, just
be trusted. of Animals Domesticated the British Islands,' pp. 307, 368. Dr. Wilckens (' Landargues Wochenblattp Nr. 10, 1869) wirth. effect with to the same respect to in domestic animals Germany.

"

think,
i"

'

'

Chap.

XXV.

CORRELATED

VARIABILITY.

300
absence of horns,
as

correlation
moreover,

on

the
in

horn".
the
case some

The of

presence

or

both

sheep

and

cattle,acts,
on
"

will

presently be shown, by
respect of the teeth deficient
in
a

sort

of correlation Yarrcll
"

the skull.

With

to hair

and

teeth, Mr.
hairless

found

many

in three The in
on

hairless suffered

terrier. most, but

Egyptian dogs," and incisors, canines, and the premolars

case

one

all the

teeth, except
deficient.

the
With

large tubercular
man

molar

each have

side, were

been recorded"* of iidicrited striking cases baldness with inherited deficiency, either complete or partial, I may of the teeth. give an analogous case, communicated to me by Mr. W. Wedderburn, of a Hindoo family in Scinde,
in

several

which

ten

men,

in

the

course

of four

generations,

were

furnished,
and
men

in both

jaws taken
teeth have and
very

together,with
little hair
on

only four

small

weak
thus

incisor affected

with

eight posterior molars. body, and also suifer much during

a

The come behot

the

bald weather

early

in

life.

from

excessive has

They dryness of the skin.

of
us

It is remarkable

that

no

instance and

occurred

daughter
much
women.

being thus
more

fected; afmen

this fact reminds become

how than
never

liable

England to daughters in the above

are

in

bald
are

Though
has

the
mit trans-

family

they affected,
case

the tendency
a son

to

transmitting
in alternate

their sons; it to his sons.

and

no

occurred
appears

of

The after hair

affection thus

only
is
a

generations,or
between
rare cases

longer
and

intervals.

There
to

similar

connection
in those

teeth, according
the hair has

Mr.

Sedgwick,
in
a

in which
"

been

renewed

by

old age, for this has usually been remarked I have of the teeth." renewal
that boars the

accompanied
in
a

former

part of this volume

tusks their
in domestic

great reduction

in the size of the

diminished and

probably stands in close relation with of protecdue to a certain amount tion; bristles,

have

of the tusks in boars, which that the reappearance ably feral and are fully exposed to the weather, probbecome

add, of the bristles. I may depends on the reappearance with our connected present point,that an though not strictly their little hair on that "pigs with asserts agriculturist'"
"
'

Proceedings
113
'

Zoolog.
Brit, and

Soc.,'
For-

1833 p ^s'

elgn April,
^^
'

Medico-Chlnirg.
18(53. Gard.
p. 4.'.:',.

Review,'
p.

Sedgwick,

Chrou.,' 1849,

205.

310
bodies of the

LAWS

OP

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXV.

are

most

liable to lose tbeir tails,showing

weakness

It may be prevented by crossing tegumental structure. with a more hairy breed." In the previous cases deficient hair, and teeth deficient in In the following number size, are apparently connected. or hair, and teeth either deficient or cases abnormally redundant Mr. Crawf urd at saw redundant, are likewise connected. Court the Burmese thirty years old, with his whole a man, body, except the hands and feet, covered with straight silky five inches in and the shoulders on spine was hair, which covered. He did not length. At birth the ear^ alone were arrive at puberty, or shed his milk teeth, until twenty years old; and at this period he acquired five teeth in the upper canine, and four incisor jaw, namely, four incisors and one small. This man teeth in the lower jaw; all the teeth were
'"

had

daughter who
soon

was

born
over

with

hair within When

her

ears

and
^^

the hair

extended

her body. this with her

Captain Yule
up;
nose

visited the
a

Court, he found
appearance

girl grown
even

and

she presented
ered cov-

strange

her

densely

furnished with father,she was incisor teeth alone. The bribed a King had with difiiculty teen to marry man her, and of her two children, one, a boy fourmonths old, had hair growing out of his ears, with a beard and moustache. This strange fore, peculiarity has, therebeen inherited for three generations, with the molar teeth deficient in the grandfather and mother; whether these Like teeth told. A with
case parallel

with

soft hair.

would

likewise

fail in

the

infant

could

not

then

be

of

man

their faces
Dr.

covered Brandt

fifty-five old,and of his years with hair, has recently occurred

has
sent
me an

son,

in

Russia.
case,

Alex.

account

of this

specimens of the extremely fine hair from The the cheeks. is deficient in teeth, possessing only man four incisors in the lower and two in the upper jaw. His
son,

together with

about

three

years
as an see

old, has
Dr.
arrest

no

teeth

except four
in in

lower

cisors. in-

The doubt teeth.

-"

case, to

Brandt of

remarks

his the

letter,no

is due

We

here
to

how
Court

hair and development independent of the ordinary conof the

-^
*

Embassy
vol.

the

Ava,'

i. p. 320.

Court

N.irrative of Ava

of in

Mission p. 94.

to

1855,'

Chap.

XXV.

CORRELATED

VARIABILITY.

311
of

ditions Eussian
as

of existence peasant and

such of
a

arrests

must

be, for the lives

are as

native

of Burmah

ditferent

possible."
Here
to

is another
me

and

somewhat
on a

different

case

cated communi-

by Mr.
Julia

Wallace

dentist: fine

Pastrana,
but
was

authority of Dr. rurlaiid, Spanish dancer, was ably remarka

a

the

woman,

she had

thick

masculine
and her

beard

and

hairy forehead; she

was

photographed,

stuffed

skin

show; but what concerns us is, that she had in both the upper and lower jaw an irregular dcniblc set of -teeth, one row being placed within the other,of wliich Dr. Purland took a cast. From the redundancy of teeth her mouth and her face had a gorilla-likeappearance. projected, These and those of the hairless dogs forcibly call to cases mind the fact, that the two orders of mammals namely, the
at
a
"

exhibited

Edentata dermal

and

Cetacea

"

which

are

the most

abnormal

in their

abnormal either by covering, are likewise the most deficiency or redundancy of teeth. of sight and hearing are The generally admitted organs with one another and with various dermal to be homologous appendages; hence these parts are liable to be abnormally that in all affected in conjunction. Mr. White Cowper says of double cases microphthalmia brought under his notice he time defective has at the same with met develojiment of of blindness the dental system." Certain forms to be seem
"

associated and
a woman

with

the colour with

of the hair;

man

with

black

hair
stitution, conwere

light-coloured hair, both

and had
nine
"

of sound

married born iris blind

were

children; all of whom

with dark
hair

of these children, five

and

brown

afilicted with hair and blue

cases

amaurosis; iris,had
could various
that

the four amaurosis

others, with lightand

cataract
joined." consome

coloured

Several relation
ears;
no

be

given, showing
affections of the of 241 the

that
eyes

exists

between

and

thus

Liebreich

states

out

deaf-mutes
rare

lin, in Ber-

less than

fourteen

suffered White

from

disease called

pigmentary retinitis.
remarked
"I cellent
owe

Mr.
to

that
to the

inability
kindness

Cowper nnd Dr. Earle have distinguish different colours, or

whom of both his and son, rurls In exhibited been since h:ive and

of

M.
ex-

Chauman,

of

St.

Petersburg,
of

photographs

this

man

London.

312

LAWS

OP

VARIATION.

Chip.

XXV.

colour-blindness,"is often associated with inabilityto distinguish musical sounds."

^^

corresponding

Here
eyes,
are was

is

more

curious

case

white
I

rule

always deaf. invariable,but I have

The first two notices

almost

they have blue formerly thought that the

cats, if of
a

heard
were

few

authentic

ceptions. ex-

relate to

English and Persian cats : T. Bree possessed a female, and he states, " that of the offspring produced at one and the same birth, such as, like the mother like her, were entirely white (with blue eyes) were, our invariably deaf; while those that had the least speck of coltheir fur, as invariably possessed the usual faculty of on The Rev. W. Darwin Fox informs that he hearing." me
""*

published in 1829, and of the latter, the Rev. W.

has

seen

more

than

dozen

instances
cats ; but

of this correlation he adds

not
seen

in
one

English, Persian, and Danish

eye,
as

I have On the of the

"*

several other
common

times

observed, be
never was

that, if blue, the

a

"

cat cat

hears. with Dr.

hand, I have
colour
that

white In

eyes

deaf."
years

France

Sichel

has

observed
case

during

twenty

similar

he adds of four

the remarkable

months,
to hear.
case

to

grow

beginning, dark-coloured, and then

in cats has struck
many

of the iris

facts ; at the end the

cat

first began This

as

of correlation There and is

persons

maiwellous. blue
eyes

nothing unusual
we

in the

relation

tween be-

that the affected.

a

organs

fur; and of sight and hearing are

white

have often

the cause the present instance slight arrest of development in the nervous
In

already seen simultaneously probably lies in

system in
nection con-

with

days, whilst deaf; I have

23

the sense-organs. their eyes are made

a

during the first nine to be completely closed, appear great clanging noise with a poker and
Kittens
taken male
cats
are

from
'

this in the must be a tion. generalisaSedgwick, hasty first recorded in The case July, Review,' Moflico-Cbirurg. Bree 455 to related ISGl, p. 198; April, 1863, pp. England by Mr. is quoted Fox and Liebreich and Mr. informs 458. female, a by Main his that he has bred kittens from Professor me Devay, white a female with blue 1862, p. 116. riages Consanguins,' eyes, -* he of Nat. which Loudon's was deaf; Mag. completely also has observed females 66, 178. other i., 1829, pp. Hist.,' vol. P. also See L'Her^d. in the Dr. condition. same Lucas, " the Zoi. p. 428, on heritance inAnnales des Sc. Nat.' torn. Nat.,' in cats. of deafness olog., 3rd series, 1847, torn, viiii Tait states Mr. ture,' Lawson (' Nap. 239. only 1873. p. 323) that
'
' '

These Mr.

statements

are

thus

affected;

but

'

314
the kernel
to
a

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXV.

are

all coloured extent, from

purple." Pomologists
the

can

predict
of the

certain

size

and

appearance
nature

leaves

of their
Mons

seedlings, the

probable
modification

of the leaves the

are

fruit;
erally gen-

for, as Van

variations remarks,^'' the

in the in

accompanied by some consequently in the fruit.

narrow

flower, and

In
a

tortuous

fruit above of the

Serpent melon, which has a yard in length, the stem of the

flower, and
a

plant, the
of the the other

peduncle

female
in

the middle
manner.

lobe On have

leaf, are
stems, of the

all elongated all

remarkable of

hand, several

varieties
as

Cucurbita, which
informs which flowers
me

dwarfed
same

produce,
Mr.

Naudin
Maw

remarks, leaves of the

that all the have
:

peculiar shape.
scarlet

G.

varieties
or

Pelargoniums
contracted
its parent
"

contracted difference
"

imperfect leaves
"

have
"

the

between
instance

Brilliant of this.

and

Tom

Thumb

is

good

suspected that the curious case of a variety of the Orange which described by Risso,^" duces proshoots rounded leaves the with on winged petioles, young and afterwards elongated leaves on long but wingless with the remarkable petioles,is connected change in form which the fruit undergoes during its developand nature ment.
It may

be

In

the of the

form
on

and the have the colour following instance we petals apparently correlated, and both dependent of the
"

the nature

season.

An

ject, observer, skilled in the subthe

writes,*^
Dahlia of which
"

noticed, during
the colour had
so a a

any

indeed, to deeply notched of petals the appearance

some

great
saw;

1842, that every tendency to scarlet,was extent to give the an as

year

the
an

indentures inch
a

were,

in

instances, more
which

than their the

some,

quarter of

deep." Again,
different colour and ing durformly unirieties, va-

Dahlias from

have of

petalstipped
are

with

the certain
'*

rest years

flower
or even

very

constant, with

all the been

flowers, become
several

coloured; and
that when and
28

it has

observed

gated elonmuch happens the petals grow lose their proper be shai)e. This, however, may
several other
^o
"

this

Verlot
'

gives
Des

Instances,
p. 72.
29
'

Varietes,' Fniitiers,'

1S65, 1836,

xx.
31

p.
'

Annales 188. Gardener's

du

Mus"um,* Chron.,'
p.

torn.

1843, p.

torn.

Arbres ii. pp.

877.
32

204.

226.

i^i^

i845,

102.

Chap.

XXV.

CORRELATED

VARIABILITY.
in colour and

01-

reversion, both nal species.

to

due

form,

to

the

aborif^i-

In this discussion of
cases

on can

correlation, we

have

hitherto treated
nection; coneven

in which

we

but

I will
or can

now

partly understand the bond of in which give cases we cannot

conjecture,
the bond.

Isidore

only very obscurely see, the nature Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, in his work

of
(.n

" Monstrosities, insists,"' certaines anomalies que co-existent rarement d'autres entr'elles, frequemment, d'autres enfin la constamment, presque malgre difference, tres-grandc de leur et nature, quoiqu'ellespuissent paraitre completcmcnt indc-

pendantes
in certain

les

unes

des autres."
:

We
rare

see

something analogous

diseases

thus

in

(of which bronzed;

and
me

the functions

are

affection of the renal sules capunknown), the skin becomes

I

and

in

hereditary syphilis,as
and the second Professor
are

hear
assume

from
a

Sir

J.

Paget, both the milk

characteristic

teeth

peculiar
a cular vas-

form.

Rolleston, also, informs

furnished
with

that the incisor teeth rim

in In

sometimes

correlation other
cases

with

tubercles. nails that other

and
no

intrapulmonary deposition of of phthisis and of cyanosis the

I believe and

clubbed like acorns. finger-ends become explanation has been offered of these of correlated
can

of many

cases

disease.
than the intelligible the authority of Mr. Tegetmeier,

What fact

be

more

curious

and

less

previously given, on that young have pigeons of all breeds, which when mature dun-coloured out white, yellow, silver-blue, plumage, come or of the egg almost naked; whereas pigeons of other colours White when first born clothed with plenty of down? are in both observed England and Pea-fowls, as has been and as I have myself seen, are inferior in size to the France,^* for by be accounted coloured common kind; and this cannot tional is always accompanied by constituthe belief that albinism weakness; for white or albino moles are generallylarger
than To
"
'

the

common

kind.
to
more

turn

important

characters:
"

the
s.

niata
'

cattle
Ornti-

Hist, iii. p. 402.

Dareste,

'

Conditions,'

torn. des Anomalios,' Cnmillo also See M. les Recherches sur "c., 1863, pp. 10, 48.

Dixon. 1S4S. mental rouitry.' ' Hist. Isidore (ieolTroy 211. i. torn. lies,' p.
ppy, r.

Ill; p. Auoiua-

316
of the

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXV

remarkable Pampas are upturned muzzles, and curved nasal and premaxillary bones

from lower

their

short

foreheads,

jaws. In the skull the much shortened, the maxilare from the laries are excluded junction with nasals, any to the plane of and all the bones are slightlymodified, even of the dog, hereafter the occiput. From the analogous case to be given, it is probable that the shortening of the nasal
and

adjoining

bones in the

is the

proximate

cause

of

the

other

skull, including the upw^ard curvature follow olit the steps by cannot of the lower jaw, though we which these changes have been effected. Polish fowls have a large tuft of feathers on their heads; and their skulls are holes, so that a perforated by numerous
modifications

pin
That the

can

be driven
this

into

the brain

without
some

touching
way

any

bone. with
geese

tendency
of feathers

of bone
is clear

is in
from

connected

tuft

tufted
The
case

ducks would

and

likewise be

having

perforated skulls.
by
In
some

probably
or

considered

authors

as on

one

of

balancement sho^vn

compensation.
with Polish

the

chapter
tuft

Fowls,
was

I have

that

probably at first selection it became larger, and then small; by continued it became still larger, rested on a fibrous mass as ; and finally, and more the skull itself became more protuberant until it acquired its present extraordinary structure. relation Through corof with the protuberance the skull, the shape and of the premaxillary and nasal the relative connection even of bones, the shape and orifice of the nostrils, the breadth the frontal bone, the shape of the post-lateral of processes the frontal and squamosal bones, and the direction of the ternal inThe bony cavity of the ear, have all been modified. configuration of the skull and the whole shape of likewise been altered in a truly marvellous the brain have
fowls the of feathers
manner.

After
to

this

case

of the Polish refer to

do

more

than
in which

superfluous the details previously given on the

form
of the comb

fowl

it would

be

manner

the changed breeds

has

effected

the skull,in various crests, With

of the fowl,

causing by correlation

protuberances, and
our

with

depressions on its surface. cattle and sheep the horns stand in close connection the size of the skull,and with the shape of the

Chap.

XXV.

CORRELATED

VARIABILITY.
'"

^j^

frontal
ram

bones; thus Cline found that the skull of a hornid weighed five times as much that of a hornless ram as of
age.

the
bones

same are
"

When

cattle

become in

hornless,the
breadth
""

frontal tho
not
bo

"materially diminished
the cavities between the do

towards
"

poll; deep, nor

and

bony plates

are

they extend

beyond the f rentals."

It may be well here to pause and observe of correlated variability, of the increased use the accumulation natural We who
may

how

the cfTe('ts
of

of parts, and

of so-called spontaneous variations thron^di in many selection, are cases inextricably comniin^dcd. borrow
an

illustration the
one

from

Mr.

Herbert

Spencer,
ordinated co-

remarks

that, when
above

Irish hundred

elk acquired

its gigantic

horns, weighing

pounds,

numerous

"

ened

would have changes of structure been indispensable, thickened skull to carry the horns; strengtlinamely, a cervical vertebrie, with strengthened ligaments; enlarged dorsal vertebric
to

support

the

neck, with

powerful

fore-legsand feet; all these parts being supplied with proper and How then could these muscles, blood-vessels, nerves. modifications of structure admirably co-ordinated have been acquired? Accordiiig to the doctrine which I maintain, the horns of the male elk were slowly gained through sexual selection, that is, by the best-armed males concpiering the of descendants. worst-armed, and leaving a greater number
"

But

it is not

at

all necessary

that

the

several Each
same

parts

cf the

body should
individual which had

have

simultaneously varied.

characteristics, and in the slightly heavier horns, or

were

stag presents district those

stronger

necks,
secure

or

stronger
number greater

bodies, or
number

the

most

courageous,

would

the greater

does, and consequently have a greater of offspring. The inherit, in a offspring would ally occasionless degree, these same would qualities, or
with
one

of

intercross

another,
manner;

or

with and

other

individuals

varying
those

in

some were

favourable

of their

offspring,
tinue con-

which

the best endowed

so

in any

respect would

multiplying; and
in
35
"

times someonwards, always progressing,

one

direction, and
of Breeding 1829, p. 6. Domes-

sometimes
""

in another, towards
Yoiiatt
on

the

On

the

Cattle,

18.'{4, p.

tic

Animals,'

283.

318

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXV.

To make of the male elk. structure excellentlyco-ordinated in the this clearer, let us reflect on the probable steps, as shown and twentieth dray horses have race chapter, by which our could view arrived at their present state of excellence; if we the whole animals
a

series of intermediate and

an

forms

between

one

of these

early unimproved
of

vast

number

animals,
their

not

hold progenitor, we should beequally improved in each structure, but

in sometimes

generation throughout
a

entire

little
on

more

in

one

yet
our

the

whole
race one or

sometimes point, and gradually approaching in

another,
to

character
so

present
in

dray
for

horses, which
fleetness and

are

adinirably
other for

fitted

the

case

in
^^

the

draught. Although
the male inherited

natural

selection

would

thus

tend

to

give

to

elk its present effects of been

use,

structure, and
or

yet it is probable that the

action As of part the
on

of the mutual
more

part, have
the and bones

equally
in

important.

horns

gradually increased
to

which

of the neck, with weight the muscles they are attached, would increase in size
these

strength; and must we legs. Nor

the tend skull from and the the

parts would
the fact

react

on

the

body and
parts
of

overlook extremities
vary

that

certain

would,
in
a

judging

by
manner.

analogy,
The the
in

first to

correlated also act

one

increased

weight of the
same manner a

horns
as

would when

directly on
is removed
carry

skull, in the
the leg of

bone

from the But weight and hornless cattle,it is fact given with respect to horned probable that the horns and skull would immediately act on Lastly, the each other through the principle of correlation. of the augmented and tear growth and subsequent wear increased would and bones supply of muscles require an
"

dog, the other bone, which has to in thickness. of the body, increases

the whole

Mr. of

Hpi-bort

Spencer
a

ciples (' Prini. pp.

Biology,'
takes
reason one

lSf)4. vol.
different remarks:
to think the

452,
and have
as

408)
in
seen

place
essential
as

view; " "We

of capable adaptations; capalile only

producing
and

of

specific fully the maintaining

remains

that,
mulin any number

fast

as

faculties
as

tiplv,
of

and

fast

organs

that

given function equilibration

indirect natural lection sethrough and less less becomes

co-operate increases,

to constitution of that This ural natview conditions." do In little selection can prises surthe higher animals modifying man's lection seseeing that me, effected has undoubtedly domesticated much with our birds. and quadrupeds

general

fitness

Chap.

XXV.

CORRELATED

VARIABILITY.

319

blood, and consequently increased supply of food; and this of mastication, again would require increased powers tion, digesand excretion. respiration,
Colour It is between of the Thus
an as

Correlated old belief

with that

Constitutional
with
man

Peculiarities.
is
a

there

connection
some

complexions
best

and

constitution; and
believe
in

I find that

authorities

this to
'"

the
a

Dr.

between
eyes, army

by his tables shows and to consumption liability

Beddoe skin.
It

that

present day." relation exists

of the

the colour
*"

hair,

and

has

been

affirmed

that, in the French

which from

invaded the

intense

cold better
But
no

having a dark complexion southern the parts of Europe, withstood than those with lighter complexions from
doubt such
on

Russia, soldiers

the north. In
cases

statements

are

liable to

error.

the

second

chapter
with

Selection and

I have

given several
in

proving that
are

animals with

plants differences

colour shown from

correlated

by greater
the

attacks

differences, as from certain diseases, less immunity or of parasitic plants and animals, from
and from the action
one

constitutional

scorching by the
When all the

sun,

of certain
possess

poisons.
an

individuals
we

of this nature,
sort

of any do not

variety
when

munity im-

know

that it stands

in any

of correlation coloured

with

their colour; but of the

same

larly several simi-

varieties other

species are
are

thus

acterised, char-

whilst
we

coloured

varieties of
a

thus

favoured,

must

believe in the existence in the United States

correlation

of this kind.

purple-fruited plums of many affected by a certain disease than green far more kinds are other the hand, yellowyellow-fruited varieties. On or disease another fleshed peaches of various kinds suffer from
Thus,
much
more

than
sugar-canes

the

white-fleshed
are

varieties.

In

the i^Iauria

tius red disease

are

much
canes.

less affected White and onions in

by

particular
verbenas
green-

than
most grapes Prosper

the

white
to

and

the

liable

mildew;
from

Spain

the
more

fruited
88

suffered
Lucas
in

the
""
'

vine-disease
British
433.
'

than
Ji.urnal.'

Dr.

apparent-

Medical

ly disbelieves L'H6r6d. nection; 88-94. pp.

'

such conany Nat.,' torn. 11.

18^52, p.
"

Boudin
torn.

M6dlGjV)j:raph. 40b.

cale,'

1. p.

320

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXV.

other

coloured
are

varieties.
more

Dark-coloured

pelargonmms
than
to
more

and of

verbenas other

scorched wheats

by
are

the

sun

varieties hardier

colours.

Red

believed
were

be

than

white; and
one

red-flowered
in

hyacinths
Holland

injured during
coloured from
in

particular winter
With white white chickens

than

other
most

ties. variethe distemper,

animals, w^hite terriers suffer

from
a

parasitic worm

their

cheae, tra-

pigs from scorching by the sun, and white cattle which of the silk-moth from but the caterpillars yield flies; in from the less France suffered white cocoons deadly parasitic fungus than those producing yellow silk.
The
cases

of immunity

from with

the

action

of certain
more

table vege-

poisons,in connection
and
are

colour, are

interesting,

already given remarkable Wyinstance, on the authority a ing of all the hogs, excepting those of a black colour,sufferman, severely in Virginia from eating the root of the Lachwheat tinctoria. nanthes According to Spinola and others,"buckjurious (Polygonum fagopyrum), when in flower,is highly into white white-spotted pigs, if they are exposed or to black pigs. but is quite innocuous to the heat of the sun, crispum in Sicily According to two accounts, the Hypericum is poisonous to white sheep alone; their heads swell, their wool falls off,and they often die; but this plant, according in swamps; it grows nor to Lecce, is poisonous only when how know is this improbable, as we readily the poisonous under by the conditions principle in plants is influenced
at

present wholly inexplicable. I have

of

Professor

which

they

grow.

Prussia, published in Eastern and white-spotted horses being greatly injured by of white and honeydewed vetches ; every spot of skin eating mildewed and inflamed hairs becoming gangrenous. bearing white
Three
accounts

have

been

The about

Rev.

J. Rodwell

informs
into

me a

that

his father

turned
in

out

fifteen cart-horses with

and

field of tares which

says

which
no

parts
were

swarmed
"

black

aphides, and
39) p. spotted
even

doubt

the following the to stated from taken a are very contrary, HenProfessor curious by paper fiir Wochenschrift in singer, 277. 1846. s. May, Heilkunde,' 1868, Settegast (' Die Thierzucht,' This fact when cases,
not
'

sheep
from
black
are

white that or like suffer

white-

piffs,

or

die

eating
or

whilst

buckwheat; dark-woolled inin the least

dividuals affected.

not

322

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXVI.

CHAPTER
LAWS
OF

XXVI. continued
The
"

VARIATION,

SUMMARY.

The

fusion

of homologous
"

parts

"

variability of multiple and

"

gous homoloRelative
ovary,

parts Compensation of growth position of flowers with respect to the variation or Analogous as inducing
"

Mechanical

pressure

"

axis, and

of seeds
"

in the

parallel varieties

Summary

of

the

three

last chapters.

Parts. Geoffroy Saint-Hiof Homologous de laire formerly propounded what he called la loi de Vaffinite soi pour soi, which has been discussed and illustrated by his The Fusion
"

son,

Isidore, with
and

respect

to

monsters

in

the

animal
to

dom,^ kingparts
there mately inti-

by

Moquin-Tandon,
seems

with

respect
that unite. such

monstrous

plants. This law actually attract one

are

to

imply
and then

homologous
No doubt

another
cases,

many

wonderful fused

in which

parts become

or

in monsters together. This is perhaps best seen with two to summit, united, summit heads, which are face to face, or Janus-like, back to back, or obliquely side side. In
a a one

to

instance

of two

heads

united

almost

face

to

face, but
one

side

developed, and on obliquely,four ears were by the manifestly formed perfect face, which was
little half -faces. Whenever
two

fusion
are

of two

bodies

or

two

heads

the line of on united, each bone, muscle, vessel, and nerve if it had sought out its fellow, and had as junction appears who become fully carecompletely fused wath it. Lereboullet,' in the development of double monsters studied fishes, heads in fifteen instances the steps by which two observed In all such cases it is into one. united gradually became of capable judges that now thought by the greater number each other, but that in the homologous parts do not attract "As union takes place before the the words of Mr. Lowne :
^ 1
'

Hist,

des

Anomalies.'
torn.

1832,
iii. pp. cal

"

Catalogue

i. pp. tom. p. 462.

2
'

22, 537-556; Rendus,'

Comptes

1855,

in Series Coll. Royal xvi. page

of the Teratologitlie Museum of the of 1872, Surgeons,'

855, 1029.

Chap.

XXVI.

VARIABILITY

OF

HOMOLOGOUS

PARTS.

323
in

differentiation of distinct

organs

occurs,

these that
*

are

formed

continuity with each other." differentiated probably in no

ones.

He
case

adds become

organs

already
to

united

gous homolo-

M.

Dareste of
sot

does

not

speak

against
se

the law

pour

soi,but concludes

quite decisively by saying, On

"

des monstres, si parfaitement compte de la formation les embryons qui se soudent Ton admet appartionucnt a que oeuf; qu'ils s'unissent en meme un meme tem])S qu'ils se forment, et que la soudure ne se produit que pendant la premiere la vie de celle les embryonnaire, ou periode ne organcs rend
sont
encore

constitues
means

que

par

des blastemes fusion

on an

homogenes."

By

whatever

the
cases are

abnormal throw

parts is effected,such
of organs which

light

double other

during
and

homologous the frequent presence embryonic period

members of the

of

(and throughout class) but which same into single medial a

life in

lower

afterwards
organ.
a

unite In

by a normal process the vegetable kingdom

cases,

Moquin-Tandon^ gives

long list of

showing

how

quently fre-

homologous parts, such as leaves, petals,stamens, of homologous and flowers, and parts, pistils, aggregates such as buds, as well as fruit,become blended, both normally into one another. and abnormally, with perfect symmetry
Parts. Variahility of Multiple and Homologous is repeated Isidore Geoffrey insists that, when part or organ any ble liaanimal, it is particularly times in the same many The
"

to

vary

both

in

number

and

structure.

With

respect
as

to

number,

the

proposition may,

I think, be considered

fully

established; but the evidence is chiefly derived from organic beings living under their natural conditions, with which we
are

not
or

here

concerned.

Whenever

such

parts

as

the

ver-

tebrse

the feathers in or teeth, the rays in the fins of fishes, seeds, are or pistils, the tails of birds, or petals, stamens,
numerous, to the

very

the
structure
so

number

spect generally variable. With rebility of multiple parts, the evidence of varia-

is

is not

decisive

but
on

the

fact,

as

far

as

it

may

be

trusted, probably depends

*
'

multiple parts being of less

" Anomalies,' des Hist, iii. PP4, 5, 6.
'

Archives
p.

Jan., 1874,
6
'

de 78.

Zoolog.

Exper.,'
1. iii.

torn.

T6ratologie

Veg.,* 1841,

324

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXVI.

physiological importance
their
structure

has

been

single parts; consequently less rigorously guarded by natural

than

selection.

This law, as Balancement. or of Growth and applied to natural species,was propounded by Goethe time. It implies at nearly the same Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in building up is used much that, when organised matter

Compensation

"

some

one

part, other As

parts far

are

starved

and

become
in

reduced. this

Several others

authors, especially botanists, believe

I it

law;

reject it. as can judge, good; but its importance has probably been exaggerated. It is scarcely possible to the supposed distinguish between effects of such tinued compensation, and the effects of long-conselection which lead to the augmentation of one may of another. how, Anypart, and simultaneously to the diminution creased be greatly inthere can be no doubt that an organ may of an without ing adjoincorresponding diminution any
part.
To
recur

occasionallyholds

to

our

former

illustration

of the

Irish of

elk, it

may

be asked

what

part has suffered

in consequence

the immense

development of the horns? ence that the struggle for existIt has already been observed domesticated does not bear hard on our productions, and of growth will seldom consequently the principle of economy into play, so that we ought not to expect to find with come We ever, of compensation. have, howthem frequent evidence describes such strous mona Moquin-Tandon cases. some veloped, the stipules were bean,^ in which enormously deand the leaflets apparently in consequence pletely cominteresting, as it represents the its stipules of of Lathyrns aphaca, with condition natural act to mere threads, which great size, and its leaves reduced aborted; this
case

is

as

tendrils.

De

Candolle which

**

has have

remarked small

that
roots

the

varieties

yield numerous seed containing much oil, whilst those with large roots are not productive in oil; and so it is with Brassica asperifolia. which bear large fruit yield The varieties of Cucurhita pepo
of

Raphanus

sativus

'

'

Teratologie
my book

Veg.,'
'

p.

See
ments

also

on

The

156. Move-

De

Museum,'
178.

Candolle, "c.,

'

Memoires

du page

torn.

viii.

Plants,'

and 2nd

Habits

of Climbing edit,, 1875, p. 202.

Chap.

XXVI.

MECHANICAL

PRESSURE.

32oK

Naudin; whilst those producing small fruit yield a vast number. Lastly,I have endeavoured in the eighteenth chapter that with to show cultivated many unnatural treatment checks the full and proper plants action of the reproductive organs, and they are thus rendered more less sterile; consequently, in the way of compensation, the or fruit becomes greatly enlarged, and, in double flowers,the petals are greatly increased in number.
a

small

crop,

according

to

With which

animals, it has been

found
are

yield much
well. With
the

milk, and
fowls and wattles

difficult to produce afterwards capable of have

cows

tening fat-

large top-knots and beards comb reduced in are generally much size; though there are exceptions to this rule. Perhaps the of the oil-gland in fantail pigeons may entire absence be connected with the great development of their tails.
Mechanical
some

which

Pressure there has

is

as reason

Cause

of Modifications. In
"

few

cases

to believe

that

mere

cal mechaniVrolik head

'*'

pressure

affected
that

certain

structures.

and

Weber

"*

maintain

the

shape of the human

is influenced

by the shape of the mother's pelvis. The kidneys in in form, and St. Ange believes different birds differ much of the pelvis,which that this is determined by the form
of doubt, stands in close relation with their power In snakes, the viscera are locomotion. curiously displaced, in comparison with their position in other vertebrates; and authors to the elongation of this has been attributed by some

again, no

their

bodies; but
to

here,
on

as a

in

so

many

previous
Godron

cases,

it is from
"

impossible
that that the

disentangle
natural

direct

result

of this kind
has

consequent
abortion

selection.

argued

the inner side of the flowers of the spur on in Corydalis, is caused by the buds at a very early period of

growth whilst underground being closelypressed against one botanists believe tliat Some and against the stem. another rolla, the singular difference in the shape both of the seed and coin

the interior

and

exterior

florets in certain
to

Composto
pn"re
iw.^ Dec,

itous
9

and

Umbelliferous
'

plants, is due
urelles,' 1st
827.
"
'

the

pressure
xix.
.

Prichard, Phys. 1851, volume Mankind,'

324
1"
'

of Hist, i. page Nat-

series, torn.
^ Rendus,
"

Comptos
p. 1039.

Annales

des

Sciences

18G4,

326
which the inner

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXVI.

florets

are

subjected; but this conclusion

not

is

doubtful. The facts and

a more

just given do
do
case: some

relate to domesticated
us.

tions, produchere
in
are

therefore

not

concern strictly

But

is

appropriate
races

H.

Miiller"
of the

has

shown teeth

short-

faced
in
a

of the

dog

molar

placed

other

in slightlydifferent position to that which they occupy dogs, especially in those having elongated muzzles;
as

and

of the

he remarks, any inherited change in the teeth deserves notice, considering their This difference facial bones
in

arrangement

classificatory
to

importance.
space;

position is due
and the from
a

the

ening shortof normal ab-

of certain and
state

consequent

want

the

shortening

results

peculiar and

of the

embryonal cartilages of the bones.

Relative

Position

of Seeds
In

with respect to the Axis, and of Flowers in the Ovary, as inducing Variation.

the their

thirteenth
to

chapter various
was

peloric flowers
be due

were

described,
arrested the
to

and
Tandon

production
or

shown
to
a

to

either stand
more

to

de-

A^elopment,
has main of the

reversion that of
on a

primordial condition.
which
are on

Moquinsummit become other Labiate

remarked
stem
or

the sides

flowers branch
^^

lateral
;

liable

peloricthan

those of

the

and

he

adduces,

amongst

instances, that

Tcucrinm

plant grown by me, were always produced on not are usually borne. I have eral this occurs and when during sevis frequently peloric, truss is This central flower. the to be it years invariably observed of observer that one of such gives the names frequent occurrence of which the time, in every one ten varieties flowering at the same in flower than one flower was central peloric. Occasionally more must be ones the additional and then of course the truss is peloric, whole the how as flowers These showing lateral. are interesting In the common Pelargonium tlie upper is correlated. structure the flowerwith coheres sepal is produced into a nectary which from the in little diflfer a two shape petals peduncle; the upper
"

viz. the

In another campanulatum. flowers luteum, the peloric flowers of the stem, where the summit In Pelargonium, a single flower in the Galcohdolon

three
stamens

lower
are

ones,

and

are

marked
in all

with the
are

dark

shades

graduated
colour;
the
so

length and

upturned.

of colour; the In the peloric both number of the

192.

flowers, the

nectary aborts;
stamens

shape
and
12
"

and

alike petals become in reduced generally flower

" "
'

in

become
"

straight,

that

the

whole

resembles

that
p.

Ueber

Wiirzbiirger

Bcbrift,' 1860,

fotale Rachites," ZeitMedicin. b. i. s. 265,

Teratologie
Journal of

Veg.,'

'

Horticulture^

July 2nd" 1861, p. 253.

Chap.

XXVI.

RELATIVE

POSITION

OF

PAllTS.

30; oliungesis
its dark
but is

allied well

genus shown
for

Eiodium. when
in this
one case

The of the
the

correlation
two

between
not

tliese

upper
does

petals alone

loses

mark,

nectary

entirely abort,

usually

much
has

reduced

in

length.^"*
marvellous a fl(jwer of tlie flask-shaped inches in length, wliiih was almost pletely com^^

Morren

described
four

Calceolaria, nearly
it peloric;

grew

on

the

summit

of the

plant, with

nijrmal

flower similar

on

also has described '" three side; Professor Westwood which all peloricflowers, occupied a central positionon the In
has

each

flower-branches. flower
In
racemes ceous a

the
seen

Orchideous
to

genus, that which about had after

the Phalajnopsis,
a

minal ter-

been
tree

become

peloric.
fourth

Laburnum-

I observed

part of the

produced
structure.
on

terminal These
w^ere

flowers had

lost their almost The

most

paj)ilionaother

produced

all the

flowers

the

same

racemes

withered.

perfectly

with black striae petals, each marked The keel seemed to like resist the on standard-petal. the other petals. Dutrochet than has described an change more and I in believe these similar case the France, are exactly only

pelorisedexamples
those the

had

six

'*

two

instances

of

pelorism
remarks
a

in

the that

laburnum the
racemes

which
on

have

been

corded. re-

Dutrochet

properly produce
Galeobdolon)
which
no

terminal

their

positionas
are

this tree do not of the flower, so that (as in the case well as structure both anomalies, are
manner

doubt

in

some

related. central

Dr.

jMasters
a were

has

briefly described
clover, in which
or

another the

leguminous uppermost and

plant,'* namely,
flowers

species of
regular

In some of these plants structure. papilionaceous also the flow^er-heads proliferous. were ing havflowers, one Lastly, Linaria produces tw^o kinds of peloric all spurred. The simple petals,and the other having them the same not occur on Naudin plant, remarks,-'' rarely two forms, as the stands almost on invariably the spurred form but in this case of the spike. summit peloric The tendency in the terminal or central flower to become results from more frequently than the other flow^ers,probably

had

lost their

"

the

bud

which

stands

out sap; it grows I have down."-^

a

central
to
I'lt

partly position, produce a terminal

of a shoot receiving the most siluate"l lower those than shoot into a stronger between pelorism and the connection discussed known mally norfew plants are some because
on

the

end

flower

difl'erent in
it.

structure Chroiiiole/
the

from

to trial worth be would pollen the same with fertilise of flowers lateral and the central other of or the pelartroninm,

Gardener's
012 For

p..
sec

PhaU-cnopsis.
~U des ^ r-{retnnx.

istjC.
,

ibid.. 1Sb". is-Meuioiies

torn.
11

p.
. . .

hi"?hlv
then and

in|them

cultivated of course
the

plants,
from

protectinsects:

1887.

1^p.

to sow observe

It ^st
i"

separately, seed or the one whether '""' '''' '' '""''""'

in
'

July

"f Jo"'"":V /' 23 1S(.1.

=^0
.

-''"",.^,. .nUnro

"""rt'^'ult"re.
, du
,.

"

Nouvelles

Anhlxes

-^ij"

Mu-

'MohV; The '"^"kugTvJn

table

Vege-

Quoted

Journal

of

Hor-

Cell,' Eng.

tr., 18o2, p. ?6.

ticluture,' B'eb.

24, 1863, p. 152.

55

328
lateral
we

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXVI.

the which with

when

ones;
see a

but

chieflyon
to A

account

of the
or

following case,
connected
states to
**

in

the
one

same

tendency position.
a

variability
bloom from it

to

reversion

great judge of Auriculas

is the the

that
of

throws but

character;

plant, whatever likely to come

up that if it grows the colour of the other class

notorious

side

pretty
centre to to
some

sure or

keep its
the
as

heart
"

edging ought
as

be,
which

it is it

just

belongs."

in any This is so

in

one

properly

fact, that

florists

of flowers. Whether pinch off the central trusses trusses of the central the varieties departure improved due to reversion, type proper be the commonest insists that, whatever may this is in each generally exaggerated variety,
is I

regularly in the highly

from their Dombrain truss.
a

do

not

know. kind of in the

Mr. of

imperfection
central blooms
to
me

Thus green
become

one

variety
excessive

"

sometimes of the
In

has

the

fault and

producing
sent

little these

floret in the

centre

flower,"
some

in central

in size. all the

all

central flower

blooms,
w^ere

Mr.

Dombrain,

organs have

of the of

structure,
further In
to out
or

of minute

size, and
would

change
case we

colour, so a green into converted been

by rudimentary in that by a little

small
"

leaves.

this

which
mean

I may the

a clearly see tendency to prolificationa term for those to botany, attended who have never explain, of of branch or flowers, a flower, or head production

of another

flower. flower
in
on

Now
a

Dr.

Masters is of the
to all

-^

states

that the

the

central
to

uppermost

plant
varieties

generally the

most

liable

Thus,
proper
to due

the
a

Auricula,

lificatio proloss of their

character
to

and

with prolification either

tendency pelorism, are

also a tendency prolification, connected together, and are

or

arrested

development,

to

reversion

to

former

condition. in of
or

The following is a more several kinds Germany

of maize
as

interesting case; Metzger** cultivated brought from the hotter parts

in in
two

America,
three

and

he
and

found,
with

generations the
colour;

previously described, that grains became greatly changed

to two
races

form,

expressly states respect first whilst in the lower the that generation, grains on each head their proper retained character, the uppermost grains already began character which in the third to assume that generation all the As know the aboriginal parent of the do not we grains acquired. in any these changes are cannot tell whether nected maize, we w^ay consize, and
with
In

he

reversion.
two

is reversion into play and comes following cases, determined by the position of the seed in the capsule. The Blue Imperial pea is the offspring of the Blue Prussian, and has larger its parent. Mr. and Now broader seed Masters, of pods than

the

Canterbury,
--

careful
H.

observer
Dombrain,
and June

and

raiser

of

new

varieties
Linn.

of the

in

'

1861, 25th,
83.

H. The Rev. of Journal June 4th, p.

p.

-"

'

Transact.

Soc.,' vol. 1845,

s.

Horticulture,'
174:

xxiii.,
^4
"

ISGl, p. .StiO. dj^ Getreldearten,'

234;

1862,

April

29th,

p.

208, 209.

330
distinct
ated

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXVI.

deeply-cut or lacinidistinct species of have their so-called into Erassica roots, enlarged globular stems, or is the offspring of the peach; and the varieThe nectarine ties masses. of peaches and offer a remarkable nectarines parallelism in in being clingstones the fruit being white, red, or yellow fleshed in the flowers in the freestones leaves or being large or small furnished with serrated reniform or or crenated, globose being that glands, or quite destitute of glands. It should be remarked has its character not derived each from a variety of the nectarine of the The several varieties of also peach. corresponding variety another a closely allied genus, namely the apricot, differ from one There is no to believe in nearly the same manner. reason parallel of these varieties have that any ters merely reacquired long-lost characthis and most of them not in the case. certainly is ; have Three of races species of Cucurbita yielded a multitude in character Naudin which so as closely that, insists, correspond be arranged in almost strictly parallel series. Several they may from varieties of the melon are resembling, in important interesting
as

have possible, Varieties

yielded varieties
from

with

leaves.

descended

three

"

"

"

ternally variety has fruit so like, both externally and inof a perfectly distinct species,namely, the has long cucumber, as hardly to be distinguished from it; another like a serpent; in another the cylindricalfruit twisting about the fruit, when to portions of the pulp; in another seeds adhere markable ripe,suddenly cracks and falls into pieces; and all these highly recharacteristic of to are species belonging peculiarities for of account the so We allied genera. can hardly appearance to a single ancient unusual form; characters, by reversion many of the family have herited inbelieve that all the members luust but we Our constitution from similar an early progenitor. a nearly cases. other plants offer similar cereal and many dependen of analogous variation, inhave fewer With animals cases we kind of the of direct We reversion. see something of the dog, such races the short-muzzled in the resemblance between of the feather-footed and in fowl, pigeon, the races as bull-dog; pug different and races presenting canary-bird; in horses of the most tanall black-and-tan in of the same having dogs colour; range reversion in this latter and but case coloured feet, eye-spots may remarked that several has played a part. Low possibly have the fruit
^"

characters, other thus, one genera;

species,either

of

the

same

genus

or

of

allied

breeds

white be

"of cattle are passing round

"sheeted,"
their

"

that like

bodies

is, have a sheet;

broad

band

of is

this

character
cross;

strongh^ inherited, and sometimes to the first step in reversion

the third

an

originates from a early type, for,

as

was

it may shown

in

dark feet and dark cattle with ears, chapter, white semi-feral exist in feral or tip of tail, formerly existed, and now the world. in several of condition quarters main Under second division, namely, of analogous variations our
28
'

Domesticated

Animals,' 1845,

p. 351.

Chap.

XXVI.

^.NALOGOUS

VARIATION.

33 1

the

reversion, the best cases HfTordcfl ],y pi^ircoriH. are In all distinct breeds, sub-varieties coloured occasionally appear exactly like the parent rock-pigeon,with black wing-bars, white tail,"c. ; and no one doubt tliat these cliararicrH can loins, banded to reversion. minor So with due are details; turhits properly have white bird is born with tails, but occasionally^ a oured (lark-cola banded and tail; pouters properly have thoir primary wingnot bird feathers white, but sword-ilighted rarely a appears, the few with first primaries dark-coloured that and in is, one ;
due
to

most

"

"

these
new

cases

w^e

have the

characters

proper

to

the

rock-pigeon,but
in
some

to

the

breed, evidently appearing

from

reversion,

wing-bars, instead of being simply black, of in the rock-pigeon, are beautifully edged with dilFcrent zones as colour, and they then present a striking analogy with the wingnatural bars in certain family, such as I'hujis species of the same accounted for by all tlie be probably chalcoptera; and this may the same remote from i)rospeciesof the family being descended in the to same and manner. Thus, having a tendency vary genitor the fact of some Laugher-pigeons can also, we perhaps understand several for and like races almost having peculiarities turtle-doves, cooing natural C. since certain in their flight, species (viz., torquatrix and palumbi(s), display singular vagaries in this respect. In resembles of imitating a distinct species, instead other cases a race, and tremble slightly elevate other thus, certain runts some race;
domestic varieties their their It much

tails, like
is in
a common

fan-tails; and
circumstance

turbits
to

inflate

the

upper coloured but

part
marks

of

oesophagus, like pouter-pigeons.

find certain
a

characterising persistently

all the

species of

genus,

ditlcring

the varieties of with the same thing occurs tint; and of the general plumage being blue, with the pigeon: thus, instead red bars, varieties with snow-white the wing-bars black, there are white varieties with black bars; in other varieties the wingand

bars,

The elegantly zoned wnth different tints. plumage being white, by the whole Spot pigeon is characterised
as we

have

seen,

are

excepting a spot
be

on

the

forehead
In

and

the

tail; but
in

those

parts may

red, yellow, or black. the the tail is blue, with

the the

rock-pigeon and

edges of the monk-pigeon in the sub-variety but is tail the for white, except the of coloration, style
outer

of

varieties many white; feathers outer reversed have a we

outer

edges

of

the

outer

feathers, which
some

are

black.^' for instance with

With coloured

species of birds,
as

gulls, certain
T liave

parts appear
same

if almost

exactly the

pigeons,and

in

appearance the whole in the

Analogous sub-varieties Many lengthened feathers on certainly not due to reversion

"

facts

plumage be given. could vegetable kingdom somewhat and reversed have of the pigeon tins and heads, the back part of thoir
to

observed out, and dark tail-bar in certain in the terminal varieties of the duck. certain of

washed

is

the

which parent-species,
Baud

shows
31.

Bechstein,

Naturgeschichte

Deutschlands,'

Iv., IT'X.,

s.

332
trace

LAWS

OF

VARIATOm.

Chap.

XXVI.

no

of of

such the

structure:

but

when

we

remember

that

sub-

varieties have
we can on

all fowl, turkey, canary-bird, duck, and goose, feathers on their heads; and when either topknots or reversed that

remember be

scarcely
some

single large
members have

natural
not
a

namedj in which their heads, we may

form has
come

of birds group tuft of feathers

some

suspect that
into the action. fowl be
have

reversion either from

to

extremely
or

remote

pencilled these parent-species,the feathers; it is possible that Ixinkiva one Gallvs early pro; though of course genitor have been of this species may spangled, and another cilled. peneither spangled or But, as many gallinaceous birds are that the several domestic probable view pencilled, it is a more all kind this of from have breeds of the fowl plumage acquired in to like of the family inheriting a tendency a the members vary
Several breeds of
and cannot

spangled

derived

the

manner.

The of

same

principlemay

account

for the

ewes

in certain other
cats

breeds

of some sheep being hornless, like the females account for certain domestic it may hollow-horned ruminants;

having
skulls
same

slightly-tufted ears,
of domestic rabbits

like often the

those

of

the

lynx; and
one

for in

the the

differing from
skulls of the

another

characters
I will
we we

by which
to

various

species of the

genus that

Lepus only allude

know that feel the

differ.

one

wild

Now already discussed. has striped parent of the ass commonly other
case,

that legs, may stripes on the legs of the domestic confident the bent will
not account

the
ass

occasional
to

is due of the

appearance reversion; but

of this

for other

lower
or

end horses
from

sometimes
see

angularly
and
and

slightlyforked.
with
reasons

dun that

coloured
we are

shoulder-stripe being when Ave So, again, the stripes on spine,

formerly given,
wild
to

shoulders,
But

legs,

led,

lieve be-

through reversion to the parent-horse. of three or shoulder-stripes,with one have when at forked the lower them or end, they occasionally nearly faintly striped as foals over stripes on their faces, or are under the their whole bodies, with the stripes angularly bent one in other branched other the on forehead, or irregularly parts, it they reappear
horses have when
two

would African

be

rash of

to

attribute proper

such
to

diversified

characters

to

the
As

those

the

have seen species of the genus are that the crossing of the unstriped speciesoften leads to the hybrid that offspring being conspicuously striped bearing also in mind of the the art of crossing certainly causes long-lost reappearance that the it is a more characters above-specified probable view wild to reversion, not to the immediate due parentstripes are whole horse, but to the striped progenitor of the genus.
" "

aboriginal wild horse. much striped,and as we

pearance reapthree

I have considerable of
one

discussed

this

subject of analogous variation

at

ties that the varielength, because it is well known distinct species species frequently resemble

Chap.

XXVI.

ANALOGOUS

VARIATION.

033

"

with the forogoinf^ perfect harmony cases, the theory of descent. and explicable on Secondly, because from these facts are important showing, as remarked in a that each former variation is governed chapter, trifling by is in determined much a higher degree by the law, and
a

fact

in

nature

of

the
to

organisation, than
which the

by

the

nature

of

the

conditions

varying being has

been

exposed.
**

related to Thirdly, because these facts are to a certain extent general law, namely, that which Mr. B. D. Walsh more a of Equable Variahility,''^ has called the " Law he explains or, as " is very variable in one it, if any given character it will tend to be variable in allied spespecies of a group, cies in if character is and constant perfectly one given any ; in will allied it tend be of to constant a species group, species." in the chapter on to recall a discussion This leads me

Selection, in which
which
or are now

it

was

shown

that

with

domestic those
most

races,

undergoing
vary

rapid improvement,
which
are

characters

the

most,

the

parts valued.

This

naturally follows from tending to revert

from their

tinually recently selected characters conless improved to their former

standard, and

agencies,whatever The ble principle is applicasame in question to vary. ' cies,' Origin of Speto natural species,for, as stated in my acters; chargeneric characters are less variable than specific
and the and
latter
are

being still acted on by the same charthese may be, which first caused the acters

those

which

have the

been

modified all
mon com-

by variation
the

natural

selection,since

period when
off from
are a

branched species belonging to the genus progenitor, whilst generic characters remained

those
remote

which

have and

unaltered
now

from

much

more

epoch,

accordingly are makes approach a near

serve

less

variable.
law of

This

statement

much

VariaEquable bility. be added, rarely Secondary sexual characters, it may for they usually difi"'r to characterise distinct genera, and they are highly in the species of the same genus,
to Mr.

Walsh's

variable
seen

in the individuals

of the

same

species; we
how

have

also

in the earlier

chapters of this work

become
Soc. of

ary variable second-

sexual
30
'

characters
Entomolog.

under

domestication.
IbC.a, p. '2V.i.

Proc

Oct. PUilatlelphia,'

334

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXVI.

Summary

of the

three

previous Chapters
Variation.

on

the

Laws

of

that changed consaw ditions twenty-third chapter we in definite act a manner often, occasionally,or even the organisation, so that all, or nearly all,the individuals on in the modified But thus same manner. exposed become In the
a

far

more

frequent
the

result

of changed
or

acting directlyon

organisation

reproductive system, is indefinite and of the laws by which such In the three last chapters, some variability is regulated have been discussed. adds to the size of muscles, together with Increased use the blood-vessels, nerves, ligaments, the crests of bone and attached. Increased the whole bones, to which they are functional activity increases the size of various glands, and
strengthens
pressure

conditions, whether indirectly through the fluctuating variability.

the

sense-organs.

Increased
A

and

intermittent

thickens

the

food

augments

of change in the nature modifies the coats of the stomach, and sometimes decreases the length of the intestines. tinued Conor the

epidermis.

disuse,

on

the

other

hand,

weakens which

and

diminishes
many

all parts of the generations have reduced the chest

in

organisation. Animals
taken
as

during
their

but
a

little exercise, have

consequence

lungs
of

size, and
the

the

bony

fabric

modified. body become With anciently domesticated our birds, the wings have been little used, and crease, they are slightly reduced; with their deof the crest the sternum, the scapulte,coracoids, and

and

whole

form

of the

furculum,
With disuse whereas

have

all been

reduced. of
a

domesticated is not
we

animals, the reduction

so

part from
is

carried have
reason

far
to

that believe

mere

rudiment this has

left;
curred occase

that

often

under

nature;

the effects of disuse of growth,

in this latter
with

being aided
of difference

by
many

economy

together

the

crossing inter-

between

The of this varying individuals. cause organisms in a state of nature, and under
in
any

domestication, probably is that

not

the

latter

case

there

has

been

time

sufficient
economy

for

great does not

are

change, and
come

that

the On

principle of
the

of growth which

into action. in the

contrary,

structures

rudimentary

Chap. XXVI.

SUMMARY.

33

k 0

sometimes parent-species,
our

become Such

partially redeveloped
rudiments
as

in

domesticated make
to

productions.
appearance

ally occasion-

their be the

under
a

domestication, seem
arrest

ways al-

development; interest, as showing: that rudiments the relics of organs are once perfectlydeveloped. and mental Corporeal, periodical, ter habits, though the lathave been almost in this work, become passed over changed under domestication, and the changes are often inherited. Such changed habits in an organic being, es^pecially when living a free life,would often lead to the augmented
nevertheless

result
are

of

sudden

of

they

of

or

diminished

use

of various From

to
more

their

modification.

consequently long-continued haint, and

organs,

and

especiallyfrom the occasional birth of individuals with a vated slightlydifferent constitution, domestic animals and cultibecome certain to acclimatised extent a plants or adapted to a climate different from that proper to the parentspecies. taken in Through the principle of correlated variability,
its widest
sense,

when

one

part varies other parts vary,

either

after the other. Thus, an simultaneously, or one organ modified during an early embryonic period affects other parts such as the beak, an subsequently developed. When organ, correlated increases decreases in length, adjoining or or

parts,
vary

as

the

tongue
manner.

and

the

in the

same

decreases

in size, various

nostrils,tend to When the whole body increases or modified; thus, with parts become

orifice of the

and breadth. pigeons the ribs increase or decrease in number identical during their early are Homologous parts which development and are exposed to similar conditions, tend to
vary
case

in the of the hind for

same

or

in

some

connected

manner,

"

as

in

the

right and
So

left sides of the

it is with
cats

and

limbs.

body, and of the of sight and the organs

blue
eyes
are

front ing; hear-

instance, white
There is
a

with

almost

ways althe

deaf.

manifest

relation

throughout

appendages, such the skin and various dermal bedy between hair, feathers, hoofs, horns, and teeth. In Paraguay, as horses with curly hair have hoofs like those of a mule; the together; hairless of sheep often vary wool and the horns

dogs

are

deficient

in their

teeth;

men

with

redundant

hair

336

LAWS

OF

VARIATION.

Chap.

XXVI.

have

abnormal

with When
toes

long
of

teeth, either by deficiency or long wing-feathers usually have

grow

excess.

Birds

tail-feathers.

long feathers

from
outer

the
toes to
assume

outside
are

of the

pigeons,
There is

the

two

connected the structure

a

legs and by membrane;

of the of feathers
in

for the whole

leg tends
a

wing.
on

manifest

relation

between
amount

crest

the head of various

and

marvellous
and in
a

of change

the the

skull

fowls:

lesser

degree, between

of rabbits and the structure greatly elongated, lopping ears With of their skulls. plants, the leaves, various parts of the flower, and the fruit, often vary related together to a cormanner.

In
to

some

cases

we

find correlation is the and

nature

conjecture what
monstrosities colour of down have
the

being able even of the connection, as with

This
in is likewise

without

various with

diseases.

the with

case

of the
on

adult

pigeon,
bird.

connection

the
in-

presence

instances in

been with

the young given of

ISTumerous

curious

peculiarities of constitution,

correlation of of

colour,
from

as

shown

one

colour

from

dividual of inby the immunity certain diseases, from the attacks

parasites and
is
an

the

action

of

certain

vegetable

poisons.
Correlation and

serve

important subject; for with species, domestic ally continuin a lesser degree with we races, been to find that certain parts have greatly modified almost invariably find that useful purpose some ; but we
parts have
likewise been
any
more or

other
our

less modified, without in the respect

being able
great

to discover

advantage
with
our

change.
to
on

ISTo

doubt

caution

is necessary

this latter
the
we

point, for
various
seen,
we

it is difficult to overrate

ignorance
but from
are

use

of

parts
may

of the

organisation;
many

what of

have direct useful

believe that
arisen in

modifications with

no

service, having changes. Homologous

correlation

other

and

early development often fused become together. Multiple and homologous organs in number and probably in are especially liable to vary is not unlimited, As the supply of organised matter fonn. sometimes into action; the principle of compensation comes adjoining parts one that, when so part is greatly developed,
parts during
their

338

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

CHAPTER
PROVISIONAL HYPOTHESIS

XXVII.
OF

PANGENESIS.

facts to be connected First under remarks a Preliminary part : The various kinds of the Eereproduction single point of view, namely, The direct action of the of amputated parts Graft-hybrids growth The female functional pendence indethe male element on Development Inheritance Ee verof the units of the body Variability sion.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Second the

part

"

Statement
are

of the
"

improbable
of facts

several

classes

far hypothesis How Explanation by aid of specifiedin the first part

"

the the
"

necessary

sumptions as-

hypothesis

of

Conclusion.

In those

previous chapters large classes of facts, such as forms of heritanc inbud-variation, the various bearing on
the the and
causes

and

laws that

of variation, have these

been well
sort
as

cussed; disthe
lation re-

it is obvious of

subjects,as
some

several

modes
to
one

reproduction, stand in another. I have been led, or

which
to
a

of

rather

forced, to
these facts

form

a a

view

certain

extent

connects

w^ould wish to tangible method. Every one plain exit is how to himself, even in an imperfect manner, ancestor remote possible for a character possessed by some in the offspring; how creased the effects of insuddenly to reappear

by

or

decreased

use

of

limb

can can

be transmitted
act not

to

the

child ; how the male sexual ovules, but occasionally on

can

element the

mother-form;
of the cellular of

solelyon the how a hybrid

tissue of two

produced by plants independently of the limb can be reproduced on the

neither
may too

be

the

union

organs exact

a generation; how line of amputation, with

much

nor

too

little added;

how

the

same

ism organas

be and

produced
true
one

by such
passes

widely
course

different

processes,

budding
two

seminal

generation;
in the

and, lastly,how
of its

of

allied forms,

development

through the most complex metamorphoses, and the other does both are alike in every tail dedo so, though wdien mature not I am that my view is merely a of structure. aware provisional hypothesis or speculation; but until a better one

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

339
multitude
any

be

advanced,
As

it will
are

serve

to

bring together

of

facts which
cause.

at

present

left disconnected

by

efficient

Whewell, the historian of the inductive sciences, " often be of service remarks Hypotheses may to science, of when incompleteness, and they involve a certain portion this point of view I venture Under of error." to even the hypothesis of Pangenesis, which advance implies that self. separate part of the whole organisation reproduces itevery and So that ovules, spermatozoa, pollen-grains, the fertilised egg or seed, as well as buds, include and consist of
" " "

multitude
In

of germs Part

thrown

off from

each

separate part
I

or

unit.^
the First I will enumerate
seem as

brieflyas

can

the
tain cer-

groups

of facts which

to

demand

connection; but
be treated
criticisms
in

subjects,not
1

hitherto
has

discussed,must
been many after

at

disfectly per-

This

hypothesis
criticised it will and
to the The
seen

good
fair

severely
writers,

by
be
more

lUiiny fair to

F. ^^^Jalton, spirit. Mr. his valuable periments exdescribing

give references articles, portaut

which fessor
I have

imessay Pro'

best is

by

Sulla entitled Pandella Teoria Darwiniana trauslaa geuesi, 18G9,' of which Scientific in tion appeared the Sept. 29, 1869, and Opinion,' He numbers. rejects succeeding it criticises the hypothesis, but cisms critihis found I have and fairlv, Mivart Mr. useful. very

Delpino,

Soc.,' Royal (' Proc. xix. the iutervol. on o98) p. of tinct disblood of the transfusion of the varieties cludes rahl)it, con-

by
the all

saying
results the He to he
on a

that

in

his

negative
doctrine
informs the continued still
me

ion opinbeyond
genesis. Panthat

'

doubt

of

subsequently
of for his two any paper
more

publication
his
periments ex-

larger

scale

(' Genesis X.) follows

new

of

Species,' 1871,
but

chap.
no

sign
itself

out withgenerations, of mongrelism in the I very

merous nu-

Delpino, of objections
(' The
vol.

adds

showing
should
mules in the

Dr.

Bastian

weight. any of Beginnings

p.
"

offspring. have expected

would have but of the in
a

certainly
that
gem-

Life,'

looks than a rather of the lution evoof the new fitting appanage shows He philosophy." used have to not I ought that it as term the pangenesis," used by Dr. had been previously that relic a
old
"

1872, the hvpothesis

ii.

98)

says like

been

present
no sary neces-

blood, part
and

this
the lowest

is

which

manifestly
Galton,
*

hypothesis, to applies
animals. ture Nato THVJ), also
*

plants
Mr.

letter

(April 27. 1871,

various
used

criticises
other

p. incorrect
me.

pressions ex-

Dr. sense. another in 11, Beale May (' Nature,' whole the at 1871, p. 2G) sneers and much doctrine with acerbity

Gros Lionel

by

On tlu' be

the have

several hand, favourably spoken

but there

writers of to
'

esis, hypothno use

would however,

Prof. Wigaud der Gesell. geburg,' MarNaturwisseu. zu samnit. the Bd. ix., 1870) considers and unscientific as hypothesis Lewes H. Mr. G. worthless.

justice. der (' Schriften

some

in
Dr.

giving
I Ross's

references
ma

J',

Theory

of
of

work, Disease;
of .Mr.

cles. artitheir refer to The Graft

an

being
Darwin's

plication ap-

pothesis hyas

(' Fortnightly 1868, p. 503) that it may

be

Review,'
seems

Nov.

1,

he

gives

1S72. Pangenesis.' several original and

genious In-

to

useful:

consider makes he

discussions.

340

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap. XXVII

Part the hypothesis proportionate length. In the Second far the necessary will be given; and after considering how themselves in shall see improbable, we assumptions are it serves whether to bring under a single point of view the various facts. Part I.
two

be divided into Reproduction may The latter namely, sexual and asexual.
ways
"

main

classes,
in
many

is effected

by

the

formation

of

buds

of

various

kinds,
or

and

by

generation, that is,by spontaneous fissiparous

It is notorious
cut

vision. artificial di-

that

some so

of the lower
many

ajiimals, when

perfect individuals : into nearly forty worm Lyonnet cut a Nais or freshwater It is probpieces, and these all reproduced perfect animals.^ able further in that segmentation could be carried much with of the lowest plants and of the protozoa; some some Miiller each cell will reproduce the parent-form. Johannes between an important distinction thought that there was the divided and gemmation fission;for in the latter case small, is more fully developed than a bud, portion, however also is a younger which formation; but most physiologists convinced that the two are now are essentially processes alike.^ Professor Huxley remarks, fission is little more than of budding," and Prof. II. J. Clark shows in a peculiar mode " detail that there is sometimes selfa compromise between division and budding." When is amputated, or when a limb the whole body is bisected, the cut extremities said to bud are forth ; and as the papilla,which is first formed, consists of undeveloped cellular tissue like that forming an ordinary We the conbud, the expression is apparently correct. see nection in another of the two for Trembley processes way;
into
many

pieces,reproduce

"

Lectures Quoted by Paget, on Pathology,' 1853, p. 159. 3 Dr. also, observes Lachmann, tory,' Hisand of Nat. (' Annals Mag. 2nd series, vol. xix., 1857, to respect infusoria, p. 231) with that fissation and gemmation
"

'

that
fission

has
and

been

made

tween be-

pass

into

each

other

almost

Again,
Minor shows

Mr.

and (' Annals Mag. Hist.,' 3rd series, vol. xi.

* See QOuvres d'Hist. Bonnet, imperceptibly." Nat,.' torn, 1781, 339, for v., p. W. C. remarks the of on budding-out the of Nat. limbs of Salamanders. amputated
'

tinctio
is not budding fundamental a one. See, also, Professor Clark's in Mind work, New Nature,' York, 1865, pp. 62,
'

94.

p.

328)
dis-

that

with

Annelids

the

Chap.

XXVII.

OP

PANGENESIS.

34 1

observed after forth

with

the

hydra,
was

that

the
as

reproduction of the head

soon as

amputation

checked

the

animal

put

reproductive gemma?.' the production, by fissiparous Between generation, more comi^lete individuals, and the repair of even or slight injury, there is so perfect a gradation, that it
to

of two
a

very

is impossible

doubt

that

the

two

processes

are

connected.

As

stage of growth an amputated part is replaced by one also follow Sir J. in the same state of development, we must
at each

of development from Paget in admitting, " that the powers identical with those exercised for the resthe embryo, are toration in other from wards, that the powers are injuries : the same by which perfection is first achieved, and by which, when conclude that Finally, we may of budding, fissiparousgeneration, the the several forms the repair of injuries,and development, are all essentially
one

lost,it is recovered."

results of Sexual
seems

and

the

same
"

power.

Generation.
at

The

union

of

the

two

sexual

ments eletween be-

first

sexual of

and

broad a sight to make asexual generation. But

distinction
the

conjugation

of two cells unite into alg"e, by which process the contents capable of development, apparently gives U3 a single mass and Pringsheim, in his sexual union: the first step towards shows the conjugation the pairing of Zoospores,' memoir on graduates into true sexual reproduction. Moreover, the now tinction that the disof Parthenogenesis prove well-ascertained cases sexual and asexual generation is not nearly between
so even

great
in

as some

was

formerly thought; for frequently, become cases

the and
concourse
even

ova

occasionally, and
into
fect permost

developed
the

beings, without
of the lower
a

of the male. with

With
ova

animals

mammals,
for

show ised, fertil-

trace

of

parthenogenetic power,
pass

without

being

they
iSTor can

through
ova,
ou

pseudova which
from
true
as

first stages of segmentation.* guished do not need fertilisation, be distinfirst shown by Sir J. Lubbock, was the
I'artlK'unp.'ueUeber Siebold. math. phva. der Sitzuus: !-is,"
"
'

epn^et
frv
"

'

^^'"Ibid
Ma?,
p

1 S^,^

Lectures

Patholo-

rls
152

^Translated iA
of Nat. 272.

nu

164
'

inmils
April, by

and

Hist.,'

1870,
von

Munich. Classe.' Sre 240 p. cles Annales 3rd Series, 18o0,

'

Nov.

4th

IHYI.

^^^ ^i;}^'^^^^' ^oolog., ^e^ ^^^" 1m.

p.

'

s^BischoEf, as

quoted

34:2
and is

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

So, again, the germ-balls in by Siebold. said by Leuckart the larvae of Cecidomyia are to be formed within the ovarium, but they do not require to be fertilised.
now

admitted

'

It

should and

also the

be male

observed element

that have

in

sexual

generation, the

of transmitting equal power possessed by either parent to single character every this clearly when their see hybrids are offspring. We of both grandparents paired inter se, for the characters in the progeny, either perfectly or often by segments. appear ovules
It is
an

error

to

suppose

that

the

male

mits trans-

certain
no

characters

and

the

female
causes,

other
one

though characters; alsex

doubt, from
stronger
power

unknown

sometimes

has

much

of transmission

than

the other.

authors that a by some however, been maintained in always refertilised germ, bud differs essentiallyfrom producing a whilst character the perfect of the parent-stock; fertilised germs give birth to variable beings. But there is distinction this. In the eleventh such broad chapter as no ally advanced cases were numerous showing that buds occasioninto plants having quite new characters; and the grow be propagated for a length of varieties thus produced can time by buds, and occasionally by seed. Nevertheless, it much that beings produced sexually are be admitted must of those produced asexually; and than liable to vary more be attempted. this fact a partial explanation will hereafter is determined The variabilityin both cases by the same eral genHence laws. and is governed by the same new causes, be distinguished from buds cannot varieties arising from seed. tain those arising from Although bud-varieties usually retheir character during successive bud-generations, yet after a long series of budthey occasionally revert, even This character. tendency to generations, to their former It has, reversion
in

buds, is

one

of the most between the

remarkable

of the bud

eral sev-

points of agreement seminal rei^roduction.

But there
is
one

offspring from

and

difference

between is very
of Nat.

sexually and
"
*

asexually, which
Asexual
'

organisms produced general. The former

Hist.,' March,
1866,
pp,

tion

On of

the in

Cecidomyide
Annals

translated

ReproducLarvse,' and Mag.

167, 171.

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.
their

n4.s
low

pass

in

the

course

of

development from

very

stage

to their

highest stage,

of insects

and

metamorphoses the other hand, commence ually by buds or fission, on their the budding or development at that stage at which selfanimal to and therefore do dividing happen be, not may pass of louver the wards, through some developmental stages.*"Afterthey often advance in organisation,as we see in the of " alternate generation." In thus si)eakingof cases many
alternate this process

in the metamori)h")SLS as we see of many other animals, and in tlie concealed of the vertebrata. Animals propagated asex-

generation, I follow
as

those

naturalists

who

look

at

of internal budding or of fissipone essentially of the lower plants,however, such arous generation. Some and certain algjs, according to Dr. L. Radlkofer," mosses as when morphosis. propagated asexually,do undergo a retrogressivemetaAs
to
a

far

as

the

final

cause

is concerned,

we

can

beings propagated by should velopmen buds not through all the early stages of depass each organism the structure for with acquired be adapted to its peculiar habits; and at each stage, must if there are individuals at places for the support of many some one stage, the simplest plan will be that they should be grade multiplied at this stage, and not that they should first retroearlier or simpler strucin their development to an ture, which might not be fitted for the then surrounding conditions.
certain
extent

understand

why

From
that

the

several

foregoing considerations
between sexual
at

we

may

clude con-

the

difference

and

asexual

eration gen-

is not

nearly

so

element; this difference is far from invariable,as shown by tlio but even therefore naturally of parthenogenesis. We are cases many
it unites

difference being that an be fully developed unless

great as ovule cannot

first appears; the chief continue to live and to with the male

led to

inquire what the final cause ordinary generation for the concourse
"Professor
(' Tran?;act.

can

be of the necessity in ments. of the two sexual ele-

R.
on

Allman Soc. this

speaks
of head

cession

of

burgh,'
docisivelv

vol.
to
a

xxvi.,

1870,

Edin102) p. with
he says.
sue-

{^ression
series."
"
*

ever

that no zooids. takes place and Ma;,', of series, vol, xx.,

,

in

retrothe
v " Nat.

respect U is
"

the

Hydroida:
law
in

universal

the

Annals Hist.,' 2nd 153-455. pp.

lSoT"

844
Seeds of and

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap. XXVII.

ova

are

often

disseminating plants and

one or more or seasons

highly serviceable as the means animals, and of preserving them

in
a

during

dormant

state;

but

unim-

pregnated seeds

buds, would be equally serviceable for both purposes. We however, indicate can, of the two important advantages gained by the concourse of two individuals two belonging to opposite sexes, or rather I in have shown sexes a former chapter, the structure ; for, as
ova,

and

detached

of every
concurrence,

organism

species are
of

especiallyadapted for the of two individuals. When at least occasionally, rendered highly variable by changed conditions
appears to

be

life, the
to

free

intercrossing of

the

varying

individuals
in nature;

tends and

keep each form

can

crossing
the

fitted for its proper be effected only by sexual

place

generation; but

gained is of sufficient importance to for the first origin of sexual intercourse is extremely account doubtful. from a large body of Secondly, I have shown of life is facts, that, as a slight change in the conditions beneficial to each creature, so, in an analogous manner, is the by sexual union with a distinct change effected in the germ individual; and I have been led, from observing the many for this purwidely-extended provisions throughout nature pose,
whether end and from the greater

thus

vigour of crossed

organisms

of all

proved by direct experiments, as well as from the evil effects of close interbreeding when long continued, to believe that the advantage thus gained is very great. before impregnation undergoes a which the germ, Why of development, ceases and certain to amount progress perishes, unless it be acted on by the male element; and of some in the case why conversely the male element, which and five years, insects is enabled to keep alive for four or in the case of some plants for several years, likewise perishes,
kinds,
as

unless
cannot

it acts

on

or

unites with

be answered both sexual

the germ, questions which are certainty. It is,however, probable with

that

elements

perish, unless

brought

into union,

for independent matter simply from including too little formative of development. Quatrefages has shown in the case with and Dumas other the Teredo,^' did formerly Prevost as

animals, that
^*
'

more

than
des Sc.

one

spermatozoon
3rd

is requisite' to fertorn,

Annales

Nat./

series, 1850,

xiii.

346

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVIL

capable of self -development, but only twentynine of the whole number out produced caterpillars. The in artificial same to hold good even principleof quantity seems that by cutting found reproduction, for Haeckel fissiparous the segmented and fertilised ova larvae of Siphonophoraa or into pieces, the smaller the pieces were, the (jelly-fishes) slower was the rate of development, and the larvae thus produced much the and inclined to were by so more imperfect that with the therefore, probable monstrosity. It seems, deficient quantity of formative ter matseparate sexual elements of their not having the capacity for prois the main cause longed existence and development, unless they combine and
were
"

that

they

thus

increase

each

other's

bulk.

The

belief

that

it is the

function
seems a

of the spermatozoa strange

one,

to communicate

life to the

ovule

already alive and independent development.

are

seeing that the unimpregnated ovule is of generally undergoes a certain amount

Sexual and asexual

tion reproducwe

thus

seen

not

to

differ essentially; and

have of
re-

already shown

that

asexual
are

reproduction, the
all parts of
one

power

growth and
great law.

development

and

the

same

Re-growth
little further and
some

of amputated
discussion.
A
possess cut

parts.
"

This of

subject deserves
the

multitude

lower

animals For
stance, in-

vertebrates

this wonderful

power.

mander salalegs and tail of the same six times did so successively,and Bonnet,^** eight times; and on each occasion the limbs were reproduced on the exact line of amputation, with no cess. part deficient or in exAn allied animal, the axolotl, had limb bitten off, a which was condition, but when reproduced in an abnormal this was amputated was replaced by a perfect lirnb.'^ The new limbs in these cases bud forth, an dare developed in the same animal. manner as during the regular development of a young For

Spallanzani

off the

instance, with

the Amhly

stoma

lurid
pnrt
3no.
^^

a,

three toes

are

first
pp.
Pro-

der "'Entwickelungsge?chichte 73. 1860. Siphnnophora.' p. -* An on Essay Spnllanzr.ni, translated Aniraal Reproduction.' (Bon1709. 79. Maty, by Dr. p. d'Hist. CEuvres Nat.,' torn. net,
' '

v.,

i., 4to
as
'

edit., 1781, qnoted

La

343.

Yuipian.

by

fessor Faivre. des Especes,'

Variability
112.

1868, p.

^HAP.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

347

fourth, and on the hind-feet the fifth, and so it is with a reproduced limb.^" of re-growth is generally much The power greater during the youth of an animal or during the earlier stages of its developmen than during maturity. The larvaj or tadpoles of the Batrachians are capable of reproducing lost members,
but
not
so

developed, then

the

the adults.*^ in
one

Mature

insects

have the

no

power

of

re-

growth, excepting
kinds have

order, whilst
Animals low

larvaj
are

of

many

able,as a general rule, to reproduce lost parts far more easily than those which highly organised. The myriapods offer are more a good illustration of this rule; but there are some strange exceptions to it thus Nemerteans, though lowly organised, of re-growth. With the higher said to exhibit little power are is extremely vertebrata, such as birds and mammals, the power
"

this power.

in the scale

limited.^^
In the
case

of those

animals of which

which
every

may

be

bisected

or

chopped into pieces, and

the whole, the

power

fragment will reproduce of re-growth must be diffused

there
seems

throughout
much this truth

the whole in the

body.

Nevertheless

to

be

view

maintained

by Prof.

that Lessona,*'"*

ing capacity is generally a localised and special one, servto replace parts which are eminently liable to be lost in in favour animals. The most each i)articular striking case of this view, is that the terrestrial salamander, according to Lessona, cannot reproduce lost parts, whilst another species the aquatic salamander, has extraordinary of the same genus, is and this animal have just seen; of re-growth, as we powers eminently liable to have its limbs, tail,eyes and jaws bitten with the aquatic salamander off by other tritons.^* Even for when M. extent the capacity is to a certain localised,

Amevioan 579. p. 2' in Owen's Dr. Giinther. vol. of Vertebrates,' Anatomy has i., 1806, p. 567. Spallanzani similar observations. made fore beexhibited A thrush was at F)ritish Association the lost its in hafl Hnll. 1853, which it was and this tarsus, memlier,
20

Dr.

P.

Hov,

'

The

Natnnilist,'
'

Sei)t..1871,

feels some recorded

('Monthly
series,
vol.

fncts the about doubt Sir J. by Simpson ence,' SciJournal of INIedical

Edinburgh.
ii. p.

1848,
the of 800) womb in the

new re-

growth
the
23

of of Atti vol.

limbs
man.

lu Sc.

"

case
*

della

Soc.
p.

Ital.
49.'}.

dl

Nat..'
2*

xi., 1809,
states paper The

Lessona
'

asserted,
each

had

been been time

thrice

having
J.

lost,
disease.
me

duced; reproI sume, pre-

in the "Sff'(' also

so

by

Paget

informs

that

Sir he

Sept.

i.s this that referred to. ist,' NaturalAmerican 1871, p. 579.

just

348

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

together with of re-growth was completely lost. It the scapula, the power is also a remarkable fact, standing in opposition to a very do not of the aquatic salamander general rule, that the young the power of repairing their limbs in an equal degree possess that they are but I do not know with the adults ; more tive, ac-

Philipeaux/'extirpated

the

entire

fore-limb

'"'

limbs, The than the adults. walking-stick insect, Diapheromera order, can reproduce femorata, like other insects of the same
or can

otherwise

better

escape

the

loss of their

its
must

legs in the
case

mature

state, and
:

these from

their great

length
in

be liable to be lost

but

the

capacity is localised (as

Scudder that found,'^

the

of the salamander),
was was

for Dr.

if

the limb it
its

removed
never

within

the trochanto-femoral When

a

tion, articula-

renewed.

crab

is seized

by

one

of

legs,this is thrown off at the basal joint,being afterwards that this leg; and it is generally admitted replaced by a new is a special provision for the safety of the animal. Lastly, the well know^n to have with gasteropod molluscs, which are that they shows of reproducing their heads, Lessona power
are

very

liable to the

have

their

heads

bitten
the

off by shell.

fishes; the
Even with

rest

of
we

body being protected hj

something
stems

plants
leaves

see

of the have

same no

kind, for non-deciduous

power

and

young

of

re-growth, these
new

parts being easilyreplaced by growth from

the bark and

buds; whilst

of trees have subjacent tissues of the trunk crease of their inaccount of re-growth, probably on great power ing beof their liability to injury from in diameter, and

gnawed by animals. Graft-hyhrids. It is well known

"

from buds

innumerable
may
are

trials inserted affected

made into in
a a

in

all parts of the world, that stock, and that the plants thus

be
not

raised

greater

degree than
do the

can

be

accounted

for by

changed

nutrition. buds
more

seedlings raised from such inserted partake of the character of the stock, though they are
Nor liable to vary
on

than
roots.
Oct.

are

seedlings from
A
1,

the

same

variety
a new

growing
"
'

its

own

bud, also,may
able

sport into
to

Comptes
and

Rendus,'
Hist.

address
of

18G6,
26

1867. June. 'CEuvres Bonnet,

V.

meeting
Nat..'
Pro-

the
Boston

.36th annual the British Medical Soc. of p. Nat. 1.

Association,
^7
"

vol.

p.

294,

as

quoted
in his

by

proc.

fessor

Rolleston

remark-

Hist.,' vol.

xii., 1868-69,

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

349

and
same

other bud strongly-marked variety without any plant being in the least degree affected. We may

on

the

fore there-

with the common infer, in accordance view, that each bud is a distinct individual, and that its formative elements do not spread beyond the parts subsequently developed from in the abstract have it. Nevertheless, we seen on graft-

hybridisation in the eleventh

clude chapter that buds certainly informative can matter, which occasionallycombine with in the tissues of a distinct variety or species; that included the two between parent-forms being a plant intermediate that of the have seen In the thus produced. potato we case kind inserted into another the tubers produced from a bud of one
are

intermediate the stems, these

have
rose,

in

surface; that
With that

colour, size, shape and certain foliage, and even

as

state

of

tional constitumediate. inter-

such peculiarities,

precocity, are
cases,

likewise the

well-established also been

evidence the num, laburwe

graft-hybrids
orange,

produced with
sufficient.
rare cases

vine,
what

"c.,
these

seems

But

do

not

know is

under

conditions

this

form
we

of

tion reproducthe
portant im-

possible.
fact that
a

From

several elements

learn

formative

capable of blending
confined and
to the reproductive

with

those of

distinct individual

(and this is
not

the chief characteristic

of sexual
organs,

generation), are
are

but

present
a

in

the buds

sue cellular tis-

plants ; and importance.

of Direct Action

this is

fact of the

highest physiological
"

In the Female. on of the Mole Element eign given that forthe eleventh proofs were chapter, abundant the pollen occasionally affects in a direct manner fertilised an Gallesio orangemother-plant. Thus, when fruit bore the stripes the lemon, flower with pollen from several of perfectly characterised lemon-peel. With peas, observers of the So the
In it

have

seen

the

colour

of

the

seed-coats

and

even

pod directlyaffected by the pollen of a distinct variety. consists of has been with the fruit of the apple, which calyx and
cases

modified

the

upper
are

part
the
or

of the

flower-stalk.

ordinary
within

these here male

parts
see

wholly formed
formative

by

the
cluded in-

mother-plant.
can

We the

that

elements
one are

element
the

pollen

or

variety
prop-

affect and

hybridise, not

part which

they

I
350 /
PROVISIONAL HYPOTHESIS Chap. XXVII.

erly adapted to affect, namely, the ovules,but the partially developed tissues of a distinct varietyor species. We are thus in which the formative brought half-way towards a graft-hybrid,
elements combine with included those within the tissues within the of
one

individual
of
a

included

tissues
a or new

tinct dis-

thus giving rise to variety of species, form, independently of the male

organs.

and

mediate intersexual

female

nearly mature, ly fullydeveloped,it is hardshould directly affect the female. But we have the analogous and perfectlywell-ascertained of the male element affecting(as with the quagga case
not

W^ith

animals

which

do

breed

until

and

all the parts are then possiblethat the male element

of which

and
manner

Lord

Morton's
that

mare)
she is

the female

or

her

ova,

in such

when

offspringare affected and could keep explanation would be simple if the spermatozoa alive within the body of the female during the long interval which has sometimes the two of imacts pregnati elapsed between will suppose that this is possible with one ; but no the higher animals. reaches maturity by a Development. The fertilised germ \ vast number of changes: these are either slight and slowly when the child grows into the man, effected, as or are great
"

impregnated by another male her The hybridised by the first male.

and

sudden,
same

as

with

the
we

metamorphoses
have
every

of

most

insects. within

Between the

these extremes

gradation,even

has shown,^^ there class; thus, as Sir J. Lubbock is an Ephemerous insect which moults above twenty times, undergoing each time a slightbut decided change of structure; and these changes, as he further remarks, probably reveal to us the normal stages of development, which are concealed and hurried through or suppressed in most sects. other inIn ordinary metamorphoses, the parts and organs to become changed into the corresponding parts in appear the next stage of development; but there is another form of development, which has been called by Professor Owen metagenesis.
In this
"

case

the

new

parts
ones.

are

not

moulded

upon

the

inner

surface
course
'

of of

the

old

The

plastic force
outer
p.

has

changed its
28

operation. The

case,
62.

and

all

Transact.

Linn.

Soc,,' vol. xxiv., 1863,

Chap. XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

o-i
"j"
'

i.

that

gave

form
are

and
cast

character

to
are

the
not

precedent
These

individual
responding cor-

perish
a new

and

off; they
new

changed into the

are

parts and

of the

individuaL

due

to

developmental process," (fcc.'*" Metamorphosis, however, graduates so insensibly into metagenesis, that the two be distinctlyseparated. For cannot processes instance, in the last change which Cirripedes undergo, the
alimentary canal
are

distinct

and

some

other

organs

are

moulded

on

existing pre-

parts; but

developed
mature may

of the

the eyes of the old and the young animal in entirely different parts of the body; the tips limbs are formed within the larval limbs, and
to

they
basal
at

be said

be

metamorphosed
thorax
are

portions and
to

the whole

right angles
called
an

the larval limbs The

and

them; but their developed in a plane thorax; and this may

process

from

be
to

metagenesis.

metagenetic

is carried

point in the development of some Echinoderms, for the animal in the second stage of development is formed
extreme

almost latter

like

bud

within
cast

the

animal
an

of the old

first stage, the yet

times some-

being then maintaining

off' like
a

vestment,
an

for

short

period

independent

vi-

tality.^"
to be thus If, instead of a single individual, several were a pre-existing fonn, the developed metagenetically within process young

would thus

be

called

one

of

alternate

generation.

The

casing closely resemble the enthe larvae of Cecidomyia, or may differ to an astonishing degree, as with many parasiticworms ence essential differbut this does not make and jelly-fishes; any than the greatness or abruptin the process, ness more any of the change in the metamorphoses of insects. The whole question of development is of great importance stance, the eye, for infor our an organ, present subject. When in a part of the body where is metagenetically formed during the previous stage of development no eye existed, we and independent growth. The ablook at it as a new must

developed may parent-form, as with

either

29

'

Parthenogenesis,'
Professor excellent

1849,
Huxley

pp.
lias

graduates
zoidformation.
tlie
^o

into
as

gemmation
wliicli
is in (Jn-ene.

or

25,
some

26.

fact in

remarks
p.

(' Medion

same

metagenesis,
J.
'

cal

Times,' 1856, suljject in reference

opment
how of

637)
to and

tlie

star-fislies,

tUis develsliows

p^of. Gunther's

Keay
Record

of

Zoolog.

Lit.,' 1865,

p.

625.

curiously

metamorphoses

352
solute

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

Independence of
in
structure

new

and and
are

old structures, within

The

although
more

responding cor-

function, is still
formed
a same even

obvious

when
as

several
cases

individuals

previous form,
important
in

in the

of alternate

generation.

principle probably comes of apparently continuous

we

largely growth,

into
as

play
we

the
see

case

shall
at

when

consider
ages.

the

inheritance

of modifications

ing correspond-

We

ence conclusion,namely, the independand quite of parts successively developed, by another

are

led to the

same

distinct

group

of

facts.

It is well

known

that

many

mals ani-

order, and therefore not differing belonging to the same widely from each other, pass through an extremely different certain beetles,not in any way Thus of development. course order, undergo remarkably different from others of the same
what
pass

has

been
an

called

hyper-metamorphosis
"

that

is, they
the nary ordily, name-

through

early stage wholly different from

In

grub-like larva.
the Macroura,
is hatched
as

the

same

sub-order

of crabs,

Fritz
same

Miiller form
has the
;

remarks, the river cray-fish

which it
ever

under

the

afterwards
a

tains; re-

the young Palsemon under forms Some from

in the
one

lobster under

divided form how

legs, like
of
a

Mysis;

the

appears

Zoea, and
to

Peneus

the

orm ISTauplius-f

and

wonderfully these larval

every

differ from other the

same

one

another, is known
as

naturalist.

crustaceans,

the

same

middle

point and arrive at of their development

Still
more

observes, start end, but nearly the same

are

author

widely different from

could the be

another.
to

striking observes,

cases

given with
or

respect

the

Echinodermata. Allman

With
"

Medusae

jellyof the

fishes Professor

The

classification

be a comparatively simple task if, as has Hydroids would been erroneously asserted, generically-identicalmedusoids from polypoids; and, on generically-identical always arose polypoids always the other hand, that generically-identical medusoids." So again, origin to generically-identical gave " In the life-historyof the Strethill Wright remarks, Dr.
"i

Fritz

win,' 1864, authority

fessor (' Annal.

Miiller's s. 65, 71.

on

'

Fiir

Dar-

series,
on

Zoolo.c.,

The

highest
Pro-

the

crustaceans,
Sci.

morphosis
era.

iii. p. torn. 322) in the metadiCference of closely-allied gen-

'Milne-Edwards,
des

insists 2nd Nat.,'

354

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

in which the same in many diseases exact ously shown points on the right and left sides of the body are similarly affected ; thus Sir J. Paget gives a drawing of a diseased into a most complicated pelvis,in which the bone has grown
'"'

pattern, but
is not

"

there

is not

one

spot
as

or

line

on

one a

side which

represented, as

exactly
this

it would

be in

mirror,

on

the other."

Many
each

facts support element

view

of the

independent life of

insists that a body. Virchow become single bone-corpuscle or a single cell in the skin may The of a cock, after being inserted into the diseased. spur and acquired a v/eight of of an ear ox, lived for eight years, 396 grammes (nearly fourteen ounces), and the astonishing length of twenty-four centimetres, or about nine inches; so that the head of the ox The appeared to bear three horns." of its back, tail of a pig has been grafted into the middle inserted a piece of and reacquired sensibility. Dr. Oilier dog under the skin of periosteum from the bone of a young of similar true bone was developed. A multitude a rabbit, and of hairs facts could be given. The frequent presence teeth of the second of perfectly developed teeth, even and facts leading to the same are dentition, in ovarian tumours,'*'' minute
^^

of

the

conclusion.
"

Mr.

Lawson
were

Tait

refers

to

tumour

in

which

over

300
;

teeth
"

found,
from
one

resembling
"

in

many

respects
which had

milk-teeth
grown

and

to another

tumour,

full of hair

and the had

been

shed
my

than
sac,

tip of

little spot of skin not of hair little finger. The amount

a a

bigger
in the

would

it grown have taken

from almost of the cell

or

similarly sized
lifetime
to grow

area

of the

scalp,

and

be shed." elements
a

Whether of the body

more

each is
a

innumerable the modified if

so

autonomous

product of
a

cell,is
be walls

doubtful
the

question, even
as

wide

definition without cellula

des
e

given
and

to

term,

to

include

cell-like bodies of omnis

laire,
ii.
pp.
'

without
36

nuclei.*" The
'

doctrine

celluld is

Paget,

Surgical

Pathology,'

Hist,

p.

19.
37

549,
484. of

560,

Mantegazza's innesti work, Degli interesting 1865, p. Auimali,' "c.,' Milano, 3. 51, tab.
Professor
'

k'^r

ibid., p.

torn, Anomalies,' 562; Virchow, Lawson The Tait,

'

Pathology
Ovaries,'
^^

Diseases
pp. most
see

of

the

1874,
the of
*

61, 62.
recent Ernst

For

3s

'

De

flcielle des 39 Isidore

la Os,'

Production p. 8.

Arti-

Geoffrey

Saint-Hi-

cation el's Band

cells, Generelle
s.

classiflHiick-

Morpholog.,'
275.

ii., 1866,

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

355
mals.*" ani-

admitted

for Thus

plants, and
Virchow,

widely prevails with respect

the

to

theory, whilst
every
atom

allowing that

of the cellular great supporter difficulties exist, maintains that

of tissue

is derived

from

eelb, and

these

from

and these primarily from the egg, which pre-existing cells, he regards as a great cell. That cells,still retaining the is adby self-division or proliferation, same mitted nature, increase But when one. an organism undergoes by every during development, the cells, great changes of structure which at each stage are supposed to be directlyderived from likewise be greatly changed must previously existing cells, this change is attributed by the supporters of the in nature; cellular doctrine and cells and
not to to any
some

inherent

power

which Others

external

agency. may

the cells sess, posmaintain that

tissues of all kinds

pre-existing cells,from
view
may

formed, independently of ever Whichplasticlymph or blastema.

every
one

be

be

correct,

admits

that

the

body

consists their
own

of

multitude

of organic units, all of which

are

possess

proper

attributes, and
Hence

to

certain

extent
to

dependen inuse

of all others.

it will be

convenient

cells or organic units,or simply units. the terms indifferently in InherUance. We have the seen VariahUlty and ordinate twenty-second chapter that variabilityis not a principle cowith life or reproduction, but results from special conditions changed generally from acting during causes, duced successive generations. The fluctuating variabilitythus inis apparently due in part to the sexual system being imj^otent; and easily affected, so "'that it is often rendered when not so seriously affected, it often fails in its proper of the parents function of transmitting truly the characters to the offspring. But variability is not necessarilyconnected
"

with

the sexual

system,
we are

as

we

see

in

the

cases

of bud-variation.
nature

Although
connection,
from
many

seldom

able to trace of
structure

the
no

of the result

deviations

doubt

changed conditions acting directlyon the organisation, In stances insome independently of the reproductive system. of this, when feel sure all,or nearly all the we may which have been similarly exposed are similarly individuals
*^

Dr.

W.

ent

Aspect

PresThe Turner, Patholoof Cellular

'

gy,'

'

Edinburgh

Medical

Jour^

nal," April, 18G3"

856
and

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

have been of wliich several instances definitely affected, clear why the offspring should given. But it is by no means of the parents to new conditions, be affected by the exposure that several generations in most and why it is necessary cases should have been thus exposed. explain the inherited effects of the we How, again, can duck The domesticated disuse of particular organs? use or flies less and bones have
manner

walks

more

than

the and

wild

duck, and
in
a

its limb-

become
in

diminished

increased those of the

ing correspondduck. A similar

becomes

comparison with
to certain paces,

wild

horse

is trained

and

the colt inherits rabbit

consensual
tame

movements.

The

domesticated the

from

close confinement; with

man;

the

sociating asdog, intelligentfrom retriever is taught to fetch and

bodily powders are all inherited. Nothing in the whole circuit of physiology is disuse of a particular the use wonderful. How or can more limb or of the brain affect a small aggregate of reproductive
carry;

and

these

mental

endowments

and

cells,seated in a distant part of the body, in such a manner characthat the being developed from these cells inherits the ters
of
answer

either
to

one

or

both

question would shown that it was In the chapters devoted to inheritance of newly-acquired characters, whether multitude injurious a vital lowest of the whether tance, imporor highest beneficial, or often frequently even faithfully transmitted are when peculiarity; and some new one parent alone possesses is the rule, that inheritance conclude the whole we on may instances acter In some the anomaly. a charand non-inheritance
this
"

an parents? Even be satisfactory.

imperfect

is not

inherited, from
to

the

conditions

of life being

rectly di-

instances, from development; in many with as the conditions incessantly inducing fresh variability, maining grafted fruit-trees and highly-cultivatedflowers. In the rebe attributed to reversion,by the failure may cases remote its grandparents or more the child resembles which progenitors, instead of its parents. Characters laws. various is governed by Inheritance at a first appear which at any particular age tend to reappear associated with certain They often become corresponding age.

opposed

its

seasons

of the year,

and

reappear

in the

offspringat

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

357

corresponding
one

season.

sex,
same

they tend

to

rather late in life in they appear exclusively in the same at sex reappear
/

If

the

The the
proves most

period of life. principle of reversion,recently alluded

wonderful
us

to,/sone
and

of It

of

the

attributes of
a

of

Inheritance.

to

that

the transmission

character thus
powers

its developmen

which
are cases are even

ordinarily go together and

distinct
powers;

escape

criminati dissome cessive suc-

and

these
acts
a

in

antagonistic,for each
is not unusual
occurs so or

alternatelyin
rare

generations. Reversion
on some

event,

ing depend-

favourable

combination

of circumstances,

but

plants, and evidently an

We
know

and regularly with crossed animals breeds, that it is frequently with uncrossed so essential part of the principle of inheritance. conditions
in the
case

that changed
as

have

the

power

characters, long-lost
The
act

of animals

evoking becoming feral.

in
a

of

degree.
which

of crossing in itself possesses wonderful be more What can

this power
than that

high

disappeared during scores, or perfectly of generations, should suddenly reappear thousands of pigeons and fowls, both when developed, as in the case crossed; or as with the purely bred and especially when
have zebrine

characters, hundreds, or even

stripeson

dun-coloured
come are

horses, and
this
same

other

such
as

cases? when

monstrosities Many rudimentary organs

under

head,

redeveloped, or when an organ which believe was possessed by an early progenitor of the must we is left,suddenly reappears, species,but of which not a rudiment in some Scrophulariceae. We with the fifth stamen as in bud-reproduction; acts reversion that have already seen that it occasionally acts during the growth of know and we
the
same

individual

but animal, especially,

"

of crossed

parentage,
of their

as

in the

rare

cases

exclusively, if described of fowls,

not
to

pigeons, cattle, and

of
years.
one

rabbits, which
parents
or

have

reverted
as

the

ours colin

ancestors

they advanced

We

are

led to which

believe,

as

formerly explained,that
a

every

character form male

in

each

is present in occasionally reappears manner generation, in nearly the same

latent
as

in

and

female
sex

animals and

the

secondary
to

characters evolved

of

the the

opposite

lie latent

ready

be

when

858

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XX

VII.

reproductive organs are injured. This comparison of the lie latent in both sexes, secondary sexual characters which with other latent characters, is the more appropriate from
the
case

recorded

of

Hen,

which
own

assumed
race,

some

of
an

the

masculine

characters,
she thus

not

of her

but

of time

earlyevery

progenitor; living
Plow this
power

exhibited characters

at

the of

same

the In

development re-

of
creature

latent
we

both that
a

kinds. host of

may to

feel assured be evolved

long-lost

characters

ready proper and with other facts, connect intelligible we can and wonderful common capacity of reversion, this of calling back to life long-lostcharacters?
lie make
"

under

conditions.

Part I have would

This
can now

II. chief facts

some

enumerated
to
see we

the

which

every

one

desire

connected
make in

be done, if be

bond. intelligible the following assumptions, and

by

much

may

advanced

favour

of

the

chief

one.

The

likewise be supported by various secondarj^assumptions can is It physiological considerations. iiniversally admitted that the cells or units of the body increase by self-division or mately proliferation, retaining the saine nature, and that they ultibecome

converted

into

the

various this
means

tissues

and

stances subI
are

of the
assume

body.
units

But

besides

of increase

that

the

throw

off minute

granules which

dispersed throughout the whole system; that these, when supplied with proper nutriment, multiply by self-division, and are ultimately developed into units like those from which These be they were originally derived. granules may called gcmmules. They are collected from all parts of the the sexual elements, and their developto constitute system ment in the next forms but generation a new being; they likewise of transmission in dormant are state to capable a future then be developed. Their velopmen degenerations and may veloped depends on their union with other partially decells which nascent or precede them in the regular of growth. course union, will be seen Why I use the term when discuss the direct action of pollen on the tissues of we the mother-plant. Gemmules are o"[ supposed to be thrown

Chap.

XXVII.

OP

PAXGENESIS.

359

by

every

unit, not

eacli stage of

only during the adult state, but during development of every organism; but not necessarily
the same the gemmulcs in their dormant for each other,leading to their affinity that
or

during

the

continued

existence

of

unit.
state gation aggre-

Lastly, I
have
a

assume

mutual into

buds

into

the sexual
or

elements. which
each

Ilr'nce,it is
new ganisms, orposed. com-

not

the reproductive organs but the units of These which

similar

buds

generate

which

individual

is

assumptions
I have

the provisional called Pangenesis. Views in many

constitute

thesis hypospects re-

have

been
to

prepomided

by various

authors."

Before
are

proceeding
in themselves

how far these assumpshow, firstly, tions probable, and secondly,how far they
groups to

connect
we are

and

explain the various

it may

of facts with

which

concerned,
as

be useful

give

an

illustration, as

simple
be
mass

of the possible,

formed, as it appears of homogeneous gelatinous matter,

thrown oif from
any

hypothesis. If one of the Protozoa under the microscope, of a small

a

minute

particle or
under if

gemmule

part and
to

nourished

vourabl fa-

circumstances and lower the upper each other and from

"

would surfaces

reproduce the whole; but

were

differ in texture

from

the central

portion,then all three parts

organs

C FortLewes Nov. 1, 1SG8, p. of number remarks 506) the on ly nearwriters wlio advanced liave two similar More views. than Aristotle thousand years ago of tliis liind, combated view a Dr. I hear from W. wliich, as Mr. G. H.

is
sav.^

not

clear.

Professor
of p. brates.' Verte-

nierhtly Review,'

Owen

(' Anatomv

vol. he fails difference

which
'

ill.,1868.
see any betwecu

to he

813) that fundamental

the in views

proi"onnded
'

his

rartheiK.-i-eiu'sis
and wliifh he and
erroneous,

(1S49.
imw

8),
as

.''.pp. considers reviewer

Ogle,
and

was

held
'

by
in

Hippocrates
his
'

uiy but
a

hypoihesis

others. of God
says

R.iv. that
"

dom "Wisp.

of

pangenesis:

(2iid edit., 1692,

to
"

68),
the

body
to

seems

every club

part
and
The

of
tribute con-

the

seed." of edit,

ganic "or-

molecules

(' Hist.
tom.

Nat.

Gen.,'
54.
at the but

Buffon of 1749,

ii. pp.
appear
same as

62.
first

425)
the

.329, 333, 420, be to sight

of
my
tially essen-

of and I'llvs..' Anat. (' Journal ii-.w sIk.ws 441) 1S69. May. p. I fordifferent they really are. the that logical "physiomei'ly thought units of Herbert Spenof r Principles P.iology.' vol. cc'r iv. and viii.. 1m;3 t'.4) i., chaps,
"

were

the I
now case. .1

sanie

as

hypothesis,
d'Hist.

gemmules are they

Bonnet

but

know

my that

ireiuniiiles.
this It the Is
n"t

different.

1781,
the for

tom. Nat.,' part v., 4to edit., p. 334) speaks

(TEuvres i.,
of

the from
work

Lastly,
review
Prrtfessor

tippears

of

by (' Nuova'
1868).
di that

jiresent Mantegazza
'

Antologia,
he (in his

limbs adapted having germs the of all possible reparation but these whether losses; germs with to be the same are supposed those the buds and sexual within

Mau'irin,' Klemi'Mll

Igiene,'
foresaw

Ediz. the

cleariil.. p. ri4(ti ly of doctrine genesis. pan-

57

360
would have

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap. XXVII.

to

throw

off

gemmules,
form

which

when
or

aggregated
ments, ele-

by mutual
and

would affinity would

either buds

the sexual

ganism. ultimately be developed into a similar orof view may be extended to one Precisely the same the higher animals; although in this case thousand many off from the various be thrown gemmules must parts of the body at each stage of development; these gemmules being with cells in due developed in union pre-existing nascent

order

of succession.

Physiologistsmaintain, as we have seen, that each unit of the body, though to a large extent dependent on others, is likewise to a certain extent and independent or autonomous, has the power of increasing by self-division. I go one step that each unit casts oil free gemmules further, and assume v.hich are dispersed throughout the system, and are capable conditions under of being developed into similar proper units. Nor this assumption be considered can gratuitous as is and manifest that the sexual elements improbable. It of some and buds include formative matter kind, capable of from know the production of development; and we now is dispersed throughout the graft-hybrids that similar matter with that of another and tissues of plants, and can combine in distinct plant, giving rise to a new being, intermediate
character.
on

We the

know

also that

the male

element

can

act

rectly di-

partiallydeveloped tissues of the mother-plant,

progeny

and

on

the

future Avhich

of female

animals.

The

tive forma-

dispersed throughout the tissues of is capable of being developed into each plants, and which and unit be generated there by some or part, must means; consists of minute chief assumption is that this matter my particlesor gemmules cast off from each unit or cell." that the gemmules in their But I have further to assume selves undeveloped state are capable of largely multiplying themDelby self-division, like independent organisms. " of multiplication by fissiparity admit pino insists that to is repugnant in corpuscles,analogous to seeds or buds
matter

is thus

...

"

Mr.

(' Journal

scopical

MicroQneekett 23, 1870) Sept. Club,'

Lowne of

has

observed

possible
isms
the minute
are

that organs sometimes

and

organ-

aggregation
gemmules,
Mr. Darwin's

by developed of excessively
such
as

remarkable certain of tissues the the him which makes

changes
larva of
a
"

in

tiiose

fly,
it

believe

which demands."

hypothesis

8G2
the

PROVISIONAL

PIYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

smallest
as

ovule, and
some

within and

each

spermatozoon
an

or

pollenand

grain, and
number minuteness But how
any manj^

animals

plants produce
the ovules,""* be the
the

ing astonish-

pollen-grains and of the gemmules must

considering
go to

of

number

ble. something inconceivamolecules smallest

are,

how

minute of

and

the

formation

granule of

with ordinary substance, this difficulty respect to the is not the data arrived at gemmules insuperable. From by Sir W. Thomson, son George finds the cube of TTroisiy my of an inch of glass or water 16 million consist of between must

millions, and
No doubt

131

thousand of which

million
an

million

molecules.

the molecules

larger,from

being more substance, and probably many of a gemmule; but when we

roTisir

are organism is formed complex, than those of an inorganic

molecules bear smaller

in

go

to

the formation
a

m.ind

that

cube

of

of
or

an

inch
we

is
can

much
see

than

any

ovule
one

bud,

what

vast

number

pollen-grain, of gemmules

of these The

bodies

might

contain.

be must gemmules derived from each part or organ We thoroughly dispersed throughout the whole system. a minute fragment of a leaf of know, for instance, that even a Begonia will reproduce the whole plant; and that if a fresh-water is chopped into small pieces,each will reproduce worm the whole animal. Considering also the minuteness of the gemmules and the permeability of all organic tissues, the thorough dispersion of the gemmules is not surprising. That without the aid of be readily transferred matter may have a good instance vessels from part to part of the body, we recorded in a case by Sir J. Paget of a lady, whose hair lost attack of neuralgia and recovits colour at each successive ered of a few days. it again in the course With ever, plants,howand probably with compound animals, such as corals,
""

Mr.

F.

Bncklnnfl

867,840 egffs and Water,'

Ascaris

in

cod-tish
p.

1868,
'

about produces Phys.,' (Carpenter's Comp. eggs Mr. J. 3854. Scott, of 590). p. of tbe Botanic Garden Royal in the calculated, Edinburgli,
same some manner as

found 6.(' Land An 62). 64.000,000

an

and Acropera to be 371,250. several produces raceme,

a

found

Now
flowers

the this

ber num-

plant
on a

and
season.

many In

racemes an

ing durgenus,

allied

have

done

for

British

Orchids
p.

of number

Orchids,'
of

seeds

in

tion (' Fertilisa344), the of capsule

Mr. Scott has seen Gongora, a on cnpsules twenty produced such ten racemes single raceme; the would on yield Acropera above of millions seventy-four

seed.

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

3O3

the

ordinarilyspread from bud to bud, but confined to the parts developed from each separate bud; are and of this fact no explanation can be given. elective affinity assumed The of each gemnmle for that cell which precedes it in due order of development particular is supported by many (jf analogies. In all ordinary cases sexual reproduction, the male and female elements certainly mutual have a affinityfor each other: thus, it is believed thousand that about ten species of Composita? exist, and that if the pollen of all these species doubt be no there can could be simultaneously or successivelyplaced on the stigma would elect with of any tainty species,this one one unerring cerall is the more its own pollen. This elective capacity
wonderful,
as

gemmules

do not

it must

have

been

acquired since the

off from of sexual

many
a common

cies spe-

of of this great group progenitor. On any view the formative ovules of and the male
matter

plants branched
of the nature of each
act
on

tion, reproducwithin the

law
some

part contained
each other

element

by

that corresponding parts affect one other; anso special affinity, by a cow thus, a calf produced from a short-horned long-horned bull has its horns affected by the union of the two forms, and the offspring from two birds with differently

coloured The

tails have various

their tails affected. of the

body plainly show, as many affinity for special organic insisted,*" have an physiologists natural foreign to the body, We see or substances, whether the from this in the cells of the kidneys attracting urea Lytta vesicatoria affecting certain nerves; blood; in curare
tissues the
as

kidneys;

and

the

poisonous

matter

of various

diseases,

drophob small-pox, scarlet-fever,hooping-cough,glanders, and hyaffecting certain definite parts of the body. that the development of each assumed It has also been
unit

depends on its union with another cell or cedes preits development, and which has just commenced which matter formative That the it in due order of growth. by our hypothesisconsists within the pollen of plants,which deunite with and modify the partially of gemmules, can gemmule
"

Paget,
p.

'Lectures

on

ologv'
hir

tninslat: by Pathologv:'
pp.

27;

Virchow,

Path'ColinDr.

PP-

Dos I^er.|nrd 210, .li"

'

Tissns Mnllor
.

I'J,

yiv"nt^
s

I m\m

ology,'

Eng.

trauslat.,

p.

.1)0.

Chance,

123, 126, 294;

Claude

364:

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

in the veloped cells of the mother-plant, we have clearlyseen section devoted to this subject. As the tissues of plants are formed, as far as is known, only by the proliferationof preexisting

cells,we
from and the

must

conclude
not

that become

the

gemmules

derived

foreign pollen do

but separate cells,

developed into new cells penetrate and modify the nascent

with be compared mother-plant. This process may what takes place in the act of ordinary fertilisation, during of the pollen-tubes penetrate which the closed the contents the developembryonic sac within the ovule, and determine ment of the embryo. According to this view, the cells of the almost literally be said to be fertilised by mother-plant may the gemmules derived from the foreign pollen. In this case in due and in all others the proper combine gemmules must order with pre-existing nascent owing to their elective cells, in nature ajffinities. A slight difference between the gemmules and the nascent cells would be far from interfering with their mutual union and development, for we well know in the case of ordinary reproduction that such entiation slight differ-

of the

in the sexual their union and

elements

favours

in
as

marked

manner

development, of the offspring thus produced.

subsequent
far
we

well

as

the vigour

by the aid of our hypothesis obscure to throw have some light on the problems which before us; but it must be confessed that many come points remain Thus it is useless to speculate altogether doubtful. at what period of development each unit of the body casts off its gemmules, the whole as subject of the development of
the various whether
means

Thus

have

been

able

tissues is

as

yet far from

are

clear.

We

do not

know

the
at

whether

unknown merely collected by some within certain seasons the reproductive organs, or after being thus collected they rapidly multiply the flow of blood
to

gemmules

there,
season

as

to

these

organs

at
we

each know

seems

render

probable. Nor
buds in certain of trees the

do

breeding why the

We and have
tear
or

gemmules
to the
no means

collect to form

definite and

ing places,lead-

symmetrical growth
of

corals.
wear

deciding whether
is made

ordinary

of

the

tissues

merely by the

of gemmules, by means proliferationof pre-existing cells. If

good

the

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

3^,5

gemmules
intimate and

are

thus

consumed,
between
more

as

seems

probable from

the

connection

the

development, and
which
many

repair of waste, re-gro\vtli, especially from the periodical

changes

male

animals

undergo

in

colour

and

then be thrown some the phelight would structure, on nomena of old age, with its lessened power of reproduction of the repair of injuries, and and the obscure ject subon of do not

longevity. The
cast

fact

of

castrated

animals, which

to

gemmules in the act of reproduction, than perfect males, seems not being longer-lived opposed in the ordinary rethe belief that gemmules are consumed pair
of wasted

off innumerable

tissues; unless
in

indeed

the

gemmules
the

after

being
organs

collected
are

small

numbers

within

reproductive
a

there

largely multiplied.^"
cells
or

That and union

cases

the

same

units

may

live for

long period
their

continue

multiplying without being modified by with free gemmules of any kind, is probable from
that of the spur of
a

such

as

cock which

grew

to

an

enormous

size when

far units are How grafted into the ear of an ox. modified growth by absorbing peculiar during their normal from the surrounding tissues, independently of nutriment of a distinct nature, is another with gemmules their union ing by calldoubtful point.''We shall appreciate this difficulty what to mind complex yet symmetrical growths the cells inoculated by the poison of a gall-insect. of plants yield when and tumours are various polypoid excrescences animals With eration, generally admitted'' to be the direct product, through prolifof normal the
as

cells which

have

become

abnormal.

In

regular growth and

Virchow

repair of bones, the tissues undergo, stitution series of permutations and subremarks,'' a whole rect " be converted by a diThe cartilage cells may
into

transformation

marrow-cells, converted
bone.
"

and
osseous

continue and

as

such; or they into medullary

into
"o

may

first be
; or

into
may

then

tissue

they lastly,
So
Dr
in

first be converted
are

marrow

and

then

into

variable
Ross Ins
'

the

persuh1 Mson lo-

Professor Ray several discussed has to referred points here his in pangenesis,
essay,

Lankester the of
as

ject
ease
=^

this to rofers of Graft 'Iheorj

bearing Longev-

interesting
Lower

1S"J, p. Virchow,
trans

'On
Man

Comparative
and pp. the

gy,'

ity in mals,'

Anl-

1870,

33, 77, "c,

PPvGO "

^02.

iV?',y;''i;S ;,,r'' ^^^' l"^_I^''-,/^''i"^^' 4..4. 24... 441

41J-420.

"'";"

p.,ni.,

jbid., pp.

366
mutations yet But in
as

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap. XXVII.

of these their these

in themselves tissues,
appearance
so

external tissues

and nearly allied, completely distinct."

so

without
in

at any change their nature obvious change in their nutrition,we must any accordance with our hypothesis that gemmules
one

thus

age, pose sup-

rived deother an-

from

kind
cause reason

of tissue combine the successive

with

the

cells of

kind, and
We have

modifications.

good

to believe

that several
one

gemmules
same

are or

requisite for the development of

cell; for
of
a we

and

the the

unit

single

insufficiency pollen-grains or spermatozoa. But far from whether the we are knowing mules gemof all the units are free and separate from one another,
cannot
or even

otherwise of
two

understand three

or

or

whether A

some

are

from

the first united

a

into

small

gates. aggre-

complex structure, and, each separate part is liable to inherit variations,I conas clude that each feather of gemgenerates a large number mules but it is that these be into possible a aggregated ; may The remark the to same compound gemmule. applies petals of flowers,which sometimes are highly complex structures, w^th each ridge and hollow contrived for a special purpose, that each part must have been separatelymodified, and the so modifications transmitted; consequently, separate gemmules, have been thrown off from according to our hypothesis, must
each
or a

feather, for instance, is

cell

or

unit.

But,

as

we

sometimes

see

half

an

anther

portion of a filament becoming petali-form, or stripes of the calyx assuming the colour and parts or mere of the corolla,it is probable that with texture petals the gemmules of each cell are not aggregated together into a Even in so compound gemmule, but are free and separate. that of a perfect cell, with its protoplasmic as simple a case do not know nucleus, nucleolus, and walls, we contents, whether not its development depends on or a comjoound gemmule
derived from each

small

part."

S4

endeavoured that the several foreto show going Having now gous assumptions are to a certain extent supported by analoof the most doubtful facts, and having alluded to some
"

this

See head

some

by

criticisms good Delpino, and by

on

G.

H,

Lewes

in

the

'

Fortnightly

Mr.

Review,'

Nov.

1, 1868, p. 509.

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

3^7

points,we will consider how far the hypothesis brings under in the enumerated single point of view the various cases a All the forms of reproduction graduate into First Part. in their product; for it is impossible and agree another one to distinguish between organisms produced from buds, from
self-division, or from fertilised
same

germs; nature

such and
to

organisms
reversions

are

liable to variations the

same

of the
as,

of

according to our hypothesis, all the the aggregation of gemof reproduction depend on forms the whole derived from understand this mules body, we can remarkable Parthenogenesis is no longer wonderful, agreement.
kind;
and and the union
if
we

did not sexual

know

that great derived be that

good followed
from
two

from

of the

elements would

distinct

parthenogenesis did oftener it does. On much than not occur ordinary any of graft-hybrids, and theory of reproduction the formation
the action of the male well
as on

individuals,the wonder

element the future

on

the tissues of the motherprogeny

plant, as
are

of female

on they are intelligible The do not actually create the rei^roductiveorgans the aggregation and sexual elements; they merely determine ner. perhaps the multiplication of the gemmules in a special manThese however, together with their accessory organs, to perform. They adapt one or parts, have high functions for independent temporary both elements existence, and for mutual union. The stigmatic secretion acts on the pollen of a plant of the same species in a wholly different manner it does on the pollen of one tinct to what belonging to a disor family. The spermatophores of the Cephalopoda genus merly forwonderfully complex structures, which are were mistaken for parasitic worms; the spermatozoa and

great anomalies; but

animals, our thesis. hypo-

of in

some an

animals

possess

attributes be

which,
put
the

if

observed
to

independent animal, would guided by sense-organs, as

"

down

stinct in-

when the

spermatozoa

of

an

insect

find

their

w^ay

into

minute

micropyle of

the egg. The certain

^^

antagonism which exceptions, between

Herbert

long been observed," with of sexual growth and the power

has
has uisru.

Mr.

Spencer
vol.

(' Priu-

fully discussed

this

antago-

ciples of

Biology,'

ii, p.

430)

368

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

repair of injuries and gemmation and with plants, between zomes, rapid increase by buds, rhi"c., and the production of seed, is partly explained for these by the gemmules not existing in sufficient numbers to be carried on simultaneously. processes wonderful than the Hardly any fact in physiology is more
" "

reproduction

between

the

power to

of re-growth;

for instance, that

snail

should

be able

its eyes, tail, and legs, reproduce its head, or a salamander exactly at the points where they have been cut oil. Such of gemmules derived from cases are explained by the presence each part, and disseminated throughout the body. I have heard with the process that of the repair of the compared broken the two angles of a crystal by re-cr;^^stallisation ; and
processes

have

this

much

in

common,

that

in

the

one

case

polarity of the molecules is the efficient cause, and in the other the affinityof the gemmules for particular nascent have here to encounter cells. But two we objections which dividual apply not only to the re-growth of aj)art, or of a bisected inbut to fissiparous generation and budding. The is reproduced is in the first objection is that the part which has same stage of development as that of the being which of buds, that been operated on or bisected; and in the case the new beings thus produced are in the same stage as that of the budding parent. Thus a mature salamander, of which does not reproduce a larval tail ; and the tail has been cut off, of budding crab does not reproduce a larval leg. In the case a it was in the first part of this chapter that the shown new being thus produced does not retrograde in development, that is, does not pass through those earlier stages, which
the
"

the

fertilised

germ

has
on

to
or

pass

through.

Nevertheless, the by
by
form also

organisms
^"

operated
salmon
a

multiplying themselves
which
a

buds

to The

The breed
Triton

male
at and

is

known
a.e?e.

produces

budding
of
dusa: me-

very

early

retaining according
(' Annals Hist.,'
are

whilst larval branchife, their Dumeril to Filippi and and Nat. of Mag. Siredon,

3rd

series,
of

capable
Haeckel

1866, p. 157), reproduction.

has Akad.

tive,
widely
power

different latter and this of sexual

has shown

has

the

reproduction.
and
3rd

Krohn

(' Annals

Mag.

of

Nat.

Hist.,'

series,

vol. other

Ernst

recently
Wiss. observed

(' Monatsbericht Berlin,' Feb.

the

certain p. 6) that whilst sexually medusae, by gemmae. mature, propagate Sec, also, Koliiker, Morphologie

xix., 1862,

'

2nd,

1865)

und

of a case medusa, surprising with its reproductive acorgans

Pennatulidenstauames,

Entwickelungsgeschichte 1872,

des p.

12.

370
derived from

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

parts modified
to

during maturity

can

pass

into

the ovules. With

most

respect
the

hybridism, pangenesis
facts. We
must

agrees

well

with
viously pre-

of

ascertained

believe, as

gemmules are requisite for the shown, that from the occurrence But development of each cell or unit. from those of parthenogenesis, more in cases esi^ecially infer that which an embryo is only partiallyformed, we may the female element generally includes gemmules in nearly for independent development, so that when sufficient number the gemmules element united with the male are dant. superabuncrossed reciprotwo are Now, when species or races cally, the offspring do not commonly differ, and this shows
that the sexual elements
agree

several

in
same

power,

in accordance

with

the view

that both
are

inclu.de the

gemmules.

Hybrids and

mongrels
one

also

the two

in character tween begenerally intermediate semble parent-forms, yet occasionallythey closely rein
one

parent
or even

part and
admission

the

other
: nor

parent

in

other an-

part,
to

in their whole
on are one

structure

is this difficult

understand

the

that
in

the

gemmules
and

in that

fertilised germ those derived from

the

superabundant
parent
over

number,
some

may

have

advantage in
from the the other colour
or

number,
parent.
other this

vigour or affinity,
Crossed forms

those

derived exhibit

sometimes

characters
occurs

of either parent in in the first generation, and seminal

stripes or blotches; and or through reversion in

fact several these
essence cases
"

succeeding bud
instances
we
"

generations, of which

were

given

in the eleventh

chapter.
that which the

In
"

must

follow
"

Naudin,^' and
species,
" "

admit
terms

or

element

of the two

I should

late trans-

for their own affinity kind, and thus separate themselves into distinct stripesor blotches ; and reasons were given, when discussing in the fifteenth chapter the incompatibility of certain characters to unite, for forms two believing in such mutual affinity. When are is not mission crossed,one rarely found to be prepotent in the transan

into the

gemmules,

have

of

its characters

over

the the

other; and
one

this has

we

can

explain by again assuming

"

that

fomi
du

some

adi. p.

on

See this

his

subject

excellent in

discussion
'

Archives
151.

Museum,'

torn.

Nouvelles

CuAP.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

3Y;|

vantage
its
are

over

the

other
some one

in the
cases,

gemmules.
present
there in is

In the
a

number, vigour, or affinity of certain however, characters

latent
in in all stance, other; for inpigeons to become of any

form

and

the

blue, and, when colour,

the

tendency a pigeon is crossed with one blue tint is generally prepotent. The
blue when

latent

other

explanation
we come

of this form

of prepotency will be obvious of Reversion. the consideration When

two not

to

distinct

species are

crossed, it is notorious

that

number yield the full or proper of offspring; and we can only say on this head that, as the development of each organism depends on such nicely-balanced affinities host of gemmules and nascent between need not a we cells, that all the feel at commixture of gemmules derived surprised from distinct species should lead to partial or complete two With failure of development. of hyrespect to the sterility brids the union of two distinct species it produced from shown in the nineteenth chapter that this depends exwas clusively the on reproductive organs being speciallyaffected; should these be thus affected we but why do not organs of life, than conditions more know, any "why unnatural though compatible w^th health, should cause sterility; or close interbreeding,or the illegitimate unions why continued of heterostyled plants, induce result. The the same clusion conthat the reproductive organs and alone are affected, the whole not organisation, agrees perfectly with the unincreased imi^aired or even capacity in hybrid plants for propagation by buds; for this implies, according to our off hybridised hypothesis, that the cells of the hybrids throw gemmules, which become aggregated into buds, but fail to become aggregated within the reproductive organs, so

they do

as

to

form

the sexual

elements. under

In

similar

manner

many

to plants, placed We readily be propagated by buds. produce seed, but can the well with shall presently see that pangenesis agrees strong tendency to reversion exhibited by all crossed animals and plants. i Each organism reaches maturity through a longer ot\ terra the former shorter course of growth and development: of size, and increase development being confined to mere

when

unnatural

conditions, fail

372
to

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap. XXVII,

The and sensibly inbe small changed structure. changes may child grows into a man, a or slow, as when many, and in the metamorphoses of certain ephemslight, as abrupt, erous insects,or, again, few and strongly-marked, as with other insects. Each most be moulded newly formed part may within a previouslj"existing and corresponding part, and it will appear, in this case veloped falsely as I believe, to be de-

from distinct

the
of
eye,

old

part;

or

it may in

be
extreme

formed
cases

within

part
An

the

body, as for instance,

the
may

of metagenesis.
at
a

be

developed

spot

We have that also seen previously existed. allied organic beings in the course of their metamorphoses sometimes attain nearly the same after passing structure through widely different forms; or conversely, after passing ent early forms, arrive at widely differthrough nearly the same
no

where

eye

mature

forms. view
power,

In

these

cases

it is very

the

common

that

the first-formed

difficult to accept cells or units possess

the inherent

of independently of any external agency, structures producing new wholly different in form, position, and function. But all these cases become plain on the hypothesis velopmen of pangenesis. The units, during each stage of deoff gemmules, throw which, multiplying, are the offspring, as transmitted to the offspring. In as soon partially developed, it particular cell or unit becomes any unites with (or, to speak metaphorically, is fertilised by) the But succeeding cell,and so onwards. gemmule of the next organisms have often been subjected to changed conditions of life at a certain stage of their development, and in consequence cast have been slightly modified; and the gemmules modified off from such parts will tend to reproduce parts This process be repeated in the same modified manner. may of the part becomes until the structure greatly changed at cessarily one particular stage of development, but this will not neaffect other parts, whether ly previously or subsequentformed.
In

this

manner

we

can

understand

the

able remark-

in the successive independence of structure and especiallyin the successive metageneses

phoses, metamor-

of many

animals.

during

however, of diseases which supei-vene old age, subsequently to the ordinary period of procreation, sometimes and inherited, which, nevertheless, are
In the
case,

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

373
must

as

occurs

with
organs

brain
were

and

heart

complaints,we
at
an

suppose

that
at

the

affected

early

age

and

threw

off

this

but that the affection beperiod affected gemmules; came visible or injurious only after the prolonged growth, strict
sense

in

the

of

the

word,

of

the

part.

In

all

the

changes
age, not
we

of structure

which

regularly

supervene

probably see the effects of deteriorated of true development. The principle of the independent formation of each part,
to

during old growth, and

owing
nascent

the

union

of

the

proper

gemmules

with

certain

superabundance of the gemmules from both parents, and derived the subsequent selflight on a multiplication of the gemmules, throws widely of facts, which different group view of on ordinary any I allude to organs which strange. development appears very abnormally transposed or multiplied. For instance, a are
curious
monstrous
case

together with cells,

the

has chicken

been with

recorded
a

by Dr.

Elliott

Coues

of

lated perfect additional right leg articuto the left side of the pelvis. Gold-fish often have pernumerary sufins placed on various parts of their bodies. the tail of a lizard is broken tail is someWhen off, a double times was reproduced; and when the foot of the salamander divided longitudinally by Bonnet, additional digits were casionally ocValentin formed. injured the caudal extremity it produced rudiof an ments embryo, and three days afterwards of a double pelvis and of double hind-limbs.^" When times frogs,toads, "c., are born with their limbs doubled, as someGervais the be remarks,''" cannot doubling, as happens, due to the complete fusion of two embryos, with the exception

of the

limbs, for the

is

larvae

are

limbless. insects

The

same

ment argu-

or

produced with legs or antennae, for these are metamorphosed from antennae-less larvae. Alphonse Milne-Edwards applicable
to
"

*^^

certain

ple multi-

apodal
has

scribed deeye-

the

curious

case

of

crustacean
a

in

which

one an

peduncle supported, instead

58
'

of

complete

eye,

only
'

im-

Proc.

Boston

See.
'

of

Nat.

in Scientific republished Nov. 10, 1869, p. 488. Opinion.' ^9 Auat. of Todd's Cvclop. and Phys.,' vol. iv., 1849-52, p. 975. "o Nov. 14, Rendus,' Comptes 1865, p. 800.

Hist.,'

"^ remarked by As previously his M"'^taniorin Quatrefages, de "c., 18G2, I'Homme,' phoses

'

p.

ea

129. Giinther's
p.

'

Zoological

Rec-

'

ord,' 1864,

279.

374

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap. XXVII.

and out of the centre of this a portion of an perfect cornea, of a man antenna was developed. A case has been recorded had during both dentitions double tooth in place of who a the left second incisor,and he inherited this peculiarityfrom ditional his paternal grandfather. Several cases knov/n of adare teeth having been developed in the orbit of the eye, and, mare casionally especially with horses, in the palate. Hairs oc**'
*"*

appear

in strange brain."
'^^

situations, as
breeds foreheads.

"

within

the

stance suba

of whole
spurs

the

Certain their

of As

sheep bear
many
as

crowd have

of horns been
seen on

on

five

In legs of certain Game-fowls. is ornajnented with a topknot of the Polish fowl the male his neck, whilst the female has a tophackles like those on knot In feather-footed of common feathers. formed pigeons and fowls, feathers like those on the wing arise from the Even the elemental side of the legs and toes. outer parts of feather may be transjDosed;for in the Sebastopol the same barbules are developed on the divided filaments of the goose, the stumps of the shaft. ImiDcrf ect nails sometimes on appear and it is an interesting fact amputated fingers of man ; the snake-like that with Saurians, which present a series of the with more and more imperfect limbs, the terminations " phalanges first disappear, the nails becoming transferred to their proximal remnants, not to parts which even are or phalanges." with of such frequent occurrence are Analogous cases plants that they do not strike us with sufiicient surprise. often proand are pistils, petals, stamens, Supernumerary duced.

both

*'"

^^

I have

seen

leaflet low

down

in the

compound

leaf

replaced by a tendril; and a tendril possesses and such as spontaneous movement peculiar properties, many either wholly or irritability. The calyx sometimes assumes, Stamens of the corolla. the colour and texture are by stripes, less completely, into petals,more or frequently converted so
of Vicia sativa
"3

Sedgwick,
Review,'

in

'

Medico-Chi-

translat.,
ca.se

vol.

i., 1833.
kind
to has
me.
'

p.

407.

rurg.
'

April, 1S63, p. 454. 6* Saint-Hilaire, Isid. Geoffrey torn, Hist, des Anomalies,' i., torn, li., 1832. 435, 657; and pp.
500.
85
'

this conmuinicated
"'

of

lately been

Dr.

chen,
lichen
'

Die KnoFiirbringer, etc., bei den schlangeniihn-

p.

Sauriern,'
of

as

Cellular Virchow, gy,' 1800, p. 66. "8 Miiller's Phys.,'

'

Patholo-

Journal

May,

1870,

Anat. p. 286.

in reviewed and Phys.,*

English

Chap, XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

375
not to

that
but

such
as

cases

are

petals have

passed over as special functions

organs,
to

deserving notice;
to
a

protect the included few cases to guide

we can

attract

perform, namely, and in not insects,

their

entrance

by well-adaptedcontrivances,

for the conversion hardly account of stamens into petals merely by unnatural or superfluous nourishment. Again, the edge of a petal may occasionallybe found including of the highest products of the plant, namely, pollen one ; for instance, I have seen the pollen-mass of an Ophrys, which is a very complex structure, developed in the edge of an upper of the calyx of the common petal. The segments have pea been observed into carpels, including partially converted ovules, and with their tips converted into stigmas. Mr. Salter and Dr. Maxwell Masters have found pollen within the ovules of the passion-flowerand of the rose. Buds be may developed in the most unnatural the petal of as positions, on flower. Numerous a analogous facts could be given."" I do not know how physiologists look at such facts as the foregoing. According to the doctrine of pangenesis, the become gemmules of the transposed organs developed in the cells or aggregates of place,from uniting with wrong wrong cells during
a

their nascent

state;

and

this would

follow

from

in their elective affinities. Nor slight modification ought to feel much we surprise at the affinities of cells and gemthe many mules remember curious cases we varying, when given in the seventeenth chapter, of plants which absolutely dantly refuse to be fertilised by their own pollen, though abun-

fertile with

that
cases

of any the

other

individual that of
a

of the distinct

same

species,and
It is
"

in

some

only with
sexual
term

cies. spe-

manifest
to
use

that the

elective

affinities of
"

have employed by Gartner As the cells of adjoining or homologous parts been modified. will have nearly the same nature, they will be particularly liable to acquire by variation each other's elective affinities; such

plants

and
a

we

can

thus

understand
on

to

certain

extent

such

cases

as

crowd
"s

of horns

the
'

heads

of certain
'Science The 369. describes of petal

sheep, of several
Oct..
J. M.

gie

Moquin-Tandon, Veg.,' 1841, pp.

case

218, 220,
the to

Teratolo353. pea,
see

Review,'
Rev. bnd

IST.*?, p.

the For ' Gardener's 897. With

of

Chron.,'
respect
see

18G6,

p.

pollen
Masters

with-

Berkeley a on developed a in Clarkia, Gard. a Chronicle,' April 28, 186(3.

*

lOi ovules,

Dr.

ia

376
spurs
on

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

the

legs of fowls, hackle-like

of other their

feathers the

on

the heads

of the feathers

males
on

fowls, and

with

pigeon wing-like

their toes, for between legs and membrane the leg is the homologue of the wing. of As all the organs axis, it is plants are homologous and spring from a common natural that they should be eminently liable to transposition. It ought to be observed that when compound part, any additional limb or an such as an springs from a antenna, false position, that the few first gemmules it is only necessary should be wrongly attached; for these whilst developing other gemmules in due succession, as in the would attract When are parts which re-growth of an amputated limb. in structure, of similar the vertebrae as homologous and snakes the stamens of polyandrous flowers, "c., are peated reor in the same times organism, closelyallied gemmany mules w^ell as the points to be extremely numerous, must as with which united; and, in accordance they ought to become understand the foregoing views, we to a certain extent can Isid. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire's law, that parts, which are already multiple, are extremely liable to vary in number.

Variability often depends, as I have attempted to show, the reproductive organs on being injuriously affected by the gemmules derived changed conditions; and in this case from the various parts of the body are probably aggregated in an irregularmanner, some superfluous and others deficient. Whether lead to the a superabundance of gemmules would increased size of any be told; but we part cannot can see that their partial deficiency, without necessarily leading to of the part, might cause the entire abortion considerable modifications; for in the same manner as plants, if their own pollen be excluded, are easilyhybridised, so, in the case of cells, if the properly succeeding gemmules were absent, would combine with other and allied they probably easily with transposed parts. gemmules, as we have just seen In variations caused by the direct action of changed conditions, of which several instances have been given, certain conditions, parts of the body are directlyaffected by the new off modified and consequently throw gemmules, which are On transmitted to the offspring. ordinary view it is uuany

378
A

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

that there have seen be here noticed; we difficulty may is an important difference in the frequency, though not in the nature, of the variations in plants propagated by sexual and asexual generation. As far as variabilitydepends on the of the under imperfect action reproductive organs at changed conditions, we why plants propacan see once gated be far should less variable than those asexually, gated propathe direct With action of to sexually. changed respect know that from buds do conditions, we organisms produced not pass through the earlier phases of development ; they will therefore not be exposed, at that period of life when structure is most ability readily modified, to the various causes inducing variin the same larval manner as are embryos and young this is a sufficient explanation I know forms; but whether
not.

"

reversion, there is a similar difference between plants propagated from buds and seeds. be propagated securely by buds, Many varieties can but their parent-forms to generally or invariably revert by seed. So, also,hybridised plants can be multiplied to any extent by buds, but are continually liable to reversion by seed, that is, to the loss of their hybrid or intermediate ter. characI can offer no satisfactoryexplanation of these facts. with Plants variegated leaves,phloxes with striped flowers, all be securely propagated barberries with seedless fruit,can by buds taken from the stem or branches; but buds from the of these plants almost roots invariably lose their character
respect
to to

With

variations

due

and

revert-

to their former

condition.

This

latter fact is also the bud

roots
on are as

inexplicable,unless
distinct from from those

buds
on

developed from
stem,
as

the

is

one

the

stem

dependen that these latter behave like inanother, and we know organisms. bility Finally, we see that on the hypothesis of pangenesis varia-

distinct groups of causes. at least two depends on superabundance, and transposition of Firstly,the deficiency, gemmules, and the redevelopment of those which have long the gemmules themselves been dormant; gone not having undermodification ; and such changes will amply account any for much fluctuating variability. Secondly, the direct action the organisation, and of the inof changed conditions on

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

379
in this

creased from when and

use

or

disuse

the

modified

of parts ; and units will be

case

the gemmuh^^g

themselves

modified, and,
!

sufficiently multiplied, will supplant the old gemmules be developed into new structures.
now

Turning
a

to

the laws

of

Inheritance.

If

we

suppose
assume a

and gelatinous protozoon to vary homogenous reddish colour, a minute separated particlewould it grew colour ; and to full size, retain the same as

naturally,
we

should
same

have view

the
may

simplest form
be extended of which
to

of

inheritance.'"
whole of

Precisely the
and
one

the

infinitely numerous
body
of

fied diversi-

units animals
is

the

the

higher

composed; the separated particles being our gemhave We mules. by implialready sufficientlydiscussed cation, of inheritance the important principle at corresponding limited by sex and by the season of Inheritance as ages. ter) the year becoming white in win(for instance with animals believe that the elective affinities if we may is intelligible of the units of the body are slightlydifferent in the two sexes, both sexes at different or especiallyat maturity, and in one It should that they unite with different gemmules. so seasons,
be remembered

that, in the discussion

we

on

the
to

abnormal that
soon

position trans-

of organs, elective affinities are

to
are recur

have

seen

reason

believe
I shall

such have

readily modified.
seasonal

But

to sexual

and

inheritance.

These

several laws

therefore
on

and

But thesis

explicable to a large extent through pangenesis, other hypothesis which has as yet been advanced. no it appears at first sight a fatal objection to our hjT)oa

that

part

or

organ

may

be

removed

during

several

successive

generations, and

if the

by disease, the lost part reappears and horses formerly had their tails docked during inherited without effect;although, any
seen,

operation be not followed in the offspring. Dogs

many
as we

erations gen-

have

there

is

some

reason

to

believe
to

that such

the

tion tailless condi-

of certain has
'"This is the Professor Haeckel, erelle Morphologie
who
"

sheep-dogs is due been practised by

view
in
'

inheritance. from
a

cumcision Cirremote

the

Jews

taken his
ii.
s.

by
'

Gen-

(b.

171),
parcon-

says:

tielle

Identitat

die Lediglich der specifisch

elterliehen ini Materie kindliflicu Orjr.iuismiis. bol Mat"'rie dieser die Theilnnjr ist Urdie der Fortpflanztuiir, Erblichkelt." der sache

stituirten
und

ira

380

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVIL

period, and
visible
in

in most the

cases

the effects of the

operation

are

not

that an herited inmaintain offspring; though some If inheritance pends deeffect does occasionally appear. derived of disseminated the presence gemmules on from all the units of the body, why does not the amputation both sexes, of a part, especiallyif effected on mutilation or in accordance invariably affect the offspring? The answer with our hypothesis probably is that gemmules multiply and transmitted during a long series of generations as we are of zebrine in in the reappearance stripes on the horse see
"

"

the which
many

reappearance
are

of
to

muscles his

and

other

structures

in

man

proper

other of is
a

such

cases.

lowly organised progenitors, and the Therefore long-continued

has

in

heritanc in-

part which
real
are

been for

removed

during

many

erations gen-

no

from

the part
to

gemmules formerly anomaly, from multiplied and transmitted

derived
tion genera-

generation. of parts, when as yet spoken only of the removal the operation is followed not action; but when by morbid thus follow^ed,it is certain that the deficiency is sometimes In a former inherited. given, as of a chapter instances were the loss of whose followed by suppuration, and horn was cow,
We have her calves
were

destitute the evidence

of

horn

on

the of

same no

side of their doubt is that

heads.

But

which

admits

given by Brown-Sequard
after
own

their sciatic
gangrenous

nerves

w^ith respect to guinea-pigs, which had been divided, gnawed oft'their the toes instances of their
on

toes, and

in at least thirteen

the

ficient deoffspringwere corresponding feet. of these

cases

The
the

inheritance
more

of the lost part in several

as

is all

affected; but we only one parent was from know that a congenital deficiency is often transmitted for instance, the offspring of hornless cattle one parent alone often of either sex, when crossed with perfect animals, are hornless. with our How, then, in accordance hypothesis can herited, for mutilations account strongly inbeing sometimes we if they are follow^ed by diseased action ? The answer or probably is that all the gemmules of the mutilated tated amputhe diseased surface ing durpart are gradually attracted to there destroyed by the and the reparative process, are
remarkable
"

morbid

action.

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

381
the

A
organs.

few

words When
a

must

be added becomes

on

complete abortion
by
tend disuse
economy

of
longed pro-

part
with

diminished

during

many

generations, the principleof

of

it to reduce growth, together but still further as previously explained, this will not account for the complete or almost stance, complete obliteration of, for inminute a papilla of cellular tissue representing a of a microscopically minute nodule of bone repreor pistil, senting
a

intercrossing,will

tooth.
in

In

certain
a

cases

of

suppression
from
must

not

yet

completed,

which

rudiment

occasionally

reappeara

through reversion, dispersed gemmules derived view, still exist; we according to our must,
suppose

this part therefore

in union with which the rudiment cells, was for such gemmules, formerly developed, fail in their affinity

that the

except
abortion doubt
a

in

the is

occasional

cases

of reversion.

But

when

the

vast

complete and final,the gemmules themselves no perish; nor is this in any way improbable, for, though of active and number long-dormant gemmules are
in

nourished

each

living creature,
; and

yet there
natural

must

be

some

limit to their number derived

to
are

it appears

that

gemmules

from

reduced those

perish than
The

liable be more useless parts would freshly derived from other parts which and

still in full functional

activity.
be discussed, namely Reversion,

last subject that need

on

and development, principle that transmission though generally acting in conjunction, are distinct powers; velopmen of gemmules with their subsequent deand the transmission this is possible. We plainlysee the shows us how mits in which grandfather transa cases distinction in the many which to his grandson, through his daughter, characters before proceeding, it But she does not, or cannot, possess.
rests

the

will

be

advisable characters.

to

say

a or

few

words

about

latent

or

mant dor-

Most,

perhaps all, of the

secondary

in the lie dormant sex, appertain to one characters, which the other sex; that is,gemmules capable of development into

included are secondary male sexual characters female; and conversely female characters in the male:
have evidence of this in certain masculine

within

the
wo

characters, both
her
In

corporeal and
ovaria
are

mental, appearing in the female, when they fail to act from old age. diseased or when

3S2
like

PPtOVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

manner

female

characters
horns

appear
ox,
a

in castrated and in the

males,
absence
the

as

in the horns

shape of the
in castrated of life due

of the

of
ditions con-

Even stags. to confinement

slight change
sometimes

in

the

development of masculine although their reproductive organs

In the
many
cases

suffices to vent prein male mals, anicharacters

are

not

permanently
characters
seasons;

injured.
are

in

which
are season

masculine
at

periodically renewed, these

as

latent

other

inheritance

limited

by

sex

and

being here combined.

dormant in

Again,
animals The
the

masculine

characters
at

generally lie
the proper given of of her
the
age
a own

male

until they arrive

case

for

reproduction.
assumed of
a mote re-

curious masculine

formerly

Hen

which but

characters,
characters animals
as

not

breed

progenitor, illustrates
latent sexual With several and and
those

close

connection

between

ordinary reversion. plants which habitually produce

butterflies forms and described
one

forms,
in

with
three

certain female

by Mr.
form

Wallace,

which

male

and co-exist, or, as with the trimorphic species of Ly thrum Oxalis, gemmules capable of reproducing these different forms
must

be latent in each
are

individual. with
one

Insects quarter half

or

occasionally produced
like that of the

side
with In

or

one

of their bodies

male,

the such
in

other
cases

three-quarters like that of the female.

sides
are are

the two and

sometimes

wonderfully
each other
are

different
a

ture, struc-

separated from
from
every sexes,

by

sharp line.
in

As vidual indi-

gemmules
nascent

derived

part
be the
cases

present

each

of both

it must in

elective differ

affinities of the

abnormally on the sides of the body. Almost the same into two principle comes play w4th those animals, for instance, certain gasteropods and Verruca amongst cirripedes,which normally have the sides of the body constructed different plan; two a on very of individuals and yet a nearly equal number have either side
modified in the
same

cells which

these

remarkable

manner. sense an

Reversion, in the ordinary

that
it

of the

word,

acts

so

cessantl in-

evidently forms
occurs or

essential

part

of

the

It general law of inheritance. by buds propagated, whether sometimes

may

with

beings, however
generation,
age
even

seminal

and

be observed

with

advancing

in the

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

333
is often induced

same

individual.

The

tendency

to reversion

by a change of conditions, and in the i)lainest manner by of the first Crossed forms crossing. generation are generally in character between their two nearly intermediate parents; but in the next to revert generation the offspring commonly
one or

both

of their

grandparents, and
How
can we

occasionallyto
for these

more

remote

ancestors.

account

facts?

throw off,according to the hybrid must abundance of hybridised gemof pangenesis, an doctrine be readily and largely propamules, for crossed plants can gated hypothesis dormant by buds; but by the same gemmules derived from both pure parent-forms are likewise present; their normal retain and as these gemmules condition, ing they would, it is probable, be enabled to multiply largely durthe lifetime of each hybrid. Consequently the sexual and hybridised of a hybrid w^ill include both pure elements of two hybrids pair, the combination gemmules; and when hybrid with the pure gemmules derived from the one pure Each unit
in
a

the other, would parts derived from gemmules of the same necessarilylead to complete reversion of character ; and it is, perhaps not too bold a supposition that unmodifi-ed and unwould be especially nature deteriorated gemmules of the same with hybridise Pure gemmules in combination apt to combine. ly, gemmules would lead to partialreversion. And lasthybridised gemmules derived from both parent-hybrids would simply reproduce the originalhybrid form." All these and degrees of reversion incessantly occur. cases It
was

shown

in the fifteenth

are

antagonistic to each
two

ters chapter that certain characother or do not readily blend;

antagonistic characters are crossed,it might well happen that a sufficiencyof gemmules ters, in the male alone for the reproduction of his peculiar characalone for the reproduction of her in the female and
hence, when
animals w^ith

peculiar characters, would not be present; and in this case mote repart in some dormant gemmules derived from the same progenitor might easilygain the ascendancy, and cause For instance, of the long-lost character. the reappearance
"

In

these

remarks

follow Naudin, or the elements which two species

fact. of who speaks the of essences

I. in

memoir excellent his Bee Noiivelles Arolujes s6um,' torn. i. p. lol.

'

in

the Mu-

du

are

crossed.

384
when black
"

PEO

VISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVIL

pigeons, or black and white fowls, are crossed, colours which do not readily blend, blue plumage in the one from the rock-pigeon, and case, evidently derived red plumage in the other case, derived from the wild jungle-cock With uncrossed breeds the occasionally reappear.
and white
"

same

result follows, under and animals A certain become number

conditions

which

favour

the multiplication
as

development of certain
feral and
revert

dormant
to their

gemmules

when

of gemmules

ter. pristinecharacfor the developmen being requisite

from to be the case character,as is known several spermatozoa for fertilisation, pollen-grainsbeing necessary or and time favouring their multiplication, will perhaps for the curious cases, insisted on by Mr. Sedgwick, of account certain diseases which in alternate generaregularly appear tions. This likewise holds good, more less with or strictly, other modifications. I have weakly inherited Hence, as heard it remarked, certain diseases appear to gain strength of a generation. The of transmission by the intermission dormant successive gemmules during many generations is hardly in itself more improbable, as previously remarked, of rudimentary organs, than the retention during many ages or even only of a tendency to the production of a rudiment; that dormant but there is no reason to suppose gemmules can be transmitted and propagated for ever. Excessively minute and numerous as they are believed to be, an infinite number and of modification descent, derived, during a long course from each unit of each progenitor, could not be supported or nourished improbable by the organism. But it does not seem favourable that certain gemmules, under conditions, should be retained and go on multiplying for a much longer period than others. Finally, on the view here given, we certainly fact that the child may gain some insight into the wonderful its depart from the type of both its parents, and resemble of hundreds removed by many grandparents, or ancestors generations.

of each

Conclusion.
The

hypothesis of Pangenesis,
classes of facts
so are

as

applied
no

to

the

several

great

just discussed,
The

doubt

is extremely

complex, but

the facts.

chief

assumption is that

386
The
to

PROVISIONAL

HYPOTHESIS

Chap.

XXVII.

units be

of the

body

are

generally admitted
one

by physiologists
and
an

autonomous.

I go

step further
Thus

assume

that

they throw
does
not

off

reproductive gemmules.
its kind
as a

ism organ-

generate cell of whole

whole, but
been

each

separate

unit

generates that each the

its kind.
a

It has

often

said

ists by natural-

plant has the potential capacity of reproducing plant; but it has this power only in
derived
cause

virtue When
a

of

containing gemmules
or

from

every

part.
mules gem-

cell

unit from

is from it will be

some

modified, the
manner

derived
our

in

like

modified.

If

look at must hypothesis be provisionally accepted, we all the forms of asexual reproduction, whether occurring at and maturity or during youth, as fundamentally the same, dei)endent on the mutual aggregation and multiplication of the gemmules. The re-growth of an amputated limb and the is the same healing of a wound partiallycarried out. process Buds cells, belonging to that apparently include nascent of development which the budding at and stage occurs, these cells are derived ready to unite with the gemmules from the next sexual succeeding cells. The elements, on the other hand, do not include such nascent cells;and the male and female elements taken separately do not contain a sufiicient number of gemmules for independent development, of parthenogenesis. The except in the cases development of each being, including all the forms and of metamorphosis off of gemmules thrown metagenesis, depends on the presence at each period of life,and on their development, at a corresponding period, in union with preceding cells. Such cells be said to be fertilised by the gemmules which come may in due order of development. next Thus the act of ordinary impregnation and the development of each part in each being The child,strictly are closelyanalogous processes. speaking, does not grow into the man, which but includes germs slowly and form the man. In successively become developed and the child, as well as in the adult, each part generates the be looked at as merely a form must same part. Inheritance of growth, like the self-division of a lowly-organised unicellular Reversion organism. depends on the transmission from the forefather to his descendants of dormant gemmules, which or developed under certain known occasionallybecome

Chap.

XXVII.

OF

PANGENESIS.

387

unknown with

conditions.
a

Each of lie soil dormant

it

animal full of for said

that

and

plant
some

may

be which

pared com-

bed

seeds,
a

of

soon

germinate,

some

period,
a man

whilst
carries

others
in is his

perish.
constitution
truth
aware,

When the
the

we

hear seeds of

an

inherited other
as

disease,
attempt,
this
as

there far

much
I
am

in

expression.
been
one

No

as

has under An of minute

a

made,

imperfect
of view
is
a

confessedly
grand
a

is,
classes

to

connect

point being
of
numerous

these microcosm

several

of

facts.

organic
host and

little

"

universe,
ably inconceiv-

formed

self-propagating
as

organisms,
stars

the

in

heaven.

388

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

Chap.

XXVIII.

CHAPTEE
CONCLUDING

XXVIII.
REMARKS.

Domestication

of variability Selection and Nature Divergence causes Extinction Circumstances of character of races and distinctness favourable of certain The selection to races Antiquity by man has been each question whether specially preparticular variation
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

ordained.

^ ^^

nearly all the chapters, and as, in the chapter on pangenesis, various subjects,such the forms of reproduction, inheritance, reversion, the as cussed, and laws of variability, causes "c., have been recently disthe few I will here only make on general remarks a the from which be deduced more important conclusions may
summaries have been added
to

As

multifarious

details

given throughout
of the world those

this

work. in
or

Savages
wild when
more on as

in all parts

easily succeed
any

animals;

and

inhabiting

country

taming island,

would by man, probably have been still easily tamed. Complete subjugation generally depends in its habits, and on animal social being an receiving man the chief of the herd or family. In order that an animal be domesticated of life, and it must
this is far

first visited

should

be fertile under from worth

changed
the

ditions concase.

being always
the labour

An

animal

would

not

have

been

of domestication,
to
man.

at least

during early times, unless of service

the number of domesticated been

From

these has

circumstances

mals ani-

large. With respect to plants, I have in the ninth their shown varied chapter how uses were vation. probably first discovered, and the early steps in their culticould not have known, when Man he first domesticated animal flourish and mulit would tiply an or plant, whether when transported to other countries, therefore he could
never

not

have

been

thus

influenced

in his choice.

We

see

that the

adaptation of the reindeer and camel to extremely cold and hot countries has not prevented their domestication. Still
close

Chap.

XXVIII.

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

389
and

plants and thus succeeding generations birth vary to give and the small of capacity in new variability the goose races; from has not prevented its domestication a remote epoch. few With all animals extremely and exceptions, plants been which have have varied long domesticated greatly. under what not It matters climate, or for what purpose food for man as they are kept, whether or beast, for draught hunting, for clothing or mere or pleasure, under all these have been produced which circumstances differ more races
man

less could

have

foreseen

whether

his animals

would

in

"

from

one are

another ranked

than
as

do the forms

which

in

state

of

ture na-

different
more more

species. Why
under than

certain

animals than ers oth-

and

plants have
we

varied
any

domestication
some are

do

not

know,
to

more

sterile than
we

others

under

why changed

rendered of life.

conditions

But

have

domestic and
amount

of variation which judge of the amount our productions have undergone, chieflyby the number of difference
we can

between

the

races

which

have

been

and distinct clearly see why many have not been formed, namely, because slightsuccessive races variations have been not steadily accumulated; and such variations will never if an animal be accumulated or plant be not closelyobserved, much valued, and kept in large numbers. ing The fluctuating, and, as far as we can judge, never-enddomesticated of our variability ity productions, the plasticof the most of almost their whole organisation, is one details important lessons which we learn from the numerous Yet domesticated given in the earlier chapters of this work. animals and plants can hardly have been exposed to greater
" "

formed, and

often

changes

in

their conditions
incessant

of life than

have

many

natural

geographical, and cligeological, matal changes to which mesticat the world has been subject; but doproductions will often have been exposed to more conditions. sudden changes and to less continuously uniform animals longing As man and plants behas domesticated so many he certainly did to widely different classes, and as would not choose with prophetic instinct those species which if exposed infer that all natural species, most, we may vary to the to analogous conditions, would, on an average, vary at the present day will maintaiu same men degree. Few speciesduring the

390
that animals which and

CONCLUDma

REMAKKS.

Chap.

XXVIII.

plants were

created

with

tendency

to vary,

long remain dormant, in order that fanciers in after might rear, for instance, curious breeds of the fowl, ages pigeon, or canary-bird. From several causes it is difficult to judge of the amount
of modification
In
some or

which
cases

gone. productions have underthe primitive parent-stock has become

our

domestic

extinct;
its

it cannot

be

supposed descendants
cases

other

two

or

more

recognised with certainty,owing to modified. In having been so much mesticat closely-allied forms, after being dothen it is difficult to estimate

have how
to

crossed; and

much

of the character

be attributed
the

of the present descendants ought how much to variation,and to the influence the

our degree to which domesticated breeds have been modified the by crossing of distinct species has probably been much exaggerated by some

of

several

parent-stocks. But

authors.

few

individuals form

of

one

form

would

seldom

manently per-

affect another

for, without
would
soon

times, when
would seldom
is

existing in greater numbers; careful selection, the stain of the foreign blood and be obliterated, during early and barbarous first domesticated, such care animals were our
have been
reason

taken.
to believe

There

good
some

in the

case

of the of
our

dog,
races

ox,
are

pig, and
descended

of

other

animals,
wild

that

several

from

distinct

prototypes;
our

nevertheless animals
many to

the has

belief in the been

to
an

multiple origin of
by
some

domesticated and

extended

few
extent.
a

naturalists Breeders

by

breeders
at

unauthorised

refuse

look

the

whole
it said

subject under
by
a

single point of view; I have

maintained that
our

heard scended de-

man, at

who

fowls

were

from the evidence

was

least half-a-dozen
common

of the
no

aboriginal species,that bits, origin of pigeons, ducks and rabto

of

avail

with

respect

fowls.

Breeders

look over-

cated improbability of many specieshaving been domestiat an sider early and barbarous period. They do not conthe improbability of species having existed in a state of nature which, if they resembled our present domestic in comparison with breeds, would have been highly abnormal that certain all their congeners. They maintain species, which formerly existed,have become are uuor extinct, uow the

Chap. XXVm.

CONCLUDING

RE-MARKS.

39I

The although formerly known. assumption of so extinction is no difliculty much recent in th(!ir eyes; for they of its probability by the facilityor difficulty do not judge of other closely-allied of the extinction wild forms. Lastly, they often ignore the whole subject of geographical distribution if it the result of chance. as were completely as Although from the reasons just assigned it is often difficult to judge accurately of the amount of change which our domesticated productions have undergone, yet this can be

known,

ascertained be descended

in the

cases a

in which

all the breeds

"

are

known

to

from almost
can

rabbit, and
of domesticated It is

analogy this

the pigeon, duck, single species, as certainly with the fowl; and by the aid be judged of to a certain extent with
with

animals

descended

from

several

wild

stocks.

impossible to read the details given in the earlier chapters in many and published works, or to visit our various exhibitions, without being deeply impressed with the extreme of our domesticated animals and cultivated plants. variability No the tendency to vary. part of the organisation escapes The variations generally affect parts of small vital or physiological
importance,
exist but
so

it is with

the

differences these

which

between

closely-allied species. In
is

unimportant
between
the

characters breeds of the

case

there
same

often

greater

difference

of the
same

species than
as as

between

the natural
to

species
be

genus,

Isidore is often

Geoffroy has shown

the
case

the

with

size,and

with

the colour, texture, other dermal

form, "c., of the hair, feathers,horns, and

appendages.
If has often been under the asserted that

domestication, but
skull of the

this is

important parts a complete error.

never

vary at

Look

breeds, with
modified;
the
or

of the highly improved one pig in any the occipitalcondyles and other parts greatly look
at

that of the niata

ox.

Or, again, in the

several breeds

of the rabbit, observe

the

with elongated sktill,

differentlyshaped
vertebrae. The

cervical
with

occipital foramen, atlas, and other whole shape of the brain, together
modified
in

the

skull, has

been

Polish

fowls; in other
and In the forms certain

breeds

of the fowl

the number have

of the vertebrte been

of the cervical the

vertebrge

changed.

eons pig-

shape of the lower

jaw, the relative length of the

392

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

Chap.

XXVIII.

tongue,

and eyelids,the number shape of the ribs, the form and size of the oesophagus, have tines In certain all varied. quadrupeds the length of the inteshas been much With increased diminished. plants or the size of the nostrils and
see

we

wonderful

differences several

in

the

stones

of various

fruits.

highly important characters have varied, such as the sessile position of the stigmas on the ovarium, the position of the carpels,and the projection of the it would be useless to of the receptacle. But ovarium out facts given in the earlier chapters. run through the many It is notorious how greatly the mental disposition, tastes, loquacity or silence, and tone movements, habits, consensual
In

the

Cucurbitacese

of voice animals.

have The

varied

and

been

inherited
most

in

our

domesticated of be

changed
accounted New

mental

dog offers the attributes, and

from
appear may

striking instance
differences wild
ones

these

cannot

for by descent characters

distinct and old

types.

stage
stage.
down

of We
on

development, being
see

inherited

at

disappear at any a corresponding

the
eggs,

this in

the and

difference the first

between

the

the chickens

breeds between

of the the

fowl; and

still

more

plumage of the various plainly in the differences

of the various breeds of and cocoons caterpillars throw These the silk-moth. facts, simple as they appear, light on the differences between the larval and adult states of allied natural species,and on the whole bryology. great subject of emNew first appearing late in life are characters apt in which attached to become they exclusively to that sex first arose, be developed in a much or they may higher degree in this than in the other sex; or again, after having become be transferred to the opposite attached to one sex, they may that These facts, and more especiallythe circumstance sex. characters to be particularlyliable,from some known unseem new
cause, to

become
on

attached the
in
a

to

the

male of

sex,

have

an

important bearing
characters It has sometimes

acquirement
state

secondary sexual
races

by animals

of nature.
our

been

said that

domestic

do not tained. be main-

differ in constitutional In
our

but this cannot peculiarities, improved cattle, pigs, "c., the

period of

maturity, including that of the second dentition, has been The hastened. much period of gestation varies much, and

394
kinds
that

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

Chap. XXVIII.

of
races

pigs. Hence
formed under

it would

be

unreasonable should time

we

to

expect
rility ste-

domestication
at

acquire
admit

when domestication

crossed, whilst
eliminates

the

same

that

of crossed spesterility cies. their reproductive sysspecies Why with closely-allied tems in so pecushould almost invariably have been modified liar of each be to acting on mutually incapable as a manner other though in unequal degrees in the two sexes, as shown of the between reciprocalcrosses by the difference in fertility with much ity probabilsame species we do not know, but may natural follows. Most infer the cause to be as species of life conditions have been habituated to nearly uniform for an incomparably longer time than have domestic races; conditions know that exert and we an pecial eschanged positively and powerful influence on the reproductive system. the normal
" "

Hence the

this
power

difference of

may

well

account

for the difference

in

crossed part

and

domestic races reproduction between It is probably crossed. species when the

same cause

when
in
can

chief be

owing

to

that

domestic

races

suddenly transported from one climate to another, or placed under v/idely different conditions, and yet retain in most of spetheir fertility unimpaired; whilst a multitude cases cies rendered lesser to changes are incapable of subjected
breeding.
The

offspring of crossed

domestic

races

and

of

crossed

portant species resemble each other in most respects, with the one imthey often partake in the exception of fertility; unequal degree of the characters of their parents, one of same liable the other; and they are is often prepotent over which kind. of the same to reversion one By successive crosses be made to absorb completely another, and so species may The latter resemble it notoriously is with races. species in inherit other their newlyThey sometimes many ways. quite as firmly as species. acquired characters almost or even The conditions leading to variabilityand the laws governing its nature
appear to

be

the

same

in

both.

Varieties

can

be

classed and
may

in

groups

under families
"

groups,

like

species under
the
on

genera,

these
be

under

and

orders; and is, founded

varieties
a

classification
any

either
"

artificial, that
natural. With

arbitrary
classifica-

character,

or

natural

Chap.

XXVIII.

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

395

certainly founded, and with species is apparently of descent, together with the amount founded, on community which the forms of modification have undergone. The acters chartion is

by which
are more

domestic than

varieties those

differ from

one

another

distinguishing species, though so hardly more polymorphic species; but of is this greater degree ties variability not surprising, as variehave generally been exposed within times to flucrecent tuating of life, conditions and are much liable to have more been crossed; they are also in many still undergoing, cases have recently undergone, modification cal or by man's methodithan
with certain
or

variable

unconscious

selection.
as a

general rule certainly differ from in less important parts than another do species; and one when seldom important differences occur, they are firmly this fact if but is consider man's fixed; intelligible, we of selection. In the living animal method or plant he cannot in the more observe internal modifications gans; important ordoes he regard them as long as they are compatible nor
with health and life. What does teeth the breeder of his
care

Domestic

varieties

about

any

ditional pigs, or for an admolar tooth in the dog; or for any change in the The breeder cares intestinal canal or other internal organ?

slight change in the molar

for the for and for

an

flesh of his cattle being accumulation of fat within What effected.

well

marbled

with

fat, and

the abdomen

of his

sheep,
care

this he has
any

would

the floriculturist

ovules?
to
numerous

of the of the ovarium or change in the structure As certainly liable are important internal organs slight variations, and as these would probably strange effect
a

be transmitted, for many could undoubtedly man these organs. When

monstrosities certain
amount

are

inherited,
in

of change

produced any modification in an important part, he has generally done so unintentionally, stance, inFor other conspicuous part. with in correlation some he has given ridges and protuberances to the skulls of the comb, or to the of fowls, by attending to the form ternal By attending to the explume of feathers on the head. creased inenormously form of the pouter-pigeon, he has ber the size of the oesophagus, and has added to the numthe of the ribs, and given them greater breadth. With
he has

396

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

Chap.

XXVIII.

carrier-pigeon,by increasing through

wattles form of
on

the the

upper

lower

mandible, he has mandible; and so in

the other

steady selection greatly modified

many

the
the

other modified

cases.

Natural

species,on
for their
own

hand, have
fit them enemies

been for

sively exclu-

good,
life, to

to

fied diversiinfinitely of
all

conditions
to

of

avoid

struggle against a host of such complex conditions, it would often happen that modifications of the most varied kinds, in important as well as in unimportant parts, would be advantageous or even necessary;

kinds, and competitors. Hence, under

slowly but surely be acquired through the survival of the fittest. Still more important is the fact that various indirect modifications would likewise arise through
the law of correlated breeds variation. often have
an

and

they would

Domestic

abnormal

or

strous semi-mon-

character, as amongst dogs, the Italian greyhound, breeds of bulldog, Blenheim spaniel, and bloodhound, some cattle and pigs, several breeds of the fowl, and the chief breeds of the pigeon. In such abnormal breeds, parts which differ but slightlyor not at all in the allied natural species, have been greatly modified. This may be accounted for by man's often selecting,especially at first, conspicuous and
" " "

semi-monstrous be cautious

deviations
in

of

structure.

We

ever, should, how-

deciding what deviations ought to be called monstrous; there can hardly be a doubt that, if the brush of horse-like hair on the breast of the turkey-cock had first appeared in the domesticated have been bird, it would considered as a monstrosity; the great plume of feathers on the head of the Polish cock has been thus designated, though the heads of many kinds of birds; on plumes are common we might call the wattle or corrugated skin round the base of the beak of the English carrier-pigeon a monstrosity, but do not thus speak of the globular fleshy excrescence at we the base of the beak of the Carpophaga oceanica.
Some authors have drawn
a

wide

distinction
extreme

between
cases

artificial and distinction is

natural

breeds; although in

the

other cases it is arbitrary; the plain, in many the kind of selection which difference depending chiefly on those which has been have applied. Artificial breeds are been intentionally improved by man; they frequently have

Chap.

XXVIII.

CONCLUDING

REMARKS

o,,-

an

unnatural

appearance,

and
reversion
on

are

their characters The so-called

through
natural

especiallyliable to l(jse and continued variability.

the other

hand, are those are countries, and whic-h formerly inhabited separate districts in nearly all the Eiir("])oan They have been rarely acted on by man's intenkingdoms. tional selection; more frequently by unconscious selection,
which found in semi-civilised
for animals selection, kept in semihave civilised countries to provide largely for their (nvn will also have natural Such breeds been wants. directly in acted on by the differences, the though slight, surrounding

breeds,

and

partly by natural

conditions.
There

is

much

more

important distinction
some

between

our
a

several

breeds, namely, in
or

having
have

originated from
of

strongly-marked
which, however, selection; whilst
insensible
we a

semi-monstrous

deviation been
in

structure,

may

subsequently
have if be been
we

augmented
so

by
and
genitors pro-

others

formed
see

slow

manner,

that

could
to

their when
or

early
how

should
arose.

hardly
From

able

say

the

history of the racehorse, greyhound, gamecock, "c., and from their general appearance, that they were formed feel nearly confident by a we may know that this has of improvement; and slow process we well as with some with the carrier-pigeon, been the case as the other hand, it is certain that the other pigeons. On certain of sheep, and almost breeds and mauchamp ancon that the niata cattle, turnspit, and pug-dogs, jumper and frizzled fowls, short-faced tumbler pigeons, hook-billed ducks, state now we as "c., suddenly appeared in nearly the same cultivated plants. The So it has been with many them. see is likely to lead to the false belief frequency of these cases abrupt that natural specieshave often originated in the same
breed first the
manner.

But

we

have

no

evidence

of the

appearance,

or

at

least of the modifications be

continued

procreation, under nature, of abrupt could various general reasons of structure ; and
a we

assigned against such

On the other

belief. have
nature

hand,

abundant of

evidence

of

the

constant
ences

occurrence

under

slight individual
we are

dilTcrled
to

of the

most

diversified

kinds; and

thus

conclude

that

by have generallyoriginated species

the natu-

398
ral selection of

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

Chap. "XXVIII.

extremely slight differences. This process be strictly ment compared with the slow and gradual improvemay As every of the racehorse, greyhound, and gamecock. in each specieshas to be closelyadapted to detail of structure its habits of life,it will rarely happen that one part alone will be modified; but, as was formerly shown, the co-adapted modifications be absolutely simultaneous. need not Many
variations, however,
of correlation. Hence
never same are

from

the

first connected
that
even

by the law
one

it follows

closely-allied cies speby

character
extent

rarely or
alone; and
to

differ from remark

one a

another certain

the

domestic

races;

applicable for these, if they differ much, generally

^

is to

differ in many respects. naturalists boldly insist Some distinct into

one can

species are absolutely links passing by intermediate productions, never that domestic ties varieanother; whilst they maintain
either with
we one

that

always be connected
if
the

another

or

with

their

parent-forms. But
not

between

always finds the links several breeds of the dog, horse,cattle,sheep, pigs,
have from
a

could

"c., there would

been
one

such
or

incessant

doubts

whether
hound grey-

they

were

descended if such
any

several

species. The
be
we

genus,

term

may

be used, cannot Our In

closely
go

connected
to

with

other

breed, unless,perhaps,
monuments.

back

the

ancient
a

Egyptian
very
course

English bulldog
cases

also forms breeds

can

distinct

breed.

all these

crossed
cies spe-

must

of

be excluded, for distinct connected. with

natural links
can

thus fowl

be likewise be

By
others?

what

the

Cochin

By searching for breeds still preserved in distant lands, and by going back to historical records, tumbler-pigeons, carriers,and barbs can be closely connected with the parent rock-pigeon; but we
cannot

closelyunited

thus

connect

the

turbit

or

the

pouter.

The

degree

of distinctness
on

between

the various

domestic

breeds

depends
of

the
more

amount

of modification the

which

they have
and

undergone,

and

especially on
and often been

neglect
forms.

final extinction

intermediate It has

less-valued

the argued that no light is thrown on changes v.diich natural species are believed to undergo from the admitted the latter are as changes of domestic races,
1

Godron,

'De

TEspoce,' 1SD9,

torn.

ii. p.

44, "c.

Chap.

XXVIII.

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

399

said to be
soon as

mere

temporary
well
in

they become
has been
were

productions, always reverting,as feral,to their pristineform. This argument

combated the

by

Mr.

Wallace

and

full

chapter, showing that in feral animals and the tendency to reversion plants has been greatly exaggerated, though no doubt it exists to a certain It would be all the prii\piples extent. inculcated opposed to if domestic in this work, animals, when exposed conditions and compelled to struggle for their own to new fied not modiwants against a host of foreign competitors, were
in

details

given

thirteenth

the

course

of

time.

It

should in all

also be

remembered

that
to

many

characters under

lie latent

organic beings, ready

fied fittingconditions; and in breeds modiwithin recent times, the tendency to reversion is particularly of our breeds clearly But the antiquity of some strong. that they remain as long as their nearly constant proves be evolved of life remain been the
same.

conditions
It has
amount

boldly maintained
to

by

some

authors

that

the
are

of variation

which

our

domestic
an

productions

liable is

limited; but this is strictly

Whether

little evidence.
any

particular direction Cattle, can judge, unlimited. variability is, as far as we the from domestication sheep, and pigs have varied under by the researches of Riitimeyer remotest period, as shown been have improved to an and others; yet these animals plies unparalleled degree, wathin quite recent times, and this imcontinued from the

resting on of change in the amount not or is limited, the tendency to general

assertion

variability of
found
in

structure.

remains

the

Swiss

Wheat, as w^e know lake dwellings, is one

of the

most

anciently cultivated
better
never

day
that

new an

and
ox

will

plants, yet at the present be varieties frequently arise. It may be produced of larger size and finer
present
mals, ani-

our fleeter, than proportions, or a racehorse gooseberry larger than the London a or

variety; but
the extreme With
fection per-

he would limit flowers

in

be

bold

man

who has

would been

assert

that

these

respects
it has

finally attained.
asserted that

and

fruit

repeatedly been

has been A
?

been excelled. reached, but the standard has soon be produced with a never breed of pigeons may
"

Journal

Proc.

Linn.

Soc.,' 1858, vol. iii. p. 60.

4:00
beak with birds shorter
one

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

Chap.

XXVIII.

than

longer
weak

that of the present short-faced tumbler, or than that of the English carrier, for these constitutions and
are

have

bad

breeders; but

length of beak are the points which have been of the steadilyimproved during the last 150 years, and some From best judges deny that the goal has yet been reached. could be assigned, it is probable that parts which reasons reached their maximum which have now development, might, after remaining constant during a long period,vary again in
shortness

and

the

direction
must

of increase

under Wallace

new

conditions
has

of life. with

But much

there

be,

as

Mr.

remarked

truth,' a
and limit be
to to

ral change in certain directions both with natudomestic be a productions; for instance, there must terrestrial animal, as this will the fleetness of any

limit to

determined

by

the

friction

to

be

overcome,

the

weight

be carried, and The

it

fibres. but

in the muscular of contraction the power this limit; have reached English racehorse may

in fleetness its own wild progenitor already surpasses and all other equine species. The short-faced tumbler-pigeon has a beak shorter, and the carrier a beak longer, relatively that of any to the size of their bodies, than natural species of the family. Our and apples, pears gooseberries bear larger fruit than those of any natural species of the same
genera;

and

so

in many

other

cases.

It is not
many

surprising, seeing the great

breeds, that
is descended
as some

difference

between have
cluded con-

domestic
that

few
a

naturalists

more

stock, especially ignored, and the high antiquity of man, of animals, has as a breeder known. Most only recently become naturalists, however, that our .various breeds, however freely admit dissimilar, descended from are a single stock, although they do not
the

each

from

distinct aboriginal

principle of selection has been

know

much

about

the art
say

of breeding, cannot and when

an

show

the

necting con-

links, nor
these
same

where

the

breeds

arose.

Yet

naturalists

declare,with
never

air of
one

caution, that they will

has

admit until

that

philosophical natural species

all the tional transi-

given birth
steps.

to

another
use

they behold
the
same

Fanciers

respect to domestic
3
*

exactly breeds; thus, an

Journal of

language with
of
an

author

excellent

The

Quarterly

Science,'

Oct., 1867,

p. 486,

402

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

Chap.

XXVIII.

activity of a gland or other organ, lead to their increased development. Disuse has a contrary effect. With domesticated productions, although their organs sometimes become rudimentary through abortion, we have that this has ever followed to suppose no reason solely from disuse. natural With species,on the contrary, many been rendered to have rudimentary through organs appear of growth todisuse, aided by the principle of the economy gether with be intercrossing. Complete abortion can counted acfor only by the hypothesis given in the last chapter, of the germs namely, the final destruction or gemmules of useless parts. This difference between species and domestic varieties may be partly accounted for by disuse having acted the latter for an insufficient length of time, and partly on from their exemption from severe struggle for existence any in the development of each part, to entailing rigid economy which all species under nature are subjected. iSTevertheless the law of compensation or balancement, which likewise depends the economy of growth, apparently has affected to on certain extent domesticated a productions. our As almost highly part of the organisation becomes every variable under domestication, and as variations are easily cult diffiselected both consciously and unconsciously, it is very the effects of the selection of to distinguish between
indefinite of life. variations For and the direct action of the conditions
our

parts, and

the increased

instance, it is possiblethat the feet of

American

water-

have to travel much dogs which from the have become the snow, partially webbed over may stimulus of widely extending their toes; but it is more able probbetween the that the webbing, like the membrane toes wards afterof certain pigeons, spontaneously appeared and was and the best snowincreased by the best swimmers cier travellers being preserved during many generations. A fan-

dogs and

of the

who

wished

to

decrease
never

the size of his bantams of

or

bler-pigeon tum-

would select the smallest

think

individuals born but

starving them, but would which spontaneously appeared.

destitute there
is
no

Quadrupeds
breeds have

are

sometimes

of hair and
reason

hairless believe

been

formed,

to

that this is caused often

causes

by

hot climate.

Within
on

sheep to

lose their fleeces ;

tropics heat the other hand, wet

the

Chap. XXVIII.

CONCLtJDlNa

REMARKS.

403

and who

cold act will

or

as

direct stimulus
to decide

pretend

how

the growth of hair; but far the thick fur of an-tic animals,
to to

their white

colour, is due
how

the direct action

of

severe

climate, and
?

far to the presei-vationof the best-

protected individuals
Of
one

during

long succession

of generations

all the laws

of the most of structure

that of correlation is governing variability, of slight deviaimportant. In many cases tions well as of grave as cannot monstrosities, we

of the bond of connection. conjecture what is the nature But between the fore and hind homologous parts between limbs the hair, hoofs, horns, and teeth between which are similar their and which closely early development during are similar that to see exposed conditions,we can they would be ogous Homoleminently liable to be modified in the same manner. nature, are parts, from having the same apt to blend together,and, when many exist,to vary in number. Although every variation is either directly or indirectly caused by some change in the surrounding conditions, we of the organisation which must never forget that the nature is acted on, is by far the more important factor in the result. We when this in different organisms, which see placed under similar conditions in a different manner, whilst closely vary in allied organisms under dissimilar often vary conditions We tion modificanearly the same manner. see this,in the same tervals variety at long infrequently reappearing in the same of time, and likewise in the several striking cases given of analogous or parallel variations. Although some
even
" "
"

of these latter be accounted From the

cases

are

due

to

reversion, others

cannot

thus

for. indirect
to

action

organisation, owing
affected will
cause same
"

changed conditions on the the reproductive organs being thus

of of such
same

from

the direct action of the

conditions, and

these
vary

the individuals
manner,
or

species either
with
the

to

in the

in accordance differently
"

slight

differences
or

in their constitution decreased

use

from
"

creased effects of the in"

of our variability extreme an degree.

and from correlation, the of parts domesticated productions is complicated to The

whole

organisation becomes
must

slightly
own ex-

plastic. Although

each

modification

have

its

404

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

Chap.

XXVIII.

citing cause,
so

and

tlioug'heach
to may
sense a

is

subjected to law, yet

between
cause as

we

can

rarely
we

trace

the precise relation

and if

effect,
arose

that

are

tempted
We

speak of
even

variations

they
but
a

spontaneously. be only in the must of rock dropped from

It may
exposure

call them which

owes we

accidental,
say

this

in

that

fragment

height

its

shape

to accident.

be worth
to

of the selection when

600
an

brieflyto consider the result of the of a large number unnatural conditions of animals same species and allowed to cross freely with no
afterwards
into
to

while

of any kind, and selection is brought

consider
us

the

result that

play. Let
in

suppose

wild

rock-pigeons

were

confined

their

native

land
are

in
;

aviary and fed in the same manner as pigeons usually and that they were allowed in number. not to increase
so

As
or

pigeons propagate
fifteen hundred several that

rapidly, I
have been

suppose to be

that

thousand

birds would

annually killed. After

we

generations had

thus

reared,

may

feel

sure

of the young birds would and the variations some vary, would tend to be inherited ; for at the present day slightdeviations of structure be tedious
even

often

occur

and the

are

inherited. of

It would

points which still go on varying or have recently varied. Many variations in congelation with one would another, as the length of occur the wing and tail feathers the number of the primary wingto enumerate
"

multitude

feathers,
correlation of the tongue

as

well with

as

the

number

and form

breadth

of the
"

ribs, in

the size and the

size

of the body feet

"

the number

scutellse with with

the

of the
"

the

length of the

the size of the nostrils length of the beak and eyelids and the form of lower jaw in correlation with the the nakedness of the young with the development of wattle future colour of the plumage the size of the feet with that of the beak, and other such points. Lastly, as our birds are their use supposed to be confined in an aviary, they would
" "

wings
such become As
as

and

legs but

and little,
in
case

certain

parts of the skeleton,

in consequence

the sternum, in assumed

every

scapulse and
size.
many

feet,would
birds have

slightlyreduced
our

nately to be indiscrimi-

killed

year,

the

chances
to

are

against
And
as

any

new

variety surviving long enough

breed.

the

varia-

Chap.

XXVIII.

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

4O5

extremely diversified nature, the chances are great against two birds pairing which very have in the varied same nevertheless,a varying bird manner; thus when not would paired even occasionallytransmit its its and these would to character not only be exposed young;
are an

tions which

arise

of

to

the

same

conditions but

which would

first caused
in addition

the

variation

in

question
modified

to appear,

inherit from

their

tendency again to vary in the same manner. So that, if the conditions decidedly tended to induce some of time particular variation, all the birds might in the course But a far commoner result would become similarly modified.
parent
a

be, that
another and

one

bird
one

would would
a

vary

in

one

way
a

and

another
a

bird

in

way;

be born

with
one

beak

little longer,
some as

another

with

shorter

beak;
or

would

gain

black

feathers, another
birds would
many

some

white

red

feathers.

And

these result
in

would be
a

be

continually intercrossing,the
from diflPering
more

final

body of individuals
but there would

each

other

ways,

only slightly;yet
of several

than

did the original

rock-pigeons. But
the formation If two

not

be the least

tendency
manner

wards to-

distinct breeds.
were

separate lots of pigeons

one

treated

in the

just described,

England and the other in a tropical country, the two lots being supplied with different kinds of we generations differ? When they after many food, would the cases reflect on given in the twenty-third chapter, and
in
on

such

facts

as

the

difference

in former

times

between

the

breeds
we are

of cattle,sheep, "c., in almost every district of Europe, strongly inclined to admit that the two lots would be

modified differently

through the influence of climate and food. tions the definite action of changed condithe evidence But on respect to insufficient;and, with is in most cases lection pigeons, I have had the opportunity of examining a large colof domesticated from
with

kinds,
in

sent
a

to

me

by Sir W.

Elliot
manner

India, and they varied European birds. our

If
two

remarkably similar mingled together

own

distinct there
is

breeds
reason

were

in

equal
to
a

numbers,
certain would

to

suspect

that

extent

prefer pairing with

intercross. Erom

their

they would kind; but

they
ity fertilthis

often

of the

crossed

the greater vigour and offspring,the whole body would by

406
become From
not

CONCLUDING

REMAKES.

Chap. XXVIII.

means

interblended certain that

sooner

than

would

otherwise
over

have

occurred.
it does

breeds the

being prepotent
progeny

others,
would be

follow

interblended

in character. I have, also, proved that intermediate strictly the act of crossing in itself gives a strong tendency to reversion, tend to revert that the crossed offspring would to the so in the course of of the aboriginal rock-pigeon; and state time they would more probably be not much heterogeneous in

character
were

than confined

in

our

first case,

when

birds

of the

same

breed

together.

offspring would gain in vigour and fertility.From the facts given in the seventeenth be chapter there can be no doubt of this fact; and there can little doubt, though the evidence this head is not so easily on acquired, that long-continued close interbreeding leads to evil results. With ments hermaphrodites of all kinds, if the sexual eleof the same individual habitually acted on each other, the closest possible interbreeding would be perpetual. But should bear in mind that the structure of all hermaphwe rodite quently animals, as far as I can learn, permits and freI have

just said that the crossed

necessitates

cross

with

distinct individual.

With

hermaphrodite plants we incessantly meet with elaborate and end. It is no exaggeration perfect contrivances for this same
to assert

that, if the

use

of the

talons and

and hooks

tusks
on a

of

nivorous car-

animal, or plumes be safely inferred from their structure, we flowers are constructed safety infer that many
with ensuring a cross a these various considerations, not to mention
purpose

of the

may

seed, may with equal

of

for the express distinct plant. From the result of

a

long
good

series of
at in
some

arrived of

experiments which I have tried,the conclusion the chapter just referred to namely, that great
"

kind
"

is derived
must

from

the

sexual

concourse

of

distinct individuals To that

return to
were our

be admitted.
we

illustration:

have

hitherto

assumed

number criminate kept down to the same by indisslaughter; but if the least choice be permitted in their preservation, the whole result will be changed. Should the and
owner

the birds

observe
to
a

any
a

slight variation
breed thus

in

one

of his birds,
ceed suc-

wish in

characterised,he would surprisinglyshort time by careful selection.

obtain

Aa

CsAP.XXVlII.

CONCLUDING
has varied

REMARK^. generallygoes
by

4^7
on

any

part which
same

once

varying in
of

the
most

direction,it is easy,

contiiiually the i)rcs('rvhig

the amount of excellence.

strongly marked

difference up to a This is methodical If the

a

individuals, to increase high, predetermined standard

selection.

more

aviary, without any thought of making breed, simply admired, for instance,short-beaked new than long-beaked birds,he would, when he had to reduce the number, generally kill the latter;and there be can
owner

of the

no

doubt

that he would

thus

in the

course

of time

sensibly

modify his stock. It is improbable, if two men to keep were and in act this pigeons that they would prefer exactmanner, ly the same characters ; they would, as we know, often i)ref(T directly opposite characters, and the two lots would mately ultiactually occurred with strains or families of cattle, and wliieh sheep, have pigeons, been long kept and carefullyattended to by different breeders,
come

to

differ.

This

has

without breeds.
come

any

wish

on

their part to form

new

and

distinct submore

This

unconscious

kind

of selection will which

are

cially espe-

into action with for every sheep, without animals would

one

animals

able highly service-

to man; cows,
or

tries to get the

best dogs, less

horses,

thinking about
transmit
more

their future
or

progeny,

yet these
to breed

surely their
so

good qualitiesto their offspring. Nor

as

from

his worst
want

animals.
to kill
some

is any one Even savages,

careless
pelled com-

when

from

extreme worst not

of their animals, would With

animals

destroy the
for
use

and for
mere

preserve

the best.

kept
vail pre-

and

amusement,

different fashions

in

different
to

consequently
with have have
our

and districts,leading to the preservation, the transmission, of all sorts of trifling liarities pecuThe
same

of character.

process

will have

been

sued pur-

fruit-trees and the most

ways for the best will alvegetables,

been

ally largelycultivated, and will occasionbeen their

of the

yielded seedlings better than their parents. have different strains, just alluded to, which The wish on any actually produced by breeders without
part
power to

obtain

such

result,afford excellent evidence

selection. This
form

of unconscious
to

of sc^lection has methodical

a

probably led and selection,

6Q

far

more

important
more

results than

is likewise

important under

theoretical

408

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

Chap.

XXVIII.

point of view from, closelyresembling natural

during
not

selection. individuals

For
are

this

process

the

best

or

most

valued

crossing with others of the prevented same breed, but are simply preferred and preserved; yet this and improveinevitably leads to their gradual modification ment they prevail,to the exclusion of the old ; so that finally parent-form.
With the
our

separated and

from

domesticated of
races

animals
any

natural

selection

checks

injurious deviation of structure. In the case of animals which, from being kept by semi-civilised people, have to provide largely for or savages under their own different circumstances, natural selecwants tion will have played a more it probimportant part. Hence ably is that they often closelyresemble natural species.
As there is
no

production

with

limit to man's

and more useful plants more always wishes, owing to fashions running into extremes, to and produce each character more more strongly pronounced, there is,through the prolonged action of methodical and unconscious selection,a constant tendency in every breed
to become
more

desire to possess animals and in any fanrespect, and as the cier

and

more

different from been

its

parent-stock ; and
are

when

several breeds

have

produced and

valued

for different

and more from each other. This to differ more qualities, leads to Divergence of Character. As improved sub-varieties and races are slowly formed, the older and less improved breeds When few are neglected and decrease in number. of any breed exist within the same individuals close locality, aids in interbreeding,by lessening their vigour and fertility, their final extinction. and the remaining
In Thus

the
in

intermediate Distinctness

links

are

lost,

breeds
on

gain

of Character.

the chapters and lands

that

evidence distant

Pigeon, it was proved by historical by the existence of connecting sub-varieties in

the

several
many
cases as

breeds old and

have

steadily diverged

in

character, and
have been of lost. domestic

that

intermediate be adduced
Irish in

sub-breeds

Other

could of

of the extinction old

breeds,
and

the

wolf-dog, the
one
"

English
was
*

hound,

of two

breeds
Mr.
'
'

France,

of which that
page

formerly highly valued.*

M. p. Rufz de

Pickering remarks
Races of

Soc.

Imp.
1009.

in 'Bull. Lavlson, Dec. d'Acclimat.,'

Man,'

1850,

315.

1802,

410
be selected.
organs

CONCLUDING

EEMARKS.

Chap.

XXVIII.

Although
are

man

seldom
under

attends
a

to

differences

in

which

important
so

physiological point of

view, yet he
genera.

has

assuredly, if found
The afforded best

breeds, that profoundly modified some be ranked distinct wild, they would as
selection whatever has part effected
or

proof of what
that

is

perhaps
in
any

by the fact

quality

especiallyin any plant, is most valued by more in the several races. that part or quality differs most man, This result is well seen of difference by comparing the amount between the fruits produced by the several varieties of the flowers of our fruit-trees,between flower-garden plants, between the seeds, roots, or leaves of our tural culinary and agriculplants, in comparison with the other and not valued varieties. Striking evidence of a different parts of the same animal, and
kind is afforded

by the
of

fact
a

ascertained

by Oswald
of
"

Heer,^
for their

namelj^ that barley,oats,

the seeds
peas,

large number
"

plants, wheat,

beans, lentils, poppies,

Lake-inhabitants of

cultivated

all Switzerland, were smaller than the seeds of our existing varieties. E-iitimeyer has shown that the sheep and cattle which were kept by the earlier Lake-inhabitants breeds. which
was were

seed by the ancient

likewise

smaller

than

our

ent pres-

In

the middens have

of Denmark, found
age
was

the earliest the

dog of

the

remains

been

succeeded

during the Bronze

the

by
one

weakest; this stronger kind, and

The narily extraordithan
the
our new

this again

during

Iron

age

by
Bronze

still stronger.

sheep of
present
and

Denmark

during

the

period had
was

slender

limbs, and
ISTo doubt

the
in

horse
most

smaller the
cases

animal.^

of

introduced from larger breeds were foreign lands by the it is not probable of men. hordes But immigration of new each
a

that

larger breed, which

and smaller

in the

course was more

of time

has

planted sup-

probable that the domestic of our various animals were races gradually improved in different parts of the great Europieo-Asiatic continent, and thence spread to other countries. This fact of the gradual increase
in size of
8
"

distinct

breed, previous and it is far larger species;

the descendant

of

our

domestic
Pfahlbau-

animals
^

is all the
'

more

striking
des Scien,

Die

Pflanzen

der

Morlot,

Soc.

Vand.

ten,' 18G5.

Nat.'

Mars,

1860, p, 298.

Chap.

XXVIII.

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

4||

as

certain

wild

or

half-wild

animals,

such

park-cattle,and period decreased

The closest conditions attention
"

have boars,'"

within

rcd-docr,aurochs, the nearly same

as man

in size.

favourable
to every

to

selection by
"

arc,

the

character, lon^-continucd perseverance, matching or separating animals, and especiallya large number being kept, so that the inferior individual be freely rejected or destroyed,and the better may preserved. When ones are kept there will also be a many facilityin
"

greater chance
structure.

of the

occurrence

of well-marked

deviations

of

in

Length of time is all-important acter, ; for as each charorder to become strongly pronounced, has to be augmented
by the selection of successive
variations
of the
same

kind, this
to

become

only during a long series of generations. feature Length of time will, also,allow any new fixed by the continued viduals rejection of those indican

be effected

which which few

revert

or

vary,
new

still inherit have

the

by the preservation of those character. Hence, although some

and

rapidly in certain respects under new conditions of life,as dogs in India and sheep in the West have produced and plants which Indies, yet all the animals domesticated at an extremely remote were races strongly marked As of history. a quence conseepoch, often before the dawn of this, no record has been preserved of the origin of
varied
our

animals

chief
or

domestic sub-breeds
passes

breeds.
are

Even
so man

at

the

present
to

day
some

new

strains

formed A

slowly that their

attends his animals

first appearance
ticular parusual un-

unnoticed.
or a

character,
care,

merely matches
time
a

with

and

after
;"

his

neighbours

unconscious sub-breed

and

slight difference is perceived by by the difference goes on being augmented methodical selection, until at last a new
receives
a

is formed,

local

name,

and

spreads; but
tlic
new

by this time
breed has

its history is almost

it

forgotten. When
to
new

spread widely,

gives rise
so

strains and
in the

sub-

breeds, and
other of and

the best of these succeed older breeds; and well-marked

and

spread, supplanting
march

always onwards
has
once

improvement.
When
a

breed

been

established, if
if

not

supplanted by still further

lo

improved sub-breeds, and

Pfahlbauten,'
ISfil,
s.

Riitimeyer,

'

Die

Fauna

der

30

412

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

Chap.

XXVIII.

of life inducing exposed to greatly changed conditions reversion to long-lostcharacters, it may further variability or infer that period. We may apparently last for an enormous but from the high antiquity of certain races; this is the case
not
some

caution
may

is necessary

appear

tion variahead, for the same independently after long intervals of time,
on

this

that this has safely assume places. We may is figured on the with the turnspit-dog,of which one occurred swine with the solid-hoofed ancient Egyptian monuments
or

in

distant

"

"

mentioned Columella
"

by
and
the
on

Aristotle

"

with

five-toed

fowls

described
The 2000

by
resented rep-

certainly with the nectarine. about Egyptian monuments,

chief breeds
any
are

dogs

us

that

some

of the

then

B.C., show existed, but it is extremely

same an

doubtful
our

whether
A

identically the

with

present breeds.

great
to

mastiff be the
same

sculptured
same

on

ian Assyrdog still

hound grey-

tomb,

640

B.C., is said

with

the
The

imported from
existed down
to
a

Thibet

into

the

region.
classical

true

during

the

Roman

period. Coming

of the that, though most period, we have seen and three centwo chief breeds of the pigeon existed between turies acter charall retained not exactly the same ago, they have later
to
cases

the

present
no

day;

but

this
was

has

occurred

in

certain

in which
case

improvement

desired, for instance, in

the

De
races

Spot and Indian ground-tumbler. has fully discussed the antiquity of various Candolle that the black-seeded of plants; he states was poppy
of the
^*

known the

in

the

time

of Homer,

the almonds

white-seeded with
not sweet
seem

sesamum

by
bitter

ancient

Egyptians, and
Hebrews;
of these varieties

and

kernels that
some

by the
One

but

it does
may

improbable
lost and
one

have

been

peared. reap-

variety of
were

barley
at

and
an

both

of which
the
"

cultivated of
a

apparently immensely

of wheat,

remote

period
It is is
an

by
said

Lake-inhabitants
that
"

Switzerland,
small of Lima
De

still exist.

specimens of
in the

variety of gourd
were

which from

still

common

market Peru."

exhumed
remarks

ancient

cemetery and
'

in

Candolle

the books

drawings

of the

sixteenth
^^

century,
'

that, in the princiof

11 De I'Espece.' torn. Godron, i., 1859. p. 368. " Geog. Botan.,' 1855, p. 989.
'

Pickering,
p.

Races

Man,'

1850,

318.

Chap.

XXVIII.

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

413

pal
any

races

of the have

cabbage, turnip, and gourd

been

can

be recognised

this might

expected
are

at

so

late

period, but whether

of these

plants
is not
a

sub-varieties Brussels

sprout,

absolutely identical with our present certain. It is, however, said that the variety which in some places is liable to
genuine
for
more

degeneration, has remained

in the district where

than

four

turies cen-

it is believed

to have

originated.'*
by
me

In

accordance and

with

the views

maintained

in
races,

this but

work the

elsewhere, not
distinct
genera

only the various

and orders

domestic
the

most
"

within

same

great
"

class

for instance, mammals, of

one common

and birds, reptiles,

fishes
we

are

all the descendants admit forms

progenitor,and
of difference

must

that the wdiole vast

has

amount

between

these

primarily
with

arisen

the subject under

one

dumb

amazement.
w^e

simple variability. To consider this point of view is enough to strike But amazement our ought to be
infinite in

from

lessened

when
an

reflect that beings almost

infinite

number,

lapse of time, have often had their in some and that M^hole organisation rendered degree plastic, during
each almost
in any of structure which was slight modification way beneficial under excessively complex conditions of life has in any been preserved, whilst each which injurious was way the long-continued achas been rigorously destroyed. And cumulation have led to of beneficial variations will infallibly structures diversified,as beautifully adapted for various as
purposes

and
and

as

excellently co-ordinated,
us.

as

we

see

in

the

lection spoken of seto whether the paramount applied by man as power, to the producof domestic tion the formation breeds, or by nature mer to the metaphor given in a forof species. I may recur

animals

plants around

Hence

I have

chapter :

if

an

architect

were

to

rear

noble

and

dious commo-

of cut stone, by selecting from the use without edifice, the fragments at the base of a precipice wedge-formed stones and flat stones for his lintels, for his arches, elongated stones the his skill and regard him as should admire for his roof, we dispensa N'ow, the fragments of stone, though inparamount power. to the architect, bear to the edifice built by him
"
'

Journal

of
a

Tour,'

by

Deputation

Horticultural of the

Taledoniau 293.

Hist.

See,

1823,

p.

414
the

CONCLUDING

REMARKS.

Chap.

XXVIII.

same

relation which

the

fluctuating variations
structures

of organic

beings bear to the varied and admirable acquired by their modified descendants.
Some authors have
the

ultimately explains

declared

that

natural of each

selection

nothing, unless

slight If it were difference be made clear. explained to a savage utterly ignorant of the art of building, how the edifice had been raised stone ments fragstone, and why wedge-formed upon precise cause
were

individual

used
use

for the of each

arches, flat
part and
be

stones

and

if the

of the

for the roof, "c. ; whole building were if he

the

pointed out,
nothing had
of the

it would

unreasonable

declared

that

been

made

clear to him, because

precise cause

shape of each fragment could not be told. But this is with the objection that selection excase a nearly parallel' of each individual not the cause nothing, because w^e know jDlains
difference The
in the structure

of each
stone
at

being.
the base of is not
a our

shape
be the

of the

fragments of
each

ipice prec-

may
;

called

accidental, but

this
on

rect strictlycor-

for

shape of
of

depends
laws;
or on

long

sequence

of

events,
on

all

obeying natural

the

nature

of

the

rock,

the

lines

mountain,

deposition which depends on

of the cleavage, on the form its upheaval and subsequent denudation

earthquake which throws lastly on the storm or the But in regard to the use to which down the fragments. said to be be strictly be put, their shape may fragments may
and

accidental.

And which

here
I
am

we

are aware

led to face 'that I

am

great

alluding
my proper every

to

in difficulty, travellingbeyond
must

province. An
consequence

omniscient which

Creator

have

seen fore-

results from

the laws that

in any
assume

imposed
ator the Cre-

it be reasonably But can by Him. intentionallyordered, if we use the words that certain fragments of rock should sense,

maintained

ordinary
certain If the
rious va-

shapes
were

so

that

the builder have

might

erect

his edifice ?

laws which
not

determined

the

shape of each fragment

tained predetermined for the builder's sake, can it be mainordained with any greater probabilitythat He specially of the breeder animals
no

for the sake in

our

each and
man,

of the innumerable

variations
tions variamore

domestic

plants;
"

many

of these

being of
often

service to

and

not

beneficial,far
Did He

injurious,to the

creatures

themselves?

ordain

Chap.

XXVIII.

CONCLUDING

REMAKKS.

415

that order

the that

crop

and

tail-feathers

of
make the that

the
his

pigeon

should

vary

in and

the

fancier

might
He in
cause

grotesque
and

pouter mental
be

fantail
of of for
one

breeds? the

Did
to vary

frame
a

ties qualiformed the bull

in

dog

order v^ith But admit

breed
to up

might

indomitable
man's
case,
"

ferocity,
brutal if
we

jaws
if
we

fitted

pin
the

down

sport?
do
not

give
the

principle
of

that

variations in of
reason

the
the

primeval greyhound,
vigour,

dog
for

were

intentionally
that
"

guided image
of alike

order symmetry
can

that

instance,
be

perfect
no

and
be and
signed as-

might
for the the
same

formed,
that

shadow

belief

variations, laws,
which of
the

in

nature

the

result

of

general

h^ve

been

the

work groundthe
most
were

through perfectly

natural

selection in

the

""f fq!^||^tion

adapted
and
can

animals

world,

miSl^iclu^^,
Asa

intentionally
wish
"

specially
follow been

guided.
Professor led

However

najtfphHve jfiay
Gray
bei lines of
was

it,

we

hardly
has
"

that
a

variation
stream
assume

along
and

certain useful

like If
we

along
that

definite each

irrigation.
from of the
ganisation, or-

particular

variation then that

beginning

of

all

time

preordained,
to many

plasticity
of

which
as

leads the
to
a

injurious
power

deviations

ture, struc-

well

as

redundant

of

reproduction
and,
of On
the
as a

which
quence, conse-

inevitably
to appear
an

leads the
us

struggle
selection laws

for
or

existence,
survival
nature.

natural

fittest,
other

must

to

superfluous
and

of

the

hand,

omnipotent
foresees
a

omniscient Thus
as

Creator
we are

ordains

everything
face will
to

and with

everything.
as

brought
of free

face
destination. pre-

difficulty

insoluble

is

that

and

418
J., birds W.,
on

ALLEN,

INDEX.

APPLE.

Allen, Allen,
ii. 7.

in

United

States,
I. 245,

Namaquas,
of

11. 1S5;
and

on

the
roots

use

ii. 262. feral

grass-seeds
as

fowls,

reeds

food

in

the South doubled

of

Africa, by
lection, se-

i. 319.
Anemone

a on strous monProfessor, 11. 145; Saxifrafja geum, the ii. 343, 352. on Hydroida, i. 3.j0; antiquity Almond, of, ii. 412; eaten liitter, not by mice,

Allman,

coronaria,
ii. 178.

Angina

pectoris,
at
a

hereditary,
age,

curring oc-

certain

ii. 53.

ii. 210. Ahius f/lutinosa, and incana, brids hyof, ii. 107. selection Alpaca, of, ii. 186. Althtra i. 393, ii. 82. rosea, ii. 117. AmuryUis, of eign forAmaryllis vittata, effect pollen on, i. 420. i. 442. Amaurosis, hereditary, lurida, ii. 346. Amblystoma within limits which no America, useful have been nished furplants i. 321; colours of by, horses feral in, i. 59-62; North, cultivated native plants of, i. of feral i. 823; skin pig from, variations cattle in 78; South, of, i. 89, 93. the of on Ammon, persistency i. 4.53. in horses, colour Amyf/flalua pcrsica, i. 350-357, 389. arvciisis, ii. 168. AnagaUis i. 431, ii. variation, Analogous i. 56; in the in horses, 329-333; horse i. 05; in fowls, i. and ass, 251-253. Anas hoschas, i. 286, ii. 14; skull of, figured, i. 292. Ancon of setts, Massachusheep i. 101, ii. 68. Andalusian i. 234. fowls, Andalusian rabbits, i. 106. the of Anderson, origin J., on British the lection sesheep, i. 95; on of qualities in cattle, ii. breed 173: one-eared of a on the ance inheritI'abbits, i. 109; on from of characters a one" "

cattle Anglesea, of, i. 81. Angola sheep, i. 95. in hair of Angora, change cats at, ii. 259; 47; rabbits of, i. 107, domestication Animals,

by
19; refusal

fearlessness

captivity,

of wild, ii. 127; compound,

mals aniof. 1. 45, 124. of. facilitated of man, i. to breed in

dividual in-

peculiarities of, reproduced i. 3S8; ation variby budding, in selection useful by qualities of, ii. 198. ation Annual plants, rarity of bud-variin, i. 429.
in the osteology of th^ i. 50. breeds of pigs, i. 75; Anomalous i. 89. of cattle, Anser of. reproduced albifrons, characters in domestic i. geese, 297. i. 291, ii. 42. Anser wgyptiaeus, Anser canadensis, ii. 136. Anser original of the frrus, the i. 297; domestic fertility goose, domestic with of cross of,

Anomalies

horse,

i. 297. in the Laferal fowls i. 245. drones, and between Antagonism growth ii. 367. reproduction, in Avthemis vobilis, bud-variation gle sinbecomes flowers of, i. 395: soil. ii. 146. in poor of. ii. 144. contabescence Anthers, cats of, i. 45: changed Antigua, of fleece In, i. 99. sheep Antirrhimim ma jus, peloric. i. 381,
goose,

Anson,

on

eared

rabbit,

and

bitch,
of the

i. 445; on of varieties

production
of the

three-legged persistency i. 342; on peas, of early peas by

the
on

the ties variei. 343, 344; of varieties the on crossing i. 419; reversion In on melon, i. 400. the barberry, the Anderson, Mr., on tion reproducash of the weeping by the i. 4.50; on cultivation seed, tree in China, of the ii. pseony 183. Mr., the Andersson, on Damara,

selection,

ii. 178;

potato,

ii. 33, 44, 146; double-flowered, bud-variation in. i. 397. ii. 146: individual Ants, recognition of, ii. 2.30. ii. pear-trees, attacking Aphides, 210; of, ii. 350. development

Apoplexy,
at
a

hereditary,

occurring

Apple,

Bechuana,
i. 89;
maras,
on

and

Namaqua

cattle,

tised

Dathe of the cows ii. 281; selection prncthe Damaras and by

of, in i. 328; in heat in bud-variation i. 377; India, with dimidiate the. i. 392; fru't, with two kinds of fruit, i. 415; the ficial i. 415; artisame branch, on fecundation of. i. 421; St. Valery, i. 422, 11. 145; reversion in of, ii. 4: crossing seedlings of varieties of, ii. lOG; growth
Swiss rendered

certain age, i. 362-365;

ii. 52. fruit

lake-dwellings, fastigate by

a:""iiicot.

INDEX.

AZAftA.

410
of
a

of

the,

in Ceylon, not majetin,

coccws,

ii. 210;

ii. 257; attacked flowev-hiids

ter win-

Assyrian
1.

sci:lp(ure
i. 451, Ii. 297

maslilT.

by of,
2Hi when
;

1(5.

attaclved

by
in

bullfinches,
chantre of.

Asters, Asthma,
Atavism.

hcn'ditary, 'i. 440,

*S'.x' his

il. .53. 11.

""f

American,
grown

Reversion.
care

ii. 2'ir). 358; on glands leaves the of, ii. 210; analogous variation in the, ii. 330. in fusra, copulating Aquila tivity, capii. 132. Aguilegia vuUjarifi, i. 3S0, ii. 313. described Arab boarhound, by i. 10. Harcourt, and Arabis A. sobhphurophylla of crossing, i, 421. yeri, effects in Aralia trifoUaia, bud-variation leaves of, i. 398. varialde Arancarias, sistance reyoung, of, to frost, ii. 290. Archangel pigeon, ii. 219. Arctic of regions. variability shells of, ii. 235. plants and Aria vestita, grafted on thorns, i. 403. fowls mentioned Aristophanes, by, i. 254. solid-hoofed on Aristotle, pigs, i. duck unknown 75; domestic to, i. 287; the on of assumption male characters by old hens, i.. 26. of the, i. S'?. Ai'ni, domestication of polArnold, Mr., experiments len the i. 420. maize, on of ii. 290Arrests development, 300. anastomo^:increase of Arteries, ing branches of, when tied, ii. 281. Aru wild Islands, pig of, i. "8. varietif s of, ii. Anim, Polynesian 235. of Ascaris, number of, ii. eggs 302. varieties i. .370: of Ash. the, i. 377; weeping, simple-leaved, i, 377; bud-variation in, i. 398; of stock the effects graft upon in the, i. 408; production of the i. 408; blotched Breadalbane,

England,
357,

Athelstan,
Atkinson,
the

of the

Apricot,

i.

horses,
sterllily

Mr.,

on

Tarroo silk-moth in couiiiieii. 130. ment, Aubergine, ii. 00. Audubon, on f"'ral hybrid dll""k^ i. 190, ii. 20; on the duiiiesi bation of wild ducks the on sissippi, Misi. 287; on the wild cock

turkey
in

i. 302;

visiting di.nu'stic hens fertility of FriucjUJa riris captivity, ii. 13.1; feriilitv of
migraloriii
and Ini
o-

Cohimba

in ii. i;!4; captivity, breeding of A)is,t in canadniHis captivity, ii. 1.30. Audubon and on Hachman, the in Ovis of coat change moDtaiin, i. 100; of Sciunia sterility cinrrca in conlinemeiit, ii. 131. effect Auricula, of seasonal ditions conon ing tlie, ii. 254; bloomof, ii. .328.

ccphala

Australia,

no usefi'l generally i. :V21: usefrom, plants derived ful of, enumerated plants Ijy

Hooker, Austria,
emperors

i. .322.

heredity
of,
on

Autenrieth.
in

horses,

of character ii. ,39. of persistency i. 453.

in our col-

Ava,
Avcna
'

horses

of. i. 53.

fatua, cultivability of, i.3 "4. Aveen Aklierv.' uhmipiireons in tioned the, i. 1.55, 159, 191,
211.
213. 214.

bud-var'ation W. P., on Ayres, i. ,393. in pelargoniums, in, Az'ilra indica, bud-variation 393. Azara,
on

1.

Plata,
domestic

the i. 20:
i.

feral
on

dogs
wild

of

I. a of in

the

crossing
cats

with

weeping,
of, by

capricious
seed,

tion reproduc-

i. 4.50,

Asparagus,

cultivated, earlv Ass,

increased fertility of ii. 88. domestication of the. breeds i. 02; of, i. 03; small i. 03: striprs size of, in India, dislike of, of, i. 04, 05, il. 332: i. 187; reversion to cross water, in. 11. 10, 17, 22; hybrid of the. ii. 10; with and mare zebra, the of over the. prepotency wild ii. 42; crossed with horse, and tion selecii. 184; variation ass.

hornii'ce 44; on in 1. 50; horses, on processes in 1. 54, il. hair horses. curled the colours of feral 183. 307; on the tle cati. 01, ii. 2;{8; on horses,

Paraguay,

and I"a IMata, of Paraguay less horna i. 84, 80. 89. ii. 2.38; on th"' crease Inii. 183; on bull, ica, Amerin South of cattle of the on ii. 95; growth of cattle hornless in the horns *' Nithe ii. 12: on Corrientes. " naked i. 91: on ata cattle, r.ice ii. 2.50: on n quadrupeds, fowls in South of black-skinned I. 2;{9. Ii. 188; America. on a

of the, ii. 215,

variety of maize,

I, 333,

420

BABmGTON.

INDEX.

BECHSTEIN.

C. Babingtou, of the plum, of the distinctness

C,
genus

on

the
British

origin
cies spei.

Barth,
food
"

Dr.,
in

use

of

grass-seeds

as

i. 359; Viola
on

Rosa,

382;
and

tricolor,
Bjichniann, ii. 242.

of i. 384.

lutea
the

Bartlett, Himalayan
rabbits

Central A. D.,
"

Africa,
the on rabbits

i. 319.

origin of crossing, by inter-

Mr.,
See
also

turliey,

Audubon.
in

Badger,
ii.
"

breeding

confinement,
i. 144. of effect

130.

Bagadotten-Taube,"
Mr.,
on on

Bailv,

the

lection seon

Dorking

ii. fowls, ii. 217. fowls,

176;

the origin of the S., on Baird, i. 302. turkey, in the Mr., heredity on Baker, the i. 444; tion degeneraon horse, horse of the by neglect, ii. and VII. of Henrys orders of undestruction dersized for the VIII. ii. 181. mares, in the fected sheep efchange Bakewell,

i. 110; the feral on Porto of Santo, i. 116; with reversed feathers on geese the head and on neck, i. 298; of a the on i. variety turkey, 303; size of hybrids, ii. 108; on the of the Felidae in breeding captivity, ii. 129; so-called brids, hyii. 306. the black Bartram, on wolf-dog i. 21. of Florida, of wild mals aniBates, H. W,, refusal to breed in captivity, ii.

218;

128, 130; monkeys sterility

135.

sterility of American in ii. 131; captivity,

of tamed
guans,

ii.

by, Balancement,

growth,

Baldhead ii. in inherited, Baldness, man, deficiency in teeth, ii. 309; with 309, 310. of the effects on Mr., Ballance, ii. 102; fowls, on interbreeding the of in variation eggs on

ii. 176. ii. 325; 324, law of, 324. (pigeon), i. 155.

of

fowls,
Ballota

i. 256.

nigra,

transmission

of

in. i. 399. of varieties the, ii. 235. Bamboo, i. 387, of the, variation Banana, in bud-variation the, i. ii. 235; of the, ii. 248. 392; sterilitv i. 237; Bantam Sebright, fowls,

variegated

leaves

origin
76. Barb

of, ii. 71; sterility of, ii.

205;
lower

(pigeon), i. 148, 149, 217, ii. figure of, i. 149; figure of jaw of, i. 170.
wheat,
dark
or

of Barbs, Barberry,

i. 325.
riety, va-

i. suckers 400.

377,
of

red-leaved reversion seedless variety,

451;

in i.

Barbut,
i. 24;
in in

J.,
on

on

the

dogs
domestic

of

Guinea,

the

pigeons
not
tive na-

Guinea,

i. 192; fowls i. 245. Guinea,

Barking,
of,

of the habit acquisition dogs, i. 26. Barley,' wild, i. 324; of the lakei. 330, 331; ancient dwellings, variety of, ii. 412. of Barnes, Mr., production early ii. 178. by selection, peas

bv

various

Barnet, Mr., on of strawberries,

ness

the

intercrossing

i. 366; dioeciousof the hautbois ry, strawberthe i. 367; on Scarlet can Ameriii. 177. strawberry,

of lost regeneration ii. 347. raised, in Peru, containing i. 332. heads of maize, Beak, varial:)ility of. in fowls, i. individual differences 266; of, in pigeons, i. 164; correlation of, with feet the in i. pigeons, 177-181. the contents of Beale, Lionel, on the cells, ii. 361; on mulliplication of infectious ii. atoms, 361. i. 343; of Beans, Swiss laketr^-ellings, i. 331; varieties of, produced by selection, ii. 196; French and variable scarlet, resistance of, to frost, ii. 290, of native 295; superiority seed ii. of, 295; with monstrous and abortive stipules leaflets, ii. 324. Beard pigeon, i. 155. in ii. Bears, breeding captivity, 130. in crossed Beasley, J., reversion cattle, ii. 15. Beaton, of soil D., effect upon ties variei. 368; strawberries, on of i. 380, ii. pelargonium, 292 bud variation in 254, ; Gladiolus cross colvillii, i. 398; between Scotch and bage, cabkail ii. 73; hybrid gladiolus, ii. 117; of constant occurrence forms new seedlings, ii. among the of the 214; on doubling ii. 297. Compositae, Bechuana cattle, K 89. the of Bechstein, on burrowing i. 26; Spitz Dog, i. 30; wolves, the of Newfoundland origin dog, i. 42; crossing of domestic and wild i. 67; the on swine, Jacobin pigeon, i. 158, 215; hQ"

Batrachia,

parts Beach,

in.

BECK.

INDEX.

BIRCH.

421

of swallow-pigeons, fork-tailed pigeon, in the colour variations in pigeons, i. 190; croup tice
on a

i. 160;
i. of
on

Bellingeri,
in

101;
the the

observations on tion gestai. 29; dog, the on fertility of dogs and cats, ii. S7. Belon, on high-flying pigeons in
the

doA e-cot pigeon, i. I'Jl; i. fertility of mongi-el-pigeons, 1. hybrid turtle-doves, 199; on 200; on crossing the pigeon with C. Columba palumhus, cenas, T. vulgaris, Turtur risoria, and in of spurs i. 199; development German

Paphlagouia,
of
the goose, cattle

i. 215; i. 299.

varieties

1. 264; Polish on silk-hen, crested i. 264, 271; on fowls, i. 265; the on birds, canaryman Gerbird, i. 305, 453, 11. 140;
the

about the of i. 303; occurrence hornless breeds of in horns the of ii. 3; hybrids sheep, and ii. 42; horse crosses ass, ii. 68; culty diffitailless of fowls, dove-cot and of pairing ii. 78; fertility fancy pigeons, and ferrets of tame rabbits, ii. wild ii. sow, 87; fertility of 87; ditficulty of breeding caged tility fercomparative birds, ii. 133; erithacus in PsUtficus of of changes captivity, ii. 133; on in ii. 137; captivity, plumage cattle liability of light-coloured the of attacks to flies, ii. 207: of of food nature as a cause effect of ii. 236; variability, of the light privation upon ii. 260; on of birds, a plumage sul)-variety of the monk-pigeon, ii. 331. constitutional ences differMr., Beck, in pelargoniums, i. 380, the in Beckmann, on changes odours of plants, ii. 255. of plexion comBeddoe, Dr., correlation ii. with consumption, 319.

superstition

turkey,

Benguela, of, i. 89. Dr. Bennett, G., pigs of the cific PaIslands, i. 70, ii. 62; dogs the of Pacific Islands, ii. 62; varieties of cultivated plants in Tahiti, ii. 235. Bennett, on Mr., the fallowdeer, ii. 78. and Bentham, G., number origin of cultivated plants, i. 317; on 1. 343; cereals Phaseolus, all cultivated varieties, i. 323; species
of the i. orange group, of distinctions almond and i. 3.50; British peach, species of i. 382; Rom, of identity Intra Viola and tricolor, i. 384. Berberis vulqarin, i. 400, 451. Bcrberis wallichii. indifference of, to climate, ii. 143. the of on the Berjeau, history dog, i. 15, 17. of G. F., production Berkeley, of in a strain hen-cocks gamei. 261. fowls, of M. J., crossing rieties vaBerkeley, of the i. effect 418; pea, 1. of foreign pollen on grapes, between 420; analogy pollen of cultivated and highly plants ii. 247; on Hungarian hybrids, kidney-beans, ii. 255; failure of ii. in Indian wheat England,

348;

288.

Bernard,
in

the

inheritance i. 443. horse,

of

disease
of the

Bernard,
organs

C,

independence
body,
of the

of the affinities

ii. 353;

special tissues, ii.

Bee,
ii.

persistency 215, 233;

conveyance

of

character

of,
ii. of

363. of varieties plants ii. 329. leaves, 1. 298. antorctica, feral pigeons In Juan on i. 196. Fernandez, i. 4,50. alba, Brtula tle, catwild British the on Bewick,

103;
peas

intercrossing, of pollen

Bernhardi,
with Bcrnicla Bertero,

laciniated

by, i. 342.
self-fertilisation

Bee Ophrys, ii. 66.

of,

i. 377, Beech, 451; dark-leaved, i. reversion fern-leaved, of, 398; non-production weeping,

i. 85.

of, by Beechey,
Beet,
in,

i. 4.50. horses Loochoo of i. 53. i. 338; of increase ii. 178. by selection, seed,

Bianconi,
lands, Issugar

Prof.,

on

the

skulls

of

i. 33. dogs, reference Bible, horses of in,

to

breeding

studs

BeQonia
of,

i. 381;

variety friqifla, singular sterility of, ii. 145.

Belgian

i. 107. rabbit, Bell. whi*^e that T., statement i. 86. cattle coloured have ears, Bell, in Parlbud-variation W., tkim tricusjyis, i. 393.

references i. in the, domestic pigeons to of selection of 211; indications of notice ii. 179; in the, sheep ii. 179. in the, mules i. 55;

self-impotence on Mr., Bidwell, ii. 117. in Amaryllis, Biqnonia, self-sterility of. ii. 113. i. 403, 4o0. Birch, weeping,

42^
Birch,
Dr.

stRca.

INDEX.

fiONAFOUS.

mestication affinis, i. 189; dothe ancient pigeons roosting in in trees, i. 187; on tlie Columha leupigeon of bantam i. 211; notice i. 188; termedia inColumha conota, on Egj-pt, in fowls of i. 190; a Japanese encycloStrickland, variation of in colour in poedia, i. 237, 255. croup bits, tary on Birch, Wyrley, pigeons, i. 190, 191, 203; volunsilver-grey rabi. 110, 111. domestication of rockin i. 191; India, feral pigeons Birds, sterility caused in, by of ii. 132the i. 196; on pigeons Hudson, change conditions, of 13G. occurrence of sub-species of the, to of pigeonpigeons, i. 210; notice Bladder-nut, tendency become fanciers in Delhi, double, ii. 147. "c., i. 212; riers, terof Gallus sonncralii Mr., on Blaine, wry-legged hybrids and ii. 224. the domestic hen. i. 241; of Gallus of Blainville, origin and history supposed hybridity in the i. variations 242; dog, i. 14, 15; variations temminckii, the number in of teeth of Gallus and domestication dogs, in the number i. 34; variations of hankiva, i. 243, 244; crossing in of toes wild fowls in and tame Burmies mumdogs, i. 35; on of cats. i. 43; on the ology ostei. 244; restricted of mah, range of solid-hoofed the birds, i. pigs, i. 7P"; larger gallinaceons feral in N. and the on fowls 245; feral Nicobar Patagonian American i. 245; black-skinned pigs, i. 78. Islands, i. 160. fowls Blass-Taube," near occurring Calcutta, i. 440; sexGallus i. 264; kiva, hanual of Bleeding, hereditary, weight limitation of ii. i. 282; degeneration of the excessive, 46. in i. 304, ii. 258; India, turkey crossed of the colour time of on Blending races, gold-fish, i. from ii. 306; reversion occupied a by the, ii. 62. cross, i. 442; at the Ghor-Khur Blindness, on 14; hereditary, (Equus certain ii. 5;^* associated hcmia age, indieus), ii. 17; on Equus colour with of ii. 17; number of eggs hair, ii. 311. of onus, the Bloodhounds, Gallus ii. 87; of, hankiva. on degeneration caused of in ii. 96. birds by interbreeding, breeding captivity, the of ii. 135; co-existence Blumenbach, on protulierance large skull in Polish in and small breeds of the the same fowls, i. the effect of cision, circumii. 259; the 264; on on country, ing droopthe inheritance of i. 455; of ii. a ears elephant, of crooked 282; homology finger, i. 457; on er-dogs badgleg and wing of and varieties ii. '304. other feathers, ii. Scotch wild Boethius the on Hydra, cattle, dog, ii. 198; on 274: i. 86. the nisus formativus," on and Boitard ii. 275, 276. Corbie, on the breeds Lille i. 135; of pigeons, tlie pariah E., Blyth. on dog. i. pouter of a glidand of dog ing pigeon, i. 142; notice 23; hybrids .iackal. of of i. 161; i. 31; domestication pigeon, variety early the cot cats in i. 43; pigeon, i. 167; doveIndia, origin of pouter i. domestic i. 43; crossing of 191; crossing cat, pigeon, ity domestic i. 44; and wild cats, pigeons, i. 199, ii. 73, 103; sterilof of Felis Indian turtle-doves, cats on hybrids resembling of reversion crossed i. 199; geons, pichaiis, i. 45; on striped Burmese i. 203. ii. 13; on the fanthe ponies, i. 59; on stripes of the Indian wild peter, trumthe i. 64; on tail, 1. 214, ii. 40; on ass, of ii. 40; prepotency cattle, i. pigs, i, 67; on humpod in silky fantnil, ii. transmission of Bor" 80; occurrence frontosus

S.,

on

of

"

"

in

Irish

cranuoges,

i.
the

83;

tile fermon com-

41;
in

crossing
cattle,
of

of zebus i. 84; on
on

and

species

sheep,
goat,

i. 95;

the

Indian

sheep,
in

i.

97;

the

breeding

i. 102; India, in of tail-feathers fnntails, tumbler i. 1.50; Lotan pigeons, tall-feathers of i. 1.55; number
on

fat-tailed of rabliits on i. 113; ber num-

origin

of and white coloured turtle-doves, ii. ii. 68; fertility of pigeons, 87. females of, Bombvcidse, wingless ii. 280. hfsperiis. ii. 285. Bomhyx Bomhiix huttoni, i. .312. i. 311-315. mori, Bomhj/x

sexual secondary pigeons, "ii. 49;

ch;iracters

crossing

lu Ectopistes, i. 163;

Columha

Bonafous,

on

maize,

1. 332, 333.

BONAPARTE.

INDEX.

BRENT.

423

Bonaparte,
Columbidae,

number i.

of

species

of of

13"3; number

in pigeons, i. 163; tail-feathers in feet tlie of Columbidae, size i. 188: Coliimha i. 180: guinea, and C'olutnba turricola, rupestris i. 190. schimpcyn, of Bonatca spcciosa, development of, i. 424. ovary of flowers cauligrowth Dr., Bonavia, ii. 292. in India, sheep, ii. 5. Mr., semi-feral Boner, of portions removal of, ii. Bones, regeneration of, ii. 275; 277: and repair of, ii. 366. growth pigeons, i. 13"), 167. Bonizzi, on ii. the salamander, on Bonnet, of reproduction, 346, 373: theory ii. 340, 359. Borchmeyer, seeds the i. 4.-)0. of

Brachycome II. 241. ihrridifolin, Bracts, unusual development of, in gooseberries, i. 370. Bradley, Mr., effect of grafts
the stock in the effect of foreign i. 421; on upon apples, of soil, 11. 124. Brahma Pootras," a new
upon

nsh.

i.

408;

pollen change
breed

"

fowls, i. 253. Brain, proportion and of, in hares rabbits, i. 127-131. Brandt, Dr., origin of the goat,
i. 102: correlation hair, ii. .310.
of teeth and

of

experiments the weeping

with

ash,

Borecole,

Borelli,
Borneo,
i. 242.

i. 335. Tolish fowls, i. 255. fowls tail-bands, of, with

on

Bornet,
in

E.,

condition

of

the

ry ova-

varieties of, with larged enii. .330. Brassica asprrifoUa, ii. 324. Brassica i. 3.37. napus, Brassica ohracca, i. 334. Brassica 1. .3.37, ii. 144. rapa, in the Braun, A., bud-variation and in the vine i. 391; currant, in MiruJjiUs jalapn, i. 'iUH; in i. 404; on Cytisus adami, reverin sion the foliage of trees, i. .398: spontaneous of production

Brassica,

stems,

Cisti, i. 406; selfhybrid of hybrid Cisti, ii. impotence

118.

Borrow,
Borv
de

pointers, G., on Saint-Vincent,

i. 42.
on

fish, gold-

i. 307.

origin of European three from cattle cies speof, i. 83. Bos front OS us, i. 83. Bos indicus, i. 80. Bos lomjifrotis, i. 80. 82, 83. Bos primifjcnius, i. 80, 82, 83. Bos sondaicus, ii. 184. Bos tfiurus, i. 80. i. 82. Bos trochoceros, in foliage-varieties Bosc, heredity i. 377. of the elm, ers flowof double Bosse, production old from seed, ii. 146. dark-coloured breeding on Bossi, i. 313. silk-worms, i. ,37. on Bosman, dogs of Guinea, vine the disease, on Bouchardat, i. 347. ii. 257; local diseases, Boudin, on of plexioned dark-comcold resistance to ii. 319. men, " i. 140. Boulans," " ii. 257. Bouton d'Alep," to the as Bowen, Prof., doubts i. of inheritance, importance
Bos,

probable

domestic

tlowers by cess stripes and blotches, ii. 11; exof nourishment of a source variability, ii. 2.36. Brazil, cattle of, i. 89. varieties Bread-fruit, of, ii, 2.35; sterility and variability of, ii. 248. in bud-variation W. T., Bree,
Geranium
rra

Cytisus purpurio reversion 406;

"

ctonijatus,

I.

of

cyanus,

Crntniipratcnsc, and i. .394; by tubers in the ness deafblue

the
eyes,

dahlia,
of

i. 401; on white cats ii. 312.

with
on

Breeding,

high,

dependent
4.36.

heritance, in-

i. 435,

Breeds, of. domestic, persistency and artificial ii. 225, 410-412; ii. .396. .3!"7: extinction natural, I. cats, of, ii. 408; of domestic of 4.5-47; pro(lnc("d by pigs crossing, i. 79; of cattle, i. 8794; of goats, i. 102. Cohimha amalia', I. 189. on Brehm, B. P., number Brent, i. 107: in rabbits, tumbler
the of habits
manimiE

of

the

er pigeon, i. 1.55; Laughof colouring pigeon, i. 159;

kite of the

tumbler,

ing

pigeon

i. I"i5: cro-sColuwlia with

435.

Bowman,

Mr.,
in the

hereditary
human

iarities peculeye,

the of mongrels i. 199; anas, pigeon, ii. 41 : i\o"e trumpeter of pigeons, ii. 103; interbreeding

441-443;
54.

hereditary
on

cataract,

i. ii.

opinion
i. 255;
on

on

Aldrovandi's
conilts
-

fowls,
i. I.

stripes in chiekens,
the of

Brace, Mr., I, 81.

Hungarian

cattle,

257; 261;

on

fowls.

double

spurred
effect of

Dorking

fowls, i. 203;

crossing

61

424

BRICKELL.

INDEX.

BULLACE.

on

colour

i.

265;

of plumage incubatory
between

in instinct

fowls,
of
457.

effects

of

injuries,

1.

mongrels
varieties the of

non-setting

of fowls, ii. 18; origin domestic i. 'J8G; duck, duck, fertilitj'of the hook-billed the i. 28G; of occurrence mage plumestic dothe duck in of wild of voice i. 289; breeds, of i. 290; a occurrence ducks, mandible in crosses short upper hook and of billed common in ducks ducks, i. 290; reversion
-

herited
Brunswigia,
Brussels
Bubo

ii. 117. i, 336, ii. 132. maximus,

sprouts, F.,
on

ii. 413.

Buckland,
number 3(j2.

oysters,
in
a

of

eggs

ii. 261; codfi"h, ii. to

Buckle,

Mr.,
of

doubts

as

inheritance,
-

the portance imi. 4.35.

Buckley, roosting
Buckman,
Avena

in

carrier Miss, trees, i. 186.

pigeons

produced
305;

by

of variation ii. in the fashion canary, of and 219; hybrids canary ii. 19. iinches, nectarines raising on Brickell, the from horses seed, i. 353; on of North ii. 281. Carolina, the Mr., on Bridges, dogs of Tierdel i. 39: the on lection seFuego, ra of dogs by the Fuegians, ii. 185.

ii. 14; crossing, the 1. canary-bird,

cultivation of Prof., fatua, i. 324; cultivation wild of the i. 338. ii. parsnip, in the 178, 258: reversion nip, pars-

ii. 5.

Buckwheat,
to

when

in

flower

jurious in-

white

Bud
i.

and

seed,

pigs, ii. 320. close of, analogy

433. ii. 10.

Bud-reversion,

W. K., reproduction of abnormal ferns, i. 399. the Broca, P., on intercrossing hvbrids of dogs, i. 30, 31: on and of hare rabbit, i. 106; on i. 267; fowl, the on rumpless of character the half-castes, ii. of 21: grels, fertility of mondegree ii. 75: scendants desterility of of wild animals bred in captivity, ii. 1.39. i. 33(^; Broccoli, rudimentary flowers tenderness in, ii. 297; of. ii. 291. of the Bromehead, W., doubling Bell Canterbury by selectiun, ii. 178. Broomfleld, Dr., sterility of tlie Acorns ii. 149. caJnynus, ivy and Bromus srcalinus, i. 325. in Bronn, H. G., bud-variation of i. 395; effects Anthrmis, the female, on cross-breeding in i. 425; a oneon heredity horned i. 445; propigaiion cow, of a peach l"y seed, pendulous of the ity minor1. 450; absorption

Bridgman,

adventitious, ii. .369. Buds, i. 388-433, ii. 234, Bud-variation, contrasted with 268, 269, 272; seminal i. 388; reproduction,

peculiar to plants, i. 388; in the in plums, i. .353, 389; i. peach, the in i. 390: in 390; cherry, in the i. 390; ry, goosebergrapes, and currant, apple, i. pear, 391; thorn, hawbanana, camellia, and Azalea i. 392; iinlica, Paritium tricuspis, and hock, hollyi. 393: in pelargonium, i.
in .393, 394; i. 394; in the in 394, 395;

Ocrunium
roses,

pratcnfi'', i. chrysanthemum,
i. 383, .395snapdragons, flowers, wallhi-

397:

in

sweet

williams, 397,
and stocks, in 398; (Enothfra

tions, carna-

pinks,
i.

cyclamen, ennis,

sias, Gladiolus colvillii, fuchand i. Mirahilis jalapa. treps, 398; in foliage of various i. i. .398; plants, cryptogamic and in Phlox .399: by suckers

barberry,
the

1.

400;
bulbs

by
in
in

tubers the

in

potato, i. 401; by

i. 401;

dahlia,

Tmatophijlhnn
TUjrUlia rocallis,

miniatmn,

hyacinths, tulips,
and Heme-

couchiftora.

in

crossed

races,

ii.

63;

on

tlie crossing ii. 68; of horses, and rab])its tame fertility of of ii. 87: changes mage plusheep, in ii. 137; on captivity,
the Bronze

dahlia, C.

ii. 241.

period,
M..

of a 39. in the tition denBrown, G., variations i. 50. of the horse, inheritance Dr., Brown-Sequard, of artificially-produced epilep- y i. 457; inin the guinea-pig, Brown.

dog of. i. prepotency

18.

greyhound,

ii.

doubtful 401-^03 i. ; in i. 403; Cytisus adami, cases, of vations obseri. 404-407; summary 426. on, and Buffon. on crossing the wolf of fertility i. 31 : increase dog, provement imii. 86: domestication, by of plants scious unconby ii. 194; theory selection, of ii. 359. reproduction, ii. 27. Bulimus, influence Bull, of, on apparent offspring, ii. 43. Bullace, i. 359.

426

CANNING.

INDfi^t.

CAfTtfi.

Canning, peacock,
Canterbury

A. i.

S.

G..

the

japanned by
lection, se-

the,

ii. 5;

300, 301. Bell, doubled

11. 178. different Good of Hope, Cape at kinds of cattle the, i. 89; no from the, useful plants derived i. 321.

ii. 88; 258: acclimatisation ii. 292. India, abortion Carthamus, in, ii. 298. cultivation Cartier,

creased run wild, ii. 7: Infertility of cultivated, ii. on the, experiments

of

the,
the

in

of of

pus pap-

native

Capercailzie,
ii. 135.

breeding
C. of

in

ity, captiv-

and Cnpra cegagrus parents piobable

falconeri,
domestic

1. 322. plants in Canada, of Caryophyllaceae, frequency eontabescence in the, ii. 144. bud in variation the Caspary.
-

i. 102. 1. 387. Capsicum,

goat,

i. 396; the on moss-rose. and of pollen Cytisus,

the nut, wal-

ovules

Cardan,

on

i. 371; walnuts, ii. 239. ii. 7. Cardoon, Carcx rigidd, local sterility of the, ii. 149. of sheep. earlier, early selection
ii. 181.

variety of on grafted

crossing
and

405; Cytisus purpureua C. i. 406; cial trifalaburnum, i. 408; differentlyorange,

of flowers in

i.

coloured
Viola the

the

wild
of

lutca, i. 430;
horse-radish,
on

sterility

Casteluau,
89.

ii. 150. Brazilian cattle,

1.

inheritance Carlisle, Sir A i culiarities, 439, 441; i, 447. dactvlism,

"

of
of

pe-

Castration,
characters

poly-

Carme .397 ;

"

pigeon,

Carnation.

1. IGl. bud-varialion
i.

of, variability produced by striped, and red white, i. 416;

of life
on

i. in. 386 ;
of ii.

crossing
effect

conditions 253.

the,

Carnivora,

general fertility of, in captivity, ii. 129. cats Caroline of, i. Archipelago,
46.

Carp. ii. 214. vated cultiin variation of, Carpels, CucuibitaeeiT", i. 3. 4. W. of B., regeneration Carpenier,
bone,
an

of female assumption caused by. ii. 25, 26. Casuarius benrntii, ii. 135. i. 4.3-48; early domesticatio Cat. domestic, and origin probable i. 43, 44; of the, intercrossing wild of, with species, i. 44, 45; variations of, i. 4.5-47; feral, i. i. 4S; poly47, ii. 6; anomalous, dications dactylism in, i. 447; l)lack, inof stripes in young, ii. 30; fects tortoiseshell, ii. 48; efof tility crossing in. ii. 61; ferof. ii. 86: difticiilty of selection in, ii, 212, 215; length of intestines with in, ii. 283; white deafness blue of, ii. 312; eyes, with 54. tufted
ears,

ii. 275;
r

uumljer

of

eggs

in

Cataract,

hereditary,

ii. 332. i. 442,

ii.

Asm

is, ii. 362.

oc

Carpophafja
Carr.

Mr., effect ii. 91. ditions,

i. 143:

anica, of

ii. 396.

changed

cou-

Carrier

i. 143-146; lish, Engpigeon, figuied, i. 147; sknll figured, i. 160; history of the, i.

1. 145; 211 Per.-nnn, Bu'jsorah, skull 1. 145; figBagadotten. i. 169; lower ured. jaw figured. 1. 171. origin of radis-h, i. 338; Carriere, form intermediate between the the almond i. 3"2; and peach,

glands

of

peach-leaves,

i.

357;

in the bv.d-variation i. vine. bud-variation 391; in the ro^e, i. 396; in inheritance purpleleaved i. 459; tion, variatrees, on 1. 428, 4.30: grafts of Aria vrstita i. "403: varithorns, upon abilitv of of Eruthrina, hybrids ii. 245. Carrot, effpcts of wild, tion cultivain the, i. 338; reversion on

effect of changed ii. 261. Catlcya leopoldii, i. 421. of feral Catlin. horses G., colour in North i. 61. America, wild ii. Caton, Judge, turkey, 87. their Cattle, European, probable three origin from original species, i. 80-83; or humped, zebus, i. 80; intercrossing of. 1. 84. 91, 94: ilton. Hamwild, of Chillingham, Burton stable, ConChartley. and i. 85. ii. Gishurne, colour of 94; i. 86, 87; feral, British breeds i. 87. of. 88; South African breeds of. i. 89; South American breeds of. I. i. 90. 92, 89, 90, ii. 183; Niata, of ii. 18.3. 186; effects food and of selecclimate i. 92; effects tion on. i. 92. 93; Dutch-buton, 1. reversion tocked. 441; in, when ii. 15; wildness crossed,

Caterpillars,
food
on,

CAULIFLOWER.

INDEX.

CniNA.

427
the
lithic Neo-

of

hybrid,

ii.

19;

prepoteucy

of se;;ie;:aii. 61; crosses tion of, ii. 71, on, Falkland 79, 93; of Islands, ii. 76; mutual ties fertility of all varieof of. ii. 85; effects breeding interii. 93-95; siiorton, horn, sterility of. ii. 93; effects careful selection of ii. 172, on, ii. 183; 177; nalied, of Columbia, wild witli in crossed banteng ii. 184; witli reversed liair Java, In Banda ii. 183; Oriental, lection seof trifling characters in, ii. 187; fashion larity in, ii. 188; simiof best races of, ii. 220; unconscious selection in, ii. 192; natural of effects selection on anomalous breeds of, ii. 204; light-coloured, attacked by flies, 321; ii. 207, provement imJerse.v, rapid of of, ii. 212; effects of parts in. ii. 2"^0; rudidisuse mentary horns in. ii. 297; posed supinfluence of humidity on hair the of, ii. 308; white spots ii. .321; liable to of, disease, variation analogous supposed of longin, ii. 330; displacement ii. 409. horned by short-horned, i. 335; Caiiiiflower. free-seeHng of, in India, ii. 292; rudimentary flowers in, ii. 297. Cavalier pigeon, ii. 73. Cnina ii. 130. aprrea, azarw), Cay (C'hus sterility of, in ii. 131. confinement, Cchna ii. 131. azarfB, development Crriflomi/in, larval and Misoof, ii. 2G4, 342, 351; i. 5. rntnpus, Cedars of Lebanon and Atlas, i. 379. i. 338; run Celery, turnip-rooted, wild, ii. 7. ii. 355. r'ell-theory. C losia cristata. i. 081. selection seedof the Celsus, on i. 329, ii. 180. corn, cultivation of the Celts, early cabbage by the, i. 330; selection and horses of cattle by the, ii. 180. seeds of used Cenchrus, as a, food, i. 320. Crnfaiirra bud-variation cyanns, in. i. .395.

of, ii. 39; crossini? and

short-hornod. fluence inwild,

Cereals,
328;
286.

i. .32.3-.334; of

period

In

Switzerland.
i)f,
to

1.
Ii.

adaptation

soils,

Genus,
Cercus

ii. 11. spcciosiftstimus

reversion in

and

thus,
415. Ccrvus Ccrvus

hybrids
11. 1.37.
of in

vhhUnnof, 1.

caiiadcnHs,

da ma, ii. 96. Cetacea, correlation

dermal
ii. .Ml

system

and

teeth

the.

of, i. 45; id^eon finCeylon, cats cying in, i. 212. Chamisso, on seeding bread-fiult. ii. 147. Channel Islands, in, i. 81. breeds of cattle

Chapman,

Chapuis, in pigeons, by subsequent

i. of

Prof., peach-trees ducing proi. ;!55. nectarines, F., sexr.-il pi-culiari'les

i.
first

167;
male

elTect up("n of the

duced pro-

the
male, fe-

])rog"'ny

of the union some pigeons, ii. 141. Characters, fixltv tent, laof, ii. 218; ii. 24-30, .381, .382: continued divergence tagonistic, of, ii. 220; anii. ,383. abundance of pigeons In Chardin, Persia, i. 211.

4:."6; sterility

Charlemagne,
selection
of

orders

as

to

the

Chartley,
Chate,
seeds 329.

wild of reversion the upper in the ii. pods of stocks,

ii. ISO. stallions, cattle of, i. 8.5.

Mr., crossed varieties Chaundy. of cabbage, ii. 107. Cheetah, general sterility of. In captivit.v, ii. I'.'O. Chriranthus i. 398. chiri, tion i. 361, .362: bud-variaCherries, white in, i. 390; Tartarian, ctirle(i ii. 208; variety of. wi"h

petals,
tation ii. 292.

of,

ii. 211; period changed by

on

of

veire-

forcing,

Chevreul,
ii. 107. Chiclcens.
ters

crossing

fruit-trees,

in chf^rncdifferences liable 2.58: white, 51. 20t!, 320. to gapes, ii. 2.56. Chicroe, Chile, sheep of, i. 96. with ci'ttle, identicnl Chillingh:nn ters Bos prunifirnius, \. 82; charac-

of, i. 257.

Cephalopoda,

spermatophores

of,

ii. .367. Crrnsus i. yellow-fruited, padus, 4.51. CrrooVptcft, sterility of, in captivit.v. ii. 130. of a CJfrrnpithccus, breeding cies speof, in captivity, ii. 131,

Chtloe, China,

of. 8.5. of. Ii. 20. half-cashes with of, drooping cats 1. 53; of. horses i. 46; ears, of. i. .59; nsses ponies striped of rabbits in. notice of, i. 63: breeds of i. 101; Confucius, bv i. breeda reared 212; in, pigeons

428
of
fowls

CHINCHILLA.

INDEX.

COLOUR-BLINDNESS.

of,

i. 239,

in 255.

fifteenth
in

tury, cen-

on

cattle,
of of
of

i.

92,

fleece

sheep,
wheat,

Chinchilla,

fertility of,

ity, captiv-

seeds

ii. 130. selection Chinese, practised by of the, the, ii. 182; preference for hornless ii. 187; recograms, nition value of of native the breeds by the, ii. 295. or Chinese, Himalayan rabbit, i. 109. of cattle in a breed Chivos," i. 90. Paraguaj\ i. 335. Choux-raves, the Christ, H., on plants of the Swiss i. Lake-dwellings, 320, tween beintermediate forms 330; Piitus nwnsylvestris and i. 379. tana, i. 394, 395. Chrysanthemum, Chnjsotis fcstiva, ii. 260. effects of selection Cineraria, on the, ii. 178. horses Circassia, of, ii. 77. i. 455. Circumcision,
"

cabbages,
maize
of

93; the on i. 99, 100; on i. 327; tivated culon i. 337; tation adapto, i. 334.

Climate
of

and

breeds Climate and

adaptation sheep to, i. 97. soil, effects of, upon

i. 368. skull the
rams.

pasture,

strawberries,
Cline,
and

Mr.,

on

in

horned

hornless

ii. 317.

Clos, on sterility flcaria, ii. 150.

Clotzsch, hybrids trees, ii. 107.

in

Ranunculus of various

Clover,
Coate,

in, ii. ,327. pelorism Mr., on interbreeding pig?, 1 fe

-

ii. 98. Coccus of ii. 210. apple-trees, Cochin i. 2.33. 258, 2.59, 268, fowls,

269;

foramen occipital i. 269; section of cervical figured, i. 272;

of,
skull

ured, figof,

bra verte-

of,

figured,

i. 276.
a

Cirripedes,
351.

metagenesis
and

in,

ii.

Cochineal, persistence of. for preference

cactus,
ii. 2.56. Cochlearia

of, ii. 215; particular

Cistus,

intercrossing

hybrids

armoracia,
natural

of, i. 349, ii. 118. i. 348, 349. Citrons,

"

Cock,

game,

ii. 150. selection

in,

Citrus

Mli,"
Citrus Citrus Citrus

aurantium i. 3.50.

fructu

varia-

i. 348. i. 349. medica, i. 348, 349. bud-variation in A., Clapham, the i. 392. hawthorn, Claquant (pigeons), i. 142. Claquers (pigeons), i. 161. the wild of Clark, dogs G., on i. 26; on .Tuan de Nova, striped Burmese and .Javanese ponies, i. 59; breeds of goats imported into i. 102; variations the Mauritius, in the of goats, mammae scrotum i. 103; bilobed cat of Musi. 103. goat, H. fission and J., on Clark, ii. 340. gemmation, R. of Clarke. T., intercrossing i. 366. strawberries, hvbridisatioh of Clarke, T., i. 419, ii. 69. stocks,

dfcumana,
Icmonutn,

"

"

"

"

Mr., prize-cultivation i. 370. gooseberry, the Classification, by explained natural of theory selection, i.
of tlie

Clarkson,

11. Cleft 4.54.

palate,
on

inheritance wild vines

in

of,

i.

Clemente,
i. .345.

Spain,
St. of

ii. 203; of. grafted the spur on comb. ii. 277; of. inserted spur into of the ear ii. 3."t4; an ox, effect of castration the, upon ii. 26. varieties of Cock's-comb, i. the, 381. of Cocoons variations silkworms, in. i. 31.3. i. 90; Codfish, number bulldog, of in the. ii. 362. eggs ii. 131. Crjrlofjcnps para. of Colin, prepotency the ass over the horse, ii. 42; on ing, cross-breedii. 72; on of change diet, ii. 285. Peter, Collinson, peach-tree ducing pronectarine, i. 354. a in pigeons, Coloration evidence an of unity of descent, i. 2V1-20.?. correlation Colour, of. in dogs, i. 26, 27; persistence of, in horses. i. 51; inlieritance and di^ers'ly of. in liorses. variation's i. 55; of, in the i. 63; of wild or ass, feral i. 85; cattle, transm's'iou i. 108; of. in rabbits, ties peculiariin of, Himalnvnn rr.l)bits, i. 110; influence of,"ii. 205-209; correlation in and liead of, ii. 306; correlated wi"^h limbs, constitutional ii. peculiarities,
319.321. and Colour ii. 307.

Clermont-Tonnerre, on Valery apple, i. 422.

Climate,
effpct

the breeds i.

odour,

correlation

o',
i.

of.
on

upon

Colour-blindness,

hereditar.v.
in
men

dogs,

i.

37;

horses,

53;

443;

more

common

than

COLOURS.

INDEX.

CORRELATION.

420

ii. 47; associated in women, to inability with distinguisti ii. 312. musical sounds, not blended sometimes Colours, ii. 67, 68. by crossing, a variety Colitmba affinis, Blyth, of C livia, i. 189. ety varia amalice, Brehm, Columba C. of livia, i. 189. Columba guinea, i, 189. Columba form Columba
C.

fect
caused to
a

of, ii. 401; on i. horses, 52; upon variation in pigeons. i. 219; i. .327: \\\"ini wheat, upon i. 376; trees, in Imdproducing variation, i. 4.30; iidvMiit.ig.-s of, ii. 123-126, !.""."), V,{\: st.-rilitv

by, ii. 126 -14."); cuiidncixV' variability, ii. 2;j4-24(i, .";77; accumulative action of, ii. 240direct 243; action of, ii. 2.""1273.

(jijtnnoryclus.
of C.
G.

Gray,

livia, i. 190.
wnas,

Condor,
132.

breeding
on

in

captivitv,

ii.

gymnophthalmoH,
i.

of, with
Columba

hybrids with i. 199;

a

Confucius,
rabbits

maculosa,
of C.

200.

intermedia, leucocrphala,

Stricl^land,
ii.

ConoUy,

the of breeding i. 104. China, Mr., on Angora goats,

in

variety
Columba Columba Columba Columba

livia, i. 190.

parent measurements i. 189; pigeons, of, i. 137; figured, i. 137;

figured,
173. Columba Columba
i.

134. i. 188, 201. lenronota, littoralis, i. 188. livia, ii. 2, 1.3, 14; breeds domestic of

the of

skull

169;

lower

jaw

ured, figi.

i. 170;

scapula

figured,

luctuosa, i. 188. and Iniromigratoria fertility of, cephala, diminished ii. 134. in captivity,
a'nas,

ii. 308. Constitutional differences in of apsheep, i. 97; in varieties ples, in i. 36.3, 364; ums, pelargonii. .38;; i. 380; in dahlias, Constitutional in peculiarities in i. 368; i. strawberries, roses, 382. i. 440; Consumption, hereditary, of, ii. 52; period of appearance with ii. correlated complexion, 319. ii. 144. 145. Contabescence, ii. 148, 290. Convolvulus batatas, Convolvulus tricolor, bud-variation

Columba
common

i. 189;

crossed

with

and C. gympigeon i. 200. nophthalmos, i. 199, ii. 331. Columba palumbus, Columba rup'stris, i. 188, 190, 201. Columba sehimperi. i. 190. Columba, torquatrix, ii. 331.

in, i. 429. Mr., Cooper, vegetables by White, Cooper,

improvement
selection,

of

ii. 182.

hereditary

iarities peculciation asso-

eyes

Columba

turrieola,
cattle
on

i. 190.

Columbia,

of.

Columbine,
Columbus,
i. 21.

double,
West

i. 89. i. 380, ii. 31.3. Indian dogs,

Corals, non-diffusion in. ii. 362. Sec Corbie.

i. 442; vision, of of affections of those of other with ii. 311. bud-variation in, i.
of

the tems, sys-

388;

cell-gemniules

Italian shepherd on Columella, domestic fowls, dosrs, i. 23; on the 412: 1. 239, on 2.54, ii. 180, the i. 286; on Iceeping of ducks,
i. 329: of seed-corn. selection of of benefits the change on the ii. 123; to on soil plants, value of native breeds, ii. 29.'3. i. .3.37. Colza, variations of, i. in fowls, Comb, ii. rudimentary, 261; sometimes 297. law of, i. 283. Compensation, ii. 324, of growth, Compensation

Cordemoy,
ii. 148.

Dr.,

Boitard. seedless

plants,
i. i.

Cornea,
442.

opacity
maseula,

of,

inherited,

Cornus 451.

yellow-fruited,

Correlation,

ii. .301; of
ii.

parts,

302;

of

neighbouring in change

in and some whole the body, gous homoloof of its parts, ii. 303; plicable, inex30.3-;n5; ii. parts, ii.

.315-.346;
the

c("mniinefl'ects of

gling

of,

with

325.

Complexion,
constitution,

Compositse, .380, ii. 146, 298. earlier Conception,

and

connection of, with ii. 319. flowers double of, i.

in

Alderney

other agencies, and limbs skull of Correlation and tusks of i. 72: in swine, i. 77; of mulin swine, bristles and ness coarsehorns tiplicitv of i. 9""; in sheep, wool of in feet pigeons. 1. and of beak

ii. 317-319.

in other Zetland than cows i. 88. breeds, efof Conditions life, changed,

177,
down

180 and

colour

between of

nestling

i"luin.ige
changes

in in

pigeons,

i.

200;

of

430

CORRESPONDING.

INDEX.

CUCURBITACEJE.

197:
i.

i. 314; in plants, ii. silkworms, in maize, i. 334; in pigeons,

173-177,

225; in

foAvls, i. 283ance inherit-

284.

ii. 1.34; geese of confinement, the ii. 140. Islands, Philippine breed of fowls, i. 237. a Creepers, Crested fowl, i. 235; figured, i.
236.

Corresponding
at,

periods,
cattle

Corrientes,
90.

ii. 50-55. dwarf

of,
of

i.
lection se-

French a Creve-ccEur," of fowls, i. 237. brains the Crisp, Dr., on breed hare
and

"

subof the

Mr., influence on pigs, ii. 176. Corsica, ponies of, i. 52. of Cortbecfe (pigeon) Corringham,
" "

Aldro-

form of Crocker, Begonia frigida, i. 381, ii. 145; sterility in Ranunculus ficaria, ii. 150. ii. 144. Crocus, effect Cross-breeding, permanent the i. 425. female, of, on ii. 60-121, 152-169; Crossing, a of ii, 60-65, cause uniformity, in all 152; occurs organised ters characsome beings, ii, 65-67; not blended by, ii. 67-70,

rabbit, i. 129. C. W., singular

vandi,
Corvus

i. 215.
corotie,

C. comix, and of, ii. 70. of, ii. 325. Corydalis, flower ii. 110. Corydfilis cava, when Cori/dalis solida, sterile loric, ii. 146.

brids hy-

peversion, re-

Cori/dalis Corylus Costa,

tiiherosa, peloric
ii. 32.

by

i. 371. transferred shells from to the ranean, Mediterii. 261. Dr. monstrous E.. on a Cones. ii. 373. chicken, defective velopment deMr. AVhite, Cowper, of the dental system, ii. 311. i. 33.5. Tronchuda." Couve of loss of inheritance one Cow, in of amount horn the, i. 445; furnished the. ii. 281; milk by of six mammae in, development

avellana,

153;
races

modifications

A., on England

produced

"

ii. 300.

Cowslip,
Cracidae,

ii. 84.

sterility of
ii. 134.

the,

in

tivity, cap-

Cranes, fertility of, in ii. 135.

captivity,
392,

Crntrrgiis ii. 210. Crafcrgus CratcrfiKs

oxiincantha,
2.37.

i. 379,

i. 379. mononynn, sibirirn, i. 379. Crawfurd, J., Malasian cats, i. of 46; horses the pelago, ArchiMalay i. 49; horses of .Japan, of i. 54; occurrence stripes in wild i. pigs of Malacca, young hairv familv Burmese 78; on a with deficient teeth, ii. 51, 310; origin of the bantam, Japanese of i. 2.37; game fowls the ippine Phili. 2.39; hybrids Islands, rnrius and of Gallus domestic i. 242; domestication of fowl, Gallus 244; i. feral hankiva. fowls Pellew in the Islands, i. 245; history of the foAvl. 1. 254; history of the domestic duck, i. 286; domestication of the goose, i. 297; cultivated plnnts of New i. 323; of Zealand, breeding in ii. 12-"; tame Ava, elephants

which causes domestication and favourable ii. 84-86, to, 167; beneficial effects of, ii. 89-109, in 152. necessarv 153; some plants, ii. 109-118, 15.3, 154, 406; of subject of, ii. 118summary 1:^6; of with dogs wolves in North i. 20, 21: with America, Canis cancrivorus in Guiann. i. 21; of dog with wolf, de-cilied i. 23; characters others, by Pliny and furnished brought by, out in the by reversion eny, progii. 7-9; direct of a cause of a reversion, ii. 13-23: cause variability, ii. 243-247. ences differCrustacea, macrourous, in the of development the, ii. 353. Crustacean with antenna-like an of the development cle, eye-pedunii. 37.3. tion bud-variaCryptogamic plants, in, i. 399. wild Cuba, dogs of, i. 26. sub-breeds of Cuckoo," fowls, i. 251. variation in number Cucumber, of carpels of, i. 375; supposed of varieties of crossing the, i. 420. Cucumis i. 376. momordica, Cucumis satimis, i. 375. correlation of Cucurhita. dwarf, leaves in. ii. 314. Cucurhita i. .372. 3"4. maxima, i. 372, 374. Cucurhita tnoschata, Cucurhita i. 372, ii. 83; rieties vaprpo. in si^e of, i. 373: relation and number of fruit of. ii. 324.
"

by, check,

and new ii. 70-74; ii. 75-84; cultivation

Cucurbitace?e.

i.

372-376;

posed sup-

Sterility of

Goura

coronata

in

crossing

of, j. 420;

Nau-

CULBUTANTS.

INDEX.

DEAFNESS.

431
of 381i.

din's

observations
ii.

on

of,
"

151;
"

acclimatisation

hybrids of,

life form

on,

li.

and

colour

2.54; correlation in, il. 314.

i. ii, 241.
of

li. 294.

Daisy, (pigeons), i. 154. of plants, origin of, tility feri. 320-323; savages, increased by, il. 86-88. on hereditary nighti. 442. Swan

hen-and-chicken,
River,

Culbutants Cultivation
among

varieties Dal^bret,

wheat,

Cunier,

blindness,

Cupples,

Mr.,

pairing

of

deer-

ii. 100. hounds, del i. of Tierra Fuego, Currants, bud-variation in, i. 391. 320; in the Curtis, Mr., bud-variation i. 397. of the the on gestation Cuvier, the odour of the i. 29; wolf, cation, domestito obstacle jackal, an of the i. 29; differences i. 33; external skull iq dogs, gation eloni. 34; of dogs, characters intestines in mestic doof the tility pigs, i. 75, ii. 283; ferhook-billed of the duck, and of ass 1. 286; hybrid zebra, in animals of ii. 16; breeding Jardin des the Plantes, ii. 127; birds in sterility of predaceous of ii. 132; facility captivity, in confinement, hybridisation
rose,

Dalibert, in changes the odours of plants, ii. 255. Dally, Dr., on consanguineous ii. 99. marriages, Daltonism, hereditary, 1. 443 cattle Damaras, of, I. 89, ii. 185,
18
(.

Damson, Diindolo, Daniell,

i. .361.

Count,

on

silkworms,
English

I.

fertility of

dogs

in Sierra ii. 140. Leone, Danish remains Middens, of in, i. 17. in Dappling horses, asses, hybrids, i. 56.

dogs
and

Dareste,
Polish

the of skull C, on the of fowl, i. 270; causes the variability, ii. 249; on duction proof monstrous chickens, ii. 269; co-existence of lies, anomaii. 315; production of double ii. 323.

monsters, Darvill, Mr.,

ii. 139.

Cyanosis,
ii. 315.

affection

of

fingers in,

in,
i.

of good i. 445. qualities in horses, C, on Darwin, mfujrllaniLrpns

heredity

Cyclamen,
398.

bud-variation

i. 113; on the wild pota'o, i. 343; in the dimorphism anthus polyand i. 4ri2. primrose,
cus,

cardiinrulus, ii. 7. Cynara C)/nips fccundntrix, ii. 264. ii. 131. Ct/vocrphalus hamadrpas, i. 306. Ctfprinus auratus, Ci/rtanfhus, ii. 117. ii. 111. Cyrtnpodium, its bud-variation, Cytisus odnmi,
404-407, i. 405; from,
i. ii. 11; different

Darwin, Darwin,

Dr., vegetables by
Sir crossed

improvemont

of

ii. ISl. selection, wildness of F.,

riages, mar-

Darwin,
D'Asso,
the

pigs, ii. 19. G., consanguineous

ii.

101.

seedlings
views of

monogynous hawthorn in

Its experiments origin, i. 406; and In C. pitrpureus crossing i. 406; iis lahurnum to produce, i. 406; by M. Adam, production discussion of origin of, i. 406. ovules laburnum, Cytisus alpino
-

Dasyprocta Date-palm,
2.35.

condition of i, 379. aguti, ii. 130. varieties of the, ii.

Spain,

Datura,
245.
Datura,

ii. Iwvis
in

11;
and

variability
stramonium,

in,

II.
version re-

hyl)rids of, i. 415.

and pollen i. 405.

of, I. 405;

origin

of,

Datura

Cytisus Cytisus Cytisus

and

alpinus, 1. 405. i. 404-407. laburnum, ovules purpurco-elongntus, tion producpollen of, i. 405;
of,
i. 406. i. 404-407.
purpureus,

ii. 42. stramonium, in the variations Daubenton, in i. of dogs, mamma? number

Cytisus

in 34; proportions of intestines domestic and cats, i. 48, wild 283 ii Ii. 208. rnbbits. white Daudin. on sheep in the West Dr.. on Davy.

Indies,
food of on effects Dahlbohm, ii. 261. hvmenoptera, ation bud-variii. 125; i. 385, Dahlia, i. 401; In the, by tubers selection, improvement of, by ii. 194; ii. 241; Dawkins.

dog,
82;

i. 99. of the W. Boyd, history 1. of cattle. i. 14: origin

domett ion ir':"t of Bos I. 82.

early

in Britain. loufjifrotis

Denf-mutes,
454.

non-heredity
inheritance

in.

I,

steps
effect

in

cultivation

of.
of

of

conditions

Deafness,

of, li. 53.

432

DEAN.

INDEX.

i
DIET.

Dean, Deby,
and De

potato-grafting, wild hybrids

musk

duclis,

Candolle,

Alph.,
cultivated

i. 411. of common ii. 20. and number

De

J., on i. strawberries, Jonghe, 367, ii. 221; soft-barked pears,

ii. 209; accumulative on ii. 241; resistance to frost, ii. 287. of variation, soms blos-

origin of 317, 318,

387;

furnished have no wild i. 32a, 324; i. 321; wheat, i. 324; wild tiquity anand oats, rye i. of wheat, of varieties lection 328; inefficacy of seapparent i. 329; origin in wheat, i. 331, and cultivation of maize, of li. 288; colours seeds of varieties and i. maize, 332; i. 336, origin of the cabbage, 337: garden-pea, origin of the i. 338; the on vine, i. 345, ii. of the 289; cultivated species i. 348; probable orange group, Chinese i. origin of the peach, and the 350; ine, nectaron peach i. 355, 356; varieties of the peach, i. 356; origin of the apricot, i. 358; origin and varieties of the i. 359; origin of plum, of the cherry, i. 361; varieties the i. 369; selection gooseberry, with i. practised forest-trees, 376; wild fastigate oak, i. 377; dark-leaved varieties of trees, i. 377; of conversion stamens into i. 381; pistils in the poppy, ity variegated foliage, i. 381; heredwhite of i. 387, hyacinths, in oaks 452; changes dependent i. 403; inheritance of on age, anomalous i. 451; characters, in variation of plants their tive naii. 236; ous deciducountries, bushes becoming evergreen in hot ii. 286; climates, ty antiquiof races of plants, ii. 4l:i. De

plants, i. which regions useful plants,

Delamer,
113.

E.

S.,

on

rabbits, i. 108,

Delphinium Delphinium Delpino

360.

on

ajacis, i. 452. consolida, i. 4.52. ii. 339, Pangenesis,

Dendrocygna viduata, ii. 136. ii. 130. Denny, H., lice of Aperea, variations Dentition, of, in the horse, i. 50. i. 379. Deodar,
Desmarest,
on

Cape
of

distribution i. 28; cat of Good Hope, i. Madagascar,

of
from

dogs,

white the
cats
rence occur-

i. 46;

46;

of i. 297.

of striped in Turkish young breeds pigs, i. 78; French of goats, cattle, i. 81; horns hornless ii. goats, 103; on

Desportes,
roses,

number {. 382. i.

of

varieties

of

Devay,
of

Dr.,

binism, alof case singular the marriage 448; on

the effects cousins, ii. 99; on close ii. 242. interbreeding, and metamorphosis, Development

of

ii. 371-374.

Development,
300.

arrests

of, ii. 296ii. 350-

Development,
353.

embryonic, L.,
race

D'Hervey-Saint-Denys, Yami, or imperial

Chinese,
ii. 183.

on

of

the the

Dhole,
Diabetes,

fertility of
ii. 129.

the, in

ity, captiv-

Candolle, P., non-variability of ii. 245; monotypic genera, relative of root development and in seed Raphanus sativus,
ii. 324.
on

occurrence of, in three brothers, i. 448. contabescent Dianthus, plants of, varieties ii. 145; hybrid of, ii.

245. Dianthus

armeria

and i. 397.

deltoides,

cultivation of the wild i. 338; varieties carrot, of the i. 365; crossing interpear, of i. strawberries, of the 366; fruit apple, i. 421; nummusterility of Lijsimachia laria, ii. 149; tender variety of the peach, ii. 290. of horns male, Deer, assumption by feii. 26; imperfect ment develop-

Decaisne,

the

hybrids
Dianthus Dianthus

of, ii. 73.

barbattis,

of ii.

horns 137.

in

a,

on

age, voy-

caryophijllus, i. 397. Dianthus japonirus, contabescence of female in, ii. 145. organs ii. 348. Diaphrromera femorata, Dichogamous plants, ii. 66. in Dickson, running Mr., on the ours coli. 397; on carnations, of tulips, i. 402. and Dirotyles labiatus, torquatus
" "

ii. 78, 96. fallow, Deer, difference Deerhound, Scotch, size of the sexes of, ii. 48; of, ii. 97. of Degeneration under neglect,

ii. 128. Dieffenbach, in i. terioration de-

dog
feral

of

New
in

Zealand,
New Zealand, io

24;

cats

i.

47;

polydactylism

high-bred
ii. 218.

races,

i. 447. Polvnesia, Dirlytra, ii. 32. Diet, change of, ii. 284.

434
ii. 330; ii. 410.

DOMBRAIN.

INDEX.

EATON.

extinction H.

of
on

breeds ttie

of,

Dombrain,
ii. 328.

H.,

la, auricu-

Duck, penguin, hybrid of, with ii. 42. Egyptian goose, Duck, wild, difficulty of rearing, ii. 211; effects of domestication

ii. 258. essential points Domestication, on, to breeds favourable Ducks, in, ii. 388, 389; of, i. 285, 286; creased origin of, i. 286; history fertility incross-'ing, ii. 84-86; of, i. 286; wild, i. 287, easily tamed, by, ii. 86-88, 153. 288; fertility of breeds Domesticated animals, of, when origin of, i. 289; with the occasional ii. 139; crossed, sterility of, mage pluof Anas ii. under conditions, hoschas, i. 289; changed identical in 139-141. Malayan penguin, with i. 289; hyperplumage Donders, English, Dr., hereditary characters of the breeds i. 441. metropia, of, i. 290-293; of, i. 290; effects eggs Dorking fowl, i. 233, 269; furcuof and disuse lum use in, i. 293of, figured, i. 277. ii. 131. 296, ii. 279; feral, in Norfolk, Dormouse, i. 196; ii. 146, 147, lol; inheritance Double flowers, Aylesbury, of ii. 178. by, early hatching produced by selection, i, 4.59; of the reversion ing, in, produced by crossH., cultivation Doubleday, ii. 14; i. 368. wildness of halffilbert pine strawberry, bred and wild, ii. 19; hybrids J., crossing of white of, Douglas, with ii. 67. the ii. 20; asblack sumption game-fowls, musk-duck, varieties of male of Downing. Mr., wild plumage by, and ii. 25; crossing of Labrador and the hickory, i. 321; peaches i. 3.j3, from ii. 73; increased ity fertilnectarines seed, penguin, of the Boston ii. 87; 3.j4: origin necof, by domestication, ment, ties variei. 'doi; American tarine" fertility of, in confinegeneral i. 356; North ii. 136; size increase of of the peach, in breeding, ties ii. 176; American of, by care apricot, i. 358; variei. 360; tion of the origin produced by domesticachange plum, varieties i. and of the in, ii. 242. cherry, of Sirei. twin-cluster Dum^ril, 362; pippins," Aug., breeding in the branchiferous i. don of the stage, apple, ,383; varieties ii. 368. i. strawberries, on 365, 365; Dun-coloured fruit of wild the origin horses, of, 367; berry, goosei. 58. of grafting i. 370; effects la feral Dureau de Malle, diseases i. 460; the pigs seed, xipou ii. 6; feral fowls in Louisiana, and of plum tree, ii. 205, peach in in Africa, ii. 7; bud-variation fruit stone to 206; injury done i. 391; of the in America the weevil," production pear, by ii. and mules the ii. 209; Romans, among grafts of the plum of varieties 85. ii. 238; wild peach, of fruitii. 240; varieties sylvestris, i. 22. Dusicyon pears,
" "

mates, clidifferent suitable to ii. 287. of Mr. J., sterility Downing, ii. 94. short-borns, Draha sylvestris, ii. 142. Dragon (pigeon), i. 143, 146. (pigeon), i. 161. Draijer effects of, in different Drinking, ii. 270. climates, selection of, ii. 183. Dromedary, il. 95; Druce, Mr., interbreeding, of pigs, ii. value of cross breed
trees
" "

Dutch

rabbit,
roller

i. 108. i. 155. in the in

burnum, la-

Dutch

Dutrochet,

pigeon, pelorism

Ji. 327. of pears Duval, growth ii. 239. in France, Leersia on Duval-Jouve, ii. 67.

woods

oryzoides,
in JAli-

Duvernoy,
nm

self-impotence
i. 114. habits

candidum,
and

Dzierzon,
308.

variability

acters charin the of bees, i.

97. Du fruit-trees Chaillu, Africa, i. 320. on Duchesne, Fragaria

on

in

West i. and

vcsca,

Earle, Dr., 46, 311.

Ears,
of

on

colour-blindness,

H.

365, 367. Dufour, Leon,

Cecidomyia
of i,

Misocampus, miisk, Duck,

habit

i. 5. retention

ing perch-

hybrid

by the, of, j, Ipe^

187; J^eraJ

i. 107; rabbits, fancy of rabbits, of, in breeds in 1. 108; rudimentary, ii. 296; Chinese ing, droopsheep, ii. 282; fusion of, ii. 323. fancy pigeons, J, M., pn Eaton,

deficiency

ECHlNODfiRMATA.

INDEX.

EVEREST.

4.35
Y"ihu,
I'cgu,
i.

1. 152, ICG;

acters variability of charof 1. pigeons, of crossed reversion geon pi-

156;

uttering
GalluH

in

breeds

the sound in haiikivd

varieties in of

16i);

i. Ii44.

Ellis.

Mr.,

to

coloration
on

of

Cnlumba

plants
Elm,

Tahiti,

of culilvaitM] il. S.'.-). Cornish

on livia, I. 204; i. 2i:i, 221; Ing,

pigeou-faucy-

nearly

fvergic-u

tumblerpigeons, i. 210, ii. 221; carrierbreeding interof effects i. 217; pigeon, ii. 103; on pigeons, ii. 175; properties of pigeons, tumblers short-faced of death in the

the, i. .'{78, II. 'JIH; of foliage-varieties the, I. .377. i. 377; Elm. not weeping, duced reproby seed, i. 4.50. Emberiza ii. 1.37. passerina, sion Embryos, similarity of, i, 11; fu-

variety

pigeon,
ii. 352.

egg, ii.

ii. 204; 219.

ArchangelEngel, In,
in in, i. 255.

of, ii. 322.

on

Lauras

sassafras,

II.

Echinodermata,

metagenesis specific
difference

Ectopistes,
number 163,

of

tail-feathers

Ectopistes migratorius, Turtur of, with

I. 199. Edentata, correlation teeth and

sterile

brids hyvulgaris,
dermal

system
311.

of in of

the,

ii.

Edgeworth,
seeds 320.
as

Mr.,
food in

use

grassi.

domestication of //o"* of in, I. 82; selection horses mediii?val in, in times, the ii. 181; laws against early of rams in, il. isl. slaughter of the, Ephemeridae, development ii. 350. 1. 421, cinnaharinum, Epidcndrum ii. 111. zebra, ii. 112. Epidendrum i. 440, 11. hereditary, Epilepsy,

England,

longifrons

the

Punjab,

53.

Edmonston,
in
raven,

Larus

the Dr., on argentatus

on

stomach and the

Edwards
wheat

ii. 283. and Colin,

in

Equus Equus Equus Equus

burchellii, i. 04.
Quagga,

English
of

Edwards,
the ii. 62.

France, W. F.,
in

ii. 288.

absorption
crossed

minority
W. in

races,

Edwards,

stripes

of occurrence W., bred thoroughnearly foals of

in i. 58; horse, i. 60. race-horses, characters of fowls, Eggs, of, in 256; variations silk-moth, of the 290; ancient dogs of, Egvpt, domestication aueient pigeon in, i. 211; absence fowl
in

i. 04. ii. 17, 22. ta^niopus, i. 62, 63, ii. 15. white of the disease parts Erdt, of cattle, ii. 321. of contabesEricaceje, frequency in the, ii. 144. cence of an Erichihonius, improver ii. 179. horses by selection, Klrthe fat-tailed on Erman. ghisian sheep, i. 99, ii. 200; on il. of the Ostyaks, the dogs indicus, 184. E radium, ii. 33. Ticr-

of, i.
ducks,
i. i. 311. i. 16, 17;
of the

E. Eri/tlirina crista-galli and of. ii. 245. hacra, hybrids EschschoJtzin

in

of

the

ancient,
goose,

i. 253.

i. 291. duck, origin Prof., multiple Ehrenberg, er of Lowof the dog, i. 15; dogs of mummies i. 23; Egypt, i. 43. Fclis manlculata, functional of the body, Elements

Egyptian penguin

hybrids

of, with

self-sterile californirn. ii. 114. England, naked the on Mr., Esquilant. pigeons, dun-coloured of voung

{. 176.
Esquimaux
to

dogs, wolves,

their I. 20;

blance resem-

tion selec-

of, ii. 184. hereditary on Esquirol,

-

Insanity,

Independence
355

of

the,
In in

ii.

353-

Elephant,
Elk,
317. Elliot.

its sterility ii. 128. Irish, correlations

ity, captivthe,
Ii.

ii. 53. on pendages apDeslongchamps. Eudes of the jaw under pigs, i. 76. japonirus, 1. .39'.t^ Euonymus ii. 2().). rnacuhita, Euphorbia cultivated plants, still

European
wild Evans, Evelvn,

In India, cats Sir Walter, on i. I. 44: on striped horses, wild and domestic Indian 59; Cairo from I. 67; pigeons swine. i. 135; fanand Constantinople, Lotan bler tumi. 150; tail pigeons,

in

Europe,
on

i. 31S. the

Mr.,

Lotan
in

bler tumills

pigeon, pansies
i.

i.

155. grown
the

garden,
p]verest,

3S3.
on

pigeons,

i. 154;

pigeon

R., dog in

India,

land Newfoundi. 35, 11. 280

436
degeneration
i. i. 67.

EWES.

INDEX.

FERTILITY.

37;

setters of Indian wild

in

dia, In-

boars,

Faroe 189.

Islands,

pigeons

of

the,

i.

Ewes,

hornless,
of

Extinction 228.

ii. 332. domestic

races,

i.

Eyes,
the, 457;

hereditary
i. 441^43; modification

loss
in

peculiarities of of, causing

children,
of

microphthalmia

i.

the

ture struc-

natural selection, of, by ii. 200, 201. elongation hereditary Eyebrows, of hairs in, i. 441. inherited peculiarities of Evelids,

influence Fashion, of, in breeding, ii. 218, 219. ii. 257, 329. Fastigiate trees, differences Faiinas, geographical of, i. 9, 10. Favourite bull, i. 39, 93. variation Feathers, homologous in, ii. 307. individual ferences difFeet, of pigeons, of, i. 105; correlations of external characters in, i.
.

"

"

176. and Feet

the, Eyton,

i. 441.

Mr.,

on

gestation

in

the

beak, correlation of, in i. 176-180. pigeons, Felidse, fertility of, in captivity,

ii. 129.

i. 29; variability in number in the vertebrae of pig, i. 75; individual sterility, ii. 141.

dog,

Felis Fells

i. 343. observations Fabre, triticoides, i. 324. Fagus sylvatica, i. 451.

Faha

vulgaris,

on

MgUops

Felis Felis Felis Felis

Felis

hubastes, i. 43. caffra, i. 44. caligulata, i. 43.

Chans,
i. 43^5.

juhata, ii. 129. lylnca, i. 44.

i. 43. maniculata, i. 45. manul, i. 44. ornata,

Fairweather,
double ii. 140.

Mr.,

production
from
old

of

Felis
Felis

flowers
on

seed,

Felis Primula

sylvestris, i. 44.
torquata,

Faivre,
386,
Falco young Falco Falco Falco

the ii. 313.

sinensis, i.

Felis

albidiis, plumage
ii. 137.

of resumption ity, by, in captiv-

ossifragus, ii. 208. suhhutfo, copulating

ii. 132.

i. 44. affected male ment, eleby ii. 350, 370. in male Female flowers, panicle i. 333. of maize, i. Mr., grafting potatoes, Fenn,

Female,

in

tivity, cap-

411.

Fennel,
Feral

in breeding tinnunciilus, captivity, ii. 132. Falconer, Dr., sterility of English i. 37: rein India, semblance bulldogs
and

Italian variety of, i. 338. i. 47; cattle, i. 86, 87; Guinea i. 113-117; fowl, rabbits, animals and version i. 304; plants, rein. ii. 5, 6, 21. cats,

of 311: of
a

between Niata cattle, silkworm the

fastigiate
i. 377:

Sivafhrrium i. 90; selection i. in India, in apple-trees

Mr., supposed Ferguson. ity of origin of domestic i.2.39; fowls,

chickens i. 252; of fowls,

plurnl-

Calcutta,

reproduction
thumb
after

fertility of in dhole the captivity, ii. 129: dia, dogs in Infertility of English the ii. 140: sterility of keys turtiger in captivity, ii. 129; Inrlian ii. 140; on at Delhi, cuitivnted plants, ii. 144; Thibet
and mastiff goat, ii. 258. Falcons, sterility of, in captivity, ii. 132. of horses the, Falkland Islands, feral i. 52, 62; pigs of the, i. of i. 83. cattle feral the, 78; of the, i. 113. rabbits 87; feral ii. 78, 96. Fallow-deer, ii. i. 150-152, Fantail pigeons, furculum 205; figured, i. 151;

supernumernry i. 448: amputation,

fowl ", of black gameof size relative i. 256: yolk of eggs of game-fowls, i. 256: eaily eggs i. 258; of game-cocks, pugnacity i. fowl, the voice of Malay

of interbreeding on effects in Coselection ii. 101; fowls, ii. on 174; chin-China fowls, ii. 219. in poultry, fashion i. Mexican on dogs, Fernandez, 267;
21.

abnormal of reproduction i. 399; nonforms of, by spores, of cell-gemmules diffusion in, ii. 362. ii. 86, 130, 184. Ferrets, Fertilisation, artificial, of the St. apple, i. 364. Valery of, in degrees Fertility, various

Ferns,

of,

figured,
absence

i.

173;
of

i. 214; ii. 325.

history oil-gland

of, in,

unlimited 98: mutual, i. 197of of breeds pigeons, of mongrels 200: comparative, and hybrids, ii. 75, 76, 157-160;

sheep.'i.

FESTUCA.

INDEX.

fox.

437
of,
i.

of nourishment influence (llmlnished by close 86;

ii.

on,

11. interbreeding,

I.

377;

variegation

.382I

93,

154;

reduced,

of

Chillingham

94;
when

wild cattle, ii. varieties domesticated of ii. 167. crossed,

bud-variation in, i. 398-400. Food, influence of, on the pig 74; on cattle, i. 92; excess
a cause

of!

of

variability,
on

ii

236

Forbes,
96;
Formica
on

D.,
the and

Chilian
horses

species of, propagated Festuca, 11. 149. bulblets, by tomtits, spared Filberts,
209.

by
il. of in

sheep, I. of Spain,
i. 52.

Chill, Fortune, potato

opment
yam,

the

Pampas,

Fllippi,

on

the

breeding

11. 368. branchiferous trltons, sterility of, Finches, general

rufa, 11. 230. 'ofthe sweet R., sterility in China, ii. 148; (lov""lof axillary bulbs in the
ii. 148. breeds

captivity, 11. 133. Flnnikin (pigeon), i. 161. 1. 338. Flnocchlo, acclimatisation Scotch, Fir,
ii. 291.

Fowl, 238; of,

common,

of, i. 232-

supposed gin, pluralitv of orii. 238; early history of, i. of 238-241; causes production of breeds of, i. 241; origin of,
from Gallus

of advantage change plants, ii. 12.5. of Fishes, regeneration portions of fins of, 11. 15; variability of, in ii. '238; when kept tanks, living in fresh marine, water, 11. 285; double monsters of, ii.

Fish,
of

Mr.,

soil

to

252, 245, 8,

253; 246;

bankiva, i. 242-247, feral, notices of, i.

reversion and gous analovariation in, 1. 247-2.53, ii.

11-13,

330,

332;

"

cuckoo

"

322. Fission

and

Fitch, Fittest,

Mr.,
of

gemmation, persistency

11. 340. of a variety

the pea, survival

Fltzlnger,
African 1. 411. Fixedness

i. 342. of the, i. 6. origin of sheep, i. 95; maned i. 97. sheep,

Fitzpatrlck,

Mr.,

potato-grafting,

of, Flax,
found

of tions condicharacter, 11. 36-38. discussed, in the i. 328;

Swiss lakeference difcllmatal in products of, ii. 255. fineness Fleece, of, in Austrian 11. 175. merinos, German Flelschmann, on sheep crossed ii. 64. with merinos, " i. 146. FIorentiner-Taube," 11. 27. Flounder, of wolf and Flourens, crossing of the dog, 1. 31; prepotency the jackal over brids dog, ii. 42; hyhorse ii. of the and ass, 42; breeding of monkeys in Europe, ii. 1.31. earliest Flower-garden, known, in Europe, 11. 195. transmission Flowers, capricious of i. 451, colour-varieties in,

dwellings,

sub-breeds of, 1. 251; history of, i. 253-2.55; structural acters charof, 1. 255-258; sexual culiaritie peof, i. 258-265, ii. 48; external differences of, 1. 205differences of breeds 268; of. from G. bankiva, i. 267, 268; osteological characters of, i. 268effects of disuse of 279; parts 11. 279; in. i. 279-283, feral, i. 196, ii. 7; polydactylism in, I. 447; fertility of, increased by ii. 87, 141; rility stedomestication, certain tions, condiof, under ii. 140; Influence of selection
on,

11.

174,

175,

187;

evils

of

close

102, 103; of transmission in, prepotency in, II. 41; rudimentary organs of non-siitlng ii. 296; crossing
varieties of, of wing gv in, 11. 304;
ii. and

of, ii. interbreeding crossing of, 11. 70-72;

17-19;

homolo-

leg featliers with of, hybrids

pheasants
ii.

GaUus and sonneratii, ii. 187; black-skinned, 19; osby the black, preyed upon fiveii. 208; in Ireland, prey mentioned toed, by Columella, ens chicktailed ii. 412; rumpless. by, ii. 4; Dorking, produced of comb of, ii. 68; form crosses

In to 4.52; tendency uniformity destriped, il. 44; scorching of, pendent

and

colour
game,

of

plumage

in,

il.

216;

ii. 207; change in, caused by conditions of 11. life, 11. 253; rudimentary, 297; relative position of, to the axis, ii. 326. ii. 275. Foetation, abdominal, of wild varieties Foley; Mr.,
on

colour,

black, and fer sufliable to Spanish, ii. 374; Polish, ii. 287; frost, from peculiarities of skull of, ii. 316,

white of crossing ii. 67; five-spurred,

pears,

Foliage,

11. 240. inherited

peculiarities of,

sterility of, in captivity, ii. Fox, 129. 1, of bees, races S. Bevan, Fox, 308. , ^ gestation of the Darwin, W. Fox,
.

438

FOXHOUNDS.

INDEX.

OALTON.

dog,

i.

29;

"

reversion

the in 3; period gestation layan Himaof the pig, i. 75; young of rabbit, i. 110; crossing i. and domestic wild turkeys,

of of

Negro sheep

"

in

cat, i. 46; ii. colour,

30-; reversion ii. 14; ducks,

of

in

crossed

musk
regation seggeese, breeding interii.

spontaneous

ii.

78;

of varieties close effects of

upon

bloodhounds,

with cats of while blue ii. 312. eyes, Foxhounds, i. 40, ii. 96. Fragaria cMloensis, i. 366. Fragaria collina, i. 365. i. of dioica Fragaria Duchesne,

96;

deafness

Galeohdolon luteum, pelorism in. ii. 33, 326. Galls, ii. 262-264. ii. 264. Gall-gnats, Gall-like not ited, inherexcrescences ii. 2.3. Gallinaceous restricted birds, of large, i. 245; general range fertility of, in captivity, ii. 134. Gallinula chloropus, ii. 135. GalHnula nesiotis, i. 296. Gallesio, species of oranges, i.347of hybridisation oranges, of 348; persistency in races the peach, i. 353; supposed cific spedistinctions of and peach i. 353 ; bizzarria nectarine, i. 407; of red orange, crossing and white i. 416; carnations, and on, lemcrossing of the orange i. 419, ii. 349; effect of foreign i. 420; on pollen maize, spontaneous crossing of oranges,

349;
i.

367.

Fragaria Fragaria Fragaria Fragaria

Fraxinus Fraxinus

elatior,
vcaca,

grandiflora,
i.

i. 365. i. 366.
365.

virginiana,
excelsior,
i.

i. 366.

Friesland i. 82. Frillback i. 158.

376, 398, 450. Icntiscifolia, i. 450. scended decattle, probably Bos from primigenius, pigeon,
i.

ii. 66;

monstrosities

cause

of

160;

Indian,

ing sterility in plants, ii. 145; seedof ordinarily seedless fruits, ii. 147; sterility of the cane, sugarii. 148; tendency of male flowers to become ii. double,

FringiUa Fringilla
Frizzled

ciris, ii. 133.

151;

effects

of

selection

in

larging en-

Frog,

spinus, ii. 133. fowls, i. 237; horses, i. 54. in the, i. 447. polydactylism

North 289.
Gallus riiis

ii. 147. seedless, varieties ring Fruit-trees, of, occurwild, i. 320, 321. fertile cats, Fry, Mr., on hybrid fowls i. 44; on feral in sion, Ascen-

Fruit,

variation of the in orange-tree tion Italy, ii. 235; naturalisaof the in Italy, ii. orange
wncus,
a

fruit, "S:c.,ii. 195;

hybrid
domestic

of

G.

va-

and

the

fowl,

i.

242.
Gallus

i. 245.

origin of, i. 380; budvariation in, i. 398. Fuchsia coccinea and fulgens, twin seed i. produced by crossing,
Fuchsias,
416. about i. 321; selection of ii. dogs by the, their 184; tion estimacomparative and of dogs old ii. women, of distant ion, vis193; their power ii. 201. Fungi, parasitic, ii. 264, 26.5. nails of SauFlirbringer, Dr., on rians, ii. 374. and characters Furculum, tions variaof in the. pigeons, i. 172; alteration of, by disuse, in pigeons, i. 181; characters of, in i. 277. fowls, of Fusion homologous parts, ii. 375.

Fuegians, killing

their

young

superstition water-fowl,

probable original i. 241-247, fowls, 252; nearest game-fowl, to, i. with 233; crossed G. sonneratii, i. 241; its character and habits, i. 242, ii. 85; differences of various of breeds fowls i. from, 267; foramen occipital of, figured, i. 269; skull of, figured, i, cervical vertebra 270; ured, of, figi. 276; furculum of, figured, i. 277; reversion to, in crossed fowls, ii. 13, 14; hybrid G. varius, i. 241, ii. 14; of, with
of domestic of
eggs

hankiva,

number Gallus
Gallus

of,

ii. 87.

Gallus
Gallus habits

i. 233. ferruginus, furcalus, i. 242. giganteus, i. 242. characters sonneratii, of. i. 241; hybrids ii. 19. and

of, i.

241.
Gallus

Gallus
Gallus

of, i. 242. staiileiji, hybrids a temminckii, probably brid, hyi. 242.

and varius, characters of. i. 242; hybrids and of, i. 242. hybrids

inheritance Gait, of. i. 4.39.

of

peculiarities

its hab-

able prob-

Galapagos
fauna

its peculArchipelago, iar and flora, i. 9.

Galton,

Mr.,

fondness

of

savagea

elMBlEft.

INDEX.

GfiOFPROY.

439
wlih

1. 19, 11. animals, 1. 89; Benguela, on hereditary talent, 1. 440; on Paugrenesis, ii. 3o9. his early euUlvaLord, Gambler, for

taming
cattle

139;

of

i. pear, two kinds i. 415.

,392;
of

apple-treo
fruit
on

brauch.
I.

Gay,

on

Fragaria
Viola
on

gramliftora,
and of

tion

of

the

pansy,

1. 383.

366; on i. 384;

lutca

tricolor,
Vio'a

the

nectary
of

i. 233, 258-262. Game-fowl, 11. 20G. Gapes, la de annual Garcllazo Vecra, of the Peruvian hunts Incas, ii.

grandifiora, i. 385. Gayal, domestication

83.

the.

I.

Gayot.
Geese

Sec

Moll.

185.

Garnett,

Mr., mlgi-atory propensities ii. 20. of hybrid ducks, Garrod, hereditary Dr., on gout,
i. 440.

Gartner,

i.

the sterility of 198, 11. 76, 163; sterility of varieties

on

brids, hyquired ac-

general fertility captivity, ii. 136. Gemmation and fission, 11. 340. Gemmules, or cell-gemmules Ii. 358, 360-366, 368. Generation, ii. alternate, 343. 352, 373.

(anscrcs),

of, in

of

Generation,

sexual,

ii. 341-34^;.

when 1. 373; crossed, plants ijln.nts, sterility in transplanted In Germiiny, lilac ii. in the and blue 143: mutual sterility of of the red flowers and nel, pimperof ii. 168; rules supposed transmission in crossing plants, ii. 41; on crossing plants, ii. 73, ing, cross104, 107, 108; on repeated of one 11. 246; absorption when another, species by ii. 63; crossing of crossed, rieties vai. 418; crossof the ing pea, ii. 79; of maize, crossing ii. 69, SO; species of Vcrbascum, in ii. 9, 24; reversion hybrids, 1. 4i5; of Tropwolum of Ccrcus, bility ma minitfi, i. 415; variajus and of ble hybrids, 11. 244; variavariable from one hybrids ii. 249; graft hybrid parent, in the produced by inoculation effect vine, i. 409; by produced the 1. 408, ii. stock. grafts on of hybrid 258; tendency plants ii. to double flowers, produce fruit of perfect 151; production ual by sterile hybrids, ii. 151; sexelective affinity, ii. 159; selfin Lobelia, Vcrbascum, impotence ii. 114, Liliiim, and Passlflora, of action the 115; on pollen, ii. of Malva, i. 423, 84; fertilisation of pollen, i'. ii, 345; prepotency of sion transmis166; prepotency

Genet, Genius,
Gcntiana

fertility of the, in captivity,

11. 130. inheritance

of, i. 440.

Geoffroy
of

ii. 147. amarclla, Saint-IIilaire. tion producmonstrous chickens, Loi dc Vajjinite de soi ii. pour

11. 322; of compensation ii. 324. growth, Salute Isid., Hilaire, Geoffroy ing origin of the dog, i. 15; barkof a jackal, i. 26; period of of the gestation and odour al, jack-

269; soi,"

"

i. 29; of

anomalies

in

the

teeth in

the 34 ; i. Newfoundland of webbed feet dogs, 1. 39; crossing of domestic tion and wild cats, i. 44; domesticathe of arni, i. S3: supposed of cattle introduction i. the from East. into Europe

dogs, i. 33; variations of proportions dogs,

83;
in

absence

of i.

iuterdigital
of i.

piis
the

sheep,
i.

goat,

102;

origin 96; feral geese,

1:)6;
i. i. i.
sumption as-

of the historv ancient Polish skull of the 254;

fowl. fowl.
Kouians geese,

270;
for

preference
the liver of

of

the i.

white

299; by

polydactylism.
female

415;

42;
um

in species bud-variation

of

Nicotiana,
in

ii.

Pclarq"mi-

in (Enotlvra 1. 393; zonalc, miil'biennis, i. 398; in AchilJwa

folium,
on

i. 430;

effect
of

of

manure

the
on

fertility

plants,

ii.

characters mnle of ii. 25; mission transbird, of cliarand blending ii. 7f^: refusal in hybrids, acters in breed capiivto of animals Guinea the jiig. ity, ii. 127; on producing silkworms ii. 130; the ii. 177; on white cocoons, cochineal insect, 11. the l"ee and on Helix lactca. 11. 261; 215; on to injury ii. 233; monstrosities, the coat

11. 144; contahescence, ii. inheritance of plasticity, 220; villosity of plants, ii. 258.

142;

embrvo
of horses

cause

of mint's,

strosity, mon-

ii". 249;

alteration
in coal

in

the
il.

Gasparini.
founded ters,

a on

genus

of

pumpkins,
char.ic-

stigmatic
bud-variation

i. 374.

Gaudichaud,

in

the

in intestines of the length 259; ii. 2.s4; animals, and tame wild rudiniiMitary of inheritance in the dog, Ii. 296; corlimbs

Qa

440

GEOGRAPHICAL.

INDEX.

GODRON.

relation

in

monstrosities,

ii.
in

Glenny,
178.

Mr., F.,
on

on

the

Cineraria,

ii. i.

302;

of co-existence man, of ii. 315; anomalies, presence in ovarian mours, tuand teeth hairs of ii. 354; development the teeth on palate in the horse, ii. 374. of nas, faudifferences Geographical i. 10. of succession isms, organi. 11. ii. 33. Geranium, and Geranium pijrenaicum, pha'um ii. 238. Giranium pratense, i. 304. climatal asserted change Gerard, in Burguudian bees, i. 307. of the varieties on cinth, hyaGerarde, i. 386. hive-bees, i. 309. Gerstiicker, on dog, Prof., origin of the Ger\ais,

supernumerary ii. 304;

digits

Gloede,
367.

on

strawberries, wings
of

Gloger,
ii. 279.
"

the
"

ducks,

Glouglou (pigeon), i. 159. Gloopiniw, peloric, i. 381, ii. 146. red on Gmelin, cats, at Tobolsk,
i. 46.

Geological

Goat,

tylism

i. 102. 103, ii. 6; polydacin the, i. 447; sexual ferences difin horns ued of, ii. 48; valii. ]8'i; by South Africans, ii. 258; amount of milk Thibet,
and

the,

of udders in development ii. 281; hornless, tary rudimengora, bony cores in, ii. 297; An-

ii. 308.

Godine, Godron,

on

prepotency
ii. 40.

of

mission, trans-

i.

15;

resemblance

of

dogs

and

i. of the 23; taming jackals, of teelh jackal, i. 25; number of in dogs, dogs, i. 33; breeds i. 51; i. 3"'.; on tertiary liorses, of horsts, i. 55; Biblical notices and .cpecies of Ovis, i. 95; wild i. 104; rabbits domestic rabbits, Mount Sinai and from Alge.ia, i. 109; i. 10!": earless rabbits, with doubled batrachia limbs,
II. "ti-".

Gestation, dog, period of, in the wolf, ""tc.,i. 28, 29; in the pig, in i. 75; in cattle, i. 88, ii. 303;
i. 98. inheritance in, i. 439. Ghoondooks a fowls, i. 237. ii. 17. Ghor-Khur,

sheep,

Gestures,
*'

of sub

ities peculiarbreed of

"

Giles, Giraffe,

Mr.,
in
the

effect

of

ing cross-breedof
structure

pig. i. 420.

co-ordination of

of, ii. 199. Girard, period

permanent Giraud-Teulon,

of the hairless i. 29; differences in the skull of dogs, crease i. 33; inof of i. breeds horses, of domestic and 51; crossing wild i. 67; swine, i. on goats, of the skin in 102, 103; colour of north and fowls, i. 266; bees south of i. 308; duction introFrance, the of silkworm in o i. 311; in Europe, variability the i. 314; silkworm, supposed of i. 32.3, 324; wheat, species on ^gilops triticoidcs, i. 324; variable barbs in of presence i. 325; colours of the grasses, seeds of maize, i. 332; unity of character in i. .335; cabbages, of colour and correlation odour, and ture moisi. 335; effect of heat the i. 337; on on cabbage, the cultivated species of I{ras"iRounci\al the ai:d ca, i. 3.37; on in i. 339; variation sugar peas, of peas in the same the numbers in Spain, vines pod. i. 340; wild
Turkish

odour

dog,

teeth

appearance in dog:,

cause

of

of i. .34. short

i. 345;

on

raising

peaches

from

sight, i. 442. Girou de Buzareingnes,

in the

ance inheriti.

horse,
age in

by
prepotency
character ii. 40;

444; version recattle, ii. 12;

of
and

of in
on

transmission

sheep crossing

cattle,
ii.

gourds,

Gisburne,

wild cattle at, i. 85. i. .380; self-impotence of of, ii. 117. hybrids Glntliohif; colciUii, bud-variation in, i. 398. Ghifliohi^.

i. 353; supposed specific and of distinctness tarine, necpeach i. 353; nectarine ing producthe i. 355; on er flowpeaches, ii. 325; of origin Corydalis, the of i. and variations plum, the of i. 359; origin cherry, of reversion single-leaved 361; five-leaved i. 367; strawberries, of Frannria collina, i. variety of 367; immutability supposed

seed,

Glands,

compensatory
of,
ii.

ment developi. 379.

281.

Glastonbury

thorn,

i. 373, 374; characters, i. 377; perof Rohinia, manency the of simple-leaved of non-inheritance i. 377: ash, i. 455; wild certain mutilations, and celery, ii. turnips, carrots, benefit of 7; peloria, ii. 34;

specific

varieties

44^
of,
dne

"5REYNESS.

ll^DEX.

BAYWOOl)*

Italian,

to selection, ii. 205.

ii. 199, 200;

at
sponding corre-

Hair

and 309-811. of

teeth,

correlation

of, ii.
riod pe-

Greyues.s,

inherited

Hairy

family,

corresponding
in, ii. 51.
of,

periods
on Mr., Grieve, i. 386. dahlias,

life, ii. 51. early-flowering

of of and

inheritance character Half-castes,

ii. 21.

Grigor,
the

Mr,,

acclimatisation

Scotch

fir, ii. 291.

Gronland,
wheat,
webbed
1. oJ.

hybrids
ii. 85. feet of

of C. the

/Egllops

Groom-Napier,

the on O., otter-hound,

and scribed, derab1)its, figured i. 108; skull of. i. 121. Halmtus Icucoccphalus, copulating in captivity, ii. 132. CoL, on Hallam, a two-legged of pigs, i. 437. race selection in reals, ceHallett, Major, ii. 178; on pedigree wheat, i. 325.

Half-lop

Pangenesis, Gros, on Grosses-goi-ges

*' "

ii. 339.

(pigeons),
i. 154.

i.

Hamburgh Hamilton,
Hamilton,
of
male

fowl,
i. 235.

i. 234,

270;

ured, fig-

140.

Ground-tumbler,
Grouse,
ii. Gnis 135.

Indian,
in

fertility of,

captivity,
an-

wild cattle of, i. 85. the Dr., on assumption hen plumage by the

inontigresia, cincrea, and

ii. 135.

pheasant,
Hamilton,

ii. 25.
F.

tigoiw,
Guanacos, Guans,

selection

of, ii. 1S6.

fertility general captivity, ii. 134.

of,

in

ii. 164. Guelder-rose. Guehlerland fowls, i. 237. selection of dogs Guiana, by the Indians of, ii. 184. cension i. 304; feral, in AsGuinea fowl, i. 196. ii. and Jamaica, of of, to change 7; indifference ii. 140. climate, Guinea pig. i. 456, ii. 130. the i. on jackal, Giildenstadt, 23.

Giill, herring, Gulls,

Gulo,
130.

breeding sterility of. of,

in

in in

finement, con-

ii. 1.36.

general
sterility A.,
i. lost
on

tivity, cap-

ii. 1.36.

captivity,
ducks

ii. and

Giinther.
geese,

tufted
on

284;

the in

tion regenera-

of
ii. 347.

parts

batrachia,
in of
dinary or-

owls Mr., Gurney, captivity, ii. 133:

"

breeding
appearance
"

black-shouldered

among

peacocks,
Habit,

i. 300. in tisation, acclima-

influence of. ii. 29.3-296.

on

HJickel,
on

fissiparous
on

tion, reproducii.

ii. 346;
the double

cells,
on

reproduction

3.54: of

medusa?,
ii. 379.

ii. 368;

inheritance, of, in

the Buchanan, on shaddock, i. 348; of varieties Indian cultivated plants, ii. 235. Mr., Hancock, sterility of tamed ii. 134. 135. birds, inheritance of Handwriting, culiarities pein, i. 4.38. Sir selection Haumer, J., on of ii. 182. flower-seeds, of daik Hansen, Mr., inheritance i. 290. yolks in duck's eggs, E. Harcourt. the V., on Arab boarhound, i. 16; aversion of the Avab^ to dun-colouied i. 55. horses, Mr., of effect of excess Hardy, nourishment on plants, ii. 236. i. Hare, of, with rabbit, hybrids ment, 106; sterility of the, in confineii. 131; preference of, for partirular plants, ii. 210. of, i. 454. Hare-lip, inheritance eases, dison Harlan. Dr., hereditary i. 440. i. 62. the wild Hartmann, on ass, white monstrous Mr., Harvey. African bull, i. 92. of form Prof., singular Harvey, effects frigida. i. 381: Begonia the of cross-l^reodiug on female, ii. monstrous i. 425; saxifrage, 145. i. 324. Hasora wheat, i. 367. Hautbois strawberry, call Col., on or Hawker, decoy i. 290. ducks, varieties i. 379, of, Hawthorn,

Hackles,
i.

peculiarities
the

fowls,

392;

pendulous

hybridised,

i.

262.
on

Hair,
in

face, inheritnnce of, 437; peculiar luck of, i. 438: of. rninherited, growth der stimulation of skin. ii. 308; variation of, ii. 307; homologous
man,

i.

development 374.

of, in

the

brain,

ii.

i. 379, 4.50: changes of, by age, in the. bud-variation i. 392; 403: flower buds attacked of, by ii. 210. bullfinches, of character maux EsquiDr., Hayes, dogs. i. 20. feral bits rabW., the on Haywood, of Porto Santo, i, 114.

HAZEL.

INDEX.

HILL.

443

Hazel,
ii. 313.

purple-leaved,
of wild

i. 377,

409,

boar and Yorkshire i. 73. correlated ability variand Head limbs, of, ii. .305. inheritance of, ii. 54. Headache, i. 383-385; Heartsease, change Head

pig, figured,

hocks,
on

ii. 82; breeding of brids, hyii. 108; self-iuipotenr-e in hybrid hippcMstniins, Ii. ip;, 117: hyl)!i(l (l lad i,, his, ii. in'
Zi phyviiHlhi!^ coudido, ii.143*; fertility of the ji. 144; crtjciis. on contabescence, ii. 144; brid hy-

Rhudod'ndron,
Herculaneum,
found
"

il. 245.
of
a

produced
i.

in

the, by
of

403;

transplantation, reversion in, ii. 4,

selection
on, ii.

figure
i. 68.
"

pig

in,

21;

effects

178;

scorching

of, ii. 207;

effects

conditions of seasonal on the, annual varieties of the, ii. 254; ii. 286. the fleece of effect of, upon white and Heat, crossing coloured i. 99. of sheep, ii. (i7; crosses Angora rabbits, the of solid-hoofed on breeding Heber, Bishop, pigs, ii. 68. in the rhinoceros of Herprstcs captivity, fusciatus and griseus, il, 130. ii. 128. of cattle the of on tho Hebrides, the, i. 81; Heusinger, sheep ii. 205; i. 189. of the, Tarentino, conflated on pigeons the of the constitutional ii. O., on plants Heer, peculiarities, i. 320, ii. 320. Swiss lake-dwellings, the In bantam cereals, i. 328Hewitt, Mr., reversion 193, 410; on i. 339; on the i. 247: of the cocks, degener.ilion 331; on peas, in i. 251; partial sterility silk-fowls, vine Italy in the growing i. 345. of male hen-like i. Bronze fowls, age, of tailed ens chicki. 412. 260; production Heimann, potato-grafting, i. 2(i';; ii. 261. fowls, lacfea, Helix by rumplcss and wild terchanging rearing on Hemrrocallis fulva and taming ffava, ini. 287. ii. 211, 242; i, ditions conducks, by bud-variation, in laced of inheritance 402. 403. in 1. 453; reverconicine sion Sebright bantams, no Hemlock, yields in ii. 4; fowls, ii. 2.55. runiplcss Scotland, in fowls, reversion differences b.v age, ii. 1.3; of, in various Hemp,

Sir Heron, U., of appearance black-shouldered dinary oramong i. ."ioo, :}(i]; peacocks, non-inheritance of monstrous characters by gold-fish, i. 3("7;

parts

of

India,
in effect

ii. 143;

climatnl

hybrids
ii.

of

pheasiint

and of of from

fowl,
male latent bantam the

difference 255.

products of,
upon

of,

Hempseed,
colour

the
rence occur-

ii. 19, 42; assiuuption characters by female ii. 25; development

characters in
a

pheasants,

of

birds,
in

ii. 260.

barren

Hermaphrodite
of, Hen,

flowers, i. 333. maize,

ii.

hen.

ii. 28;

montrrels

assumption by the,
of
spurs
or

Hennies," fowls, i. 260. ash J. A., a variety of the Henry. 1. 408; grafting, by produced dron crossing of species of Rhododeni. 421. tion variaI'rof., indi\idual Henslow, bud-variation i. 326; in wheat, bramble Austrian the in i. 397; partial reproduction rose, ash of the by seed, i. weeping 450. and Arnhis,

"

acters charmale of opment 26. 28; develin the, ii. 300. male hen-like

of close ii. 41; effects silk-fowl, ii. 101, fowls, on interbreeding bantams, 102: feather-legged on ii. 304. Hibbert, Shetland Hibiscus. Mr., See
on

the

i"igs of
i. 71.

the

Islands,

Pnritiinn. from

cattle, descended Highland Bt)H longifronft, i. 83.

Hilderbrand, Dr.,
on

brids graft-hy-

i. 410; the \vith potato, of on poUeu intlneii'-e the on the mother the plant, i. 420; on i. 42.'!, of Ordiidnv, fertilisation

424; fitted

occasional
of

necessary
on

ing cross-

plants, ii. 66:

seeds

not

Hepatica,
Herbert,

changed
i. 403.

by

tation, transplan-

i. 324; distril"ution, for ii. 80; on crossing of varieties,

of Viola variations rial ion grandiflora, i. 384; bud-va i. 392: in seedlings camellias, i. reverted from Cijtisus adami,

Dr.,

Primula
rosea,

siurnsis ii. 109; the

on

and

OxaliH
eava,
,

Corifdalis
Ab-o.

404;
other

crosses

turnips,

Swedish of ii. 69; on

and

ii. no. Ii.. on Hill. in rabbits

holly-

peacocks

.lamaica, in Jamaica,

fer.'l i. 30; fer;il i. 113; i. 196; va-

4.U

HIMALAYA.

INDEX.

HORSES,

riation

of birds

the

Guinea

fowl

in

ii. 27;

inheritance of

of

hal;its

and

Jamaica,
tamed 135.

i.

sterility of in Jamaica, ii. 134,

304;

tricks, ii. 377. varieties Holly,

bud-reversion

the,

Himalaya,
birds
112. in

range

the,

Himalayan Himalayan

of gallinaceous i. 242. 110i. 109, rabbit, i. 95.

on

berried,

i.

in, i. 400; 451, ii. 209.

i. 377; yeilow-

sheep,

Hindmarsh, Mr., cattle, i. 85.

Chillingham 146,
147.

bud-variation in, i. Hollyhock, double of 393; rieties vanon-crossing variety of, ii. 82; tender of the, ii. 292. i. 297; of notice Homer, geese, breeding of the
horses

of

.l^neriability va-

Hinkel-Taube," and mule, Hinny

"

i.

as,

ii. 180.

difference

of, ii.

Homologous
336;

parts,

correlated

42.

Hippnrion,
in

anomalous

le.semblance

335. of, ii. 303-315. fusion alhuily of, ii. 32 '"'"

ii.

i. 50. horses, to, hybrids Hippcastriim,

of, ii. 110,

117. Hive-bees, of, i. smaller

domestication ancient breeds of, i. 308; old in when produced i. 308; variability in, i. combs, and of 3U'J: Ligurian crossing

.323. with correlated ii, 307. variation, Hook-billed duck, skull

of,

322,

Hoofs,

h.iir

in

figured, i.
der-stripe shouli.
Sik-

307;

292.

Hooker,
64: kim.

Dr.

J.
in

D.,
the
use

forked

Syrian

voice
i.

of

asses, in cock'

common,

i.

309.

on interbreeding Fisher, pigs, ii. 97. i. 144. Hocker-Taube," attraction the Dr., on Hodgkin, of foxes Dingo, by a female Newfoundland 30; origin of the

Hobbs,
"

of Arura-voots i. 318; native useful food, as plants of Australia, i. 322; wild the i. walnut of Himilaya.s, the of 371: plane-tree, variety

267;

i.

of a petransmission culiar i. 438. of hair. domestication of Mr., Hodgson, Cnnis devoliipprimcrvtift, i. 25; ment of a fifth digit in Thibet ribs i. 35; number of mastilTs.

dog.

i. 42:

i. 378; cnt'ilis i. 378;

production
from

of

Thuja

ori-

lock

in

humped of sheep
i.

the of

cattle, i. SO; Himalaya,

four
mnmma?

on

the

i.

95;
in in

of T. priulula, of Begonia singular form in reversion frifjiila, i. 381; the wild, ii. 7; on pl.ints run ii. 148; Arctic on sugar-cane, the oak on pl.-uits, ii. 235; of Good the at Cape grown Rhododenfjron ii. 255: on Hope. gnonette miand stock ii. 25"i c I]id turn.

"eeds

presence

perennial
ii. 285.

in

Tasmania,

arched 96; sheep, i 96; measurements sheep, of intestines the goats, of interdigital i. 103; disuse a ii. 282. drooping ears,
piesence

nose

of
i.

Hopkirk,
the rose,

Mr.,
i.

103;
in

i.

pits
cause

jalapa,
tricolor, Hornbeam,
Horned i. 274.
Hornless 90. Horns

in bud-variition in MirahiJis .397: Convolvulus .398; in i. 377.

goats,

of

i. 429.

licf'U'ker,
in of

persistency
i. 51,
horses

of

colour

heteiophyllous. fowl, i. 237; skull

cattle
in

figured,
i.

horses,
dun

from

4.53; production of parents

i.

Paraguay,

different of one-horned Hoffman,

338.

colours,

60;

peculiarities in i. 4.39; heredity a sanguineous constag, i. 445; on ii. 100. marriages, i. Prof., on Raplianus,
River,
ii. 128. of retardation ing breedby hard living, ii.

inheritance in writing, hand-

of, with
ii.

i. 93; correlation in sheep, ii. 30"; tieece with the correlation of, skull, of

sheep,

317;

rudimentary

in

young

polled
i. 103. Horses, i. 49;

cattle, ii. 297;

in

of

goats,

Hogriied
Hogg,
87. Holland,

Swiss

lake-dwellings,
of. breeds i. 49; anomalies
and i. ."1: don'iiion ferent difi. in

Mr.,
in
cows

different

Malay
in

Archipelago,
osteology

Sir

diseases,
morbid

heritance, of, i. 50; mutual of innecessity i. 4.35; on breeds, hereditary of i. 440; hereditary habit 52: culiarity pe-

H.,

fertility of
feral,

in

the

eyelid,
in the transmission
the

i.

441;
same

snow,

i. 53;

mode i.

scraping away of production

54;
of

uniformity
i.

of

breeds

of.

family,

448;

of

and

diversity

hydrocele

through

female.

56; dark

stripes

inheritance i. in, in, i. 56-60, ii.

colour

HORSE-CHESTNUT.

INDEX.

HYBRIDTTY.

445
277;
tri-

origin of, i. dun-coloured, of feral, i. 61, 02; fecundation of a effect by the on subsequent eny progquagga 332;
58;
colours

of
on

cock
the

daetylus, Hunter, W.,

influence

Its conib, ii. upon stoniMcli uf Lurua ii. 2S:i. evidence

of

against

the

iuiaglualion upon the peculiarities ofl'spring, ii. 'J4;{. Hutchinson, polydactylism ("ol.. liability of dogs heritance of colour to in, i. 453; ini. 35. distemper, in of exostoses legs Mr., close Huth, interbreeding reversion of in, ii. 0, of, i. 457; rabbits, ii. 07; consanguineous and ass of, with 15; 00. hybrids mnrriages, of zebra,' ii. 10; prepotency the C;ipt.. on Hutton, vari.TliiPly in the of transmission sexes the of, ii, silU-ni("th, i. 'M-\: o.i i li'i; guay, Paranuml)er of species of silkworms, of, in 30; segregation ii. 77; wild of, i. 310; of species siiJiu ".rni.;, markings ii. 128; in i. doiuesi ication breeding of captivity, 312; (In* ii. 183, 307; in India, i. 101; docurly, in Paraguay, rock-pigeon meslici'tion and of. for selection of trifling chaiacerossing
ters, tion ii. 187;

of,

i.

424;

of inheritance 444; in, i. 443, inherin, i. 447; itance

of, ii. 190, 191;

seb-cunconscious natural lection seteration alii. 203; in Circassia, mines, coalcoat of of, in

GaUn.'i in

hanJcira,
fr""m Prof.,
a on

i, 243;
cross, tlic

goals
of

reversion ii. 10.

tiau ii. sion mison

Huxle.v.
unconscious
oTi

polydat'iylisui, i. 410;
selection,
ion in the

of, ii. 259; degenorati'"n ii. 258: Falkland Islnnds, in the diseases of, caused by shoeing, ii. 281; on ii. 281; feeding meat, and soned poiwhite white-spotted, ii. vetclins, by mildewed in the variations 320; analogous oped develteeth colour of, ii. 330; of of. ii. 374; on palate
Bronze 410. Horse at the early, chestnut, to i. 378; Tuileries, tendency in, ii. 117. doubleness sterility of Horse-radish, general the, ii. 150. sub-breed French a Houdan," i. 237. of fowls, sheep, Howiird. on crossing C,
-

eorrelal

171; mollnsca,

period

in

Denmark,

ii.

ii. 302; and lison geuunation ii. 340; of sion, development ii. 351. star-lishes, i. 3S(", 387; bud-variation Hyacinihs, in, i. 401: graft-hybrid by half bulbs of union of, i. 400; bv i. white, seed. rej'roduced 4.".2; red. ii. 207. vari("tie.s 320; of. recognisable by the bulb, ii. 230. feather, ii. 104. 207. Hyacinth, orini talis, i. 3SG. ITjiariiithiist of hare I. and rabbit, Hybrids, iOO; of various species of Galhis. i.

"

peach,
naturally
of
seed

and

of 211-244; nectarine,

almond,
i. of

."'.52; twinand

produced,

species

ii. 71-90.

Hue,

on

the

Emperor

Khang-hi,

of the varieties Chinese ii. 235. the of character A., Humboldt, Zambos. ii. 21; parrot speaking extinct of in the an language Pulcx penetrans, tribe, ii. 133; on ii. 183; bamboo, ii. 2.50.

from i. 404; Ciifisus. coecinea FurJiYui of reversion fnlfj-Hfi,i. 410;

41.5, 410,
ass.

ii.

and

Humidity,
upon i. 101.

injurious
horses,

effect

of,

animals, female ii. 20; of breed

of, I. from 9, 22-24; mare, ii. 1(": of tame zebra, wildness of, ii. 10. 20;
sterile
and

of instincts transmission characters better

male,
ing blend-

Humphreys,
Hungarian
Hunter.
in the

i. .53. Ancon Col., on i. 81.

of
on

sheep,

108; 118;

in, ii. (!7-71; with parent cies speil. other, each with than 110ii. in, self-impotence

readilv
ii. l-'io.

produced
singular
1.

in

ity, captivof,

cattle,
John,

period
i. 28;
of

tion gestasecondary i. 185;

Hvbridisation,

effects of
in

dog,

in
i.

oranges.

.340:

cherries,
Ciicitr-

sexual

characters,
Ansrr goose,

301:
i.

difficulty

of,

fertile
and the

crossing
domestic of voice.
of male

fmis
i. 297; in
!isers

inheritance

peculiarities
tJtc., i. 4.39:
chnrnc

gestures, sumption

i. .382. of 373; roses, the cause ii. 157-100; Hvbridism, ers, flowdouble to of tendency a genesis, Panto relation in ii. 150:

hito',

by

ii. 371.

ii. 20; human fem;ile, the of hereditary of appearnnce of the ii. 52; graft

period
eases, disspur

Hybriditv
i. 355.

in

cats,

1.

"of peach

and

44, 45: posed, supnectarine,

446

HYDRA.

INDEX.

JACOBIN.

i. 389, ii. 274, 341. Hydra, colour of flowers of, Hydrangea, ii. 258. influenced by alum, ii. 27. Hydrocele, ii. 276. Hydrocephalus, ii. 149. cahjcinum, nypericnm ii. 201, 320. crisp um, Hypericum ii. 352. Hypermetamorpliosis, 1. hereditary, Hypermetropia, 441.

ties
53.

of effects

foliage of, in

in

trees,

varieties

of

i. 377; the

i. 337. cabbnge, Insanity, inheritance

of, i. 440, ii.

Insects, parts

of lost regeneration in, ii. 275, .347; agency of of, in fecundation larkspurs, i. 453; effect of changed tions condi-

aquifolium, i. 451. Imagination, supposed on offspring, ii. 243. ImatophylUim miniatum,

Ilex

effect

of,

ation bud-varisavages,

Incest,
100.

in, i. 402. abhorred

by

ii.

ii. 136; sterile ter, neuupon, ii. 165; monstrosities in, ii. 249, 373. Instincts defective, of silkworms, i. 314. Interbreeding, close, ill effects of, ii. 89-107, 154. of as a Intercrossing, species, of variation, i. 193; natucause ral,
of

of crossed fowls by Incubation, varieties, ii. 18. non-sitting horses of, i. .59; India, striped of pigs of, i. 67, 78; breeding cultivation rabbits in, i. 113; of in, i. 212. pigeons Individual variability in pigeons, i.

plants,

i.

349;

of

species

162-165. Mr., cultivation

in

Ingledew,
148. Indische Inheritance,
"

of

ropean Eu-

vegetables
Taube,"
i.

India,

ii.

i. 148. ii. 355entertained 358, 384; doubts of, writers, i. 435; importance by some i. 436; breeders, of, to tistics stafrom evidence of, derived i. 438: of of chances, i. 4.38-440, peculiarities in man, of 445-448; disease, i. 440, 441, 448; of peculiarities in the eye, of from deviations 1. 441-443; i. 445; of polydacsymmetry, capricioust.vlism, i. 445-448; n'ess of, i. 448-453; tions, mutilaof i. 455; of congenital strosities, mon-

434-161,

and of Canidae breeds of dogs, wild i. 30-.32; of domestic and of pigs, cats, i. 44, 45; of breeds i. 84; i. 72, 78; of of cattle, of i. .337; of varieties cabbage, i. 338, 340, 342; of ties variepeas, of orange, i. 349; of species of i. 366-.368; of strawberries, ing Cncurhit(e, i. 372, 373; of flowerplants, i. 380; of pansies, i. 384. Interdigital pits, in goats, i. 103. ii. 99-101. close, Intermarriages,

Intestines,
i. 75;

elongation

of,

in

pi^'S,
of

relative

measurement

parts of, in goats, i. 103; effects of changed diet ii. 283. on,
Ipomcca Ireland,
sus

purpurea, remains

and

ii. 105. Bos of longifrons found

frontnin, i.

83.

i.

455;

causes

of

sence ab-

i. 456-461; sion reverby ii. 1-35; its atavism, or of with fixedness connection 11. 36-38; affected by character, transmission of of prepotency limited ii. 39-46; character, by ii. 46-40; at corresponding sex, of mary sumlife, ii. 50-54; periods of the subject of, ii. 54in seminal 59; laws of, the same of and bud varieties, i. 431; in i. 51; characters the horse, in in i. i. 88; cattle, rabbits, in the 108; peach, i. 353; in the in i. 353: i. nectarine, plums, in apples, in 360: i. 364; pears, in i. 3S4: the i. 365; of pans.v, characters of Columha primary livia i. 208; in crossed pigeons, in of of plumage peculiarities pigeons, i. 165, 166; of peculiari-

of,

absenr-e of the, 1. Iris, hereditary 442; peculiarities of hereditary of the, i. 443. colour i. 402. Iris xiphium, Irish, ancient, selection practised by the, ii. 181 Iron period, in Europe, dog of, i. 17. ful Islands, oceanic, scarcity of useplants on, i. .322. of, i. 190. Islay, pigeons of effect Isolation, of, in favour ii. 212, 213. selection, in. during the Italy, vine-growing Bronze period, i. .345. north of Ivy, sterility of, in the ii. 149. Europe, of foreign pollen effect i. 420. grapes, of, Jackal, i. 23, 26, 29; hybrids the with dog. i. 31; prepotency the dog, ii. 42. of, over Jackson, cats, Mr., white-footed ii. .306. i. 161, 215. Jacobin pigeon,

Jack,
on

Mr.,

JACQUEMET-BONNEFORT.

INDEX.

KNIGHT.

447
in, ii. 5.
i. 145.
i. wheat of

Jacquemet-Bonnefort,
i. 347.

on

the

berry, mul-

Kale,
Kales,
"

Scotch,
i. 33.5.
"

reversion

reversion in on Prof., Jaeger, ii. 17; white a cross, pigs, from ii. killed hawks, by pigeons ^08. crooked with legs, i. 16. Jaguar, i. 26; feral of, dogs Jamaica, rabbits feral pigs of, i. 78; feral of, i. 113.
.

Kali-par Kalm, P.,

288;

pigeon,
on

maize,

introduction
i. in

.":{, il. into

trees

Canada,
,^

327; sterility

of

growing

woods,
"

i.

Kalmi 155.

marshes and ii. 149. Lotan tumbler

"

dense

pigeon, dogs,

Jameson,

Mr.,
i. 411.
horses

on

hybrid

toes, pota-

Kane,
i. 21.

Dr.,

on

Esquimaux
i. 99. inheritance

Japan, Japanese
Jardiue, Jarves, Java,

pig
Sir and

of, i. 54. (figured), i. 71. of mestic docrossing W., wild cats, i. 43.
in the

Karakool

sheep,
on

Karkeek,
horse,
"

in

the

i. 444.

J.,

silkworm

wich Sand-

i. :M'2. Islands, fantail pigeon in, i. 152.

Karmeliten Karsten 256.

Taube,"
on

i. 161.

Pulcx

penetrans,

ii.

Javanese Jeitteles.

ponies,

i.

53,

59.

Kattywar Keeley,
i.

horses, i. 59. in II., pelorism

lutcum,
on

Gnlcobpine Altion ac-

14; Hungarian crossing

Cits

the of history the of fowl, history

dog,
i.

(lolon

ii. 33. the culture

i. 253;

Kerner,
of

sheep-dogs,
domestic
and

23;
wild 132.

plants, Kestrel,
"

ii. 142;
in

Jemmy

i i. 320. Button, of ganders, L., whiteness Jenvns, of suuflsh-like variety i. '298; i. 307. the gold-fish, number of J. eggs C, Jerdon, gin ii. 88; orilaid pea-hen, by the of

of 4'1.

conditions,

of definite il. 262.

breeding

captivity,

ii.

Jersev,
i. 335.

domestic arborescent i. 408.

fowl,

i. 244.

cabbages

of,

i. 143. of selection a variety of rice by. ii. 182. ii. 17. Kiang, 1. 305, the on canary-bird, Kidd, ii. 52. i. 387; varieties of, bean, Kidney

Khandesi,"

Khang-hi,

ii.

235,
of

255.

Jessamine,

Kidneys,
the

compensatory
the,
ii.

Jesse,
41.

G.

R.,

on

bulldog,

i.
in birds

281;

ment developof, shape

the foim

influenced

by

John,
Johnson,
on

King,
from

of lions stalimportation Flanders by, ii. ISl.

occurrence

of

the

pelvis,
from

ii. 325.

King,
doves

Col.,

domestication
the
on

D.,

of in

young

wild

pigs

stripes India, i. ments experi-

Orkneys,

of rock i. 190,

191.

78.

Jordan,
of

A.,
on

on

Vibert's

King, King,
27."
Kirbv
of

Dr.,
P. and

P.,

on

i. 393. Parititim, the dingo, i. 20,

on

365;
wild

varieties varieties in woods,

Jourdan,

i. 345; gin oriof the apple, i. found of pears ii. 239. in the parthenogenesis the

vine,

Spence,
ii. 26.3.

the

growth

galls,

Kirgiiisian sheep,
Kite,
1.32.

i. 99.
in

breeding

captivity,
of

il.

ii. 345. silk-moth, wild de Juan Nova, Juan

dogs

on,

i. 26.
on,

Kleine,

variability

bees,

i. 308. i.

Fernandez,

dumb

dogs

i. 26.

Jufilans

rcgia, i. 371. foundland NewJukes, Prof., origin of the dog, i. 42. cation Julien. early domestiStanislas, of i. 69; pigs in China, of the domestication antiquity i. in the silkworm of China,
311. i. 237. i. 377.

on Andrew, Knight, of different horses varieties crossing 51;

crossing
breeds,
of

peas, of ii. 106; persistency i, 338, gin orii. 340; of varieties peas, i. 3.""0; hybridisat the of peach, morello by the of i. 361: on Elton cherry, the ty variei. 361: cherries, seedling att.icked 1"y not apple of the
coccus, i.

of fowls, breed a Jumpers, of the, Juniper, variations Juniprrus suecica, 1. 377. Jussima grandiflora, ii. 149. Jussieu, A. de, structure ii. in Carthamiis, pappus

363;

intercrossing
i. 3(J6;

")f ety vari-

strawberries,

broail

the of 298.

i. ,3M ; cock's-comb. the of nnd the in cherry bud- variation white of crossing i. 390; plum, ex1. 409; and grapes, purple

448
periments
422,
in
ii. in

KNOX.

INDEX.

LAYARD.

crossing
on

apples,
disease

i.

ii.

410;
of

cattle

lOiJ; hereditary
i. 444; crossed

the

ing, interbreedcultivated of varieties 410; cereals tercrossing found of in107; necessity in, in ii. 154; plants, in, i. 343. on observations variation, ii. 235, 236; effects Lamare-Piquot, on i. 403, ii. 25S; budof grafting, half bred North American in ii. 272; variation i. 21. a plum, wolves, correlated variation of head and A. Lambert, B., on Thuja pendiila ii. .305. limbs, or filiform is, i. 378. of the Lambert Mr., breeding Knox, eagle family, i. 437, ii. 51. in owl captivit}', ii. 132. on i. Lambertye, strawberries, in the 366, Koch, turnip, degeneracj^ 367; five-leaved of variety i. 337. Fro'jaria vollinu, i. 367. i. 335. Kohlrabi, Landt, L., on sheep in the Faroe in hybrids, reversion i. ii. 78. Kolreuter, Islands, sterility of ii. 415, ii. 9; acquired on Lankester, Ray, longevity, crossed varieties of i. 365. plants, wild La 373, ii. 76; ab.sorption of MiraPlata, dogs of, i. 26; hilis M. feral cat by vulgaris from, i. 47. longiftora, of ii. 63; of crosses ii. 291. species Larch, ii. 69, 82; on the lyhock, holinsect Vcrhascum, Larkspurs, sary necesagency ii. 82; full for the crossing varie'ies fecundation of ii. 84; tobacco, beneOts of of, i. 4.53. Larus crossing plants, ii. 107, 108. 154, arfj^ntafus, ii. 1,36, 283. in VerhasLarus 155; self-impotence tridncti/lus, ii. 283. tions condiii. 114; effects of merino in different cum, Lasterye, sheep of i. 100. growth fertility countries, upon in velopment Latent deMirabitis, ii. 143; great ii. 2.5-31. characters, in of tubers fowl the not hybrid on ing breedLatham, ii. inheritance of in 151; the extreme plants, ii. north, ii. 220: 140. plasticity, variability of of hybrids ii. 244; ii. 11, Mirabilis, Lathyrus, of a cause repeated crossing Lutliyrus apJiava, ii. 324. ii. 240, 247; number variation, Lathiirus odoratus, i. 416, 452, ii. of for 66, 69, 292. pollen-grains necessary ii. 345. fertilisation, La Canadian J. D.. on a Touche, i. 68. Krauseschwein." with dimidiate apple fruit, i. the double on 415. Krohn, tion reproducof Medusa?, ii. 368. i. 1.58. Latz-Taube," i. 140. i. 1.50, 213. Kropf-Tauben," Laugher pigeon, Laurns sassafras, ii. 255. of feral the tusks boars Labat, on of Lawrence, a J., production in the West i. 78; breed of foxhounds, Indies, on i. 40; new French in wheat the of in mares, occurrence en nines grown West the ture culi.50: on Indies, ii. 288; on three-p irts-bred horses, in of the vine the West i. .55; on inheritance in the il. 280. Indies, horse, i. 444. see Laburnum, Lawson, Adam's, of the Cytisus Mr., varieties tato, poreversion i. 343. adami; oak-leaved, of, in i. 398; in the pelorism the, ii. 327; Laxton, Mr., bud-varialion i. 406. i. 391; of Waterer's, gooseberry, crossing and Lachmann, on varieties of the i. 418, '410; gemmation pea, fission, ii. 340. weakness in of transmission LachnanfJies double-flowered Huctoria, ii. 205, 320. ii, 41; peas, Lactation, ii. 147. imperfect, hereditary, peas. i. 440; deficient, of wild animals E. of a L., resemblance Layard, in captivity, ii. 137. the Caffre to dog Esquimaux Ladrone i. 24, ii. 267; of, i. 86. Islands, cattle breed, crossing La individual ation variProf., of the domestic Felis Gasca, cat with in i. 326. ferrtl in wheat, citffra, i. 44; pigeons wegian Norresemblance of i. 106 Laing, Mr., Ascension, domestic ; and Devonshire of i. ?12; cattle, pigeons reylou. on I. 83. Gnlliis stniil yi, i. 24.J; on Idaf^!'skinned Lake-dwellings, sheep of, i. 95, Ceylonese fowls, i. 264.

plants,

ii. 91; ii. wheat,

sence 410; abin, i. 253; of, i. 330, ii. plants of, i. 330-3.32; peas i. 339; beans found fowl

of,

ii.

"

"

*'

450
Linnaeus,
wlieat

LTNN^US.

INDEX.

LUBBOCK.

summer as on

regarded by, i. 326;

strawberry,

winter and distinct cies spethe

Loochoo

Lord,
21. Lori 200. Lorius Lotan
"
'"

J.

Islands, horses Canis K., on

how

of,

latrans,

i. 53. i. 1.

singleity steril-

leaved
of

i. 367;

rajah,"

produced,

Alpine plants in gardens, of individual ii. 142; recognition ii. the bv reindeer Laplanders, in of tobacco 230 : growth
Sweden,

Linnet,
Linota

ii. 289. ii. 137. ii. 137.

cannahina,

garrultis, ii. 260. tumbler pigeon, i. 1,54. J. W., varieties of Loudon, the i. 338; short carrot, duration of varieties of i. 341; on the peas, of i. 357; glands peach-leaves,
"

ii. 144. Linutn, Lion, fertility of, in

captivity,

ii.

129, 130. of, 1. 115. Lipari, feral rabbits striped young Dr., Livingstone, mestic i. 78; doZambesi, the pigs on 113;
in
use

at rabbits Loanda, of grass-seeds as i.

i. food
of 1.

Africa,
character

319;
the

planting
Batokas,

fruit-trees

by
of in

320;

of
ii.

half-castes,
animals
among

ii.

21;
the

taming
Barotse,
187.

139;

practised
185,

South

.selection ii. Africa,

cause a Mr., disuse Livingstoue, ii. 282. of d)-ooping ears, tail of in, Lizards, reproduction

ii. 275.

Llama,

Lloyd,

of, ii. 186. the of wolf, taming i. 25; English dogs in northern i. 35; fertility of the Europe, tion, domesticaincreased by goose
selection

Mr.,

of bloom Russian on i. 363; ties origin of varieof the ties apple, i. 363; varieof the i. 369; gooseberry, the on nut-tree, i. 371; varieties of the i. 376; ash, fastigiate (J. succica), i. 377; on juniper Ilex aqiiifoUum pror, i. 377; varieties of the Scotch fir, i. 378; varieties the of 1. hawthorn. in the 379; variation persistency the elm of leaves and on ish Turki. 378; of oak, importance cultivated varieties, i. 379; varieties Rosa of i. fipinosissima, of variation dahlias 383; from the i. 385; same seed, tion producof Provence from roses seeds of the i. 395; moss-rose, effect of the grafting purpleleaved the common upon hazel, i. 409; ii. intercrossing melons,
presence

apples,

number laid of eggs i. 297; ii. 87; breeding wild the goose, in the of capercailzie tivity, capii. 135. rabbits domestic at, i. Loanda,

by

113.

hvbrid of two Lonsa. ii. 73. in Lobelia, reversion i. 415; contabeseence

Lobelia

species hybrids
in.

of,
of,
and

ii. 145.

fulgcns, syphilitira, ii. Lockhart, Dr.,on

cardinnlis,
114.

106; Cornish nearly evergreen ii. 291. variety of the elm, the Low, ney G., on pigs of the OrkIslands, i. 71. Low. of Prof., pedigrees hounds, grey1. 436; the origin of i. 15; dog, instinct burrowing of half-bred heritance a dingo, i. 27: inof qualities in horses, i. 51; of comparative powers English race-horses, Arabs, "c., i. .55; British breeds of cattle, i. 81; wild of cattle Chartley,
i. 85; effect of abundance of food the size of i. on cattle, effects 93; the of climate on skin of cattle, i. 9.3. ii. 308; ii. 92; selection on interbreeding, in Hereford cattle, ii. 192; of formation new n. breeds, .sheeted 223; on cattle. ii. 330. i. 310. hive-bees. TiOwe, ^Ir., on Rev. of Lowe. the Mr., on range and P. malus Pi/rus acerba, i. 362. ii. 322; on Lowne, Mr., monsters, ii. 360. gemmules,
" ' "

Chinese

pigeons,

i. 212. Locust-tree, LoJseleur

of i.

ii. 2.55.

Deslongchamps, cultivated plants,

-

i.

originals .318;

varieties of Mongolian wheat, of the in 324; characters ear i. 325; acclimatisation wheat, wheat in Europe, i. of of change climate i. .327; "on the on wheat, posed supthe of dent coincinecessity variation of and weeds cultivated tage plants, i. .328; advanof change of soil to plants, ii. 124. Lolium variable trmulentum, ence presof barbs in, i. 325. Long-tailed sheep, i. 95. exotic of effect 327;

Lowtun 1.54.

"

tumbler

pigeon,

1.

Loxia

Lubbock, the

pyrrfinla. ii. 1.33. Sir J., developments ii. 350. Ephemeridse,

of

LUCAS.

INDEX.

MAMJije.

451
i. 196; birds, I. i. 297; number
in and tame ety vari-

Lucas,

53;
eye,

of cross-breedeffects ing reditary hei. 425; the female, i. 440, ii. 52, diseases, of affections the hereditary of inheritance i. 442, 443;

P.,

pigeons
number
275:
,

in
of

Scotland,
vorlebrse
geese, of wild

on

on

wild
eggs

of

anomalies
and
in that

in

the

liuman

eye

ii. 87. Sir Mackenzie,

ducks,

G., peculiar

of the of the horse, 1. 443, potato, i. 343. of polydactylMackenzie, in 444; inheritance P., bud-variation morbid the i. 447; i. 391. currant, uniformity ism, heritance Mackiunon, ini. 448; same family, in the of Mr., horses the i. 457; Falkland of mutilations, i. 52; Islands, feral of cattle of the cross-reversion, Falkland persistency Islands, of character i. 87. ii. 9; persistency in animals wild of breeds MacKnight, in C, on interbreeding of ii. 38; prepotency cattle, ii. 93. countries, 43; ii. 39, MacNab, seedling posed supMr., on transmission, ing weepin transmission of rules birches, i. 450; non-production sexual of ii. 43; the beech animals, weeping crossing by of transmission of seed, i. 4.50. limitations cats tion of, i. 46. Madagascar, peculiarities, ii. 46. 47; absorp-

of
races,

the

minority

in

crossed

Madden,
Madeira, Magnolia

H.,

on

interbreeding

tle, cat-

blending
ii. 68;

crosses ii. 63; certain of on

without

ii. 93.

characters,

ii. 92; interbreeding, on duction, reprovariattility dependent ii. 229; period of action ance inheritof variability, ii. 248; deafness and complexion of 319. in cats,

Magnus, i. 412;
414.

of, i, 190. rock-pigoon praiidifiorn. ii. 200. on Herr, potato-grafting,

on

graft-hybrids,

i.

413,

constitution,
structure

ii. 312; ii. and

Maize,

Lucaze-Duthiers,

its unity of origin, i. 331; husked antiquity of, i. 332; with said to wild, i. grains grow ularities of, i. 333; irreg332; variation
in the

growth

of

galls, ii. 263-205.

333;

masked the pig, Trof., on Lucae, i. 70; on pigs. ii. 280. of a mond peach-algrafting Luizet, i. 352. a on peach, pelago, ArchiCaroline of the Liitke, cats i. 46. of vegetative Luxuriance, orgnns, of sterility in plants, ii. cause a 148-150.

persistence 333; adaptation i. 333, ii. 288;

of,

of, i. i. varieties, of, to climate,

flowers
of

acclimatisation
i.

ii. 294, 328; crossing of. Peruvian ii. 79, 80; extinct 420. varieties of, ii. 409. fowl. i. 23.3. Malay

Malay
55;

Archipelago,
short-tailed
voung wild

horses cats

of,

i.

of, i. 46;
i.

Lvonnet,
ii. 340.

on

the

scission

of

Nais,

striped
78; ducks

pigs
tlie 417-426;
on

of,
dated fecun-

of,

i. 289.

Lysimnchia
of,
ii. 149.

nummularia, trimorphic

sterility species
161;

Male,

influence

of,
i.

on

female,

posed sup-

Lythrum,
ii. 382.

of,
con-

influence ii. 43. flowers, Male

among i- 33.3. female

of,

offspring,
of, maize,
..

ii. saliraria, Lythrum in. ii. 145. tabescence

appearance in flowers

veRiratoria, Lytta ii. 363. kidneys,

affecting

the

Malformations,

Malingie-Xouel,
in species of, bred Moracus, tivity, ii. 131. Lord, improvement Macaulay, ii. 191. the horse, English variability Dr., M'Clelland, fresh-water 238. fishes
on

cap-

cross-breeding English sheep

Malm,
eves

5.^. u. hereditary, i. 97; sheep, on ii. 43; sheep, in

^.,

France,

ii. 213. ii.

of of ii.

Mulra,
345. Mnmestra

flat-fish. ii. 26. of, i. 423, fertilisation

of
suam.

in

India,

Mamma?,
the

Prof., M'Coy, Macfayden, producing

oranges

dingo,
of
or

influence sweet the

same

i. 24. in soil
bitter

from

seed,

1. of

348.

Macgillivrav,
the

rock-dove,

domestication i, 191 i

ii. 136. In number in variable occasional ocrudimentary, 75; i. 7."; rudimenrary, pier, the pig, of, in full development four ii. 300; ent presi. 88, cows, able varii. 96; sheep, in some I. rabbits. in number in functions of, In male latent

107;

feral

animals,

U,

26,

300.

45S
Mangles,
the

MANGLES.

INDEX.

MELONS.

Mr.,

annual

heartsease,
of

varieties ii, 286.

of of
genesis, Pan-

within
in

ovules,
the

ii.

375;

sion rever-

Mautegazza,
spur

abnormal

growth
on

cock,
ii. 359.

ii. 354;

of birds by ii. 139. domestic in fowl noticed Manu, the Institutes of, i. 254. effect the fertilof, on Manure, it}' of plants, ii. 142. Manx cats, i. 45, ii. 40. Marcel de Serres, fertility of the ostrich, ii. 135. Marianne varieties of Islands, Pandanus in, ii. 235.

Mantell,
the

Mr., taming New Zealanders,

spiral-leaved ing weepi. 399; on willow, peloric ii. flowers, ii. 31; on Opuntia, in 267; a pelorism clover, ii. 327; position as of pea cause lorism,
ii. 328.

Masters,
of 452;
on on

Mr.,
of

of persistence rieties vai. 342; reproduction colour in hyacinths, i. peas,

hollyhocks,' ii.
peas

82;

lection se-

of Hibiscus

for

seed,

ii. 177;
version re-

syriacus,

by
the

tlie

ii. 267; terminal pea

in

Markham.
i. 104.
ii.

Gervaise,
182.

on

rabbits,
of the 102. Channel

Markhor,
parents

one probably of the goat,

i.

of the cattle i. 81. inheritance in the Marrimpoey, i. 444. horse, i. 372. Marrow, vegetable, of asses Capt., breeding Marryat, in ii. 215. Kentucky, of Gallus notice Marsden, gigantei. 242. us, Dr. Gallus sonMarshall, W., on nirutii, i. 241. Mr., selection Marshall, voluntary of pasture tation by sheep, i. 97; adapand wheats to of soil i. Dutch-butclimate, 327; tocked cattle, i. 440; gation segreof herds ii. 78; of sheep, of soil to of change advantage wheat and ii. 124; potatoes, in the horns fashionable change of cattle, ii. 188; sheep in Yorkshire, ii. 214.

Marquand,

Islands,

syrian Ason an i. 16, ii. 412; monument, i. 35, ii. 258. Tibetan, Matthews, forest Patrick, on trees, ii. 216. Matthiola 1. 419. ^51, ii. 68. annua. MaWiiola 1. .397, 419. inainn, merino Mauchamp sheep, i. 101, Mauduyt, and crossing of wolves i. 23. dogs in the Pyrenees, Maund, varieties of Mr., crossed ii. 107. wheat, axiom of least Maupertuis, tion," aci. 12.
"

pod, ii. 328. Mastiff, sculptured

Mauritius,

importation

of

goats

into, i. 102. Maw. G., effects ii. 291; climate,

contracted
in

leaves

"

"

pelargoniums, Mawz, fertility of

ii. 144.

of of change of correlation and flowers ii. 314. Brassica rapa,

Martens,
ii. 27.

E.

von,

on

AchatineUa,

Martin,

C. W. L., origin of the dog. i. 15; Egj'ptian dogs, i. 17; River barliing of a Mackenzie hounds in dog, i. 2(j; African Tower i. 31; on the menagerie, dun horses and asses, dappled i. 56; breeds of the i. 49; horse, wild breeds i. 52; Syrian horses, of
asses,

stripes,
i. 425; ii. 16.

i. 63; asses i. 64; effects female the on

without
of in
breeding cross-

do^cs,
mules,
of

striped

legs

of

defective Martins, i. 314. silkworms,

instincts

self-fertilised capsules ii. 112. Maxillaria tion fertilisaatro-ruhcns, of, by M. squalens, ii. 111. Maxiniowicz. direct action of pollen, i. 420. i. on Mayers, gold-fish in China, 307. in M., Mayes, self-impotence ii. 117. Amarj/Uis, the number of digits, on Meckel, i. 447; correlation of abnormal in muscles the ii. leg and arm, 304. of, ii. 352, Medusae, development 368. i. Meehan, Mr., weeping peach, of parasites, ii. 265; 450; effects of and comparison European American ii. 267. trees, ii. l.'^O. Mrlrs taxus.

Maxillnria,
of,

Melons,

holm, Stockfruit-trees of ii. 288. bud-variation in the W., Mason, ash, i. 398. bud-variation Masters. Dr.. on i. 394; and reversion, potato1. on 411; pollen grafting,

Martins,

C,

375, 376; mongrel be from produced i. 416; twin-seed, crossing

i. to

posed supa

of

varieties

of,

i. 419.

ii. 83,

inferiority of, in Roman ii. 194: in, by changes

and

106; times,

culture

climate,
of

correlation

ii. 255; variations

serpent, in, ii.

MEMBRANES.

INDEX.

MORLOT.

453
63. ii. 63. I, 5
the

314;

analogous

variations

in, ii.

Mirahilis Mirahilis

Invgif^ora,ii.

vufqarm,
and

Membranes, Menetries,
Strix

false, ii. 275, 276.

on

the

stomacli

of

Misocampm Mitchell,
of

Cecidomyia,
of

yrallaria, ii. 283. inherited, tubercular, Meningitis,

ii. 53.

of Dr., effects the rattlesnake,

son poi-

Mitford,
of

Mr.,
horses

notice

ii. 270. the breeding

by

Erichthonius,
organs,

Merrick,

potato-grafting,

Metagenesis, Metamorphosis, Metamorphosis

ii. .371-373.

i. 412. ii. 351. ii. 351. and development,

ii. 179.

Mivart.

Mr., rudimentary

Metzger,

the on supposed species of i. 324; of tendency Avheat, i. 326; variation to wheat vary, i. 332, 333; cultivation of maize, in American maize of Europe, i. on i. 334, ii. 328; cabbages, of acclimatisation 337; 336, in i. wheat Germany, Spanish of of change 460; advantage ii. on soil to plants, ii. 124; rye,

ii. 299. Moccas Court, oak weeping i. 449. horses Mogford, poisoned fool's parsley, ii. 321. Moller, L., eft'ects of food on ii. 261. Mole, white, ii. 315.
Moll and

at.

by
sects, In-

Gayot,
188.

on

cattle, I. 81,
shells

ii. 71,

Mollusca,
260.

change

In

of, Ii.

of different ii. 2-10. kinds tan Mexico, spots dog from, with i. 28: of colours the on eyes, horses feral in. i. 61. of bananas, ii. on seeding Meven,

2.33;

cultivation of wheat,

culture of the panMonke, Lady, sy by, i. 383. Monkevs, rarely fertile in captivity, ii. 131.

Monnier,
winter

147.

Monsters, Monstrosities,
domesticated
to

and identity of summer i. 326. wheat, ii. 322, 323. double,

occurrence

of,
and

in

Mice,
not

grey

and

blended of

rejection
Ii. 210;

white, colours of, ii. 67; l)y crossing, bitter almonds by,
feral

plants, persistence

animals i. 381.
of

vated cultiditions, con-

ii. 2.33; due

Michaux,
horses

ii. 259. naked, F., roan-colonred i. 61; of Mexico,

origin
on

of 353.

domestic

raising
Michel,

i. 302; turkey, from seed, peaches selection

I.

in of horses horses ii. 181; of account on slight preferred ii. 187. characters, effects pillars, caterof food on Michely, ii. 261; hcson Bomhyx ii. 285. prruf!, associated with Microphthalmia, ii. 311. defective teeth, remains of dogs Middens. Danish, in, i. 17. ii. 410. ii. 216, 292. Mignonette, i. 387. Millet, Mills, J., diminished fertility of first turned when out to mares ii. 1^0. grass, the on Milne-Edwards, ment developof the ii. 352, Crustacea,

F..

medli3eval

times,

ii. 30: version, reii. .30-33; of a cause sterility, ii. 145, 146; caused by injury to the embx\vo, ii. 248. J. H.. deterioration of the Moor, in Malasia, i. 53. horse Hasorn Mr., on wheat, Moorcroft, i. 324; selection of white-tolled melon ii. 184; of Knshyaks, "mir, ii. 255; varieties the of In cultivated Ladakh, apricot of the walnut varieties i. 358; I. 371. in cultivated Kashmir, of pigeons. breeds Mr., on Moore, I. 152,

embryonic occurring by

1.59. 214-216;
i. 224.

on

ground

tumblers,

Mooruk,
ii. 135.

fertility of. In captivity,

of original form Moquin-Tandon. of the m.nize, i. 3.32: variety i. 380; peloric columbine, double a as ii. 33; position flowers, ii. in t]owers, of pelorism cause of polorlc flowers 326: tendency
to become in the

Milne-Edwards,
with
a

A.,

on

cean crustaeye-

irregular,
ii.

ii.

monstrous

monstrosities, of

2.33;

on 44; correlation

ii. 373. ii. 1.32. Mimuhis luteus, ii. 105. and W. Minor, C, gemmation fission In annelids, ii. 340. MiraJ)iUs, fertilisation of, ii. 3i5; of, ii. 108. 148. 245. hybrids Mirahilis jalapa, i. 398, 415.

peduncle,

MilvuH

niper,

plants,
on

axis ii.
a

and

appendages
fusion in

302;
bean and

homologous 322-324;
leaflets, of parts

parts stipules
ii. 324: of the
flowers.

plants.
with

of Ii.

strous mon-

abortive of conversion
Ii. 375.

Morlot,

dogs

Danish

Mid-

454

MORMO'DES.

IN^DEX.

NATHUSIUS.

dens.
the

i. 17;
Bronze

liorse sheep and period, ii. 410.

of

Mor

modes

Morocco,
in, 408;

ii. 28. estimation of i. 211.

ignea,

pigeons
i. ceolaria, Cal-

ii. 278; on tion gemmafission, ii. 340; special affinities of the tissues, ii. 3G3. Miiller, Max, of antiquity culture, agrieye, and

of

the

ii. 223.

Morren,
on

in 32: ii. 327; non-coincidence of donble flowers and gated varieleaves, ii. 147. of the Morris, IvesMr., breeding trel in captivity, ii. 132. Morse, Dr., digits of birds, ii. 305. effect of tion fecundaMorton, Lord, Arab on an by a quagga i. 424. mare, Morton, Dr., origin of the dog, i. 15.

of grafts pelorism,

Abntilon,
ii.

Multiplicity hypotheses
200.

of

origin of pigeons, of, discussed, i. 193-

Niata Muniz, F., on cattle, i. 91. the fertilisation R.. Munro, on of orchids, ii. 110; reproduction of Passiflora alata, ii. 115; selfsterile Passiflora, ii. 115. Murassa i. 148. pigeon, of Murie, il. Dr., size hybrids,
" "

109.

Murphy,
the eye

J.
not

structure of J., the selecproducible by tion,

ii. 200.

Moras

alba, i. 347.
rabbits of cold

Moscow,
etfects ii. 288.

of,
on

i.

107,

122;
at,

pear-trees

Mosses,
343.

gressive sterility in, ii. 1.50; retroin, ii. metamorphosis

ii. 62. alexandrinus, sapientium, chinensis, and cavendishii, i. 392. Muscari ii. 164, 297. comosum, effects of use ii. 278. Muscles, on. feral Musk-duck, hybrid of, with the common duck, i. 196.

Mus Musa

Moss-rose,

probable

origin

of,

Mutilations,
inheritance 3S0.

Rosa from centifolia, i. 395; Provence roses from produced seeds of, i. 395. the on Cada, introduction Mosto, of rabbits into Porto i. Santa, 114. mutilation of feathers Mot-mot, inherited, i. 458. of fruits and Mottling flowers, i. 420. Mountain ash, ii. 209. ii. 130. Mouse, Barbarv, Moven-taube,"" i. 152. the of Mowbray, Mr., on eggs i. 256; fowls, early game nacity pugof i. 258; cocks, game diminished of the fecundity in captivity, ii. 134. pheasant dation fecunMoAvbray, Mr., reciprocal of and Pafisiflora alata ii. 11.5. racemosa, character Mulattos, of. ii. 21. i. 347. ii. 2."!.5. IMulberry. Mule and differences in hinny, ii. 42. the. Mules, of. ii. striped colouring 16; obstinacy of, ii. 19: production of. among the Romans, ii. in the 85: noticed Bible, ii. 179. Miiller. of Fritz, reproduction orchids, ii. 111-113; ment developof ii. 352; rect diCrustacea,
"

inheritance of, i. 454,

or

non-

455,

ii.

five-leaved a variety i. 367. strawberry, i. 441. Myopia, hereditary, of lost Myriapoda, regeneration in, ii. 275, 347. parts
on

Myatt,
of

tlie

Nails,

growing
ii. 374. scission

on

stumps

of

gers, fin-

Nais, Nnmaquas,
ii. 185.

cattle

of, ii. 340. of the, becoming

i.

89,
gle sin-

Narcissus,
in poor
on

double,

Narvaez.

soil. ii. 146. tlie cultivation

of

tive na-

plants in Florida, i. 322. Nasiia. sterility of, in captivity,

ii. 130.
"

Natas."
American 90-92.

or

Niatas,
breed of
on

South
i.

cattle,

Nathusius,

horses,
Swiss the

H. i. 60:

von.
on

striped
of the

the

pigs

i. 69: on lake-dwellings, of pigs, i. 66-70; races vergence conin highlyof character bred pigs, i. 74, ii. 219; causes in tlie of of form the changes in pig's skull, i. 73, 74; changes breeds of i. pigs by crossing, of form in the 80; change pig. ii.

action

self-sterile Miiller, H.,

in

of i. 421; pollen, 1)ignonia, ii. 113.

on

2.59;

effects

of

disuse

of

the

face

and

teeth

dogs. i. 34, 74, ii. 326. Miiller. J., tendency to variation, ii. 231: of the atrophy optic on destruction nerve consfquent

parts in the of gestation appendages

i.

77:
on

on

period

of

pig, ii. 2S0; period in tlie pig. i. 75; the to in pigs, jaw Sus i. 70; plicicps, in sheep, 1. gestation

98;

Niata

cattle,

1.

90;

on

NATO.

INDEX.

NILSSON.

455
primignihiH

short-horn 11. 95;

in

cattle, ii. 93;

ii.

ou

terbreeding, Inof in

Bns

Jonr/ifronsand

92;
ii.
in

in

she"'p,
scious uncon-

pigs,

98;
cattle

pigs.

selection 192 ; 11.

on

and

variability
races,

of

i. 82; cattle of the, distinct from the original spfcles, 1. 88; domestic in goat the, 1. of 102; cereals the, i. .328.

the,

highly-selected
P., Nato, I. 407. Natural Nature,
is

11. 217.
orange,

Nerve,

optic, atrophy

of

the,

II.

the

Bizzarrla Its

selection.
i. 2-14.
sense

general
the of
term mission trans-

principles,

Neubert, i. 412. potato-grafting, the Neumeister, on Dutch and German pouter pigeons, i. 142;
on

in

which

the

i. 6. employed, rules supposed Naudin,

in

duplication
feather

Jacotiin i. 15S; pigeon, of the iiiiddh' flightin pigeons, i. 164; on a

"

plants, 11. of hybrids, ii. the nature 42; on of the species 23, 24; essences 11. 370, sion 383; reverin hybrids, ii. 9, 23, 24; of hybrids, in flowers by stripes reversion of ii. 11; hybrids blotches, and purpurea, Linaria vulgaris and In 11. Linaria, pelorlsm ii. 69; Linaria of pelorlc crossing 31; ii. 45; normal the form, with 11. 245; varial)illty in Datura, and Datura Iwvis of hybrids i. 415; prepotency stranionium,
crossing
of
on

coloured breed of peculiarly pigeons, Staarhlilsit^e Taube," i. 165; fertility of hybrid geons, pi-

i. 198;

mongrels

of

the

pigeon, ii. 41; period trumpeter in of perfect plumage pigeons, of ii. 52; advantage crossing pigeons, 11. 10.3. Neuralgia, heredit.ary, ii. .54.
New cultivated Newfoundland of, I. of, i. 322. modification dog, i. 42. of, in England, Newman, E., sterility of Sphincertain conditions, gidis under ii. 137.

Zealand,

feial

cats

47;

plants

transmission
when

of

Datura

monium stra-

crossed,

ii.

42;

and of MirahiUs fertilisation 1. 405; of hvbrids. cultivated of Mirahilifi, ii. 345; i. 372, 376, ii. Cucurbltacese, in tendrils rudimentary 83; Cucurhitw, gourds. Ii. 297; dwarf the between relation II. 314; fruit the of and number size gous ii. 325; analoin Cucnrhita pepo, in Ciirurhita;, ii. variation of Cucurbi330; acclimatisation

the

pollen

Newport,
Yanessce

G.,
in

non-copulation

of

of ii. production 294; tacese, Cueurbifruit by sterile hybrid melon. the 11. 151; on tacefp, of i. 375, ii. 83, 255; incapacity with to cross cucumber the other species, 1. 374. derived 350-357: 1. Nectarine,
"

ii. 136; continement. in baof the ovule fertilisation ii. 345. trachia, in the, I. 447. Newt, polydactylism sexual absence of A., Newton, in the distinctions Columbidse, " blacki. 167; pi'oduetion of a " the shouldered peahen among ordinarv hybrid kind, i. 300; on ii. 136. ducks, cattle of, i. 89. Lake, Ngami, " " respmcattle, i. 90-92; Niata i. 90: blance of, to Siratherium. of transmission of prepotency
"

character Nicard Nicholson.

by.
"

ii. 40.
on ou

rabbit, i. 108.
Dr.. i. 45; i. 99.
the cats of of

from

the

peach,
of,

i. 350,

hybrids
of

characters

353;
on

origin

1. 353; i. in seedling, of, i. 354; produced

356; persistency
353,

Antigua, Antigua,

the

sheep

peach-trees, 1. peaches,

in.' i. 356, 357;

354; producing variation 354; in, bud-variation

i.

varieties of crossing Nicotiana, potency and species of, ii. 8.3, 84; preof characters of transmission in species of, ii. 42; conin, of female organs tabescence
ii. 145. Nirotiana Niebuhr.
u. glutiiiofia, on

of leaves in the i. 389; glands variation ii. 200; analogous the, in. ii. 330. of, in pansies, Nectary, variations i. 385. of odour in the Nees, changes on plants, ii. 255. " " cat, i. 46. Negro in, i. 447; polydactylism Negroes, selection ii. 185. of cattle

84.

the

heredity
in 39. ii.

of
some

tal men-

characteristics
families,

man Ro-

Night-blindness,
10. Nilsson.
11.

non-reversion
,

to,
,

practised by,
domesticatioDi

Neolithic

period,

, or barking the on Prof., 26: parentage i. wolf, voung a of cattl*^, I. of "European breeds m Bos frontosus on 83; 82, 83. i. Scania,

6$

456

NIND.

INDEX.

OWElf.

Nind,
"

Nisus 337.

i. 38. tlie dingo, Mr., on ii. 274, 27r), formalivus,"

the absence

on Nitzsch, oil-gland in

of

the i.

certain
causes

Columbse,

150.

Non-inheritance,
"

of, i. 4u8-

4G0. Nonnain
24.

"

Nordmann,

pigeon, i. 158. of Awhasie, dogs pigs

of pollen of, ii. 66; formation a petai in, ii. 375. ii. 258. Icucotricha, Opuntia i. 347-349; of, crossing Orange, i. 419, the with ii. 66; lemon, ii. naturalisation 349; of, in variation ii. 2S9; of, in Italy, riety North Italy, ii. 235; peculiar va1. bizzarria, of, ii. 314;

by

i.

407;^trifacial,
Orchids,
424,
ii. 110-113.

i. 4u8.

reproduction
Lord,

of, i. 423,

ages appendof, with the under jaw, i. 70. striped ponies of, i. 58. Norway, the origin on Gliddon, and Nott Normandy,
of
the

dog,
on an

i. 15;

mastiff

sented repre-

Assyrian
dogs, dog,

tomb,
i. 17; i. 21.
cause on

i.

IG;
the

on

Egyptian
Indian

crossing greyhounds bulldog, i. 41. origin of. i. 12. Organisms, in, i. 8. Org:inisation. advancement and aborted, rudimentary Organs, of abnormal, ii. 296-298; multiplication Orford,
with the ii. 373.

Hare

Noti/Jia, ii. 113. of, a excess Noiirishment, ii. 236. of variability, of, in importance Number,
ii.

Oriole,

assumptions by a male

of
in

age hen-plum-

confinement,

ii. 137. tion, selec-

21.3.

the original ptilorhyncha, 'Nmnida i. 304. Guinea-fowl. of the to i. ItJO; known Nun pigeon, i. 213. Aldrovandi, ii. 21G. Nutmeg-tree,

Islands, pigs of, i. 71; of, i. 190. pigeons of hind regeneration Orthoptera, legs in the, ii. 275. Orkney
Orthosia Orton, ii. 136. muiida, of crosseffects the R., on i. 425; the female, ))reeding ou ii. on 40; Manx the cat, on from the silk-fowl, ii. mongrels

Oak,

i. 377, 449, ii. 220; weeping, i. Hessian, i. 377; pyramidal, less valuei. 378; late-leayed, 377; of the timber at Cape as ii. 255; in, changes Good Hope, i. 403; galls on age, dependent of

in Quito, 41; infertility of geese ii. 140. inherited mottling Dr., Osborne, of the iris, i. 443. black on fowls, preying Osprev,

the,

Outs, Oberliu,
to

ii. 262. i. 324; wild,

ii. 208.

lake-dwellings,
the

change potato,

Swiss in the i. 331. of soil beneficial

ii. 124.

Osten-Sacken.

Baron,

on

can Ameri-

Odart,

varieties of the Count, tion vine, i. 346, ii. 258; bud- variain the vine, i. 390. ii.

CEcidium,

265. bud-variation inherited ficient de-

CEnothera biennis, in, i. 398. Dr. J. W., Ogle,

oak-galls, ii. 263. of pigs, i. characters Osteological 67, 68, 72, 76; of rabbits, i. 117of i. 167-173; of 131; pigeons, i. 291-293. ducks, diminished fertility of Ostrich, in the. captivity, ii. 135. of dogs by the, selection Ostvaks,
ii. 184. ii. 1.30. Otter sheep of Massachusetts, i. 101. cattle in, i. feral humped Oude, 81. ii. 131. in Europe, Ouistiti, breed variation of, in Cucurhiia Ovary, i. 374; development moschata, of pollen, i. of. independently

Otter,
"

i. 446; blance resemphalanges, ii. 231, 232. of twins, absence of, in fantail Oil-gland, pigeons, i. 150, 164. of estimation ropean EuMr., the natives dogs among ii. 193. of Australia, affected stock Oleander, by grafting in the, i. 408. of the osteum periOilier, Dr., insertion

"

Oldtield,

of
skin of
a

Oncidium, 113, 143.

the beneath a dog rabbit, ii. 354. reproduction of, ii. 112,

Onions,
liable

crossing
to the

of, ii. 66;

attacks

white,

of fungi and disease, ii. 206, 319. self -fertilisation apifera, Ophrys

423. i. 100. Oris montana, ture and buds, identity of naOvules of, ii. 342. stiff-haired cats Owen, Capt., on i. 46. at Mombas, Prof. R., Owen, palsieontological of the to as origin evidence skull the of the i. 14; on dogs, fossil Niata cattle, i. 90; on
"

"

458
Pasture
of breeds

PASTURE.

INDEX.

PfiRStA.

aud of

climate, sheep
of

adaptation
to.

to seed

the
in

attacks

Patagonia,
i. 78.

crania

96, 97. pigs from,

i.

reversion

Peccary,
rabljit, the K., on
287. i.

of birds, ii. 209; the terminal by the pod, ii. 328. of the, in capbreeding tivity,

of,

Patagonian
I'aterson.
moth,

106. silk-

ii. 128.

Arrindy

Pedigrees

of

horses,

cattle,
and

hounds, grey-

ii.

game-cocks,

pigs,

i. 436. the i. 386, Paul, \V., on hyacinth, varieties of cats Pegu, 387; of, i. 46; horses pelargoniums, of, i. 53. weakness sion transmisi. 394; of in ii. 41; provement Pelargoniums, imhollyhocks, multiple origin of, i. 380; ii. of budzones of, i. 381; pelargoniums, variation 194. in, i. 393; variegation Pavo cristatus and in, accompanied 1. mutictis, brids hyby dwarfing, 400; pelorism in, ii. 146, 326; by of, i. 300. Pavo ii. 32; of i. 300-302. nigripennis, reversion, advantage soil i. 144. of provement imchange Pavodotten-Taube," to, ii. 125; ii. i. 330-357; derived from Peach, of, by selection, the i. 3.""0; stones almond, 194; scorching of, bers of, ii. 207; numcontrasted from ii. with 351; of, raised seed, figured, of i. 352; of almonds, ing, double-flower213; effects conditions life 1. 351, 352, 357; ii. 254; on, hybrids of, ii. of, stove-variety i. 353; correlation of of contracted races 292; persistency of, leaves and i. trees flowers 353; tarines, necin, ii. 314, producing i. 353; variation conditions PvlarQonium in, i. fulgidum, of bud-variation fertility in, ii. 14.3. 355, 356, ii. 234; Columbian i. 4.50; vabreed a in, i. 3S9; pendulous, Pelones," riation of cattle, i. 89. by selection in, ii. 196; Peloric of the, ii. 206; flowers, peculiar disease of, to tendency the the normal leaves of on glands acquire the, ii. form, ii. 44; of ii. 289; 210; the. fertility or sterility of, ii. 145, antiquity increased 146. of hardiness ii. the,
'"

"

289; liable 319.

forcing,

varieties for of, adapted ii. 292; yellow-fleshed, to certain ii. diseases,

Peloric
and

races

of

Gloxinia

spccioaa
i. 381.

Antirrhinum

majus,

i. 3.52. Peach-almond, i. 299; of, Peafowl, origin or black-shouldered,

300-302; feral, 196; comparative

wild and tame

in

Jamaica,
ii.

ii. 31-34; Pelorism. 326, 327. characters Pelvis, of, in rabbits, in i. i. 172; in 125; pigeons, i. 277; in ducks, i. 293. fowls, panned jaPembroke i. cattle, i. 82. Pendulous i. 377, ii. 329; i. trees,
in

fertiliij' of,
states,

uncertainty
i. 4-19-i51.

of

transmission

of, hybrid
goo.se,

87,

Pears,

white, ii. 31.5. i. 365; bud-variation in, in i. 391; reversion seedling, ii. in 4; inferiority of, Pliny's time, ii. 193; Avinter tacked nelis, atii. 21u; softby aphides,
248; barked
varieties

Penguin
of the, i. 291.

ducks,
with

i. 289, 291; the Egyptian

Pennant,
curs

at

Duke

wolf-like of production i. 37; on the Fochabers, of wild Queensberry's food

wood-boring of good vaiieties origination of, in woods, ii. 238; Forelle, resistance
of. to frost, ii. 287. i. 338-^.343; origin of. i. 338; Peas, varieties in of. i. 33.S-,343; found Swiss i. lake-dwellings, 328, fruit and seeds 331, 338-343;

by

attacked of. ii. 209; beetles,

cattle, i. 85. seeds as Pennisetum, of, used in the i. 320. Punjab, seeds Pennisetum distichum,
used
as

food

in

Central

of, Africa,
in
esses proc-

i. 319.

Percival,
horses,
Perdix

Mr.,
i. 444;

on on

figured,

i.

341;

i. varielies, i. 342. of varieties,

effect organs

of persistency 340: intercros":ing

in horses, occasional ruhra,

inheritance horn-like i. 50.

fertility
of
riability, va-

418,
the

ii.

106;

of

crossing
in.
i.

on

female

ii. 134. of. in captivity, of of action causes Period ii. 248. Periosteum bone in ii.
a

419;

ered, double-flowerated of, accelii. ITS; rieties va-

of

dog,

producing
in

ii. 147;

maturity

rabbit,
149.

ii. 354.

by
of.

selection,

Periwinkle,

sterility of,
estimation of

land, Eng-

produced by ii. 196; thin-shelled,

selection, liable

Persia,

pigeons

In,

PERSISTENCE.

INDEX.

PIGEONS.

4r"o

1. 211; tumbler

of,

i.

pigeon of, i. 143; pigeon of, i. 1.j4; cats 45-47; sheep of, i. 9!).
of colour
in

carrier

Pieljalds, pn"l)ably
ii.

due

to

sion, rever-

11.

Persistence i. 51; of 110.

horses,
i. i.
i. ii.

generic

peculiarities,
of of maize wild
Incas

Peru, 332; 343; 185,

"

antiquity peculiar
selection

in,
from,
animals

potato
the

practised
186.

by

of,

Petals,

i. 158. Perucken-Taube," in cultivated rudimentary, pollen, plants, ii. 297; producing ii. 875.

Petunias,
380.

multiple Dr.,

origin

of,
ogy, teratol-

i.

the M., on ribs of horses, i. 50. Pigeaux, hyl)rids of the hare and rabbit, ii. 131. Pigeon a era i. 1.52. vale, Pigeon i. 14(;, 147. bagadais, Pigeon co(|iiille, i. l";u. Pigeon i. 147. cygne, Pigeon henrte, i. 160. Pigeon pattu 1. 161 plongeur. Pigeon polonais, i. 148. Pigeon roniain, i. 146, 147. i. 159. tambour, Pigeon i. 143. turc, Pigeon origin Pigeons, of, 1. 134, 1.37.

Pietreniont,

Peyritsch,
"

vegetable
i. 150.

ii. 31.

186-210 breeds

classified
i. l.'{9:

table

of.

Pfauen-Taube,"

in, ii. 327. pelorism of. ii. 46. Phalanges, deficiency chalcoptcra, ii. 331. Phaps Phas'olus miiltiflorus, ii. 290, 304. Phasrolus vulgaris, i. 343, ii. 290. Phasianus pictus, 1. 284.

PJialwnopsis,

I. runt, i. 148-1 .'.O; fanturbit and owl, i. 154-158; dian Infrill-back, i. 158; Jacobin, i. 158; i. 1.59; other trumpeter, breeds of, i. 1.59-161; difference's 14"3-148; barbs, tail, i, 150-152; i. 152; tumbler,

143;

carrier,

pouter, i. 143-146;

of i. 140-

Phasianus

anihei'stiw.

i. 284.

of,

equal

to

generic,

i.

162;

dividual in-

Pheasant,

plumage
wildness
the
common

male of assumption the ii. 25; hen, by of of, with hybrids fowl, ii. 19; prepotency
over

Ii, 42;

of the, diminished

the

fowl,
of
herst's, Am-

variations of, i. 162165; variability of peculiarities of characteristic breeds in. i. 166; sexual variability in, i. 16'!, i. 167-173; 167; of, osteology
correlation

fecundity

the, in Pheasants,

captivity, ii. 134. and Lady golden

i. 284.

177, 176,

ii.

of growth in, i. 173of .303; young some rieties vanaked when i. hatched, ii. 315; effects of disuse

i. 252. Pheasant-fowls, of limbs regeneration Philipeaux, ii. 348. in the salamander, varieties of the on Philippar,

in, i. 177-183;
in trees,

settling

and

ing roost-

floating in the Nile i. 187; to drink, dovecot, i. 191, 192; for unitv argiiments
of

i. 186;

wheat,

i. 325.

origin
various
of

of,

i.

Philippine
of
game

Islands,
fowl
in

named

the,

i.

breeds 239.
in

in

places,

194-210; i. 196,

feral,
ii.

7;

bud-variation Phillips, Mr., on the potato, i. 401. suckers bud-variation Phlox, by

in. i. 400.

Phthisis, Phylloxera, Pickering,

voice of
occurrence

affection i. 347.

of

the

fingers

in. ii. 315. Dr.,

on

the

grunting

i. SO; of a fo\\ 1 of the head in ancient an Egyptian sion, procesof i. 253; seeding ly ordinariseedless ii. 147; fruits, tinction exof ancient Egyptian ii. breeds of and sheep oxen, ancient Peruvian an 408; on gourd, ii. 412. effect of conditions of Picotees, life on, ii. 253. of the names Pictet, A., oriental pigeon, i. 211. of the Pictet, Prof., origin dog,

humped

cattle,

coloration in, i. 201reversion 203; to of mongrel, coloration of C livin, i. 203of the cultivation 210; historv i. 211-213; the of. of history races of, i. 213-218; principal mode of races of production of, i. 218-2.31; reversion in. ii. 21; ii. 14; by produced by age, 21 ; crossing in, ii. 14. potency preof characters of transmission in breeds of, ii. 40. 41; in rieties vasexual ditTerences some of, ii. 48; period of perfect efTect in. ii. 52: plumage ii. 61; of on, presegregation witliin the of, ferent pairing ii. 7S; breed, fertility of. same il. donicstication. bv increased of effects interbreeding 87, 134; II. of necessitv crossing, and to indifference 103; of, 102. ii. 140; of lection seclimate, change

unity

I, 14;

on

fossil

oxen,

i. 82.

of, ii. 76, 175, 181; among

460

PIGS.

INDEX.

PLUM.

ii. 180; unconscious the Romans, ity selection of, ii. 189, 192; facilof selection of, ii. 213; of liable to the attacks white, of ii. 208; effects disuse hawks, fed of in, ii. 279; upon parts ii. 284; effect of first male meat,
upon the

Pinus pumilio, mugJius, and nana, varieties of P. sylvestrLs, i. 379.

Pinus

sylvestris, hybrids of, with

107.

i. P.

378, ii. 291; nigricans, ii.

i.

subsequent

progeny

on Piorry, hereditary disease, 440, ii. 53. Pistacia lentiscus, ii. 255.

i. 426; homology of the female, of the in, wing feathers leg and of two outer toes ii. 305; union in ii. 305; relation corfeather-legged, of beak, limbs, tongue, and nostrils, ii. 30G; analogous variation in, ii. 380, 331; manence perof breeds of, ii. 412. i, lake-dwellings, Pigs, of Swiss from Sus 09; types of, derived scrofd and 8us indirus, i. 66-68; (Sus pliciceps, Gray), Japanese Islands, figured, i. 71; of Pacific

Pistacia

vera,

i. 421.

in cultivated Pistils, rudimentary, plants, ii. 297, 298. Pistor, sterility of some mongrel i. of pigeons, 198; fertility ii. 87. pigeons, Pisum and arvense sativum, i. 338, Pityriasis versicolor, inheritance

of, ii. 54, fossil G., on a Planchon, vine, i. 345; sterility of Jussicea grandiii. 149. fJora in France, of the, i. 378. Plane-tree, variety

modifications of ii. 62; i. 70, Plantigrade carnivora, general testines skull in, i. 70-74; length of insterility of the, in captivity, ii. 130. in, i. 75, ii. 283; period of cultivation of of, i. 75; number of, gestation Plants, progress and ribs of vertebrae i. 316-323; in, i. 75; cultivated, their g" oi. 76, 77; deanomalous velopment graphical i. .321, 322; forms, derivation, of tusks and bristles crossing of, ii. 74, 104; comparative and culiiof, i. 78; fertility of wild in, i. 77; striped young ii. reversion of feral ii. 88; self -impotent, to wild vated. type, i. and 78, 79, ii. 6, 21; production of breeds crossing, changes of, by interi. 79, 80; effects duced promale first by the upon the the of subsequent progeny i. 425, 426; pedigrees female, of, i. 436; polydactylism in, i. 447; cross-reversion in, ii. 8; hybrid, wildness of, ii. 19; disappearance

109-118;

dimorphic
ii.

and

trimor-

phic,
from

109-118;

sterility
conditions,

of,

ii. contabescence of from ii. 144, 145; from anthers, strosities, monfrom ii. 140; 145, of the ii. 146, flowers, doubling seedless fruit, ii. 147; 147; from of excessive from development ii. 148-150; of tusks in male under mestication, vegetative doorgans, ii. 177ii. 49; solid-hoofed, influence of selection on, ii. 412; variation 179; crosses of, ii. 68, 71; by selection, in mutual riability vauseful of, ii. 195-198; fertility of all varieties parts of, ii. 85; increased fertility by of, ii. 216; variability ill effects ii. 86: of, induced domestication, by crossing, ii. 244; mate cliof of of change close ii. direct action in, interbreeding of of selection ii. 257; change riod pe97, 98; influence on, on, ii. 176; of in. ii. 285; tain cervegetation prejudice against to ent differcolours varieties of, suitable in, ii. 188, 207, 320; ii. 295; correlated ii. unconscious selection climates, of,

changed

142-144;

ii. 205, Virginian, of the best similarity breeds ii. 219; of of, change form of disuse in, ii. 259; effects of parts in, ii. 280; ears of, ii. 282; correlations in, ii. 309, 310; white, buckwheat injurious to, ii. 320; tail of, grafted upon

192; 320;

black

variability
of

of,
races

ii.

313-315;
412.

tiquity an-

of, ii.

of, ii. 220. Plasticity, inheritance of amvision phibious the F., on Plateau,
animals, Platessa notice Plato, breeding dogs Plica polonica, of ii. 201. selection in

flcsus, ii. 27. by, ii. 180.

the
the

back,
older

ii. 354;
races

extinction

of

of, ii. 409.

Pliny,

ii. 60. Pimenta, ii. 168. Pimpernel, sterility and Pine-apple, of

ity variabili.

Pinks,

ii. 248. bud-variation

the,

in,

397;

ii. 256. of the herd shepcrossing the with wolf, i. 23; dogs of cattle, ii. breed on Pyrrhus' estimation of the 180; geons pion i. the Romans, among described 211; pears by. ii. 193.
on

improvement

of, ii. 194.

Plum,

i. 358-361;

stones

figured,

PLUMAGE.

INDEX.

PRIMROSE.

4C1
hereditary
i 44'"

i.

359;

varieties

of

the,

i. 360,

Portal,

on

peculiar
the eye

in the, 361, ii. 196; bud-variation disease of the, i. 390; peculiar ii. 205; flower-buds of, destroj-ed bullfinches, ii. 210; purpleby liable to certain eases, disfruited,

affection of I'orto Santo,

114. Par tilla
ra

feral

'rabbits

of,

i,

Potamovhrr.ru

Plumage,

peculiarities ual of, in pigeons, i. 166, 167; sexpeculiarities of, in fowls,

i. 258-265. of races, i. 2. of, used Pouchet's

ii. 319. inherited

olcracra, ii. 265. H pcnicinalus,

;{44:

ii

l'"8

i. 343, Potato, in by tubers

hybrid

of,

tubers,
impoteuce ity of,

the, l)y union of i. 410; individual

in

bud-vari;it iT.i; i. 401; graltlialfself-

Plurality
views
on,

change
Potato

ii. of soil

the, ii. ll.-"; steiii148; advantage of

to the, ii. I'M sterility of the, in

seeds i. as food, Poa, 319; species of, propagated by ii. 149. bulblets, Podolian cattle, i. 81. modification Pointers, of, i. 42; crossed 70. Pois sans with the

sweet,

China,
suited

ii. 148; varieties of the, to different climates, ii.

Pouchet,
of

foxhound,

ii.

Poiteau, i. 406;
Polish

ii. 209. parchemin. origin of Cytisus adami, rieties vaorigin of cultivated of

his views on ity plurali. 2. Pouter pigeon.s. i. 140-142; furculum figured, i. 173; history of, i. 214. races,

M.,

fruit-trees,

239.

fowl, i. 235, 257, 262, 263, 271, 272; skull figured, i. of skull section figured, i. of 272; development ance protuberof skull, i. 258; furculum figured, i. 277. Polish i. or Himalayan rabbit, 267, 270;
109. ii. 345, 346; action of, ii. 83; injurious action of, in some orchids, ii. 112, 113; i*esistance ii. of. to treatment, injurious 143; prepotency of, ii. 166. of Sir F., transmission Pollock, Ballnta in leaves variegated local nigra, i. 399; on tendency to ii. 254. variegation, i. 452. Polyanthus, inheritance Polydactylism, of, i.

Lord, Powis, in experiments crossing and humped English cattle, i. 86, ii. 19. Poynter, a Mr., on graft-hybrid
rose.

i. 409.

Pollen,

i. 21. Prairie-wolf, of Precocity highly improved breeds, ii. 303. of pollen, ii. 166. Prepotency of transmission Prepotency of character, ii. ,39,153; in the Austrian
-

emperors

and

some

man Ro-

445-448.

families, ii. 39; in cattle, ii. 39; in sheep, ii. 40; in cats, ii. in ii. 40, 40; in pigeons, 41; fowls, ii. 41; in plants, ii. 41; in the of a variety pumpkin, in i. 372; the the jackal over ass the over dog, ii. 42; in the horse, ii. 42; in the pheasant the fowl, ii. 42; in the penover guin duck the over Egyptian
goose,

Ponies,
and

most islands on frequent i. 52; Javanese, mountains,

ii. 42;

discussion
on

of

the

phenomena
Prescott,
known ii. 195.

of, ii. 43-46.

Mr.,
the earliest

i. 53. Indian Poole, Col., on striped the horses, i. 59, 60; on young of Eqiius indicus, ii. 17. i. 377. Poplar, Lombardy, Cuban wild Poppig, on dogs, i. 26. found in the Swiss lakePoppy, i. 328, 331; the with dwellings, stamens converted into pistils, ferent in difof ii. 144; India, parts monstrous, fertility of, ii. 145; black-seeded, of, ii. antiquity 412. Porcupine, breeding of, in captivity, ii. 130. Porcupine family, i. 437, ii. 51. of Porphijrio, breeding a species of, in captivity, 11. 135, differences of the. i. 381:

European

flower-garden,
of
ployment em-

mechanical, a Pressure, cause ii. 325, 326. modification,

Prevost zoids
344.

and
of to

Dumas,
several
one

on

the

fertilise

spermatoii. ovule,

cumcision, the effect of ciron i. 455. in the variations Price, Mr., in feet of the structure horses, i. 50.

Preyer,

Prof.,

Prichard,
in

Dr.,
negro,

on

polydactylism

bert the Lami. 447; on bino alii. 51; on an family, Plica ii. 214; on negro, polonica, ii. 256. i. 452; double, rendered Primrose,

the

462
by

PRIMULA.

INDEX.

RADISHES.

single
151.

transplantation,

ii.

rowing

of

bitch

to

litter,

i.

Primula,

of species intercrossing in, ii. of, i. 349; contabescence with in hose,' i. 380; hose 145; coloured calyces, eterility of, ii.
'

in 26; selection i. 311; development

145. Primula

sinensis,
ii.

variations,

i.

386,
Primula Primula

phic, dimor313: reciprocally ii. 109. veris, i. 4.52, ii. 84. vulgaris, i. 452, ii. 84.
the

silkworm, the wings in the i. 314, ii. 279; silk-moth, of varieties the on mullterry, i. 347; special raising of eggs of the ease dissilk-moth, ii. 175; on of the ii. 206; on silkworm, in monstrosities insects, ii. 249, in the ing breeda 373; on change of the season Egyptian
goose,

the of

ii.

285;

fertilisation

of

on Mr., Prince, of strawberries,

intercrossing
i. 366. ii.

Prinssheim,
34i: Prori/on,
ii. 1.30. Prolificness.

on

conjugation,
in

sterility of,
increased ii. 153.

captivity, by
of tication, domes-

to Teredo, ii. 344; tendency best ii. similarity in the races, tourhillon 220; on his vital," ii. the ence exist35; on independent sexual of the ii, elements,

the

"

341.

Protozoa,
359. Prunus
Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus

reproduction

the,

ii.

cerris, i. 378. Qucrcus robur and pedunculata, Qucrcus hybrids of, ii. 107. on grafted Quince, the, 11. pears
238.

i. 357, 358. armeniaca, i. 361. avium, i. 361, 390. cerasus, 1. 359. domcstica,

Rabbits, domestic, of Mount 104-106;

Prunus

insititia, i. 358-361. spinosa, i. 358.

wild horses

Prussia,
Psittacus Psitlarus

erithacus,
macoa.

in, 1. 61. ii. 133. ii. 133.

Psophia,

sterility general captivity, ii. 135. i. 236. fowls, Ptarmigan

pnu'trans,
ii. 256.

of.

In

Puh\v

i. 372. Pumpkins, Puno ponies of the 52.

Cordillera,
cross-bred

i.

Mr., value of Pusey, sheep, ii. 98; preference

and 210.

of

rabbits and

for

common

rye,

hares ii.

Piitsche of the

Vertuch,

potato,
effects

Pnvis,
on

varieties i. 34.3. of foreign pollen

apples,

variabilitv ii. 245.

i. 422; supposed nonof monotypic genera, ii.

Pyrrhula
bv

vulgaris,
of
the

210;

sumption as-

the 1.37.

male,
his

in breed

hen-plumage ii. confinement,

of

their origin, 1. and Sinai geria, Al1. 106; breeds of, 1. 106ish, PolChinese, 114; Himalayan, 1. 109-113, ii. or Russian, 1. 113-116; of Jamaica, 73; feral. of the 1. 113: Falkland lands, Is1. 113; of Porto Santo, i. 114-116. ii. 78, 260; osteological characters i. 117-126; of, discussion of modifications in, 1. 126-1.33; sion transmisone-eared, of of, i. 445; peculiarity reversion In feral, 11. 6; in the ii. 14; of Himalayan, crossing and white coloured ii. Angora, 67; comparative fertility of wi'd and 11. 86; falsified periments extame, in of. Interbreeding ii. often bad 97; high-bred, of, 11. breeders, ii. 97; selection liable to tion, destrucwhite, 182; ii. 208: of effects disuse of parts in, 11. 279; skull fected of. afii. 282; by drooping ears, of intestines in, ii. 284; length and of ears skull In. correlation In variations ii. 306, 307; skull
a

Pvrrhus,
180.

cattle,

ii.

Pi/rus.
of.
Pi/rus

fastigiate

Chinese

species

of of, ii. 332; periosteum bone in. ii. 354. producing Race-horse, origin of, 1. 54.

dog

ii. 257. accrhn,

Races,
of.

Pyrus Pi/rus

P)/rus
Pyrus Pyrus

i. 362. ii. 209. auruparia, i. 365, 391. communis, i. 362, 392. mains, i. 362. paradisiaca, i. 362. prwcox,

previous Quagga, by, i. 424.

impregnation de,
on

and formation ii. 70-74; ral natuand artificial, ii. 224; Pouviews chet's on pluralitv of, i. 1. 213-218. 2; of pigeons, of mate cliW. F., effect Radclyffe, soil on and strawberrips, 1. 368; constitutional differences In 1. .383. ro"es, 1. 338; Radishes, crossing of, ii,

modification

by

crossing,

Quatrefages,

A.

the

bur

60; varieties

of, Ii. 196.

RADLKOFER.

INDEX.

RHINOCEROS.

463

Radlkofer,
in 343.

retrogressive
mosses

phosis metamor-

and

algte, ii.
and

bud-variation Eafarln, M., i. 394. reversion, Sir Stamford, Raffles,

Bos

i. 25; cats of Paraguay, 46, ii. 61, 12!); dogs of Para^ ii. 62; feral guay, pigs of i;uenos Ayres, i. 78; on the refusal

aguara,
1.

of
on

wild

cattle crossing of Javanese sondaicus, ii. 184. the goat-like, from Earn, Cape ii. 40. Good Hope, on M., appendages Ramu,
throat

the with of
to

atus, 130;

animals to l)reed in captivity, ii. 128; on Dicotylcs Inhiii. 128; sterility of plantigrade

carnivora
on

in

captivity,

ii.

of

goat,

Ranchin,
440.

heredity
of

i. 103. of diseases, birds

on

i.

Cavia ii. apcrca, sterility of Cehus in azarw ii. 131; abortions animals by wild in ii. 137.

'i;-.0;
tivity, capduced protivity, cap-

Range
the

gallinaceous i. 245. Himalaya,

the effects of use and on of ii. 276. disuse organs, Ranunculus ftcaria, ii. 1.50. Ranunculus ii. 147. repens, Rape, i. 337. caudatus, i. 338, Raphanus i, 338. Raphanus raphanistrum, Raphanus sativus, ii. 324. ii. 208. yellow-fruited, Raspberry,

Ranke,

sexual Reproduction, and ual, asexii. 310; unity of contrasted, forms of, ii. 367; antagonism ii. .368. of, to growth, Reseda odorata, self-sterility of. ii 114, 216. Retinitis, in deafpigmentary,

mutes,

ii. 311.

Reuter,

Herr,

potato-grafting,

1.

Reversion, 381-384;
ii.

ii. 1, 2, 356, in pigeons, ii.

357, 378, tle, 2; in cat-

with experiments Rattlesnake, poison of the, ii. 270. stomach of, affected Raven, by vegetable diet, ii. 283. in A., Rawson, self-impotence hybrids of Gladiolus, ii. 117, 118. the of on R", Comte, assumption a by all varieties yellow colour of maize, i. 333. of effect confinement Reaumur, ii. 26; the cock, fertility upon in fowls most of ii. climates, 140.

fowls, ii. 4;
feral

Reed,

Mr.,

atrophy
of

of

of rabbits, destruction 278.

consequent
their

limbs the ii. nerves, the

on

Regeneration
in
man,

of amputated parts man huin the 447, 448; ii. 347; in the embryo, lower vertebrata. insects, and ii. 347. myriapoda, of Regrowth joints, amputated i. ii. 346-348. of the Regnier, early cultivation i. 336; Celts, cabl)age by the selection practised by the Celts, ii. 180.

5-7; in a cross previous dogs, man, pigeons, pigs, and fowls, ii. 7-9; in hybrids, ii. 9; by bud-propagation in plants, ii. 10-13; by in fowls, cattle, "S:c., ii. 12, age 13; partial, from an injury, ii. 12; caused by crossing, ii. 13ters, charac25; explained by latent ii. 2.5-31: strosities, monproducing ii. 31; producing peloric flowers, ii. .32-.34;of foral i. 78 80; pigs to the wild type, of feral rabbits to the supposed wild type, i. 105, 113, 115; of when in coloration, pigeons,
crossed,
in the

ii. 3; 3; in sheep, in ii. 4; in the heartsease, in ii. 4; in vegetables, animals and ii. plants, to characters derived from

i. 203-209;
pansy,

in

247-2.55; in the

silkworm, in i. 384;

i. fowls, i. 312;
a

argonium, pel-

Reindeer, by the Reisselc, Cytisus

1. 406;
um

individuals

recognised
ii. 230.
in and

Laplanders, experiments
purpureus

crossing lahurnum,
a

modification

of

Thcsi-

by CEcidium, ii. 265. characters Relations, of,

in

duced reproii. 7. of Rengger, occurrence jaguars with crooked legs in Paraguay, 1. 16; naked dogs of Paraguay, i. 22, 30, ii. 68, 77; feral dogs

children,

in i. 394; themums, Chrysanof i. 395; of varieties in St. the China rose Domingo, in and i. 396; by buds pinks i. 397; of laciniated carnations, norniMl to the varieties of trees in i. form, .398; variegatrd lips, leaves of plants, i. 399; in tuof the suckers i. 402; of the to mon comseedless barberry in i. 400; form, by buds i. 415; of Tropo'olum, hybrids in peplants, i. 431; of crossed gous ii. 44; analoloric snapdragons, due variations to, ii. 329333.

of

La

Plata,

i, 26;

on

the

Rhinoceros, in India,

breeding
ii, 128.

in

captivity

464

RHODODENDRON.

INDEX.

ROSES.

FhoOodcndron,
Rhododendron Rhodod'ndron

hyltrid, ii. 2-15.

ciliatum,
ii.

rose

from

seeds

of

the

dalhousiw,
of
R.

257. effect
upon,

pollen
421. Rihcs Ribes

nuttalUi

391. i. 368-371, i. 391. number and characters of, Kibs, in of, fowls, i. 275; characters i. 291-293. in ducks, ii. 182; Rice, imperial, of China, Indian varieties of. ii. 235; riety vaof, not requiring walei", ii. 286. H. on D., pendages jaw-apRichardson,

grnssularia,
ruhrum,

vence
moss-rose,

of i.

produced the stock in jessaby grafting on mine, in the i. 408; ash. i. 408; on grafted hazels, i. 409; bridisati hyof a thoin, weeping i. 450; with experiments the seed of the elm and weeping ash, i. 450, 451; variety of the with ii. curled cherry petals,
211.

i.395; effect

pigs, i. 76; pigs in China, of striped in Westphalian pigs, i. young 78; on pigs, ii. 71; on crossing lection sepigs, ii. 98; on interbreeding in pigs, ii. 172.
in Irisli

of Oncidium Riviere, reproduction ii. 111. cavcndishianum, inheritance Roberts, Mr., on in the horse, i. 444. Mr., Robertson, on glandularleaved

of management i. occurrence G9;

peaches,
on

i. 357.

Roliinet.

the

silkworm,

i. 312-

315, ii.
Robinin, Robson,

175.

ii. 2.55.

Richardson,
on

Sir

John,
resemblance American i. 20, 21;

tions observatween be-

the North

of halfMr., deficiencies bred horses, i. 444. Robson, the advantage of Mr., on of soil to plants, ii. 124, change 125;
on

i. 26; wolves, on broad feet of dogs, wolves, and foxes in North i. America, horses North American 40; on the i. 53. scraping away snow, in ii. annual Ricinus, England, 286. the Riedel, Dr., on Bagadotte the i. 145; Jacoldn on pigeon, i. 158; brid fertility of hypigeon, i. 198; cision, circumpigeons, i. 455. i. 347. Phylloxera, Riley, on ii. 361. Rinderpest, i. Mr., potato-grafting, Rintoul, the
" "

wolves, of burrowing

and

on

dogs the

the ii.

growth

of

the

bena, ver-

254; on broccoli, ii. 292. Rock measurements of pigeon, the, i. 137; figured, i. 138. Rodents, sterility of, in captivity,
ii. 130.

Rodriguczia,
Rodwell,

ii. Ill,

112.

by Rohilcund,

J., mildewed

of horses ii. 320. tares, feral cattle humped

poisoning

in, i. 81.
the Rolle, F.. on history of ii. 289. peach, i. 1.55. Roller-pigeons, Dutch,

the

Rollestou,

Prof.,

of injuries, in affected

varieties of the orange, i. 350, ii. 289, 314. selection of the Rivers, Lord, on ii. 214. greyhounds, acters of charRivers, Mr., persistency
on

411. Risso.

pulmonary sternum on Romanes, i. 283; rudimentary

299.

inherited effects i. 458; incisor teeth in form of cases tubercle, ii. 315.
of the

fowl,
ii.

organs,
of of

Romans,

estimation
i. 211; breeds i.

pigeons
sessed pos-

by,

fowls

i. seedling potatoes, i. 350, 352; 344; the on peach, in the of races persistency i. and 354; 353, nectarine, peach connection between the peach and i. 354; ency persistnectarine, in of character seedling origin of the apricots, i. 358; i. .359; seedling varieties plum, i. 361; of the plum, persistency in seedling of character plums, in

by,

239, 254. of, i. 382. hybrid graft

-

Rooks, pied, ii. 52. cultivated Rosa, species

Rosa

devonirnsis, by, produced

rose,

on

the

white

Banksian Rosa indica

i. 409.

and centifolia, fertile of, i. 382. hybrids Rosa spiuosissimo. history of the culture of, i. 383. i. Egyptian Rosellini, on dogs, 16.

i.

361;
i.

bud-variation

in

the

plum,

390;

bullfinches,
with apples 363; variety in i.
a

by ii. 210; seedling i. surface-roots, of the apple found

on

plum

attacked

Roses, 380; 178; 220;

i. bud

382,

383;

variation

of. i. origin in. i. .395-307;

wood,
383;

382,

ii. 239; bud-variation

395-397;

production

i. roses, in roses, of Pro-

doubled Scotch, by selection, ii. variation continuous of, ii. of seasonal tions condieffect ii. 254; ii, Noisette, on,

290; galls of, ii. 264.

4:66

SALTER.

INDEX.

SEDGWICK.

mission

seed,
sueljers

i. of

leaves of variegated bud-variation 39V"; in

by
by

PhJox,

i.

400;

cation appli-

ties to bud-varieselection lative of plants, i. 432; accumutions condiof effect changed the riegation vaof life, ii. 241; on of strawberry leaves, ii. 255; on ovules, pollen within ii. 375. of Gallus S. Salter, J., hybrids sonncraiii
i. and the
common

nana,
131.

fowl,

i. 392; reversion of varieties the in of China St. rose i. 396; Domingo, sterility of in Guiana, tame ii. 1.34; parrots ii. 136; on viduata, Dendrocfjgna selection of fowls in Guiana, ii. 188. ii. 278. Proteus, on Schreibers, Schiitze the I. on Torfschwein, 69. volucella, ii, 131. Seiuroptcrus Sciurus and cinerea, ii. palmarum

of races ii. It); crossing or species of rats. ii. 62. habits of the jackal, i. 23; Salvin, in mot-mot, inherited mutilation

241,

i. 458.

Samesreuther, cattle, i. 444.

Saudford.
See

on

inheritance

in

Sanson,

M.,

origin

i. 51; lumbar i. 75. of the, Sap, ascent calabrica, Saponaria

Dawkins. of the horse, of vertebra pigs,

tfeniopus, Sclater, P. L., on Equus i. 62, ii. 15; on indicus, ii. Equus of character 17; striped young wild of pigs, i. 70; osteology Gallinula the nesiotis, i. 296; on black-shouldered i. 300; peacock, in animals breeding Zoological
Gardens,
in ii.

127;

birds

ing breed-

Saporta,
Sardinia,
Sars.
on

ii. 277. i. 451. on I'istacia, i. 421. ponies of, i. 52. of the development
ii. 353.

ii. Gardens, Zoological the of birds 132; on breeding in captivity, ii. 132, 135. variation Scotch of, i. tir, local 378. Scotch kale and

cabbage,

cross

the

hydroida.
Satiation Saturnia of

ii. 73. between, irregularities Scott, John,

sex

in

the

the

stigma,

i. 424.
in
finement, con-

of

pyri, sterility of,

ii. 13G.

i.

333;
of

the bud-

flowers variation

of in i. 402;

maize,
Imatoing cross-

phyUum
of the

miniatum,

Saul, on the management i. 371. gooseberries, varieties of Sauvignv,

i. 30(3. their Savages,
of

prize fish, gold-

plants

as

inrliscriminate use food, i. 319-322;

for

ii. species of Ycrhascum, Yerhas81, 82; self -sterility of ii. 114; on experiments cum, ii. 84: Prwmlrr. crossing duction reproii. 110: tility ferof orchids, Oneidiiim of divarieatum, acclimatisation of the ii. in 292; India, in numbpr seeds Acropcra ii. 362. and Gongorn, the Scotch deerhound, Scrope, on ii. 48, 97. ii. 348. Scudder. Dr., on regrowth, of Sir effects John, Sebright, in close pigeons, interbreeding taken tion ii. 192; care by, in selecii. 175. of fowls, Srcale rrrfale, ii. 233. of crossing effects W., Sedgwick, ii.

fondness

of,

taming pollen

mals, ani-

143;

ii. 139. of Savi, effect maize, i. 420.

sw^eet

foreign

on

pea of

ii. 14,5. Saxifraga q" urn, Mohammed on Musari, Sayzid i. on a 145; carrier-pigeons, the sound utters which pigeon
"

Yahu."

i. 160.

Scanderoons

(pigeons),
of remains in, i. 83. characters in Bos

i. 146, 147.

Scania,
fotmd

frontosus

of, in rabbits, i. 277; in pifowls, geons, i. 172; alteration of, by i. 181. in pigeons, disuse, Scarlet fever, ii. 361. the horses Schaaffhausen on resented repii. in Greek statues, Scapula, i. 126;
191.

on
"

the

female,

i.

425;

on

the

Schleiden,
a cause

excess

of

nourishment
ii. 23i"". the

of

variability,
Dr.,
in of
a

i. 437; on reditary hei. 440; the affections of eye, of polyi. 442, ii. 53; inheritance and anomalies of the dactylism i. 447; formity unimorbid extremities, in the same family, i. heritance i. 4.54; in448; on deaf-mutes,

Porcupine hereditary

man," diseases,

Schnierling. found dog Schomburuk,

of Indians ii. 184;

of varieties i. 18. cave,

187;

the doers R., on i. 19, 22, Guiana, i. the on musk-duck, in babud-variation the Sir

the to of injury eye, in diseases and atavism i. 457; ii. 7; of anomalies structure, non-reversion to ness, night-blindof limitation ii. 10; sexual of peculiarities the transmission

SEDILLOT.

INDEX.

SHEEP.

40:

in

of

man, hard

ii.

47, 48; on driukiiig,

the
ii.

effects

Selwyn,
-

witli baldness ii. 309; of occurrence teeth, in tooth molur place a diseases ii. 874; incisor, lierited in ii. 384.

iu270; delieieucy

Mr., on llu' Dingo, 1. 2 4. Selys Lougi'haniits, on hyldid i. I9(i. Ii. 2ii, i:{(;; hVi.ii.l ducks,
of the

of
of
ring occuran

hudk-liiilcd
goose,

diK.k"
291.

and

Egyptian Seringe, on
i. 364.

i.

the

St.

ValfMv

applf,

alternate
on

generations,
of tions por-

Sedillot,

Seeds, rudimentary,
relative Seeds
and

removal ii. 277. of bone, early selection

the in

of, ii. 1S2;

ii. 297; the sule, cap-

I. 375, II. :n I. melon, Olivier Serres, wild de. |ioiillrv in I. 245. (Juiana, Sesamiim. anllnultv white-seeded, of

Serpent

position
ii. 326.

grapes, of, in

the,

ii. 412.

Sitarin.

found

in

the

Swiss

lake-

buds,

close

analogies

of, i. 433.
Seeman,
and

of the wolf B., crossing Esquimaux dogs, i. 21. i. of characters, Segregation 414-417.
P.

i. .32S. dwellings, Settegast, liv sheep poisoned ii. .320. buckwheat, Setters, degeneration of. In Indi;), i. 37; Youatt's remarks i. on, 41.

Sex, J.,
on

secondary
ii. 2.5-27;

characters
of

of,

tent, la-

Selby,
210.

the

ing bud-destroy-

parenls.

Iiiflu-

habits

of

the

bullfinch,

ii.

Sexual ii. 170-201; methodical, ii. 171-179; cients anby the semi-civilised and people, of 179-188; trilling chai'acii.

Selection, i. 220,
ii. ters,
i.

ii. 246. of, on hybrids, sometimes lost cliaractcrs, in ii. 49. domestication, of Sexual limitation characters,
ence

ii. 46^9.
Sexual in domestication

220,
most

184-188; unconscious, fects ef223, ii. 153, 188-195;

shown valued

peculiarities, induced in sheep,

by
i.

9(;;

of,
in

by differences parts, ii. 195-

198;
of

produced variability,
as

by accumulation ral, natuii. 198-201; domestic affecting ductions, proii.

103-169,
of

202-211;
genera,

as

the

origin

species,
ii.

other and circumstances

groups,

favourable

415-417; to, ii.

i. 2.59-263; transfer fowls, of, i. 263-265. I. Sexual variability in pigeons, 166, 167. ii. 49. Sexual selection, i. 348. Shaddock, the Sluiiler, moss-rose, Mr., on i. 395. Slian ponies, striped, i. 59. i. 2;-{3. i^hanghai fowls,

of, towards tendency ii. 218-221; possible influence of limit of, il. 221; ii. 222-224; time summary on, effects ii. 226-228; of subject, of tle, catbreeds of, in modifying the i. 93; in' preserving rity pu212-218; extremes,
of 102;
in

Shanghai
i.

sheep, disputed

their

fecundity, of, i. 95; of, i. 95;

98.

Sheep,

origin

breeds

of

sheep,
in in

i.

producing

varieties
the

liOof

ii. 2"!0; 99. in horns, mamniw. variations of, 1. 97; characters other and induced characters of. sexual 1. 97; adaidaby domestication.

domestication early i. 95. large-tailed,

pigeons, i. 218-223; fowls, i. 240, 241;

i.

breeding
goose,

ti'on of,
i.

to

climate

and

pasture.

299;

in

the

the

gold-fish,

canary, i. HOQ;

i. 310, 311; i. 334; and cereals, cabbages 347 i. white ; mulberry, i. ,370; applied gooseberries, i. 328-330: exemplified wheat, carrots. "c., i. 338; in potato,

in i. 305: worm, silkin the in contrasted in in to in i.

of gestation 98; periods the of heat on of, i. 98; effect fect fleece of, i. 99, 100, ii. 260: ef-

97,

of
"

selection
"
"

ancon

or
"

on, otter

1. 100"

1m2:

breeds

of,

i. i.

344;

in

the

melon,

i.

375;

flowering hyacinth,
bud-varieties illustrations

plants,
i. 387.
of

in i. 380; 388: applied

in the
to

of (Jer102: cross ii. "'4: black, merino, and man ii. 20'.; KaraTarentiiio. of the losities calwith Jaffna, ii. 2.59: kool, ii. 2S2: knees, the on

101; 101,

Mauchamp

no." meri-

Chinese,
Bronze

plants,

i.

433;

ii. 406-414. ii. 49. Selection, in plants, ii. 109Self-impotence ii. in individual plants, 118; 114-116; of hybrids, ii. 153.

of, sexual,

tylism
duction breeds
colour

of the Danish, 410: pojy.lacperiod, occasional iiroin. I. 447: hornless in horns of of riMcrsion of, ii. 3;

ii. 296;

ii.

in.
on

ii.

3:

infineiu ii.

f
sex-

male,

oftspring,

43;

468

SHEEP-DOGS.

INDEX.

SMITH.

i. 311-315; crossing of, ii. disease effects in, ii. 206; of disuse of in, ii. 279; parts ii. 175, selection with, practised variation of, ii. 215; 177; thenogenesis parii. in, ii. 345. value of, cross-bred, ii. 87: variations Silkworms, of, i. 310fertility of, 95, 96; diminislied ii. less 313; yielding white conditions, certain '111(1 cocoons, or selection liable to of, unconscious disease, ii. 320. 140; in selection natural Silver-grey rabbit, i. 108, 110, 122. ii. 191; of eggs tion reductlie raising of Simon, on breeds of. ii. 20.3, 205; in ii. 175. iudithe silk-moth China, bones of in, ii. 221; of maturity J. B., period differences Simonds, of, ii. 230; vidual in breeds various of the fleece in of, local cattle, changes generation i. 88; differences in the ii. 259; periods partial dein England, in ii. of dentition Australia, sheep, i. 97; on of. in in the teeth horns and of cattle, sheep, "c., 258; correlation ii. 303; of suthe on perior on breeding feeding fleece in. ii. 308; ii. 174. of, rams, fish, ii. 284; acclimatisation Sir resistance of, Simpson, regenerative J., il. 286; mountain, human of the ii. 293; white, embryo, to severe weather, power ii. 347. crispum, poisoned by Hypericum in the branchifSlrcdon, breeding ii. 320. i. wolves, erous stage, ii. 368. resembling Sheep-dogs, in i. tail inherited, captivity, ii. Siskin, breeding 23; mutilated 133. 458. of resemblance ii. and Sivatherium, the, dextral, Shells, sinistral to Niata cattle, i. 90. 27. obstacle to E. Size, difference of, an Shirley, P., on the fallow-deer, ii. 76. crossing, ii. 78, 96. gous, homoloof its appendages, varieties new Skin, and Shirrefif, Mr., ii. 307; tions affec326 ; crossing i. hereditary on wheat, of of the, ii. 54. ii. 80; variability wheat, R. tling setation variS., on i. 400; continuous Skirving, pigeons wheat, in i. 186. trees of ii. 220. on Egypt, wheat, of the of the, in breeds tic domesSkull, characters Short, D., hybrids of pigs, Felis i. 44. of dogs, i. 35; in breeds and cat ornata, i. 117-122, i. 72; in rabbits, 1?A; of, i. of, i. 46; horses Siam, cats in breeds of pigeons, i. 168-170; 53. in of fowls, wild breeds i. 268-275; of range Siberia, northern in i. 291. horses ducks, in, i. 53. of and of Skull correlation deafness the horns, Sichel, J., on blue ii. with cats white the, ii. 316. eyes, ii. 133. 312. Skylark, ii. 129. of the the Sleeman. on cheetah, pedigrees S., on Sidney, cross-reversion Sloe, i. 358. pigs. i. 436; on ii. 361. of in pigs, ii. 8; period Smallpox, tion gestathe Smiter in (pigeon), i. 161. tion pig, i. 75; productle, catCaffrarian of pigs l)y intercrossing, Sir A., on of breeds Smith. of numerous i. 80, ii. 71; i. 89; on the use fertility South in food of interbreeding as of the plants pig, ii. 87; effects ual differences
of

ixiin, ii. 48; or tion segregacrossing breeding ii. 61, 71. 77, 78; interon, of of, ii. 95, 96; effect ttie fertility of, on nourishment
fliience

by,
74;

on on

the

colours

pigs, ii. 97, 98; of pigs, ii. 188,

sweet

Smith,

207.

Siebold,
290. Siebold.

on

the

potato,

ii.

Carl on genesis, parthenovon, ii. 342. contabeseenee Sihnr, in, ii. 145. Silk-fowls, i. 237, ii. 41. ii. 287, 294; Silk-moth, Arrindv, ii. 136. Tarroo, i. cated, domesti310-315; Silk-moths, species of. i. 310; history of modification of, i. 311; causes in, I. 311; differences presented

i. 319. the Colonel on Hamilton, of the odour jackal, i. 29; on i. 15; of the the origin dog, i. 26; wild dogs in St. Domingo, the Thibet mastiff and the on of the alco, i. 28; development of hind the feet fifth in toe in the i. 35; differences mastiffs, of of dogs, i. 33; history skull

Africa,

the
of breeds

the the

pointer, i. 41; on ii. 282; dog,

of

the
on

ears

the

of

horses,

i. 49: horses, origin of i. 51; dappling horse, in horses i. 56; striped

SMITH.

INDEX.

STEENSTRUP.

460

Spain, i. 59; original colour of the horses i. 61; on scraping horse,

away snow, i.

furculura i._ji58; 277.

of,
of

figured,
ing distinguish4:
coiivor-

I.

53;

on

Equus

Six'cios. difliculfy
from
sion of varit'tlt'S

feral ii. 17; pigs of i. 78, 79. Jamaica, of J. Sir E., production Smith, and nectarines by the peaches Viola amcesame tree. i. 354; on Tinea i. 384; sterility of na, ii. 149. in England, minor of the J., development Smith,
ovary in N. Bonatea

Jirmionus,

varicilcs, I.
into,

i. 5; of

gin ori-

of,
398;

by

natural

sch'ctlon,

ii.
rieties, va-

by

mutual

sterility

ii. 16:{-167.

Lord, on Spencer, l)reeding. ii. 173. Herbert, Spencer,

of of the ii.

selection
on

In
"

the
I.

vival sur-

of

the

ritation speciosa by ir1. 424. stigma.

fittest." fertility by
8(5;
on

6: Ii.

crease InI

domes!

Smith, Smith,

H.,

transmission

in race-horses, character the intercrossing W., on i. 3G6. of strawberries, ii. 62. Snake-rat, viscera of the form in, Snakes,

of ii. 39.

cation,

life.

12t",

156;

changes
conditions,

product'il liy external ii. 261; efTectH

ii. 325.

Snapdragon,

bud-variation of crossed
ii.

in,
colour with

i.

non-inheritance 397; in, i. 452; peloric, the normal

ii. 277; of use on ascent organs, ii. 277; in trees, of the eorsap in the Iri-h relation exemplified ii. ."{17. ."US; on elk. pliysioii. .'I'.O: .-intagological units," of and nism growth tion, reproduc'"

ii. .367.

form,

45,
of

asymmetrical
ii. 304.

variation of

69; the,
i.
on

Spermatophores
ii. 3("7.

of

the

poda, cephalo-

Soil, adaptation influence 3G0;

of
roses,

plums
on

to,
zones

Sperniatozoiils. ii. 345. 346. ity, Sphingidpe. sterility of, in captivii. 1.3t;.

of,

the

pelargoniums,

i.

381;

the variegation i. 382; on of i. 399; advantages of leaves, of, ii. 123-126. change effects of, on and climate, Soil i. 368. strawberries, of spenon-intercrossing cies Solanum,

Spinola, produced

on

the

injurious
flowering

effect wheat buck-

by
white i. 30.

on

pigs,

ii. 320. of
on

Spitz dog. W. C, cross-breeding Spooner, sheep, i. 101. ii. 71, 72, 96;
the
on

effects

of,
Solanum 401.

ii. 66.

crossing

II. 72; of crossing. ludl94: cattle, II. ii. 141.

tuberosum,

i.

343,

344,

vidual

sterility,

Spores,
i. 75. of horses,
forms

reproduction
bv. i. 399.

of

al)nornial

Solid-hoofed pigs. stud his Solomon,

.55.

i.

Somerville,
of

fleece the on i. cros.son 99; sheep, selection ii. 96: on ing sheep, tility ferof sheep, ii. 173; diminished

Lord,

Merino

Sports, i. "388; in pigeons, i. 219. Spot picreon. i. 16(\ 213. diehogamons C K.. on Sprengei. the hollyho.k, plants, ii. 66; on
the ii. 82: on ii. 154. funciioiis of ers, flowof transmission Mr., Sprouie, hare-lip. i. 454. ment developi. 263: of fowls, Spurs,

of
from

merino

sheep

brought

Spain,

ii. 140.

i. 238, 264. fowls, i. 388. Sorghum, vation cultithe Ferdinand de, on Soto. ida of native plants in Flori. 322. in, monogynous Spain, hawthorn i. 379. in rabbits feral on Spallanzani, Sootv

of, in

Squashes, i. 442. hereditary, Squinting, In sterile gen("rally Squirrels.

tivitv. ii. 131.

htnis, i. 373.

ii. 30"".

cnpfinement, con-

Squirrels,
"

breeding flyin;,'.
ii. 131.

In

Lipari,

i.

115;
in

salamanders,
with

on experiments periments ex346: ii. 274, a pigeon feeding

I. i"".". Taube.' Staarhiilsige ity supposeil heredStag, one-horned, of ii. 186. character

in.
in the

i. 445;

generacy de-

meat,
in

ii.

284.

of,
'

Highlands,
of
,

Spaniels,

Charles's, of, caused 96. fowls, Spanish

i. 37; King India, i. degeneration 41; ii. interbreeding, by

i.

Stamens,
tarv 374. ii

occurrence i.

pistils,
233.

297: 381;

conversion
into

rudlnienof. Into

,,

petals.

H.

figured,
of

i.

234;

early

2.58, 264; ment develop-

i^tapht/Irn, ii.
Steenstrup,

1 h.
-

sexual

characters

in,

Trof.,

on

the

dog

of

470
the the 27.

STElNAJf.

INDEX.

SWINHOE.

Danish

obliquity

i. 17; Middens, of flounders,

on

effects
254.

of
on

soil

on,

ii.

Steiuan,

hereditary J., on i. 440, ii. 54.

habits the J. F., on Stephens, i. 314. the Bombyeidae, consequent Sterility, in dogs,
close from

gated,
ii.

Strickland,
of the

A.,

the

tion domesticaand

eases, disof

Anser

ferus, i. 297;
bill

on

of the in geese, i. 298. Strictcenas, i. 188.

colour

legs

on

confinement,
of crosses,

i.

parative, com31; ii. 79, 80;

Stripes on young i. 78; of domestic Westphalia,

of
and

wild

swine,
of key, Tur-

pigs

of conditions in the 126-i44; ii. occurring life, animals wild of descendants dividual, ii. 1.3'J; inin bred captivity, from ii. 141; resulting

changed

cuttings, hybrids, ii. 157-1 GO, 371, 393, 394; in specific i. 200; of pigeons, hybrids
bulbs,

propagation "c.,

by

buds,

ii. 148;

in

with connected ii. 163-1G7. characters Sternum, in i. 125; rabbits,

as

natural of

lection, se-

173,

181;
of

in

fowls,
on

effects 181-183.

disuse
on

the, in i. pigeons, i. 277, 282; the, i. 177,

ease, distivated cul-

Stewart,

H.,

hereditary
of

Stigma,

ii. 54. variation

the,

Cucurbitacese,
satiation

in i.

374;

Stocltholm,

of the, i. 424. fruit-trees of, ii. 288. bud-variation in, i. 397, Stocks, the of crossing 398; effect upon seed of the colour of, i. 419; true of, by seed, i. 452; crosses of, produced by ii. 68; varieties reversion by selection, ii. 197; in the the seeds pods of, upper ii. 329. of
the normal ab-

i. 78; Jamaica and 79; of fruit and flowers, i. 419, ii. 11; in i. 56-61; in horses, the i. 63-65; production of, ass, species of Equidse, by crossing ii. 15-17. mrix grallaria, ii. 283. Sfriw passerina, ii. 133. i. 160. Strupp-Taube," of the D., Struthers, osteology in solid-hoofed feet pigs, i. 76; i. 446, 448. on polydactylism, of sion transmisprepotency Sturm, of in sheep and characters of the cattle, ii. 40; absorption ii. 63; in crossed minority races, correlation of twisted horns, and curled in sheep, ii. 308. wool livia Sub-species, wild, of Columba other i. 210. and pigeons, Succession, geological, of organisms, i. 11, bud-variation by, i. 400. Suckers, ous sterility of, in variSugar-cane, ii. 148; countries, sporting white, of, i. 400: liability of, to disease, ii. 206. 320.
"

besi, Zamswine of of feral New Granada, i.

the

Suicide,
i. 440,

hereditary
ii. 53.

tendency

to,

action direct Stockton-Hough, pollen, i. 420. of Prof., calculation Stokes,

chance of

transmission in

of man,

peculiarities
438.

i.

in the Stolons, variations of, by strawberries,

tion producthe,
i. 367. fected af-

Stomach,

structure

by

food,

of ii. 283.

in the Stone bladder, i. 440, ii. 53.

hereditary,

the of on maturity Stonehenge, of effects dog, i. 34; inherited i. between cross 458; injury, ii. 63; and greyhound, bulldog of close interbreeding hound, greyfleetness ii. 96; ii. 221. of J., pedigree of
horses, race-

the horses Admiral, on i. 53; Falkland of the Islands, lands, IsFalkland wild pigs of the cattle of the i. 78; feral feral i. 87; Islands, Falkland of the Falkland rabbits Islands, i. 113. Sultan fowl, i. 236, 262. ii. 85. Sliis indicufi, i. 66, 68-70, Siis pliciceps (figured), i. 71. Sus scrofa, i. 67, 68, ii. 85. f^us scrofa palustrls, i. 69. i. 69. Sits scnnariensis, Sus vittatus, i. 68. i. breed of pigeons, a Swallows,

Sulivan,

163. Sweet

peas.

ii. 66;

crosses

69; varieties i. 452; seed,

in

of, coming

true

Storer,
93.

cattle,

ii.

India,

acclimatisation ii. 292.

of, ii. by of, in,

Sweet able remarki. 365-368; varieties of, i. 367; hautdioecious, i. 367; selection further ii. 377; probable
i. 397.

William,
R.,
on

bud-variation
Chinese

Strawberries,
bois

Swnnhoe, i. 152.
horses,

pigeons,
Chinese

in,

212: on i. 59:

striped
on

the

japanned

modification

of,

ii. 221;

varie-

peacock,

1. 300,

SWITZERLAND.

INDEX.

TEMMINCK.

471

ancient of, i. dogs Switzerland, 18; pigs of, in tlie Neolittiie period, 1. 69; goats of, i. 102. variety of pale-leaved Sycamore,

the,

ii. 314.

Sykes,

Colonel,

on

pariah

dog

deficiency of, la dogs, I. 34; period of appearance of, In breeds of dogs, i. 34; precocity of, in highly-bred 11. animals, 303; correlation of, with hair, ii.
naked

dogs,

i. 33; Turkish

crooked with legs, i. 16; on i. 63; on Indian small asses, the Oallus sonneratii, I. 241; on Kulm Indian cock, of the voice fowl In i, 267; fertility of the ii. 140. most climates,

309;

double

row

of,
Julia

with

dundant re-

Symmetry,
from,

hereditary
i. 445.

departures

i. 400. variegated, Symphytum, ii. 315. Syphilis, hereditary, of, I. 63. Syria, asses garis, vulSyringa persica, chinensis, and ii. 143.

Pastrana, ii. 311; affected in form reditary by hesyphilis and by pulmonary tubercle, ii. 315; developed the on palate, ii. 374. a cat Tegetmeier, Mr., on with monstrous teeth, i. 47; on a swift-like 1. 161; pigeon, on sexual i. 167; naked colours, of some I. 176; pigeons, young I. fertility of hybrid pigeons, white 198; on pigeons, il. 208;
reversion

hair,

in

Tacitus,
Celts 180.

on

the

care

taken

in

breeding

by animals, variety

the
ii.

Tagetes
i. 451.

signata, dwarf

of,

of cultivated varieties Tahiti, plants in, ii. 235. mals, aniwild in curled Tail, never in rudimentary ii. 282; 296. ii. Chinese sheep, in numbers of, Tail feathers, i. 163-165; of breeds pigeons, peculiarities of, in cocks, I. 262; variability of, in fowls, i. 266; and Anas in boschas, curled, tame drakes, i. 289. hairs of Tait, Lawson, presence
-

teeth and ii. 354.

in

ovarian

tumours,

in crossed of breeds i. 247-252; of chicks the white silk-fowl, i. 256; development of the cranial ance protuberin Polish i. 258; on fowls, in the the skull Polish fowl, 1. the 264, 270; on intelligence of Polish fowls, i. 271; correlation of the cranial and protuberance in crest Polish i. 284; fowls, in of the web the development feet of Polish ly fowls, i. 267; earof several development culiarities pein I. cocks, Spanish in the comb Spanish 258; on the Spanish fowls, i. 261; on of gamefowl, ii. 287; varieties fowls, i. 259; pedigrees of gameof female fowls, i. 436; assumption

fowls,

plumage
i. 260;

by

game-cock,

i. 440. hereditary, ChillingEarl of, on Tankerville, ham cattle, i. 85, 94. disuse of Prof., effects Tanner, of parts in cattle, ii. 280. ity, Tapir, sterility of the, in captivTalent,
ii. 129.

Targioni-Tozzetti,

on

cultivated

the vine, i. plants, i. 317; on i. of the peach, 345; varieties of the varieties 356; origin and ry, plum, i. 359; origin of the cheri. i. 361; origin of roses, 382.

Tarsus, fowls, the, in

in of the, variability of i. 267; reproduction a thrush, ii. 347. for their Tartars, preference sheep, ii. 187. spiral-horned of pigeons abundance Tavernier,
in Taxus

Persia,

i. 211.

haccata, i. 450. potato-grafting, Mr., Tavlor,

410.

1.

Teebav,
ii. 12.

Mr.,
number

reversion and

in

fowls,
In

Teeth,

position of,

natural selection in the of ii. 203; pugnacity game-cock, i. 264; length of the game-hens, i. middle toe in Cochin fowls, tam, ban267; origin of the Sebright in the ii. 29; differences of of size fowls, i. 265; effect crossing in fowls, 1. 265, ii. 72; in fowls, effects of interbreeding grels ii. 101, 102; incubation by monof races of non-sitting tion correlainverse ii. 18; fowls, in fowls, comb and of crest of pencilled I. 283; occurrence ii. 14; on a in fowls, feathers Sefrom of the goose variety the fertility bastopol, i. 298; on the Ii. 88; on of the peahen, il. 103. of bees, intercrossing domestic of origin Temminck, cats, 1. 43; origin of domestic Columba i. on 186; pigeons, leucoColumba guinea, i. 188; on tance relucasserted i. 188; crphala, of pigeons breeds of some brid i. 198; sterility of hyto cross, turtle-doves, 1. 199; varU-

64

47^
tlons
a

TENDRILS.

IK^DEX.

TRITON.

of Gallus hankiva, i. 243; of turkeys, buff-coloured breed of number i. 303; eggs ii. 87; breeding laid by the peahen, in ii. of captivity, guans in of behaviour 135; grouse captivity, ii. 135; sterility of the in captivity, ii. 134, partridge in i. 373, Tendrils Cucurbitaceae, ii. 297. Sir J. E., on the Tennent, goose, the the of i. 297; on grovrth ii. 257; on the apple in Ceylon, Jaffna sheep, ii. 283. fertilisation Teredo, in, ii. 344. ii. 224; Terriers, legged, wry ii. subject to distemper, white,
on
-

in rearing Tiburtius, experiments wild ducks, i, 287. in captivity, Tiger, rarely fertile ii. 129.

Tigridia conchiflora, bud-variation in, i. 402. Time, importance of, in the production
of races,

ii. 222. in the

Tinzmann,
potato, Tissues, organic

self-impotence
ii, 115.

affinity of, for special ii, 363, substances,

destructive
to

Titmice,
shelled

thining attackpeas,

i. 371; walnuts, nuts, i. 372; attacking

ii. 209.

320.

Teschemacher,
of

on

husked

form

maize,
on

Tessier,

i. 332. the period

Tobacco, ii. 83, Sweden, Tobolsk,

46,

crossing of varieties of, cultivation 84; of, in

ii. 289. red-coloured
cats

of, i,

of

tion gesta-

pig,
ii.

the of dog, i. 28; of the i. 75; in periments cattle, i. 88; exof on seed, change

125.

Toes, relative length of, In fowls, i. 267; development of fifth, in dogs, ii, 300. of catToilet, Mr., his selection tle, Tomato, Tomes,

ii. 177. ii. 66, inheritance of dental formations, mali. 441. See Tomtits. Titmice. in, ii. 326. feral cattle relation in, i. 86. Texas, of, to the beak Tongue, his notice of the mestic doin i. 174. Theognis, pigeons, of a in fowl, i. 254. Tooth, occurrence molar, notice of the his Theophrastus, place of an incisor, ii. 374. ii. 289. i. 69. peach, Torfschwein," ii. 265. the union of Thcsium, halfTrail, R., on and the tubers of different kinds peach of poMr,, on Thompson, tatoes, the ties variei. 355; on i. 410. nectarine, fication of the apricot, i. 358; classiTrees, varieties of, suddenly duced, proof cherries, of varieties i. 376; weeping or dulous, penSister the ribstoni. 361; i. 377; fastiglate or on ramidal, pyties variei. 364; the on i. 377; with pippin," variegated i, 369, of the or gooseberry, changed foliage, i. 377; early in 370. late or forest leaf, i. 378; the on geons piof William, selection Thompson, non-application to, of Islay, i. 189; feral ii. 216. geons piour colin i. 196; Scotland, Trembleur (pigeons), i. 150, in bill and of the in on legs Trembley, reproduction of Tetrao i. 298; breeding ii. 341. Hydra, geese, struction in captivity, ii. 135; descotius Trevoltini i. 312, silkworms, fowls of black 313. by the ii. 208, Trichosanthes i. 375. osprey, anguina, Thorn, grafting of early and late, of, i. 439. Tricks, inheritance i. 379; i, 379. and ii. 143, Glastonbury, Trifolium minus repens, reconversion into of, Thorns, of Trimorphic plants, conditions in ii. 300. branches, pear-trees, reproduction in, ii. 160-163. asserted of H. Thrush, of the Tristram, reproduction B,, selection in a, ii. 347. the tarsus ii. 183. dromedary, or riety Thuja Triticum pendula fiJiformis, a vadicocciim, i. 330. of T. orientnlif), i. 378. Triticum 1, 331. monococcum, the division of the Triticum on Thuret, Ita, i. 331. sp of an Triticum alga, ii. 361. zoospores turgidum, i. 330. G. cats the of Triticum in H., on Thwaites, Asia, i. vulgare, wild i. 45; twin seed on a 323. Ceylon, of Fuchsia coccinca and In the branchlffulgens, Triton, breeding i, 416. ii. 368. erous stage,

Tetrao,

of species of, in breeding captivity, ii. 135. ii. 135. Tetrapteryx paradisca, Teucrium campannlatum, pelorism

"

"

"

"

"

"

474
Vanessa,
in

VANESSA.

INDEX.

VINE.

of, not copulating 11. 136. Variability, 1. 4, 11. 354-358, 376of, 11. 229causes 378, 389-404; il. 301-321, 335, 250; correlated, of, equable, 336, 403, 404; law tion, of, for selec11. 333; necessity of selected acters, charii. 169; of ii. multiple 217; parts, 11. 323. homologous laws of, 11. 274-337; Variation, possible of, ii. 220; continuity limitation of, 11. 221, 401, 402; gin oriin domestic cats, 1. 45-48; cattle of of breeds by, 1. of 89; In osteological characters species

captivity,

of important 1. 117-133; or 1. analogous 374; in horses parallel, 11. 329-333; i and horse 1. 56; in the ass, 65; in fowls, 1. 251-253; in geese

rabbits,

organs,

in the pro exemplified in cab of fleshy stems bages, "c., 1. 337; in the peach and apricot, 1. 356 nectarine, i in wheat, Individual, 358;

I. 298; duction

325.

Variegation
II. 147. Varieties blance version

of

foliage, 1. 399, 400

and resem species, con of, 1. 4. il. 394-396; 1. 5 species, of. Into domestic 11. 397; abnormal, 11. 399. produced, gradually 1. 286 domestic on ducks, Varro, 11. 7; crossing feral on fowls,
the of 11. 184.

wild

and
on

domestic

ass,

of effect tions condichanged of life on, 11. 254. the dark-leaved berry, barVerlot, on inheritance of pe1. 377; culiarities of in trees, foliage of Rosa 1. 377; canproduction from nabifolia by bud-variation in R. alba, 1. 397; bud-variation Aralia gation trifoliata, 1. 398; varieof leaves, 1. 399; colours of tulips, 1. 402; uncertainty of 1. 450; Inheritance, persistency of white flowers, 1. 452; peloric ency 11. 32; tendflowers of Ldnaria, of to formity unistriped flowers 11. 44; of noncolour, of certain allied intercrossing plants, 11. 66; sterility of Pricoloured with mulce calyces, 11. ers, flowfertile 145; on proliferous Irish 11. 146; the on yew, in mellia, Cadifferences the ii. 220; of soil on ii. 230; effect 11. the variegated strawberry, correlated in variability 254; plants, 11. 314. 11. 27, 382. Verruca, bits, characters of, in rabVertebrae, 1. in 1. 122-125; ducks, and variations number 291-293; ber of, in pigeons, 1. 170, 171; numand characters of, in fowls, ber i. 275, 276; variability of numof. In the pig, i. 75, 76. Putsche. See Vertuch. ii. 257. Verugas," in cultivation early Vespucius,

320;

"

Brazil, Mr.,
Vibert's

1. 322.

of the number and in ordinary vertebrae sacral 1. 80; on garian Huncattle. humped cattle, 1. 81. sterility of Ranunculus Vaucher, 11. Acorus calamus, flcaria and 150. reversion cultivated, Vegetables, culture 11. of, 7; European, in, in India, 11. 148. of breeds Velth, horses, Mr., on 1. 49. of intercrossing Ycrhascum, cies speversion reof, 1. 349, 11. 69, 80-82; in hybrids of, i. 415; self -sterility of, 11. 114; contawild plants of, ii. 145; bescent, vlllosity in, 11. 258. ii. 114. Verhascum austriacum, Verbascum blattaria, 11. 80, 81. Verhascum lychnitis, 11. 80, 81, 114. Verbascum nigrum, 11. 114. 11. 82, 114; Verbascum phoeniceum, variable duration of, ii. 286. Verbascum thapsus, 11. 80, 114. Verbenas, origin of, 1. 380; white, 11. 206, liability of, to mildew, 319; scorching of dark, 11. 207,

Vasey,

experiments
of the vine

on

the tivation culfrom seed,

1. 345. Viburnum opulus, ii. 164, 297. into Vicia sativa, leaflet converted tendril in, 11. 374. a selection of, 11. 185. Vicunas, by Vlllosity of plants, influenced 11. 258. dryness, wild of the cultivation Vilmorin, colours 11. 258; 1. 338, carrot, of of tulips, i. 402; uncertainty and in balsams inheritance with 1. 449; experiments roses, of varieties dwarf Saponaria calabrica and Tagetes signata, i. of flowers reversion by 451; blotches, 11. 10; on stripes and variability, 11. 241. Vinca sterility in, 11. 149. minor,

Vine,

parsley-leaved, of, 1. 398; graft-hybrid in the, produced by inosculation of, influenced 1. 409; disease by
1. reversion

345-347;

11. 206; ence influof grapes, ties varieof climate, "c., on diminished ii. 258; of the, of the, 11. of cultivation extent colour

VIOLA.

INDEX.

WATSON.

475
"

of tlie, in the Indies, ii. 294. Viola, species of, i. 383-385. coloured different Tiola lutea, flowers in, i. 430. in, ii.4, 21. Viola tricolor, reversion the of growth Vircliow, Prof., on cellular ii. 275, 365; on bones, ence proliferation, ii. 276; independof elements the of the the cell-theory, body, ii. 354; on hairs of and ii. 355; presence ovarian ii. in teeth tumours, in hairs the of brain, ii. 354; of the sues, tis374; special aflBnities ii. 363; origin of polypoid ii. and excrescences tumours, 365. of selection seedthe Virgil, on of ii. 180; cattle i. 329, corn, and sheep, ii. 180. Islands, ponies of, i. 52. Virginian

289;

acclimatisation

"

Wahlverwandtschaft
ii. 159. white
cattle i. 86.

of

ner, Gartin the i.

West

Wales,
tenth

of,

Walker,
425;
on

century, A., on
the
1.

intermarriage,
of 447.

inlieritance

dactylism, poly-

Walker,

of change D., advantage of soil to wheat, ii. 124. in Walker, R., reversion cattle, ii. 8.

Vision, of, i.

hereditary

peculiarities

in 441^48; amphibious ii. 201; varieties of, ii. animals, of organs of, correlated 281; affections

with other peculiarities, ii. 311. 390. Vitis vinifera, i. 345-347, Viverra, sterility of species of, in captivity, ii. 130. of the date-palm, Vogel, varieties ii. 235. of stripes the indications on black kittens, ii. 30. i. of, in fowls, Voice, differences of. in ducks, 267; peculiarities of peculiarii. 290; inheritance ties of, i. 439. the dog, history of the Volz, on of the i. 15; ancient history ducks known unfowl, i. 254; domestic dian Ini. 286; to Aristotle, Macedonia to cattle sent mention ii. 180; by Alexander, ii. 179; in the of mules Bible, of increase of the history ii. 224. breeds, Verbascum Von phoeniceBerg, on ii. 286. um, of Voorhelm, G., his knowledge i. 387, ii. 230. hyacinths,

A. the R., on multiple of i. 25; the dog, on a striped Javanese horse, i. 59; on the conditions life of of feral ii. 5; artificial tion alteraanimals, of the of plumage birds, ii. 260; flies, butteron polymorphic ii. 382; ii. on reversion, 399; the limits of on change, ii. 400. the Wallace, Dr., on sterility of in hatched Sphingidae autumn, ii. 137. Wallachian sheep, sexual arities peculiin the horns of, i. 96. bud-variation Wallflower, in, i. 398.

Wallace, origin

Wallich,
or

Dr., fiUfonnis,

on

Thuja

pendula

i. 378.

Walnuts,

Vogt,
on

i. 371; tacked thin-shelled, ati. tomtits, by 371, ii. 209; grafting of, ii. 239. sects, inattacks of B. D., on Walsh, i. 364; on galls, ii. 263, of equable ability," variLaw 264; his
"

Walther,

ii. 333. F. L., on the history of ing intercrossthe the dog, i. 16; on and of the zebu ordinary cattle, i. 84. ity, sterilindividual Mr., on Waring, ii. 141.

Waterer,
num,,

Mr.,
of i. 406.

duction prospontaneous Cytisus alpino-laburG. R., on of Lepus

the

Waterhouse,
i. 112.

ter-colouri win-

variabilis,

Waterton,

Vrolik,

Prof.,

on

of the i. 445; influence mother's the pelvis child's head, ii. 325.

polydactylism. shape of
on

less tailwild wildness the i. 287; on ducks, ii. 19; wild of half-bred ducks, characters male of assumption of C, production taming foals, i. 54; on wild British the nonon gin orii. 329; of weeds, variation tion variai. 359: of the plum, i. 362; on mains, in Pyrus on sion reverViola tricolor, i. 384; ity kale. ii. 5; fertilin Scotch tivated, culof Draba sylvestris when ii. 142; British
on

her

bv a hen, ii. 25. H. on C, Watson, i. 323; fruit-trees,

Wade, Waders, Wagner,

215.

drooping
i. 441. behaviour ii. 135.

eyelids of, in
oriental

mitted, transment, confine-

Moritz,

dogs,

ii.

the on propagation Wahlenborg, of ners, Alpine plants by buds, runbulbs, "c., ii. 149.

distributed 266.

generally 11. plants,

4Y6
Wattles,

WATTLES.

INDEX.

WILLIAMS.

rudimentary,
ii. 297.

in

some

fowls,
Watts,
236.

Miss, Jonas,

on

Sultan

fowls,

i. of

Webb,

interbreeding
the
on

sheep,
Weber,
mother's

ii. 95. of effect

hardiness of, ii. 207, 320; Fenii. 211; natural selection in, ii. 211; varieties of, found wild, ii. 240; effects of change of climate ii. 288; ancient ety varion, of, ii. 412.

ton,

shape
her

pelvis
ii. 325.

of the child's

head,
teeth

Wedderburn, Weeds,
their
with

of Mr., correlation hair, ii. 309. for supposed necessity modification, coincidently cultivated plants, i. 328.
and

the on Whitby, Mrs., markings of i. 312; silkworms, on the i. 313. silk-moth, of White, Mr., reproduction pernumerary sudigits after tation, ampui. 448; time in occupied the of blending crossed races, ii. 62.

Weeping Weeping Weevil,

fruit 209.

of, i. 449-451. done to stoneinjury ii. by, in North America,

on

varieties habit inheritance

of of

trees, trees,

1. 377.

cious capri-

White, dogs,
White 321. White

Gilbert,

vegetable

diet

of

ii. 284. and white-spotted

to

animals,
ii. 319-

liability of,

disease,

Weijenbergh,
ii. 34.5.

parthenogenesis,
litter the
mare

Weir,

H.,

large

of

rabbits, japanned

ii. 86.
on Jenner, Weir, i. 301; peacock,

and of

ga,

i. 425: wildness ii. 20.

mule

quagkins, sisfrom

Weismann,
unnatural

Prof.,

reversion

lation, conditions, ii. 24; isoii. 253; dimorphic flies, butterii. 262; causes of variability,

ii. 273. Welsh descended from cattle, Bob longifrons, i. 83. West feral Indies, pigs of, i. 78; effect of climate of, upon sheep, i. 99. effected Western, Lord, change by, in pigs, ii. 97; in sheep, ii. 177.

flowers, most truly reproduced by seed, i. 452. Max, Wichura, on hybrid willows, ii. 24, 108, 246; analogy between the of old cultivated pollen of hybrids, ii. 247. plants and inheritance Mr., of Wicking, the characters of Columha primary livia in cross-bred i. pigeons, of a white 207; production head in almond ii. 176. tumblers, of Mr., on vidual indicases Wicksted, sterility, ii. 141. W^iegmann, spontaneous crossing of blue and white i. 418; peas, of varieties of bage, cabcrossing ii. 106; on contabescence,
-

ii. 144.

Wight, plants
ii. 149.

Dr.,

sexual

propagated

by

sterility of buds, "c.,

Westphalia,
in, i. 78.

striped
J.

young

pigs
ers flow-

Westwood,
of

O.,

on

peloric
ii. 327. inheritance

Calceolaria,

of Wetherell, Mr., on i. 454. mutilations, on Whately, Archbishop, grafting i. 379. late thorns, early and Wheat, or specific unitv diversity of, i. 323, 324, 328; Hasora, i.

Dr., effect of previous i. 425 impregnation, alpine ; ii. 281; breeds, drooping ears, ii. 282; correlation of hair and ii. 308. horns, Sir W. of Wilde, R., occurrence Bos frontosus and longifrons in
Irish

Wilckens,

paid
the

crannoges, breeds to

ancient
Dr. i.

324;
barbs

presence

absence Godron in, 1. 325; on in, i. .325; varieties

or

of
riations va-

Wilder, dogs, Wildman,

254.

i. 82; attention of animals by Irish, ii. 181. the brain of B., on

33; supernumerary
on

its, digii. 194,

i. 446. the
the the

of,

dahlia,
progeny

and i. 326; deterioration of of, i. .327; crossinc: varieties in the of. i. 328, ii. 72, 8.5, 107: Swiss i. 328-330; lake-dwellings, selection i. 329, ii. to. applied 178; increased fertility of hybrids of, with Mfjilop^f, ii. 8o; of change of soil to, advantage ii. 124; differences ous variof. in of ii. 144; India, parts tinuous convariation in, ii. 178; red.

i. 32.5, 326; climate on,

effects

of

soil

Wildness crossed Wilkes.

of
tame

animals,
on

Capt.,
among

of ii. 19, 20. of taming

pigeons
ii. 139.

the
on

Polynesians,
cattle,

Wilkinson.
ii. in 79.

J.,
Mr.,

crossed

Williams,
a

change
hen, i. 366.

Hamburgh
Mr.,

of plumage i. 265. of

Williams.

intercrossing

strawberries,

WILLIAMSON.

INDEX.

YOUATT.

477
of

Williamson, in of dogs
Indian

Capt., degeneration smull India, i. 38; on

of doubling by selection,

Wright,
calves

J., production

by
on

short of ii.

horned
In closi'

crippled cattle,ii.

Williamson,
Anrmone

i. 63. asses, Rev. W., coronaria

94; 172;

sek'ctiuii

effect
on

ing
of

pigs,

97;

l\. cattU'. Inicrbn-iMld.'t"-rioratlou

breeding, interby ilosti. 377; sion reverIi. 101. weeping, i. of spiral-leaved weeping, the Wright, Strethill, on ment developof hvbrids the galls of, ii. 246; 11. :ri3. 399; hydroida. .Mata Wymau, of, ii. 263, 264. Prof., on cattle, of notice and similar spot on a F., malformation Willughby, fantail in the a i. 160; on codtish, i. IMj; on pigeons, ian Virgintumbler i. 214; on geons, pipigs, ii. 205; pigeon, browsing der un-

ii. 178.

game-eocks

Willows,

i.

215;
the

on

the and

turbit,
carrier hookthe

i.

water,

ii. 285.
on

215;
billed

on

barb

i. 217; on pigeons, duck, i. 286.

Wilmot,

crested white reversion in colour, ii. 3, of sheep B. O., brids hyfertility of Wilson,

Mr.,

on

Xenophon, hunting Ximenes,

for the

the

colours

of

dogs, Ii. 187. Cardinal, regulations

selection of
rams, il.

Turkey-cock,

i.

303;

181.
"

of

cattle

in

humped Tasmania,
the

and

ordinary
of the

Yahu,"
in

the

name

of

the

pigeon

i. 84.

I'ersia, i.

KK).

Wilson,
Manx

Dr.,
over

prepotency
common

Yaks,

cat,
of

ii. i. of

40.

Wilson,
15.

James,

origin
on

dogs,

Wilson.
on

Mr.,
the

prepotency

transmission 174.

in

sheep,
of

ii.

43;
ii.

breeding proportionate

bulls,

domestication of, I. 83; selection il. 184. of white-tailed, of Yam, axillary development bulbs in the, ii. 148. teeth of Yarrell, Mr., deficiencv in hairless dogs. I. 34. Ii. SiYJ; acters chari. 288, Ii. 242; ducks, on of domestic sembling regoose,
those of whiteness variations AnHcr nlbi-

Wings,
in

breeds different of of i. 182, 183; fowls, effects characters i. 279-282; disuse on, i. and variations of, in ducks, diminution of. in birds 293-295; i. 296. of small islands, number of, W^ing-feathers, i. 164; variability pigeons, in in

of, length of pigeons,

frons, i. 297; i. 298;

i. 307;

of
in

ders, gan-

fish, gold-

plumage
ii. 25;
the

by
effect ii. in

of male assumption the hen-pheasant,

of castration upon

cock,

26;
the

skylark

of tlie breeding il. 133; captivity, male linnet

on

plumage
confinement,

of
ii. 242.

in

of,

ii.

137;

the

fowls,

Wolf,

recent

i. 25;
i. 31.

i. 266. land, existence of, in Ireof i. 15; barking young, the hvbrids dog, of, with

dingo,
Yellow

Yew, Yew,

in Mexico, ii. 257. fastigiate, ii. 220. in New Irish, hardy York,

fever,

Wolf-dog,
Wolves,

blar-k, of
North

Florida,

resemblance to region, i. 20, 21; i. 26.

American, dogs of the

i. 21. their
same

burrowing
of

of,
the of

i. 377; tion propagaseed, i. 4.50. variations Yolk, of, in the eggs i. 2!"0. of ducks, dog, Mr., Youatt, history of the

ii. 290. Yew, weeping,

of,

by

and common ii. 103; i. 308, bees, i. 308. S. P., Woodward, ii. 235.

Woodbury, Ligurian

Mr.,

crossing

hive-bets,

variability
on

Arctic

luscs, Molfrom Bates' of 110;

lyx ca-

Wood,
a

Willoughby,
cross,

ii. ii. 93. W.

15;
on

on

reversion Mr. the

cattle, Wooler.
the

A.,

young

Ilimalayan of persistency
in
a

rabbit,
the

i. coloured

i. 15; variations of the pulse in breeds of dogs, i. 35; liability in dogs. I. 35, il. 205; to disease 1. in dogs, inheritance of goitre I. .'i3, the 444; on greyhoimd, Charles's spaniels, King 41; on I. 41; on the i. 41; on setter, tion variai. 49: of breeds horses, In ribs number of in the of 1. 50; inheritance the horse, I. 443. in the horse, diseases Eastern of introduction 445;
II. horses, into blood P'ngllsh I. Welsh cattle. white 190; on of Brit86, ii. 187; improvement

crossed

polyanthus, of, ii. 275.

i.

380.

Wounds,

healing

YOUATf.

INDEX.

^OPF-TAUBfi.

ish

breeds of

of
horns 11.

cattle,
in

i.
young
on

93;

ments rudiless horn-

sheep,
in

ii.

308;
11.

reduction

of ing, interbreedpower

bone

sheep,
11.

221;
on

on

cattle,
cattle,
11.

30, 93;

297;
on

crossed

92;
ii.

the

of

lection, se-

79,

Bakewell's 11. in of

172, relating

173;
to

passages the ing breed-

in

long-horned
of

cattle,

93; cattle,
cattle

tion selec-

the 11.

Bible of

qualities

animals, J.,
on

11. the

179.

174;

degeneration
11.

by
in

Young,
i. 107.

Belgian
Burmese

rabbit,

neglect,
hornless of white

218;

on

the

skull disease 11.

cattle,
parts
of of

ii.

317;

Yule,

Capt.,
11.

on

hairy

cattle, long-horned
11.

321; by

family,

51,

310.

displacement
short-horned

cattle,

409;
on

on

Zambesi,
the,
1.

striped
78. character J. into

young

pigs

on

Angola
fleece

sheep,
of of

1. i. and

95; 100;

the

sheep,
horns 1.

tion correlafleece in of and Walexotic dens, Gar-

Zambos, Zarco,

of introduction

the,
Santo

ii. of

21. bits rabi.

G.,

sheep,
breeds of

96;

adaptation
to

Porto

by,
i. of 331.

sheep
1.

climate of

114. Zea

pasture,
lachlan

97;

horns 1.

altissima,
1.

i.

334;

mays,

sheep,
in 1. the 11.

96;

Zebu,
1.

80;
fertile

domestication

the,
with 85.
ass

sheep
of horns

Zoological
286;
occurrence

84;

crossing
i.

of, 84,
11. the

97,
in

European
of of

cattle, hybrids of,

11. 16.

hornless

breeds
the colour

Zebra,
and

with

sheep, sheep, sheep,

in

ii. 11. 11.

3; 3;

on on on

mare,

interbreeding
Merino
rams

Zephyranthes
Zinnia,
of

Candida,
cultivation
on

ii.

143. 241.

95;

of, Malayan

ii.

Germany,

ii. selection reversion

174;
on

effect

Zollinger ducks, Zoospore,

361.
"

penguin

unconscious ii.

sheep,

i.

289. division

192;
on

of

Leicester

of,

in

Algae,

ii.

sheep Hills,

the

Lammermulr
on

ii,

203;

many-horned

Zopf-Taube,"

i.

158.

(2)

THE

END.