TITLE:

Leaders and Followers: The Role of Achievement Motives and Their Effects on Motivating Strategies for Enhancing Performance Patricia Ann !astelli" Ph#$# Lawrence Technological Universit%" USA Fran& !astronova" Ph#$# Lawrence Technological Universit%" USA 'ac()eline Stavros" E$M Lawrence Technological Universit%" USA 'ane *allowa% Seiling" Ph#$# Taos Instit)te" USA

AUTH RS:

A+STRA!T:

Recognizing achievement motive disposition is important for leaders in understanding what motivates their followers. Incorporating motivating strategies into this process with the goal of enhancing performance, however, has not been sufficiently addressed in the literature. This study provided an analysis of low and high self-attributed need for achievement and their effects on the motivation needs of followers. The findings provide recommendations on how leaders can increase followers interest and effort to enhance performance. Achievement motive" leaders" followers" motivating strategies" motivation" /erformance

,E-. R$S:

T-PE F PAPER:

'o)rnal Article

LEA$ ! 0TA!T:

Patricia !astelli" Ph#$# Associate rofessor !utcomes Assessment "oordinator "ollege of #anagement $awrence Technological %niversity &'((( )est Ten #ile Road *outhfield, #I +,(-.-'(., &+,.&(+./(00 castelli1ltu.edu

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LEA$ERS A0$ F LL .ERS: THE R LE F A!HIE1EME0T M TI1ES A0$ THEIR EFFE!TS 0 M TI1ATI0* STRATE*IES F R E0HA0!I0* PERF RMA0!E Abstract4 Recognizing achievement motive disposition is important for leaders in understanding what motivates their followers. Incorporating motivating strategies into this process with the goal of enhancing performance, however, has not been sufficiently addressed in the literature. This study provided an analysis of low and high self-attributed need for achievement and their effects on the motivation needs of followers. The findings provide recommendations on how leaders can increase followers interest and effort to enhance performance.

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Acknowledgement: We thank Dr. Roy Bohlin and Dr. John Keller for permitting the use and modification of their Course Interest and Course Effort Sur ey instruments. *timulated by the 5awthorne studies 6Roethlisberger 7 8ic9son, ':/:;, wor9 motivation has been a focus of researchers since the ':/(s. Researchers have ta9en various approaches from loo9ing at congruence between individuals needs and organizational demands 6Argyris, ':.-;< sources of wor9 satisfaction 6wor9 design and psychological processes;< 5erzberg, #ausner 7 *nyderman 6':.:;< =room 6':0+; and his valence-instrumentalitye>pectancy model< #c"lelland 7 )inters 6':0:; personality-based approach to motivation< #aslow 6':-(; and his hierarchy of needs 6motives;?which is the easiest to remember< and others. @et with all this research, $evinson 6&((0; suggests there is still a Acrisis in motivation.B 5e as9ed e>ecutives what the dominant philosophy of motivation is for American management. Their response was the typical carrot-and-stic9 philosophy, reward and punishment?and, they added, it is not wor9ing anymore. #otivational systems are at the center of behavioral organization 6Cmmons ':::< *teers, #owday 7 *hapiro, &((+< *chein, ':,(< and Dnopf, ':0-;. Cmmons states, AEehavior is a discrepancy-reduction process, whereby individuals act to minimize the discrepancy between their present condition and a desired standard or goalB 6':::, p. &,;. If we loo9 at this from the standpoint of how leaders can motivate their followers to enhance their performance, participation in any organization involves e>ercising choice< a person chooses among alternatives, responding to the motivation to perform or ignore what is offered. This suggests that a followers consideration of personal interests and the desire to e>pand 9nowledge and s9ill has significant motivational impact, reFuiring the leader to consider motivating strategies to enhance performance.

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As noted above, there are many AcompetingB theories of motivation which are offered as e>plaining the behavior of people in organizations 6*chein, ':,(;. The diversity of these theories brought $oc9e and $atham 6&((+; to recommend that the theory of motivation must be studied from new perspectives. Eecause the topic of employee motivation plays a central role in the field of management 6*teers et al., &((+;, attention must be paid to the prospect of motivation as it moves into the &'st century. The Fuestion must be as9ed, according to *teers et al, Ahow can we e>tend or modify current models of wor9 motivation so they continue to be relevant in the futureGB 6p. /-:;. In response to this Fuestion, this writing will discuss achievement motive disposition as important for leaders in gaining an understanding of what motivates their followers. 3irst, we will review how motivation has been defined and used in organizational settings. He>t, we discuss the differences between low and high self-attributed needs for achievement and measurements. Third, we focus on both self-attributed and implicit motives to help leaders understand how they can best motivate their employees and bring it into action to align with organizational values, vision, mission, goals and obIectives. 3ourth, we present motivating strategies from the literature and a new application of the AR"* model as it pertains to an individuals low or high self-attributed need for achievement. 3ifth, we present recommendations for leaders aimed at increasing followers interest and effort, to enhance their performance. .HAT IS M TI1ATI 02 *teers et al. noted various definitions by writers who have attempted to define the term moti ation, a term that is derived from the $atin word for movement 6movere;. They note that At9inson offers the definition as Athe contemporary 6immediate; influence on direction, vigor,

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and persistence of actionB 6':0+, p. &; and =room offers Aa process governing choice made by persons...among alternative forms of voluntary activity4 6':0+, p.0;. According to #addoc9 and 3ulton, A#otivation, surprisingly enough, has not been defined in a scientifically acceptable, reasonable and legitimate manner. It has not even been defined in a practical, commonsense or useful manner.B According to these authors, Aleadership is defined in one word4 moti ation.B They suggest that motivation has not been adeFuately defined because it is too near to emotion Aand no one wants to flirt with emotionB 6'::,, p. >ii;. Their suggestion that motivation is the Asilent side of leadershipB is pertinent to the tendency of researchers to describe motivation, but not to e>plain it. To prepare future leaders to motivate people they must understand how one is motivated. In the ':&(s psychologists Thorndi9e, )oodworth, and 5uss moved theorists toward the concept of learning in motivated behavior suggesting that past actions that lead to positive outcomes would tend to be repeated. Taylor, an industrial engineer, and his associates focused on the inefficiencies of factory production proposing a paternalistic approach to management. *ocial influences on behavior began to emerge in the ':/(s. Jroup dynamics then emerged 6e.g., #ayo, '://< Roethlisberger and 8ic9son, ':/:< Eendi>, ':.0; as significant to the motivation of the individual in the group. Ctzioni 6':0'; offer three types of involvement of organization members which impact motivation4 6'; alienati e 6not being psychologically involved and forced to be a member of the group;< 6&; calculati e 6involvement to the e>tent of going a Afair days wor9 for a fair days pay<B; and 6/; moral 6the person intrinsically values the organizations mission and his or her Iob and is personally involved 6committed; and identified with the organization; 6*chein, ':,(;.

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#oving bac9 to the individual, Ro9each calls attention to determinants that enable or bloc9 motivation stating, AThere isK the basic emotional and motivational attitude of the thin9er to be rec9oned with,B 6':0(, p. '--; suggesting the need for leaders to be aware of level of openness of the person to motivational activities. $eavitt 6':-&; firmly states that relevance to ones needs is the most important determinant of ones personal view of the world. It appears that factors regarding achievement motive are significant to motivational responses and tendencies. A!HIE1EME0T M TI1E: L . R HI*H2

In ':+:, 8avid #c"lelland 7 others reported that achievement motive could be induced. This finding is critical since it suggests that leaders have the ability to influence their followers behaviors by providing effective motivating techniFues. #c"lelland found that two distinct motivational systems influence learning behaviors in different ways and that individuals reFuire different incentives to e>ert effort and to perform based on their motive type. These motivational systems are referred to as low or high self-attributed need for achievement. *elf-attributed needs for achievement are defined by Doestner et al. 6'::'; as selfreported attitudinal motives. The very first study of self-attributed need achievement 6then called valuing achievement; was conducted by de "harms, #orrison, Reitman, and #c"lelland in ':... In this study, subIects were as9ed to report their views on various paintings?with and without e>pert opinion. The findings indicated that subIects high in selfattributed need for achievement were more li9ely to change their views of the Fuality of paintings to be more in line with e>pert opinion than subIects low in self-attributed need for achievement. This study was significant in that it demonstrated a relationship between e>ternal salient social demands and high self-attributed needs for achievement.

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*ince this time, numerous studies have been conducted under various achievementrelated testing situations with similar results. %nder normal testing conditions, individuals with high self-attributed need for achievement did not perform better on a laboratory tas9 than low need achievers. 5owever, when an e>ternal demand for achievement was added, high need achievers did perform better than low need achievers 6see At9inson 7 $itwin, ':0(< Doestner, )einberger 7 #c"lelland, '::'< atten 7 )hite, ':--< #c"lelland ':,.a< #eyer, ':-/< Rayor 7 Cntin, ':,&;. $ow self-attributed need for achievement is a motive disposition in which the individual does not attribute achievement to self and incentives are generally tas9-intrinsic. Eec9er 6':0(; states that tas9-intrinsic individuals define success by their own internal standard of e>cellence and that, furthermore, satisfaction is derived from doing the Iob well rather than from the enIoyment of the end product. Their motives are said to be implicit and primarily aroused by factors intrinsic to the process of performing an activity. Thomas 6&((&; states that rewards come from tas9 purposes, namely meaningfulness and progress. The implication4 leaders in organizations would motivate individuals by assigning challenging tas9s that stretch their 9nowledge and s9ills. Ey contrast, according to #c"lelland, social-e>trinsic individuals seem to have the goal of attaining approval from others rather than satisfying internal standards. Their motives tend to be highly self-attributed and are aroused by social factors that are e>trinsic to the process of performing an activity. The inference here in the wor9place is for leaders to provide e>ternal stimuli by way of social incentives related to success. Cncouragement, ongoing feedbac9, and praise often motivate these types of individuals. These incentives and motive types are often not considered by leaders for improving followers performance.

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"urrently, there is little research available which addresses the relationship between achievement orientation and specific motivating strategies to enhance performance. Cven so, there is a logical implication that effort and performance can be enhanced when these aspects are ta9en into account. Ey understanding the differences in motivational systems, leaders may be able to provide incentives and apply various motivating strategies while satisfying both achievement orientations. This would seem a sensible approach when e>amining performance in real world settings. A!HIE1EME0T 0EE$S A0$ MEASUREME0T *ince the .(s, numerous studies e>amined the relationship between implicit and selfreport measures of achievement motive. Researchers concluded that not only were self-report and implicit measures of achievement motive uncorrelated, but they possessed very different behavioral relationships 6de"harms, #orrison, Reitman, 7 #c"lelland, ':..< 5ec9hausen, ':,(< Dreitler 7 Dreitler, ':-0< Dorman, ':-+< $owell, ':.&;. They found that implicit needs are primarily aroused by factors intrinsic to the process of performing an activity. *elf-attributed needs are aroused by social factors that are e!trinsic to the process of performing an activity. These two different, independent systems of motivation differ in the way they energize, select, and direct behavior. Table ' contrasts the two forms of motive based on research from the literature. --Insert Table ' here?

Doestner, )einberger 7 #c"lelland 6'::'; designed a research study to e>amine possible relationships between motives and incentives. They sought to determine the manner in which the two types of motives 6implicit and self-attributed; combine with two 9inds of

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situational factors 6tas9-intrinsic and social-e>trinsic; to affect performance. The results support the hypothesis that e>trinsic social factors in a performance situation are li9ely to combine with a persons self-attributed achievement motive to influence performance, whereas tas9-intrinsic factors, such as level of challenge, influence performance in conIunction with a persons implicit need to achieve. Thus, when a memory tas9 was introduced with an e>plicit emphasis on achievement, subIects high in self-attributed need for achievement performed better than those who were low. !n the other hand, in a neutral condition the reverse pattern was obtained. Importantly, it was shown that the implicit need for achievement did not interact with the social incentives regarding achievement to facilitate performance. These findings support earlier claims in research literature 6 atten and )hite, ':--< Eiernat, ':,:;. Doestner et al. 6'::'; conclude that these results suggest people scoring high in the selfattributed motives are more li9ely to selectively remember information relevant to their view of themselves. This implies that individuals who attribute high achievement motivation to themselves are vulnerable to performing Fuite poorly unless some other motivational factor, either in the form of e>ternal incentives or strong implicit motive, is also present. This research suggests that the challenge for leaders is to devise a systematic approach to coaching that considers both high and low achievement characteristic needs. In order to do this, leaders must understand the nature of self-attributed and implicit motives. SELF3ATTRI+UTE$ A0$ IMPLI!IT M TI1ES In the past thirty years, researchers have focused more on information processing and the way in which motivational thoughts are converted into action 6e.g., Anderson 7 Jlassman, '::0< 5ec9hausen 7 Duhl, ':,.< )einer, ':-&, ':,0;. This cognitive reorientation of motive theory has called into Fuestion the use of the term LvalueL to describe self-reported motives. =alue is a

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term that has come to be used to describe normative beliefs about desirable goals and modes of conduct 6"hai9en 7 *tangor, ':,-< Ro9each, ':-/, ':-:;. To avoid misunderstanding, #c"lelland, Doestner, 7 )einberger 6':,:; abandoned the term LvalueL and replaced it with Lself-attributed motivesL to describe attitudinal or self-reported motives. According to #c"lelland et al. 6':,:;, the cognitive, information-processing model of human motivation in terms of needs, plans, and goals describes the way self-attributed motives function much better than the way implicit motives function. *elf-attributed motives are characterized by organized thought< they start with an e>plicit goal that a person wishes for, then wants, and then becomes committed to pursuing in various ways 65ec9hausen 7 Duhl, ':,.< Dlinger, ':-., ':,-;. Dlinger, Earta, 7 #a>einer 6':,'; have studied empirically the varieties of current concerns that people report in interviews and Fuestionnaires. Dlinger developed the notion of a Acurrent concernB defining it as the commitment to a goal and either the consummation of the goal or disengagement from it 6Dlinger, ':--, '::,, noted in Cmmons, ':::;. #ost of the concerns have to do with unattained goals or unfinished business. The more committed people are to a goal or the more salient it becomes, the greater the li9elihood that they will feel frustrated and unhappy for their slowness or failure in reaching it 6#c"lelland et al.;. In 3inemans review, he states, A5R# interventions by positive scholars include empowerment programs to vitalize and positively energize organization, shifting employees toward greater positive commitment to organizational goals 6&((0, p. &--;. The situation is different with implicit motives because they are aroused by affective e>periences intrinsic to an activity and not by e>plicit references to unmet goals 6#c"lelland et al., ':,:;. It is especially important to realize that failure to meet a goal is not as apparent to those with a strong implicit motive. !bservers may presume that a person who scores high in

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implicit tests has a goal of doing better, but that person is not necessarily aware that he or she has such a goal. This premise is reinforced by "usters 7 Aarts 6&((.;. They found that positive affect plays a 9ey role in nonconscious goal pursuit. Their research revealed that nonconscious activation of desired behavioral states or behavioral goals promotes motivational activity to accomplish these states. *ince there is no correlation between implicit and e>plicit desires to achieve, it is not as obvious to a low need achiever when a goal is not being met. In describing how an implicit motive functions, it is not appropriate to spea9 of wishing, wanting, and committing oneself to the goal that is recognized as the natural incentive for that motive 6#c"lelland et al., ':,:;. Instead, the motive is better conceived of as leading to an activity that is the incentive for that motive. Thus, low need achievers have learned through e>perience to see9 out certain activities that provide the pleasure of moderate challenge. 5owever, they do not necessarily 9now that they have a goal of doing better. It seems sensible then, that low need achievers 9now less about what is guiding their behavior than do individuals with an e>plicit or high self-attributed achievement needs. The literature suggests that low need achievers are less able to plan appropriate corrective action when things go awry 6#c"lelland, et al., ':,:;. According to *eiling 7 Rou> 6&((0;, motivation is seen as something that can be e>panded through applying chosen and spontaneous instances of recognition, affirmation and reward. They caution, however, that these methods are temporary and less than effective in the long term. Their wor9 on constructive accountability suggests that motivation processes are dependent upon ongoing interaction activities with respected others that can include peers, leaders andMor other influential people. These interactions are what stimulates connection to and interest in wor9. They argue that when others disappear or act disinterested in our wor9, we also lose interest. This view supports prior research from Doestner, )einburger 7 #c"lelland

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6'::'; regarding subIects who possess high self-attributed needs for achievement. Interaction with others, including the leader is important for high need achievers. This suggests that motivating strategies include opportunities for freFuent interaction with the leader as well as team members. 3or both high and low need achievers, the leaders use of an interesting variety of coaching techniFues and feedbac9 is critical for producing interest and effort. M TI1ATI0* STRATE*IES $oc9e 7 $atham 6&((&; state, A#otivation theory in the realm of wor9 needs to draw on findings from other fieldsB 6p. /:/; suggesting that social psychology 6Eandura, ':,0;, educational psychology 68wec9, ':,0;, and positive organizational psychology 6"armeon et al, &((/; have benefited the study of organization behavior. Dellers wor9 in instructional motivation is significant to this Acrossover effect.B According to Deller 6':,/;, instructional motivation attracts learners toward the instruction and increases their efforts in relation to the subIect matter. Dellers 6':-:; research on motivation, performance, and instructional influence illustrates how motivation can be integrated with the aspects of instructional science. Dellers wor9 helps e>plain what influences a person to approach or avoid a tas9, and how to ma9e a tas9 more interesting. Deller clearly distinguishes effort and performance as categories of behavior4 AperformanceB means actual accomplishment, whereas AeffortB refers to whether the individual is engaged in actions aimed at accomplishing the tas9. Therefore, effort is a direct indicator of motivation. 8eci and Ryan offer self-determination theory proposing that Amotivated behaviors vary in the degree to which they are self-determined 6autonomous; versus controlledB 6in Cmmons, ':::;. "onseFuently, according to Deller 6':-:;, people can be viewed as more or less motivated by the vigor or persistence of their behavior. Intrinsic and C>trinsic *trategies

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According to 8eci and #oller 6'::&;, )hen people are e>periencing satisfaction of their basic psychological needs, they tend to do what interests them. In other words, they tend to be intrinsically motivated. Thus, intrinsic motivation reFuires e>periencing an activity as interesting, while also feeling some support for ones basic needs. The fact that interest is so central to intrinsic motivation implies, of course, that if an indi idual did not find an acti ity interesting" he or she #ould not $e intrinsically moti ated for it. %nder such circumstances, for the person to do all the activity at all would reFuire some type of e>trinsic motivation? Ae>trinsic motivationB being defined as doing an activity for some operationally separable conseFuence 6p..,,, emphasis added;. C>pectancy-valence theories 6e.g., orter 7 $awler, ':0,; had proposed that intrinsic and e>trinsic motivation are additive, yielding total motivation. This led to the suggestion that activities 6learning, wor9, etc.; should be designed to be as interesting as possible to stimulate intrinsic motivation and that social conte>ts should be organized to provide e>trinsic rewards that are contingent upon effective performance at the activities. That way, there would be ma>imal motivation, consisting of the sum or the intrinsic motivation from the interesting activities and the e>trinsic motivation form the contingent rewards 6p..,+;. Attribution theory however, made a different prediction. de"harms 6':0,; suggested that when people perceive the locus of causality for their behavior to be within themselves, they tend to be intrinsically motivated, but when they perceive the locus of causality to be e>ternal, they tend to be e>trinsically motivated. 5arac9ewicz and #anderlin9 6':,+; argue that performance-contingent rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation but instead enhance it. erformance-contingent rewards are those

given for doing well at an activity?that is, for meeting or surpassing some standard 6p..,.;.

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8aft 6&((&; defines motivation as the forces either internal or e>ternal to a person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action. 5is simple model of motivation has four elements4 3irst, a need creates desire to fulfill needs 6food, friendship, recognition, achievement;, ne>t behavior results in actions to fulfill needs, third, rewards satisfy needs either intrinsically or e>trinsically, and fourth, feedbac9 informs a person whether the behavior was appropriate and should be used again. 8aft states that intrinsic rewards appeal to the Nhigher needs of individuals, such as accomplishment, competence, fulfillment, and selfdetermination. C>trinsic rewards appeal to the Nlowerneeds of individuals, such as materials comfort and basic safety and security. The problem is that conventional management approaches often appeal to an individuals lower, basic needs and rely on e>trinsic rewards and punishments ?carrot-and-stic9 methods?to motivate subordinates to behave in desired ways. According to 8aft, Although e>trinsic rewards are important, leaders wor9 especially hard to enable followers to achieve intrinsic rewards?both individually and systemwide. Cmployees who get intrinsic satisfaction from their Iobs often put forth increased effortKleaders also strive to create an environment where people feel valued and feel that they are contributing to something worthwhile, helping followers achieve systemwide intrinsic rewards 6&((&, p. &--;. 5ughes et al. 6&((0; describe performance as those behaviors directed toward the organizations mission or goals, or the products and services resulting from those behaviors. They state that performance differs from effectiveness, which generally involves ma9ing Iudgments about the adeFuacy of behavior with respect to certain criteria such as wor9-group or organizational goals. In order for leaders to understand and influence follower motivation,

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leaders must be 9nowledgeable about different motivational theories 6need, individual difference, cognitive, and situational;. 5ughes et al. state, 4$eaders who are 9nowledgeable about different motivational theories are more li9ely to choose the right theory for a particular follower and situation, and often have higher-performing and more satisfied employees as a result5 6p. &+-;. Thus, leaders would need to spend more time with their followers to determine what interests them intrinsically and whenever possible, provide opportunities to perform particular tas9s they find rewarding. 5ughes et al. understands that this is not always possible. 5owever, they state that leaders may be able to get higher-Fuality wor9 and have more satisfied employees by reassigning wor9 according to values and intrinsic interests. Motivational Learning Strateg%: The AR!S Model Deller 6':,-;, Deller and *uzu9i 6':,,;, and Deller and Dopp 6':,-; identified four categories of motivation in learning situations4 attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction 6AR"*;. According to Deller, the AR"* model contains specific methods or strategies that are aimed at producing motivational outcomes when learners are lac9ing sufficient conditions such as interest or motives. %ttention refers to whether the learners curiosity is aroused and if stimulation can be sustained over time. Rele ance refers to the learners perception of the personal need satisfaction in relation to the instruction, or whether a highly desired goal is seen as being related to the learning e>perience. Confidence refers to the perceived li9elihood of success, and the e>tent to which success is up to the learner. Satisfaction refers to the combination of e>ternal rewards and internal motivation, and whether these motivators are compatible with the learners anticipations. Dellers AR"* categories originate from a macro-theory of the relationships of individual and environmental characteristics on effort, performance, and outcomes.

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%sing Dellers AR"* model, Eohlin, #ilheim 7 =iechnic9i 6'::/; collected data regarding the instructional motivation perceptions of adults in a variety of learning environments. "ollege students and community education students were used in this study. Two instruments were used by Eohlin, #ilheim 7 =iechnic9i 6'::(;4 the "ourse Interest *urvey Revised 6"I*R; and the "ourse Cffort *urvey Revised 6"C*R;. Ey utilizing these instruments, instructional motivation needs of the two groups of adult learners were identified and analyzed. The results of the first factor analysis 6using the effort responses of learners in college classes; gave some support to the categories of the AR"* model with each of the first four factors entirely or predominately composed of items from one category of each 6attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction;. According to Eohlin et al. 6'::/;, this suggests that the theoretical nature of the categories in the AR"* #odel are consistent with the nature of the selfreported motivational needs of adults in college courses and wor9shops. Eohlin believes this also supports the long standing position that motivation often refers to time-on-tas9 or similar measures of effort. "onnecting AR"* to Achievement #otive rior research from Doestner, )einburger 7 #c"lelland 6'::'; regarding achievement motive and instructional motivation needs as assessed by Eohlin, #ilheim 7 =iechnic9i 6'::/; suggest a correlation between intrinsicMe>trinsic needs on effort, performance, and outcomes. It is helpful to 9now that although many individuals may possess a mi>ture of both achievement orientations, one is usually predominant. "astelli 6'::+; used the AR"* model in conIunction with achievement motive to determine appropriate motivating strategies based on the need orientation of the learner. The maIor findings of this study centered on the interest variables as being most critical for predicting self-attributed needs of achievement. In fact, the interest

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variables were most common to both groups of low and high need achievers. Results that interest can be used to improve motivation in instruction indicate that learners will e>hibit significant gains in continuing motivation when relevant selections of their interests are utilized. This is reinforced by 5outz 6'::+; who notes how interest is necessary for a transfer of learning from one situation or tas9 to another. The findings also indicated that motivational strategies vary in their effectiveness dependent upon the need orientation of the learner. The results of this study suggested guidelines for selecting motivation strategies that may enhance effort and performance in classroom instruction. APPL-I0* THE AR!S M $EL I0 R*A0I6ATI 0AL SETTI0*S

"astellis 6'::+; study was recently modified for application to organization settings since it provides useful information for leaders and managers concerning achievement need preference of their followers in tas9 assignments, levels of challenge, feedbac9, and reward systems. %nderstanding achievement needs, motivational strategies, and profile characteristics for a given audience may greatly assist management in determining appropriate strategies to enhance performance output. The needs assessment instruments could also be used to measure the desires of a particular group 6or groups; within an organization with the goal of obtaining general reFuirements for various populations. Jiven these implications, this study was conducted for use in organizational applications. !once/t)al Model The conceptual model for this research is illustrated in 3igure '. The model shows behavioral characteristics that all individuals possess ? incentives and motives for achievement. Interest and effort may be correlated to achievement motive. Relationships may also e>ist between gender, age and degree status.

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Fig)re 7# !once/t)al Model for This St)d% *elf-Attributed Achievement #otive O 3 6Interest P Cffort P Jender, Age and 8egree *tatus;

Method A random sample of wor9ing professionals were determined and appropriate subIect sample sizes were established that consisted of undergraduate, graduate and doctorate students in a college of management at a private university. The participants were located at various levels in organizations. Three survey instruments were used to conduct this research. 3or the first survey, subIects were as9ed to complete a self-report inventory of the achievement scale using Qac9sons ersonality Research 3orm 6':,:;. This information provided a basis for determining subIects low and high self-attributed needs for achievement. 3or the second and third surveys permission was granted to modify Eohlin et al. 6'::/; "ourse Interest *urvey Revised and the "ourse Cffort *urvey Revised. The instruments were modified from instructor and student relationships to leader and follower relationships in order to determine how leaders can better motivate their followers to enhance performance within their organizations. 3or the Interest *urvey Revised and the Cffort *urvey Revised 6"astelli" &((0;, subIects were as9ed to rate the importance of their leaders various motivating strategies with regard to their own interest and effort, respectively. This information was used to determine strategies leaders can use to effectively motivate their followers in the wor9place. In addition, critical demographic information 6gender, age, degree status; was collected.

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The validity of Qac9sons ersonality Research 3orm is discussed e>tensively by Qac9son 6':,:; in the ersonality Research 3orm #anual. Deller and *ubhiyah 6':,-; and Eohlin and others 6'::/; also provide validity for the "ourse Interest and "ourse Cffort *urveys. Analysis was also performed to determine the overall reliability for all survey instruments used in this study. The pooled results for Qac9sons achievement scale was .0.. Individual item reliability ranged from .0' to .00. *pearman-Erowns correction was .-'. Eohlin and others "ourse Interest and "ourse Cffort *urveys Revised show consistent high reliability, with Cffort 6.,:; slightly higher than Interest 6.,.;. These survey instruments provide a strong basis for determining the motivation needs of followers and specific motivating strategies they value most from their leaders. S)mmar% of Res)lts The data indicates that age is significant in all categories of interest 6e>cept satisfaction; and all categories of effort 6e>cept relevance;. Jender is not significant in the categories of effort and interest. #eans and standard deviations were also analyzed for each of the items in the Interest and Cffort *urveys. In comparing the results between groups with low or high self-attributed needs for achievement, the data indicates that nearly identical strategies 6leader uses an interesting variety of coaching techniFues, leader is a positive role model, leader builds selfesteem, appropriate challenge level; were found most important to both groups. The data also indicates that the high self-attributed need for achievement group rated all of the items as more important than subIects with low self-attributed need for achievement. "orrelations of all variables were analyzed. The data indicates that age and degree status are common in self-

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attributed need for achievement. In the motivational characteristic categories of interest and effort, no significance was seen. 8iscriminant analysis was employed to determine if profile and motivational characteristics could be used to predict low and high self-attributed needs for achievement. The results of the canonical discriminant functions indicate that the variables used as predictors in this study 6profile and motivation characteristics; is significant and, therefore, can be generalized to the population to which the study sample was drawn. 3urthermore, the results indicate that in the category of interest, attention was most powerful in predicting self-attributed needs for achievement. !ther powerful predictors were also in the area of interest 6satisfaction and relevance;. *atisfaction, confidence, and relevance 6interest; and attention 6effort; showed a negative correlation indicating an inverse effect on motivating strategies. Thus, not employing specific motivating strategies or not employing motivating strategies effectively can actually de-motivate followers. 3inally, classification results were analyzed to determine how often low and high selfattributed need for achievement groups could be predicted. The data indicate that with the predictors used in this study, learners with low self-attributed needs for achievement could be correctly classified .&., percent of the time, and learners with high self-attributed needs for achievement could be correctly classified 0..+ percent of the time. The classification results indicate that the profile and motivational characteristics used in this research are fair predictors in determining self-attributed needs for achievement. The initial premise for this study suggested that self-attributed needs for achievement may not always be considered by leaders in organizational settings. 3urthermore, failing to incorporate various motivational strategies to accommodate different need achievement

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orientations may inhibit follower performance. In addition, the specific motivational needs of followers may vary based on gender, age, and degree status. The relationships between these variables were analyzed and reported. The findings indicate that motivational strategies vary in their effectiveness dependent upon the need orientation of the follower. Therefore, the approach a leader ta9es in motivating hisMher followers could accelerate or impede their performance outcomes. The results of this study suggest guidelines leaders can use for selecting motivation strategies that may enhance interest and effort to enhance performance. The implications are highlighted below. $IS!USSI 0 '. %ttention is an important factor for gaining and sustaining the both need achievers effort. #otivating strategies should be incorporated that capture the followers interest. %sing a variety of coaching techniFues employed by the leader that include feedbac9 on performance is also important. #a9ing the follower feel enthusiastic about the challenge may enhance effort. C>ecutive coaching has been found as most effective when it genuinely applies to ones inner desires and capacities 6Dauffman 7 *coular, &((+;. &. Rele ance is a very important component for both need achiever groups. This is evident in the area of interest where Aleader viewed as a positive role modelB is a critical attribute to all respondents. In the area of effort, appropriate challenge level is important to the low need achievers whereas wor9ing with others is most important to the high need achievers. /. Confidence is a significant factor to both need achiever groups in both the interest and effort categories. A leaders ability to build followers self-esteem is viewed as vital. "onsistency should also be maintained to produce ongoing effort and for sustaining interest. 5owever,

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interest and effort may decline for both groups if the leader fails to establish trust, or undermines the capabilities of followers worth. +. Satisfaction is important to facilitate continuing motivation for both interest and effort. 3inding levels of challenge that are appropriate is important to both need achiever groups. Results suggest that for the high need achievers, interest and effort may be contingent upon the personal satisfaction obtained from the learning e>perience. Therefore, proIects and tas9s should be designed to meet the personal needs of the individual. .. 5igh need achievers cited all categories of attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction for both interest and effort as more important than low need achievers. This implies the increased need for the leaders involvement in their daily activities. 0. The age of the individual may be correlated to self-attributed needs for achievement. The results suggest that the older the individual, the more they tend to be high need achievers. *imilarly, the more education individuals possess, the higher the tendency for self-attributed needs for achievement. -. Jender does not appear to be a factor in determining low or high self-attributed needs for achievement. ,. !verall, the leaders ability to increase followers effort is most important in continuing motivation. The maIor findings of this study centered on the leaders ability to build self-esteem of their followers and importance of leaders to be viewed as positive role models. Results that interest and effort can be used to improve motivation indicate that followers will e>hibit significant gains in continuing motivation when relevant selections of these strategiesMattributes are practiced by the leader.

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*ince effort categories were cited as most important for both low and high need achievers, improving their desire to return to tas9 6effort; remains an important obIective. The increased desire to persist in a tas9 has long-range implications for advancements in learning and performance. This implies that a more intensified use of effort variables in motivating followers may prove beneficial. 3or convenience of the reader, Table & provides a brief overview of need achievement preferences. --Insert Table & here-!oncl)sion )hile a leader may be Fuite pleased with the output of his or her staff, it is more than li9ely that there is room for improvement. %nderstanding what motivates followers to perform their best wor9 is 9ey in order to achieve the highest level of satisfaction for both the leader and your team. Also, it is crucial that the leader puts this understanding to use by consistently providing the incentives and tools which he or she finds to be effective. The findings indicate that the motivational needs of the low and high need achievers do not differ as much as was first believed. Eoth achiever types indicated that effort was more critical than interest. The effort put forth by the follower is enhanced by the leaders ability and willingness to use an interesting variety of coaching techniFues, appropriate challenge levels, and self-esteem building methods for both achiever groups. The same is true in the area of interest, although both groups found that their interest in a given area was secondary to the effort they made when attempting to accomplish their goals. It was concluded that both the low and high need achievers reFuire essentially the same Fualities of their leaders in order to enhance their performance. It is the effective leaders Iob to build self-esteem, to set appropriate challenge levels, to

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utilize motivating coaching techniFues, and so on, regardless of the followers particular achiever traits. The leaders role in promoting interest and effort is critical to the followers success. Also, the leader must serve as a positive role model, despite the indication that the low need achiever is intrinsically motivated. roper application of specific motivating strategies will help both low and high need achievers, may increase interest and effort, and will ultimately fulfill the obIective of enhanced performance.

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Ta8le 7# A S)mmar% of the !haracteristics and +ehaviors of Achievement Motive $escri8ing Trait and Reference $rive Doestner 7 #c"lelland, '::( $iscover% A//roach Doestner 7 #c"lelland, '::( Performance +ehavior Doestner 7 #c"lelland, '::( Incentive Doestner 7 #c"lelland, '::( S)ccess Eec9er, ':0( Ris& At9inson 7 $itwin, ':0( Persistence At9inson 7 $itwin, ':0( !onditioning #c"lelland, ':,( Low Self3Attri8)ted 0eed for Achievement Cnergized by natural incentives for variety and challenge Associated with feelings of interest and surprise Individuals cherish the process of performing an activity Juided by self-reactions< satisfaction in anticipating tas9 success Internal standard of e>cellence reference for intermediate ris9 Jreater persistence High Self3Attri8)ted 0eed for Achievement #ore e>trinsic and outcomes focused in nature 3eelings of pressure and tension

Individuals behave in a competent manner as defined by the particular situation Joverned by an acFuired desire to perform like an achiever< guided by social reactions C>ternal standards that are recognized by others Jreater avoidance of intermediate ris9 %nrelated to persistence

!perants 2 spontaneous behavior trends

Respondents 2 predictive of immediate choice behaviors

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Ta8le 9# A S)mmar% of 0eed Achievement Preferences for Leader Motivation !haracteristics Interest: Attention Low 0eed Achievers !verall less critical than effort $eader uses an interesting variety of coaching techniFues $eader is a positive role model $eader builds self-esteem Appropriate challenge level High 0eed Achievers: !verall less critical than effort $eader uses an interesting variety of coaching techniFues $eader is a positive role model $eader builds self-esteem Appropriate challenge level, $eader helps me accomplish my personal goals !verall more critical than interest $eader uses an interesting variety of coaching techniFues )or9ing with other people $eader builds self-esteem $eader helps me accomplish my personal goals AR"* strategies cited as more critical $east critical !lder learners more apt to be high need achievers #ore education apt to be high need achievers

Relevance "onfidence *atisfaction

Effort: Attention

!verall more critical than interest $eader uses an interesting variety of coaching techniFues Appropriate challenge level $eader builds self-esteem Appropriate challenge level AR"* strategies cited as less critical $east critical @ounger learners more apt to be low need achievers $ess education apt to be low need achievers

Relevance "onfidence *atisfaction $emogra/hics: Jender Age 8egree *tatus

: Hote4 In all cases, the high need achievers cited each motivating strategy 6AR"*; within the interest and effort variables as more important than the low need achievers.

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