1) The theoretical course of grammar. Relationships between theoretical and normative grammar. Language and speech.

The purpose of the theoretical course of English grammar is to acquaint the students with many linguistic problems connected with the grammatical structure of the English language. While practical grammar gives rules which help us to read, speak and write English correctly, the task of theoretical grammar is to give an analysis of the grammatical structure of the language as a system. Language and speech. A language was first treated as a system by the grammarians of 1 th century. !ater this view of language structure was abandoned until the beginning of the "#th century when the $wiss scholar %erdinand de $aussure acknowledged the study of a system of a given language in his book on general linguistics. The distinction between language and speech, which was first introduced by him, has since become one of the cornerstones of modern linguistic. %erdinand de $aussure defined language as the system phonological, le&ical and grammatical. 't is the source which every speaker and writer has to draw upon if he is to be understood by other speakers of the language. And speech is the manifestation of language or its use by various speakers and writers of the given language. a scholar can get at language only through its manifestation in the speech. Thus, the scholar(s task is to analy)e speech facts so that to get through them to the language system without which they couldn(t have been produced. 5) The transformational method and its application to the English grammar. We should use the transformational method in order to distinguish the sentences of the following type* +,onika is difficult to speak( and +,onika is eager to speak(. The derivational tree, which is used in the method of 'mmediate -onstituents, shows that these sentences have the same structure, but the sentences are quite different in meaning. 'n the 1st sentence ,onika is the ob.ect of the action, while in the "nd sentence +,onika( is the sub.ect. /nly the transformation of these sentences can show that the relations between the elements of these sentences are different. The 1st sentence can be transformed into 0't(s difficult to speak with ,onika(. This transformation shows that ,onika is the ob.ect of the action. The "nd sentence can be transformed into 1 +,onika eagerly speaks with people(. $o we see, that ,onika is the sub.ect of the action. Thus, the transformational method is used for distinguishing syntactical homonyms. 't shows how kernel sentences are transformed into other types of sentences.

2) Grammar and phonetics. Grammar and le icolog!. As language is a sound language, any element of its structure can e&ist only in its sound integument, but sometimes sound phenomena can play a special grammatical role. %or e&ample, the sound alternation 2or interchange3 can change the grammatical meaning of the word in following cases* 1. 'n irregular words 2come 1 came, meet4 met, see4 saw, build4 built35 ". 'n the formation of the plural 2woman 1 women, foot 1 feet, tooth4 teeth3. 6. 'n changing the stress. 7nless we learn the right stress of the words, we can(t refer them to a definite part of speech. The change of stress can bring about the change in the grammatical meaning of the word 1 for e&ample 1 E&port 2noun3 1 e&p/rt 2verb3, 'mport 2noun3 1 imp/rt 2verb35 8.The change of intonation can also play a certain grammatical role as it can change the type of the sentence.2for e&. 09e has nothing to say: 1 it is said with a falling tone, that(s a statement5 +9e has nothing to say( 1 it is said with a rising tone, that(s why it e&presses doubt. This type of sentences is called semi4interrogative.3 Grammar and lexicology. !anguage consists of words and all grammatical phenomena can e&ist only in words and word combinations. The grammatical meaning of a word to a certain degree depends on its le&ical meaning. Thus, transitive verbs, such as +take, give( require a direct ob.ect, because they are incomplete in their le&ical meaning. They take a direct ob.ect so as to complete their meanings, for e&ample 1 +;ive a pen to me(, give what< 1 a pen. +A pen( is a direct ob.ect without preposition. Thus, we see, that language is a system phonological, le&ical and grammatical. There e&ist a certain kind of relationships between grammar and phonetics on the one hand, and grammar and le&icology on the other. ". #ethods of grammatical investigation. The distributional method and its application to the English language To the main methods studying grammar we refer the distributional method, the method of immediate constituents and the transformational method. These methods have been worked out and introduced by the modern American structural linguist. =istribution of an element is the sum of all environments in which it occurs. 't(s the sum of all the different positions of an element. >y applying the distributional method the ,odern American linguist -harles %ries who re.ected the traditional classification of parts of speech, worked out his own system of different classes of words. A distributional class, according to -harles %ries, is a class of elements that occur in the same position. 9is method helps to distinguish different classes of linguistic elements. %or e&ample, +the book is interesting( 1 0book( is the 1st class, 0is: 1 the "nd class, +interesting( 1 the 6rd class

$) The method of %mmediate &onstituents and its application to the English language The method of 'mmediate -onstituents helps to arrive at a complete structural meaning of a sentence. 't shows us how the sentence is built up. 'n order to analy)e the complete structural meaning of a sentence we must determine how the separate units of the sentence are grouped. -harles %ries introduces in the analysis of a sentence the idea of a phrase, consisting of the " immediate constituents. An immediate constituent is one of the " constituents of which the given linguistic form is directly built4up. The division of a construction begins with the longest elements and continues to the smallest. %or e&ample 1 +The girl hit the table(. This sentence consists of the noun group 2the girl3 and the verb group 2hit the table3. The noun group consists of the article 2the3 and the noun 2girl3. The verb group consists of the verb 2hit3 and the noun group, which consists of the article 2the3 and the noun 2table3. 't(s called a derivational tree. The derivational tree shows how the sentence is generated from its constituents. The theory of immediate constituents is fit for generating sentences. This is an e&act theory, but the sphere of its application is limited to generating only kernel 2simple3 sentences. The "nd demerit is the following5 the 'mmediate constituents model can not be used for the analysis of syntactical homonyms. That is structures of the same type, which greatly differ from each other in meaning. %or e&ample, +,onika is difficult to speak( and +,onika is eager to speak(. A sentence consists of noun group and the verb group. The verb group consists of verb and ad.ective group. Ad.ective group consists of ad.ective and infinitive. The derivational tree shows that these sentences have the same structure, but the sentences are quite different in meaning. 'n the 1st sentence ,onika is the ob.ect of the action, while in the "nd sentence +,onika( is the sub.ect. ') #orpholog! and s!nta . Their relationship and boundar! lines between them ;rammar is a science, dealing with the grammatical structure of a language as a system. The grammatical structure of a language is a sum of regularities which defines inflections of words and the combination of words in sentences. Thus, grammar consists of " parts* morphology and synta&. They are very closely connected with each other, but each of them has an ob.ect of its own. ,orphology is the part of grammar which deals with the form of the words, classification of words and their combinability. $ynta& studies " levels 1 phrases on the one hand and sentences on the other, secondly their classification and their combinability. 't(s difficult to draw a clear4cut line between " parts of grammar.

() The notion of opposition in grammar )nouns* verbs* ad+ectives) %erdinand de $ausser suggested that the system of a language should be studied on the opposition of its concrete forms 2units3. !ater on Trubetskoy and ?acobson developed his idea. The opposition is a pair of grammatical forms, opposed to each other both in meaning and in form. %or e&ample 1 cat4 cats, dog1 dogs5 see 1 saw, look 1 looked5 fast 1 faster, weak 1 weaker. The first member of the opposition is called unmarked and the "nd is called marked member. ,) The notions of grammatical meaning and grammatical forms as applied to the English language. Every word has a le&ical meaning and grammatical meaning. %or e&ample the verb +tells( has a le&ical meaning +@ABACDE(. The grammatical meaning is the following* the 6rd person singular, common aspect, indicative mood, active voice, Fresent Tense, non4perfect, and it denotes action. The le&ical meaning of a word is the designation of some phenomena of ob.ective reality. 't is an outcome of abstraction, but it(s not too abstract to lose the concrete features to designate a thing. ;rammatical abstraction has gone much further than le&ical abstractions. ;rammatical meaning of a word is the meaning of a very general character which is common to a group of words. %or e&ample, all the nouns irrespective of their le&ical meaning are united by their grammatical meaning of substantivity. The meaning to action is common to verbs. The meaning of quality is common to ad.ectives. The grammatical meaning may also reflect in a very general way the relations between the given thing and other ob.ects, e&isting in reality 2+,ary(s cat is sitting in front of her(3. The grammatical meaning may also reflect the forms of the e&istence of the given phenomena. Thus, the grammatical meaning of tense shows the relation of the action to the moment of speaking 2+spoke, speak, will speak(3. The grammatical meaning of action is to show the character of the development of the action 209e speaks ;erman well: and +9e is speaking ;erman now(3. The grammatical meaning of the category of mood is to e&press the relation of the action to reality from the speaker(s point of view 2+'t(s high time the children went to bed(4sub.unctive mood and +'t(s high time for the children to go to bed( 1 indicative mood3. The grammatical meaning of the category of voice is to e&press the relations between an action and its sub.ect or ob.ect 2+' gave him a pen( and +' was given a pen(3.

-) Grammatical categories in #odern English A grammatical category is the unity of a grammatical meaning and a corresponding grammatical form. The grammatical categories may be more or less abstract. They may be general and particular. A general category should always consist of at least " particular categories. Thus, the general category of tense consists of 6 particular categories 1 Fresent, Fast, %uture. The general category of case consists of " particular categories 1 common and possessive. 'n the system of the English noun we distinguish the following categories 1 the category of number 2singular and plural3 and the category of case 2common and possessive3. 'n the system of the modern English ad.ective we distinguish the category of degrees of comparison 2positive, comparative and superlative3. 'n the system of the English verb there are following categories* the category of tense 2which consists of 6 particular categories 1 Fast, Fresent and %uture3, of aspect 2common and continuous3, of person 2the 1st, "nd and 6rd3, of number 2singular and plural3, of voice 2active and passive3, of mood 2imperative, indicative, sub.unctive3, of time relation 2perfect and non4perfect3. 11. T!pes of word.form derivation in English. %nflectional morphemes* sound alternation* /ero morpheme. 13'n the system of the English noun we distinguish the following inflectional morphemes* a3 +es(, +s(, +en( 1 e&pressing the idea of plurality. b3 apostrophe +s( 1 e&pressing the idea of possession 'n the sphere of the English ad.ective the suffi&es +er(, +est( 1 are the only inflectional morphemes, e&pressing the idea of the comparative and superlative degrees of ad.ectives. "3The )ero morpheme 1 is characteri)ed by the absence of the inflection, but this absence is meaningful as it presents the idea of singularity. !et(s consider some e&amples 1 girl 1 girls, child 1 children, woman 1 women. The first column of opposition 2girl, child, woman3 is characteri)ed by the )ero morpheme, e&pressing the idea of singularity. 63 $ound alternation can change the grammatical meaning of the word in following cases* 1. 'n irregular words 2come 1 came, meet4 met, see4 saw, build4 built35 ". 'n the formation of the plural 2woman 1 women, man 1 men, foot 1 feet, tooth4 teeth, mouse 1 mice, goose 1 geese, louse 1 lice. 3. 6. 'n changing the stress. 7nless we learn the right stress of the words, we can(t refer them to a definite part of speech. The change of stress can bring about the change in the grammatical meaning of the word 1 for e&ample 1 E&port 2noun3 1 e&p/rt 2verb3, 'mport 2noun3 1 imp/rt 2verb35 8.The change of intonation can also play a certain grammatical role as it can change the type of the sentence.2for e&. 09e has nothing to say: 1 it is said with a falling tone, that(s a statement5 +9e has nothing to say( 1 it is said with a rising tone, that(s why it e&presses doubt. This type of sentences is called semi4interrogative.3

10) The basic morphological notions1 word.morpheme* morph* allomorph. The basic morphological notions are word and morpheme. Word is the smallest naming unit. 't(s a sequence of human sounds, conveying a certain notion. ,orphemes are the smallest meaningful units, into which a word form can be divided. The word4form +workers( can be divided into 6 morphemes* +work( e&pressing the basic le&ical meaning of the word5 (er: e&pressing the doer of the action5 +s( is a morpheme, e&pressing the idea of plurality. 'n order to understand what an allomorph is, we will form an opposition 1 girl 1 girls, child4 children, woman 1 women. 9ere morphemes +s, en, e( have the same grammatical meaning, because they e&press plurality. They are allomorphs, that is variants of a morpheme of plurality. Allomorph is a variant of a morpheme which occurs in certain environments. Thus, the morpheme is a group of one or more allomorphs. We can distinguish root morphemes and affi&al morphemes. 1") 2arts of speech. The notion of parts of speech. 3ifficulties of the problem. -riteria applied in discriminating parts of speech* meaning, form and function. The meaning of the word, its form, the place in the sentence and its combinability can be of help in classifying words as belonging to a certain part of speech. Farts of speech are le&ico4grammatical classes of words, which are united on the basis of a general meaning, common to the whole class 2thingness, action, property3 and on the basis of their morphological and syntactical character. The representatives of traditional grammar distinguish or G parts of speech. They didn(t distinguish between notional and structural parts of speech. The ma.ority of $oviet linguists point out 16 parts of speech. %or e&ample, Frofessor $mirnitsky, ;anshina and Hasilevskaya distinguish 6 classes of words* 13 Iotional or significant words 1 they have independent meaning and perform a certain function in the sentence. They are J* noun, pronoun, ad.ective, numeral, verb and adverb. "3 %orm words, which are subdivided into " groups 1 connective form words 2prepositions and con.unctions3 and determinatives 2 articles and particles3. 63 't includes independent elements which do not enter into the structure of the sentence as its parts. They are 6 in number 1 inter.ections, yesKno words, parenthetical words.

12. 4nal!tical forms* suppletivit!* grammatical homon!m!. We distinguish 6 means of deriving word4forms in ,odern English* 13 The synthetical way 1 that is the way of changing forms of the words by means of adding inflectional morphemes without any au&iliary words. 'n the system of the English noun we distinguish the following inflectional morphemes* a3 +es(, +s(, +en( 1 e&pressing the idea of plurality. b3 apostrophe +s( 1 e&pressing the idea of possession "3 The analytical way is used for the formation of degrees of comparison of ad.ectives and adverbs 2for e&ample 1 interesting 1 more interesting 1 the most interesting5 (more( and +the most( are au&iliary words, 3, continuous tense forms 2' am reading, +am( is an au&iliary word3, perfect tense forms 2' have done it, +have( is an au&iliary word3, future tenses 2$he will read this book, +will( is an au&iliary word3 and also passive voice 2This story is written by Fushkin, +is( is an au&iliary word3. 63 $upplitive way implies the formation of words from different root morphemes. 't(s found in the sphere of the English verbs 1 for e&ample 1 to be4wasKwere 1 been. 'n the sphere of ad.ectives 1 good 1 better 1 the best, bad 1 worse 1 the worst. 1$) &ontrovers! in 2arts of speech. &lassification of parts of speech. The classification of parts of speech is the controversial problem in general linguistics. There e&ist different classifications. When the first English grammar appeared, the English grammarians borrowed from !atin the traditional classification of parts of speech. >ut it couldn(t be easily applied to modern English, because it was created for highly inflected languages, such as ;reek and !atin, while English is highly analytical language, as there are not many inflections left in it. ;eorge -urme distinguished nouns, pronouns, ad.ectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, con.unctions and inter.ections. The drawback of his classification is that he didn(t include numerals and particles. As for 9enry $weet, he distinguishes declinable classes of words 2nouns, ad.ectives, numerals, verbs3 and indeclinable, which are called particles 2adverbs, prepositions, con.unctions and inter.ections3. 9is classification is based on diclinability of words /tto ?esperson names substantives 2to which he refers* ad.ectives, verbs, nouns, pronouns, numerals and some adverbs3 and particles, which include adverbs, con.unctions, prepositions and inter.ections. 9is classification is based on form, because he singles out particles. Thus, we see that all English classical grammarians stick to the traditional number of parts of speech, but trying to give a more detailed description of the language, the had to subdivide classes into subclasses. Within the class of adverbs, they single out sentence4 modifying ad.ectives, now we call them modal words 2perhaps, certainly, surely, probably3.

15) &harles 5ries classification of words and its character -harles %ries is representative of an American structural school of linguists. 9is classification of words may be taken as a good e&ample of how the problem of parts of speech is treated by modern linguists abroad. They avoid grouping words into parts of speech5 their terminology differs greatly from the traditional approach. 'n his book +the structure of English language( -harles %ries gives a critical revision of the classical approach to the problem of parts of speech. $o -harles %ries singled out the following classes of words* 13 -lass I, denoting class 1 words, including all nouns and some pronouns. "3 -lass > 1 words in which he put all verbs with the e&ception of au&iliary 63 -lass A words 1 ad.ectives, pronouns and numerals. 83 -lass = words 1 adverbs and some phrases. %unctional words are unable to fit the position without destroying the structural meaning of sentences. 9e united functional words into 6 sets* 13 =etermines of nouns 1 articles, some modal words, intensifiers of ad.ectives and adverbs 2very, much, more3. "3 Frepositions and con.unctions. 63 Luestion words 2what, who3, inducement words 2let3, attention getting words 2listenM hearM3, +yeas and no( words and sentence introducers 2it, there3. -harles %ries critici)es the traditional definitions, given to parts of speech but refrains from giving definitions of his own. 1() The noun. %ts definition* grammatical meaning* morphological characteristics* s!ntactical functions. The noun is the word e&pressing the substantivity in the widest sense of the word. Iouns are names of ob.ects, id est things, human beings, animals, materials and abstract notions 2for e&ample 1 table, house, man, girl, snow, sugar, love3.All grammarians agree that nouns have " grammatical categories* number and case. The singular number shows that one ob.ect is meant, and the plural shoes that more than one ob.ect is meant 2for e&ample 1 girl 1 girls, table 4 tables3. Iouns have " case forms 1 the common and possessive, for e&ample 1 the child 1 the child(s father, a woman 1 a woman(s child. semantically all nouns can be divided into " main groups* proper names 2?ohn, ,oscow, the Thames3 and common nouns. -ommon nouns are divided into countable and uncountable nouns. -ountable nouns denote ob.ects that can be counted. They may be either concrete 2book, student, car3 or abstract 2idea, word, effort3. 7ncountable nouns are names of ob.ects that cannot be counted. They may be also concrete 2water, grass, wood3 and abstract 2information, ama)ement, time3. Iouns may have different functions in the sentence. They may serve as* 13 the sub.ect 2+Life is a strange thing(3. "3 an ob.ect 29e handed the man his medal3. 63 a predicative 2+the place was in order(3 83 Harious adverbial modifiers 29e spoke in a different tone 3. N3 an attribute 2his officer(s uniform was not good.3

1') The noun. %ts grammatical categories. 2roblem of gender in #odern English All grammarians agree that nouns have " grammatical categories* number and case. The e&istence of the category of gender is disputable. $ome grammarians accept it, others re.ect, because there are only " suffi&es to e&press it 1 +ion( 2hero 4 heroine3, +ess( 2steward 4 stewardess3. There are 8 different ways to distinguish between masculine and feminine* 13 >y a change of word 2cock 1 hen, man 1 woman, girl4 boy, husband 4 wife3 "3 >y a change of ending 2actor 1 actress, god 1 goodness, tiger 4 tigress3 63 Feculiar changes of ending 2c)ar 1 c)arina, wi)ard 1 witch, spinner 4 spinster3 83 >y placing a word4morpheme before or after the word 2he4goat, she4goat, man4doctor, woman4doctor, Tom4cat, Fussy4cat3 A noun that denotes a male gender is of the masculine gender 2man, husband, boy35 one, that denotes female is of the feminine gender 2woman, girl, wife35 one, that denotes either se& is of common gender 2friend, cousin35 one, that denotes neither se& is of the neuter gender 2flower, rain, opinion3. We shouldn(t confuse se& and gender. $e& is biological, gender is cultural. ;ender describes an individual(s personal, legal and social status without reference to genetic se&, gender is a sub.ective cultural attitude. $e& is an ob.ective biological fact. gender varies according to the culture $e& is constant. 1,) The noun. The categor! of number and its peculiarities in the English noun. 6ingularia tantum and pluralia tantum. The singular number shows that one ob.ect is meant and the plural shows that more than one ob.ect is meant. >ut the category of number gives rise to several problems which claim special attention. 'n such cases as +waters( and +snows( we drift away from the original meaning of the plural number. Io numeral could be used with nouns of this kind. We can(t say +three waters( or +" snows(, moreover we can(t say how many waters or snows we mean. The plural form of these words serves to denote a vast stretch of water 2for e&ample 1 waters of the ocean3 or of snow 2snows of the -anada3. Fluralia tantum include nouns of " types* 13 Iouns which denote material ob.ects, consisting of " parts 1 pa.amas, trousers, scissors. "3 Iouns which denote a more or less indefinite plurality 1 environs 2which means areas surrounding some place on all sides35 dregs 2which means various small things, remaining at the bottom of a vessel after the liquid has been poured out of it.3 $ingularia tantum include513 Iouns, denoting material substance 2milk, butter, ink, silver3"3 Iames of abstract notions, such as peace, usefulness, friendship. With singularia tantum nouns the predicate verb is always singular.

1-) The noun. The categor! of number and its peculiarities in the English noun. collective nouns and nouns of multitude. The singular number shows that one ob.ect is meant and the plural shows that more than one ob.ect is meant. >ut the category of number gives rise to several problems which claim special attention. 'n such cases as +waters( and +snows( we drift away from the original meaning of the plural number. Io numeral could be used with nouns of this kind. We can(t say +three waters( or +" snows(, moreover we can(t say how many waters or snows we mean. The plural form of these words serves to denote a vast stretch of water 2for e&ample 1 waters of the ocean3 or of snow 2snows of the -anada3. Flural form can sometimes develop a completely new meaning which the singular hasn(t got at all. %or e&ample 1 people 2OPQD3 1 peoples 2RSCAQT35 custom 2AUTVSW3 1 customs 2ESXAYRZ35 color 2[B\E3 1 colors 2]RSXZ35 attention 2BRDXSRD\3 1 attentions 2^_SYDBSRDZ3. -ertain nouns, denoting groups of human beings 2family, government, party, army3 and also of animals 2cattle, poultry3 can be used in " different ways* 13Either they denote the group as a whole than they are treated as singular and are called collective nouns "3 Either they denote the group as consisting of a certain number of individual human beings. Then they are called nouns of multitude. %or e&ample, +,y family is small( 1 it(s a collective noun5 +,y family are good speakers( 1 the noun of multitude. +The cattle were gra)ing in the field( 1 the noun of multitude 5 +,y cattle is in the shed( 1 collective noun. "5. The 6entence. &lassification of sentences according to their structure. $entences can be simple and composite. $imple sentences can be e&tended and une&tended. 7ne&tended sentence consists of the sub.ect and predicate only, for e&ample +9e is sleeping(. E&tended sentences have some other parts, for e&ample +9e is sleeping on the sofa (. Also simple sentences can be two member and one member sentences. Two member sentences can be complete 2for e&ample, 0where are you going<:3 and elliptical 209ome:3. /ne member sentences can be nominal 2+$ummer. Iight. ,usic(3, imperative 2+$peak upM(3 and infinitival 2+to do such a thingM(3. -omposite sentences can be compound and comple&. 'n compound sentences " or more equal sentences are .oined together with the help of coordinate con.unctions +and(, +but(. %or e&ample, +'t was the beginning of ?uly and the weather was fine(. -omple& sentences contain the principle clause and several subordinate clauses. %or e&ample, +' don(t know where he was gone(.

20) The noun. The categor! of case. 3ifferent approaches to the categor! of case in #odern English. #utual relations of number and case. The problem of case is one of the most debatable problems in English grammar. The usual view is that the English nouns have " cases 1 a common and possessive 2or genitive3, for e&ample 1 mother 1 mother(s. >ut there are other views which are contradictory to each other. The 1st is that the number of cases is more that ". The "nd is that there are no cases at all on the sphere of English nouns. -ase is the category of a noun, e&pressing relations between the thing denoting by a noun and other things or properties or actions and manifested by some formal sign in the noun itself. This sign is almost always an inflection and it may be a )ero sign* the absence of any sign may be significant in distinguishing one particular case from another. The minimum number of cases in a give language system must be " because the e&istence of " correlated elements is needed to establish a category. ;erman linguists proposed that the case may be e&pressed by different prepositions, by word order they distinguish 8 cases 1 nominative, genitive, dative 2by preposition +to( and word order3 and accusative. This point of view isn(t right, because if we admit that the phrase +of the pan( is genitive case, +to the pan( is dative, then there would be no reason to deny that +with the pan( is an instrumental case, +in the pan( is the locative case. Thus, the number of cases would become indefinitely large, because there are a lot of prepositions in English. 't seems obvious that the number of cases can(t be more than " 4 common and possessive. The possibility of forming possessive case is limited to a class of nouns, denoting living beings 2my brother(s wife3 and those, denoting units of time 2this year(s election3 and also substantivi)ed adverbs 2today(s newspaper3. $0. The 2redicate. T!pes of predicates. 6imple and compound 7ominal 2redicates. The predicate is the main part of speech, denoting an action, state or quality of the thing, e&pressed by the sub.ect of the action. 'n a simple predicate both predication and the designation of the process are combined in one and the same verb which may be used, both in its synthetic and analytical form 1 for e&ample 1 +$he studies English:2synthetic form3 and +$he has been studying English for 6 years( 1 analytical form. The compound nominal predicate consists of a link verb and a predicative. %or e&ample, +9e grew more cheerful.(

21) The non.finites. Their form* meaning and function. 3ouble character of verbals The verb has finite and non4finite forms. The verbals do not e&press person, number or mood. They cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence, but verbals have tense and voice distinctions. There are 6 verbals in English* the participle 1, participle " and the infinitive. The participle is a non4finite form of the verb, which has characteristics of a verb, ad.ective or adverb. Farticiple 1 has for forms* 'ndefinite Active 2doing3, 'ndefinite passive 2being done3, Ferfect active 2having done3, Ferfect Fassive 2having been done3. Farticiple 1 'ndefinite Active and Fassive usually denotes an action simultaneous with the action e&pressed by the finite verb. =epending on the tense form of the finite verb it may refer to the Fresent, past or %uture. %or e&ample, +When watching this film, she can(t help crying( 2here the participle 1 +watching( is 'n the present tense, it(s indefinite active35 +When watching this film, she couldn(t help crying ( 2here the participle 1 +watching( is 'n the past tense35 +When watching this film, she will cry: 2here the participle 1 +watching( is 'n the future tense3. Farticiple 1 Ferfect active and Fassive denotes an action prior to the action, e&pressed by the finite verb. %or e&ample, +9aving seen her, he knew she was not at home(. +9aving seen( is in the perfect active form. >ut there is some e&ception, with some verbs of sense perception and motion, such as to see, hear, come, arrive, sei)e, look, turn, enter, etc, participle 1 indefinite is used even when priority is meant. %or e&ample, +-oming back to her home town, she wanted to meet her friends. ( condition 2with the con.unction +(if3 1 +his diary, if discovered, could let her know many interesting things(. ",. The main parts of the sentence. Their definition. Every sentence has " types of parts of a sentence 1 main and secondary. The main parts of any sentence are the sub.ect and the predicate. They are contrasted with the secondary parts 1 ob.ect, attribute, adverbial modifier. The main parts make up the predication, without them the sentence would not e&ist at all. The secondary sentences e&pands the sentence. The sub.ect is the independent part of sentence, denoting a thing, whose action or character is e&pressed by the predicate. The sub.ect may be e&pressed by different parts of speech 1 noun 2+-at is my favorite kind of pet(3, possessive pronoun 2+,ine is a sorrowful fate(3, substantivised ad.ective 2+green is my favorite color(3. The predicate denotes an action, state or quality of the thing. %or e&ample, 9e stayed at home, +stayed( is the predicate of a sentence, denoting an action.

22) The verb. %ts definition* grammatical meaning and morphological classification of verbs* The verb is a very important part of speech, because in English not a single sentence can be composed without the finite form of the verb, with the e&ception of one member nominal sentences 2+Iight. -old and dark. ,usic(3. A verb is a very stable category. 't e&ist from the time immemorial on the one hand, and on the other hand it has undergone many changes during the development of the English language. 'n old English it had only synthetic forms and then it has developed a large number of analytical forms. A verb is a part of speech, e&pressing action or states, conceived as processes. A verb always e&presses a state or an action, connected with the doer of the action. The verb is the only part of speech in present day English, that has a morphological system, based on series of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood and time relation. %rom the morphological point of view in old English verbs were classified into strong and weak. 'n modern English verbs are divided into regular and irregular, which are distinguished by the formation of the past tense and the past participle.Regular verbs form their "nd and 6rd forms by means of the suffi& +ed(. 't is pronounced +d( after vowels and voiced consonants 2+played, answered, opened(3, 't( s pronounced +t( after voiceless consonants 2looked, passed3 and +id( after verbs ending in +t( or +d( 2+wanted, ended, landed(3 Irregular verbs don(t obey this rule, they donKt preserve any uniform rule of building their "nd and 6rd forms. $ome of irregular verbs build up their forms without any affi&ation. %or e&ample, * to cut, cut, cut55 to cast, cast, cast5 to hit, hit, hit. "$. The 6entence. &lassification of sentences according to communicative t!pes. According to communicative types, sentences can be declarative, interrogative and imperative. 13 We communicate something in declarative sentences. As for their structure, the sub.ect precedes the predicate. As for the intonation, they are always pronounced with a fall. %or e&ample, 0We have many books.:"3 'n interrogative sentences we ask a person of something. There are several types of interrogative sentences 1 special, general, dis.unctive, alternative. $pecial questions are always pronounced with the falling tone, for e&ample, +What are you writing down<(. ;eneral questions are pronounced with the rising tone and the word order is always inverted. %or e&ample, +'s it snowing<(. =is.unctive questions have a peculiar intonation pattern* the 1st part is pronounced with a fall, the "nd part either with a fall or rise. When the "nd part is pronounced with the fall, no answer is e&pected 2+Tom is absent, isn(t he.(3. Alternative questions are pronounced with the rise in the 1st part and a fall in the "nd part 1 0's it black or white<:. 63 'n imperative sentences we induce a person to fulfill an action. %or e&ample, +Take this bookM(

2") The verb. 6emantic.s!ntactical classification of verbs. $emantically verbs are classified into notional and semi4notional. This is the difference not of the form, but of content. %or e&ample, +$he grew old(, grew4 is semi4notional or link verb. +$he grew beautiful flowers(, grew 1 is notional verb. $o, we see, that notional and semi4notional verbs can have similar forms and the distinction between them can be reflected by the substitution. Iotional verbs usually have the verbal substitute +do( with a more general meaning than the substituted verb. %or e&ample, +$he speaks %rench better than he does.( The le&ical meaning of semi4notional verbs is usually so weak, that they can(t be substituted by verbal substitutes 1 +9e is a better student, than she is(. The ma.ority of English verbs are notional that is possessing full le&ical meaning and connected with it. 't(s their ability to form a sentence alone 2for e&ample +;o outM(3. $emi notional verbs have a very general le&ical meaning, sometimes they even lose it and the meaning of the action is hardly felt is such verbs. $emi4notional verbs can be divided into* !ink verbs, ,odal verbs, Au&iliary verbs. a3!ink verbs. A number of verbs are partly devoid of their le&ical meaning and they have become links. To them we refer* +to go, to be, to turn, to become, to get(. %or e&ample, +$he turned over a page( 1 notional verb5 +$he turned pale( 1 semi4notional verb. b3,odal verbs are characteri)ed by their peculiar modal meaning, physical ability, permission, obligation, necessity to perform an action, denoted by some other verb. %or e&ample, +' can(t swim(2physical ability3. c3 Au&iliaries. $ome linguists speak of the 6rd group that is au&iliary verbs. They are verbs completely devoid of their le&ical meaning. +=id you like it<( 9ave you done your homework<( 1 +do( and +have( are au&iliary verbs.

2-. The 8erb. The categor! of 8oice* its definition. 3ifferent views on the problem. Relationship of voice and transitivit! and intransitivit! of verbs. Hoice is the form of the verb which serves to show whether the sub.ect of the sentence is the agent or the ob.ect of the action e&pressed by the predicate verb. There are " voices in English 1 the Active and the Fassive voice. The active voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the sub.ect of the sentence is the doer of the action e&pressed by the predicate verb, that it acts. %or e&ample, +' don(t agree with her(. The passive voice serves to show that the person or thing denoted by the sub.ect of the sentence is not the doer of the action e&pressed by the predicative verb but the ob.ect of the action. The sub.ect of a passive verb doesn(t act but is acted upon, it undergoes an action. %or e&ample, +' was given a present by him(. `elationship of voice and transitivity and intransitivity of verbs. !et(s consider some e&amples, +9e will shave and wash( +' haven(t dressed up yet.( The verbs in these sentences are ob.ective, transitive and used absolutively in the form of the active voice. >ut the real voice meaning is not active, because the actions e&pressed are not passed from the sub.ect to any outer ob.ect, on the contrary these actions are confined to no other participant of the situation than the sub.ect, the latter constituting its own ob.ect of the action performance. This kind of verbal meaning of the action performed by the sub.ect upon itself is called as +refle&ive( "'. The 6entence. T!pes of comple sentences and their structure. A comple& sentence consists of a main clause and several subordinate clauses. -lauses in a comple& sentence may be linked in " ways* syndetically 2by means of subordinating con.unctions or connectives, for e&ample +' think, that she is right(3 and asyndetically 2without a con.unction or connective, for e&ample +' think she is right(3. The subordinate clauses are divided into sub.ect, predicative, attributive, ob.ect clauses and adverbial modifier of time, condition, cause, concession, manner, purpose, attendant circumstances. %or e&ample, +what he should do is uncertain( 1 sub.ect clause. +The trouble is that ' have lost my book( 1 predicative clause. 09e asked us what we should do( 1 ob.ect clause. +The man who was her is my brother( 1 attributive clause. +' left home, because ' was tired( 1 adverbial clause of cause.

2$. The 8erb. The problem of aspect. 3efinition of this categor!. English and Russian aspects compared. The category of aspect shows the character of the development of the action. %or almost all English words there e&ist " sets of aspectual forms, for e&ample 1 +Iow ' am doing my homework: 1 continuous aspect, +7sually he does his homework alone( 1 common aspect. >oth forms belong to the same verb, but there(s some grammatical difference between them. The 1st form +am doing( denotes an action going on continuously at the moment of speaking, thus having certain time limits. The second form +does( e&presses a habitual action, occurring repeatedly, thus not limited. The English common aspect usually corresponds to the `ussian perfective aspect and the English continuous aspect to imperfective aspect. >ut we observe some difference between them. the English common aspect is less concrete and much broader than the `ussian perfective aspect. The `ussian perfective aspect represents an action in its entirety. 't implies some meaning. The English common aspect only registers the fact. 't states that the action took place in the past or present or future, but it doesn(t imply the idea of any meaning. +$he wrote a book( 1 in `ussian it(s translated +RSaDbSO( and it(s perfective. >ut the sentence +$he wrote from morning till night( is translated +ARS aDbSOS b ^ECS QA RAVD(, it(s imperfective in `ussian. The English common aspect correspond to both perfective and imperfective aspect in `ussian. the difference is determined by the conte&t only. Therefore, professor 'vanova calls common aspect the )ero aspect. The continuous aspect in English in general is narrower and more concrete than the `ussian imperfective aspect. The English aspect is limited by the given moment at which the action is developing.

"0. The 8erb. The categor! of 8oice* its definition. 3ifferent views on the problem. The 9uestion of the refle ive voice. Hoice is the form of the verb which serves to show whether the sub.ect of the sentence is the agent or the ob.ect of the action e&pressed by the predicate verb. There are " voices in English 1 the Active and the Fassive voice. The active voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the sub.ect of the sentence is the doer of the action e&pressed by the predicate verb, that it acts. %or e&ample, +' don(t agree with her(. The passive voice serves to show that the person or thing denoted by the sub.ect of the sentence is not the doer of the action e&pressed by the predicative verb but the ob.ect of the action. The sub.ect of a passive verb doesn(t act but is acted upon, it undergoes an action. %or e&ample, +' was given a present by him(. `elationship of voice and transitivity and intransitivity of verbs. !et(s consider some e&amples, +9e will shave and wash( +' haven(t dressed up yet.( The verbs in these sentences are ob.ective, transitive and used absolutively in the form of the active voice. >ut the real voice meaning is not active, because the actions e&pressed are not passed from the sub.ect to any outer ob.ect, on the contrary these actions are confined to no other participant of the situation than the sub.ect, the latter constituting its own ob.ect of the action performance. This kind of verbal meaning of the action performed by the sub.ect upon itself is called as +refle&ive( 2,. The 8erb. The categor! of #ood. 3efinition* different conceptions of the mood s!stem in English and ob+ective reasons for the e isting controvers!. >y modality we understand the linguistic e&pression of the relation of our utterance to reality as viewed by the speaker. ,ood is a grammatical means of e&pressing modality. >y mood we understand the relation of the action to reality from the speaker(s point of view. The ma.ority of linguists distinguish 6 moods 1 " direct moods 2indicative and imperative3 and 1 oblique mood 2sub.unctive3. The indicative mood is the form of the verb which e&presses an action as real fact. ,orphologically it(s the most developed system because it(s e&pressed by all verbal categories. %or e&ample, ' have done my homework. The boy went away. The girl is crying, etc. The imperative mood is the form of the verb which e&presses a command or request of a speaker, addressed to the "nd person. 't doesn(t e&press any action. The speaker only urges the person addressed to fulfill an action. %or e&ample, ;o out pleaseM =o it right nowM Take this bookM $ometimes we use the personal pronoun +(you( only for the sake of emphasis. %or e&ample, cou do it pleaseM 't(s a colloquial form. The sub.unctive mood e&presses an action as non4 fact, something imaginary, desirable, obligatory or contrary to reality.

25. &ontrovers! concerning the categor! of aspect. 4ssessments of different approaches to continious forms. The category of aspect has always been and remain one of the debatable problems of English grammar. some scholars interpret aspect as a category of semantics, rather than that of aspect. ;eorge -erm distinguishes the following aspects* 13 =urative aspect 2representing the action as continuing3 1 +$he is eating( "3 Foint action aspect. 't calls attention to 1 point 1 either to the beginning of the action, than it(s ingressive action or inchoative action 1 +$he always watches TH(, or it calls attention to the final point of the action and calls it effective aspect. +$he dropped a pencil(. 63 Terminative aspect, indicating an action as a whole 1 +The child understood me.( 83 'terative action, showing the repetition of the like acts 1 +$he banged against the wall(, 0The cat mewed: The view of ;. -erm is shared by ,a& =eutschbein. We can(t but ob.ect to this classification because it(s based upon semantic principles. They confuse the grammatical category of the aspect and le&ical meaning of the verb. Another group of grammarians 1 9enry $weet, /tto ?esperson believe that the English verb does not e&press any aspect distinctions at all. They don(t recogni)e aspect as a grammatical category. They treat the continuous forms as tense forms, e&pressing simultaneous with some other actions. They give such category different names, such as progressive, e&panded, long, durative, etc. 2'. The verb. The perfect. &ontrovers! concerning the essence of perfect forms. assessments of different views on the problem. the categor! of time correlation. There is no unity of opinions concerning the essence of the perfect forms. there e&ist 8 different lines of approach to perfect forms* 13 $ome linguists 2$weet, ?esperson, ;antshina3 regard perfect forms as tense forms. some other scholars consider them to be aspect forms. Frofessor 'lyish calls perfect forms +forms of the resultative aspect(. =eutschbein, West and Horontsova call perfect forms transmissive aspect. professor 'vanova refers perfect forms to tense4aspect system. The 6 named points of view seemed to be erroneous. The 8th line of approach is represented by Frofessor $mirnitsky who arrived at the conclusion that this category is neither one of tense nor that of aspect. 9e proves his point of view into following way* 9e takes the form +has spoken( and says if the perfect forms were a tense category, than the present perfect would be a union of " different tenses 1 the present and perfect. This is clearly impossible, because if a form already belongs to a tense category 2Fresent for e&ample3, it cannot simultaneously belong to another tense category. /therwise, " particular tense categories in 1 form would collide. Thus, it follows that the category of perfect forms can(t be a tense category.

2(. The 8erb. The categor! of tense* its definition. s!stem of tenses in the English 8erb. The category of tense is a verbal category which reflects the ob.ective category of time and e&presses on this background the relation between the time of the action and the time of the utterance. Thus, the category of tense reflects the category of ob.ective time. Time e&ists independently of our consciousness. The main divisions of ob.ective time are 6 in number 1 Fast, Fresent and %uture. >y the past we mean the period of time which is prior to the moment of speaking. >y the %uture we understand the period of time following the period of speaking. The present is endless. tKs a borderline between past and future. Therefore, by the present we understand such a period of time which can be broad or narrow but which must necessarily include the moment of speaking. >arhudarov and $telling consider that the system of tenses in English includes 1J tense forms, which correspond to the 6 divisions of ob.ective time* Fresent 'ndefinite*(speaks(. Fresent -ontinuous*(is speaking(. Fresent perfect*(has spoken(. Fresent Ferfect -ontinuous*(has been peaking(. Fast 'ndefinite(spoke(. Fast -ontinuous*(was speaking(. Fast Ferfect*(had spoken(. Fast Ferfect -ontinuous*(had been speaking. %uture 'ndefinite*(will speak(.%uture -ontinuous*(will be speaking(. %uture Ferfect*(will have spoken(. %uture Ferfect -ontinuous*(will have been speaking: %uture in the Fast, indefinite*(would speak(. -ontinuous*(would be speaking(. Ferfect* +would have spoken(. Ferfect -ontinuous*(would have been speaking. $1.The 2redicate. T!pes of predicates. &ompound 8erbal 2redicates. #i ed t!pes. The ma.ority of grammarians distinguish " types of the compound verbal predicate* 13 the compound verbal modal predicate "3 compound verbal aspect predicate. These " types are distinguished according to the meaning of their 1st component 1 in the compound verbal modal predicate the 1st component e&presses either the beginning, repetition or ending of the action. ,i&ed predicates are 1 13 compound modal verbal predicate 1 +=on(t think ' mean to be unkind(. "3 The compound aspect verbal nominal predicate 4 for e& +'t began to grow dark(. 63 the compound modal aspect verbal predicate 1 for e& 1 +cou must stop doing nothing(.

"1. The problem of the sub+ect matter of 6!nta . :asic s!ntactical notions. The phrase and the sentence. The definition of the sentence still remains one of the most difficult problems of general linguistics. 't remains unsolved up to this date. Frofessor 'lyish avoids giving the definition of the sentence, he gives the following characteristic futures of the sentence* 13 't must state the relation of the sentence as a unit of language to the thought. "3 't must take into account the specific structure of the language. 63 't must leave room, as for many variants as it(s possible, Though the definition of the sentence has a long system, it still remains one of the most debatable theoretical problems and it still remains unsolved to this day. >ut synta& deals not only with the sentence, but also with the word group, the word combination or the phrase. What is the difference between the sentence and the phrase< To answer this question professor $mirnitsky compares " word combinations* +The doctor(s arrival( and +the doctor arrived(. The 1st word combination doesn(t communicate anything. 't(s not a unit of communication. 'n the "nd word combination the same phenomenon of ob.ective reality is represented as connected with reality. The indication of the connection of our communication with reality is called predication. Thus, predication e&presses the reference of the contents of speech to reality. Therefore, the sentence is the shortest unit of communication , which is characteri)ed by predication, modality, relative completeness of its meaning and intonation. The phrase or word group is a grammatically organi)ed unit of speech, consisting of " or more words, denoting a certain notion. "-.The 6ub+ect. T!pes of the sub+ect. The sub.ect is the independent part of sentence, denoting a thing, whose action or character is e&pressed by the predicate. The sub.ect can be personal and impersonal. 'n the classification of Frofessor $mirnitsky there are N classes of personal sub.ectd 13 The personal sub.ect proper 2for e&. +The students are writing now(3. this type of sub.ect may be e&pressed by the noun or pronoun. "3 'ndefinite personal sub.ect 1 't denotes a person but in a very general sense, for e& 4 +when you have a fever you should stay at home(. 't can be e&pressed by the pronouns we, you they, he. 63 the demonstrative sub.ect 4 for e&ample 1 +that is a window(5 +this is my book(. 83 negative sub.ect 1 e&pressed by the negative pronoun nobody, nothing. %or e&ample, Io one has spoken to her. N3 The interrogative sub.ect 1 it occurs in interrogative sentences 1 +what has happened(5 +who has done it<( The impersonal sub.ect neither denotes nor points a definite thing. 't(s usually e&pressed by the pronoun +it(, +'t(s frosty today(. +'t(s wonderful to speak English well(.

"2. 6!nta . The phrase definition* t!pes of phrases. The term phrase was 1st used to denote a word group in the 1Gth century. This term was again accepted in the 1eth century by the grammarians but then it was again re.ected by several scholars. 9enry $weet re.ected this term, because of its popular meaning, in stead of it he used the term +a word group(. /tto ?esperson doesn(t use any special term to denote this syntactic unit. As for American structural linguists they recogni)e and widely use the term +phrase(. The phrase of a words group is a grammatically organi)ed unit of speech, consisting of " or more words, denoting a certain notion. We distinguish word combinations of " kinds* -oordinate combinations and subordinate combinations. 'n coordinate combinations grammatically equal words are combined with the help of form words, that is coordinate con.unctions, such as +and( and +but( and also by word order and intonation, that is asyndetic coordination. %or e&ample, +a cat and a dog( 1 coordinate con.unctions, +cats, dogs, pigs( 1 asyndetic coordination. The phrase only designates the phenomenon of ob.ective reality, it(s not a unit of communication and it doesn(t have the intonation of its own. Within the phrase words are connected in different ways* in subordinate word combinations there is a word which is dominating over another word or words which are called ad.uncts. $yntactical relations in subordinate word combinations can be of several types. The main types are agreement, government, ad.oinment and enclosure. "(. The 6entence. T!pes of coordination within the compound sentence. A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of " or more clauses coordinated with each other. The clauses can be connected syndetically 2by means of coordinating con.unctions 1 and, or else and con.unctive adverbs 1 however, yet, still3, for e&ample 1 +'t was dark and the room was empty(. And asyndetically 2without a con.unction or connective adverb3, for e&ample 1 +The rain felt* the house was empty(. We can distinguish the following types of coordination* 13 copulative 1 e&pressed by the con.unctions 1 and, nor, neither nor. %or e&ample, 't was summer and she was at home. "3 =is.unctive 1 e&pressed by the con.unctions +or, else, either or(, for e&ample 1 9e knew it was her or he was wrong. 63 -ausative4consecutive 1 e&pressed by +for, so, therefore:. %or e&ample 1 't was cold, therefore she stayed at home. 83 Adversative 1 e&pressed by +but, while. still, yet(. for e&ample, +the room was dark, but she was not afraid(.

"". The 2hrase. ;a!s of e pressing s!ntactical relations within a phrase )agreement* government* ad+oinment* enclosure) Within the phrase words are connected in different ways* in subordinate word combinations there is a word which is dominating over another word or words which are called ad.uncts. $yntactical relations in subordinate word combinations can be of several types. The main types are agreement, government, ad.oinment and enclosure.13 Agreement is the type of syntactical relations in which the dominant word requires the same form of a subordinate clause word. Agreement as a type of syntactical relation can be referred only to the category of number of the demonstrative pronouns 1 this cat 1 these cats, that dog 1 those dogs. "3 ;overnment is such a type of syntactical relations in which the head word requires a certain form of the subordinate word. Transitive verbs in English require the ob.ect e&pressed by personal pronouns in the ob.ective case. %or e&ample, +$he often sees him alone.( +see( is a dominant word, the pronoun +him( is in the ob.ective case. /nly personal pronouns have the ob.ective case form and therefore prepositions play a great role in English while in `ussian the case system is of great importance in government. 'n modern English word order, prepositions, post4positions substitute case relations. 63 Ad.oinment is characteri)ed by the absence of both agreement and government. 't(s such a type of syntactical relations in which the subordinate word is unchangeable and .ust ad.oins the head word. The most usual type of this kind of connection is the relation between the adverb and its head word. %or e&ample, +to come early, to do well, to work hard(. 83 Enclosure plays a very important role in modern English. 't can be defined like this* some word or a group of words inserted between parts of an analytical form or between a notional word and a form word. The most commonly used case of enclosure is putting a word between an article and the noun which it determines. %or e&ample, +a fine weather(. Iot only ad.ectives but also some other words 2present and past participles, phrases3 can be enclosured between a noun and an article.