Transformer

2.1 Introduction
The transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. A
transformer is an electrical device, having no moving parts, which by mutual
induction transfers electric energy from one circuit to another at the same
frequency, usually with changed values of voltage and current. It consists of two
winding insulated from each other and wound on a common core made up of
magnetic material.
The most important task performed by transformers are : (i) changing
voltage and current levels in electric power systems (ii) matching source and
load impedances for maximum power transfer in electronic and control circuitry
(iii) electrical isolation ( isolating one circuit from another).
Alternating voltage is connected across one of the winding called
primary winding. The second winding is called the secondary winding. An
alternating flux is produced in the core with an amplitude depending on the
primary voltage, frequency and number of turns. This mutual flux links the
secondary winding. In both the windings emf is induced by electromagnetic
induction.
2.2 Working Principle
A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the
transformation of electric power in one circuit to electric power of the same
frequency in another circuit. The voltage can be raised or lowered in a circuit,
but with a proportional increase or decrease in the current ratings.
The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance
between two circuits which is linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic
transformer consists of two coils that are electrically separated , but are
magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance.
Consider two coils 1 and 2 wound on a simple magnetic circuit as shown
in Fig. 2.1. These two coils are insulated from each other and there is no
electrical connection between them. Let T1 and T2 be the number of turns in
coils 1 and 2 respectively. When a source of alternating voltage V1 is applied
to coil 1, an alternating flux m is produced in the magnetic circuit. The mean
path of this flux is shown in Fig .2.1 by dotted line. This alternating flux
induces an emf E1 in the primary winding by self Induction.


Fig .2.1. Two winding Transformer
The emf (e2) is induced in the secondary winding by mutual
induction.
The frequency of the induced emf in secondary is the same as that of
the supply voltage. The magnitude of the emf induced in the secondary winding
will depend upon its number of turns.
In a transformer, if the number of turns in the secondary winding is less
than those in the primary winding and the output ( secondary) voltage is less
than its input ( primary) voltage , it is called as step down transformer ( Fig.
2.2 (a)). When the number of turns in the secondary winding is higher than the
primary winding and the output ( secondary) voltage is greater than its input (
primary) it is called as step-up transformer ( Fig .2.2 .(b)).

Fig.2 .2 .(a) .Step-down ransformer Fig. 2.2 . (b).Step-up Transformer

2.3 Construction of Transformer
A single phase transformer consists of primary and secondary windings
put on a magnetic core. Magnetic core is used to confine flux to a definite path.
Transformer cores are made from the laminated thin sheets of high grade
silicon steel. The laminations are insulated from one another by heat resistant
enamel insulation coating. L type, I type and E- type laminations are used. The
laminations are built up into stack and the joints in the laminations are staggered
to minimize air gaps. The laminations are tightly clamped.
Main constructional parts of transformer
.

Fig. 2.3 .a Fig. 2.3.b
The transformer has no moving parts. The main components of a
transformer are
i) The magnetic core.
ii) Primary and secondary windings
iii) Insulation of windings
iv) Expansion tank or conservator.
v) Lead and tapping for coils with their supports, terminals and
terminal insulators.
vi) Tank, oil, cooling arrangement, temperature gauge, oil gauge.
vii) Buchholtz relay
viii) Silica gel breather.

Magnetic core
Magnetic circuit consists of an iron core. The transformer core is
generally laminated and is made out of a good magnetic material like silicon
steel. The thickness of laminations or stampings varies from 0.35 mm to 0.5 mm.
The laminations are insulated from each other by coating then with a thin coat of
varnish.
Various types of stampings and laminations employed in the construction
of transformers are shown in Fig . The joints are staggered to avoid continuous
gap causing increase in magnetizing current. If the joints are not staggered, the
core will have less mechanical strength and during operation there would be
undue humming noise. After arranging the laminations they are bolted together.

The two types of transformer cores are :
1. Core type 2. Shell type

a) Core type transformers
In the core-type transformer, the magnetic circuit consists of two vertical
legs or limbs with two horizontal sections, called yokes. To keep the leakage
flux to a minimum half of each winding is placed on each leg of the core as
shown in fig. The low voltage winding is placed next to the core and the high-
voltage winding is placed around the low voltage winding to reduce the
insulating material required. The coils used usually are of cylindrical type and
are usually wound. For transformers of higher rating stepped core with circular
cylindrical coils are used. For transformers of smaller rating, rectangular coils
with core of square or rectangular cross section are used. Insulating cylinders
are used to separate windings from the core and from each other. In a core type
construction the winding surrounds the core. A few examples of single phase
and three phase core type constructions are shown in Fig. 4.


Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
Fig.2.4. Core type transformer
b) Shell type Transformer

Fig. 2.5 Shell type transformer

In general, the core-type has a longer mean length of core and a short
mean length of coil turn. The core type also has a smaller cross-section of iron
and so will need a greater number of turns of wire, since in general not as high a
flux may be reached in the core. However core type is better adopted for some
high-voltage service since there is more room for installation. The shell type
has better provision for mechanically supporting and bracing the coils. This
allows better resistance to the very high mechanical forces that develop during a
high-current short circuit.
The choice of core -or- shell type construction is usually one of cost, for
similar characteristics can be obtained with both types. Both core and shell
forms are used , and selection is based upon many factors such as voltage
rating, kVA rating, weight, Insulation stress, mechanical stress and heat
distribution.

b) Spiral Core Transformer




Fig.2.5.a) .Spiral core type

The typical spiral core type is shown in Fig.2.5.a. The core is assembled
either of a continuous strip of transformer steel wound in the form of a circular
or elliptical cylinder or a group of strips assembled to produce the same
elliptical shaped core. By using this construction the core flux always follows
along the grain of the iron. Cold rolled steel of high silicon content enables the
designer to use higher operating flux densities with lower loss per kg. The
higher flux density reduces the weigh per kVA.


Windings
Windings form another important part of transformers. In a two winding
transformer two windings would be present. The one which is connected to a
voltage source and creates the flux is called as a primary winding. The second
winding where the voltage is induced by induction is called a secondary. If the
secondary voltage is less than that of the primary the transformer is called a step
down transformer. If the secondary voltage is more than primary voltage , it is
a step up transformer. A step down transformer can be made a step up
transformer by making the low voltage winding its primary. Hence it may be
more appropriate to designate the windings as High Voltage (HV) and Low
Voltage (LV) windings..
Insulation
The insulation used in the case of electrical conductors is varnish or
enamel in dry type of transformers. In larger transformers to improve the heat
transfer characteristics the conductors are insulated using un-impregnated paper
or cloth and the whole core-winding assembly is immersed in a tank containing
transformer oil. The transformer oil thus has dual role. It acts an
i. Insulator ii. Coolant. The porous insulation around the conductor
helps the oil to reach the conductor surface and extract the heat. Oil ducts are
used as part of insulation between windings. The oil used in the transformer
tank should be free from moisture or other contamination.
Insulating oil
The oil used in transformer protects the insulation sheet from dirt and
moisture and removes the heat produced in the core and coil. It also acts as
insulating medium. The oil must posses the following properties.
i) High dielectric strength.
ii) Free from inorganic acid, alkali and corrosive sulphur to prevent
injury to the conductor or insulation.
iii) Low viscosity to provide good heat transfer.
iv) Free from sludging under normal operating condition.
v) Good resistance to emulsion so that the oil may throw down any
moisture entering the tank instead of holding it in suspense.
Expansion Tank or Conservator
A small auxiliary oil tank may be mounted above the transformer and
connected to main tank by a pipe. Its function is to keep the transformer tank
full of oil despite expansion or contraction of the coil with the change in
temperature. A small pipe connection between the gas space in the expansion
tank, and the cover of the transformer tank, permits the gas above the oil in the
transformer to pass into the expansion tank. So that the transformer tank will be
completely filled with the oil.
Temperature Gauge
Every transformer is provided with a temperature gauge to indicate hot
oil or hottest spot temperature. It is a self contained weather proof unit, made of
alarm contacts. It is dial operated by bourdon gauge connected to a thermometer
bulb located in the reign of hottest oil.
Oil Gauge
Every transformer is provided with an oil gauge to indicate the oil
present in the tank. The oil gauge may be provided with an alarm contact which
gives an alarm when the oil level dropped beyond permissible height due to oil
leaker due to any other reason.


Buchholz Relay
The first warning when a fault is present may be given by the presence of
bubbles in the oil. If the transformer is fitted with a conservator and there are no
pockets in which gas can collect, the gas bubbles will rise up the pipe joining
the conservator to the tank. It is possible to mount gas operated relay in this pipe to
give an alarm in case of minor fault and to disconnect the transformer from the
supply mains in case of severe fault.
Breather
The simplest method to prevent the entry of the moisture inside the
transformer tank is to provide chambers known as breather. The breather is
filled with some drying agent, such as calcium chloride or silica gel. Silica gel
or calcium chloride absorbs moisture and allows dry air to enter the transformer
tank. The drying agent is replaced periodically as routine maintenance. The
whole of the transformer tank and portion of conservator use filled with oil. The
breather is connected on one side of the conservator. Thus a small surface area
of transformer oil is exposed to the atmosphere through the breather.
Bushings
Connections from the transformer windings are brought out by means of
bushing. Ordinary porcelain insulators can be used up to a voltage of 33kV.
Above 33kV, capacitor and oil filled type of bushing are used. Bushing is fixed
on the transformer tank.
Cooling Arrangement in Transformer
The various methods of cooling employed in a transformer are
a) Oil immersed natural cooled transformers
b) Oil immersed forced air cooled transformer
c) Oil immersed water cooled transformers
d) Oil immersed forced oil cooled transformers
e) Air blast transformers

a) Oil immersed natural cooled transformers
In this type, the core and coils are immersed in insulting oil contained in
an iron tank. The heat produced in the core and winding is conduct by the
circulation of oil to the surface which dissipates heat to surroundings. In
the transformers of larger output, the dissipation surface is increased by
provided large number of tubes in its sides. The oil not only keeps the
windings cool but also provides additional insulation.
b) Oil immersed forced air cooled transformer
In this type, the core and winding are immersed in oil and cooling in
increased by forced air over the cooling surfaces. The air is forced over
external surfaces such as tank, tubes and radiators by means of fan
mounted external to the transformer.
c) Oil immersed water cooled transformers
In this type, the core and windings are immersed in oil and cooling is
increased by circulation of cold water through the tubes immersed in the
oil.
d) Oil immersed forced oil cooled transformers
In this type, the core and windings are Immersed in oil and cooling is
achieved by forced oil circulation. In this method of cooling forced oil
circulation is obtained by a centrifugal pump which is located at either the
oil inlet or outlet. The pump motor used for cooling is designed to operate
totally immersed in the cooling oil being circulated.
e) Air blast transformers
Here the transformer is cooled by a forced circulation of air through core
and windings. It is used in substations located in tickly populated places
where oil is considered a fire hazard. The air supplied is filtered to avoid
dust entered the ventilating ducts.


Fig 2.6.a Fig.2.6 b


Fig. 2.6.c

2.5 EMF Equation of a Transformer
Consider a transformer arrangement as shown in fig 2.7.(a)
Let , N
1
=

Number of turns in primary
N
2
= Number of turns in secondary

m
= Maximum flux in the core in webers = Bm

X A
f = Frequency of alternating current input in hertz (H
Z
)


Fig 2.7.a.
B m = Maximum value of flux density in the core in wb/m
2
A = Area of the core in m
2
V
1
= Supply voltage across primary in volts
V
2
= Terminal voltage across secondary in volts
I
1
= Full load primary current in amperes
I
2
= Full load secondary current in amperes
E
1
= Emf induced in the primary in volts
E
2
= Emf induced in the secondary in volts

Fig.2.7 .b

As shown in figure above, the core flux increases from its zero value to
maximum value
m
in one quarter of the cycle , that is in frequency second.
Therefore, average rate of change of flux =
m
/ f = 4f
m
Wb/s
Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced electro motive force in
volts.
Therefore, average electro-motive force induced/turn = 4f
m
volt
If flux varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s value of induced e.m.f is obtained by
multiplying the average value with form factor.
Form Factor = r.m.s. value/average value = 1.11
Therefore, r.m.s value of e.m.f/turn = 1.11 X 4f
m
= 4.44f
m
Now, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in the whole of primary winding
= (induced e.m.f./turn) X Number of primary turns
Therefore,
E
1
= 4.44f N
1

m
= 4.44fN
1
B
m
A ------ (2.1)
Similarly, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in secondary is
E
2
= 4.44f N
2

x
= 4.44fN
2
B
m
A ------- (2.2)
In an ideal transformer on no load,
V
1
= E
1
and V
2
= E
2
, where V
2
is the terminal voltage
Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)
From the above equations we get
E
2
/ E
1
= V
2
/ V
1
= N
2
/N
1
= K -=---- (2.3)
This constant K is known as transformation ratio.
(1) If N
2
>N
A
1, that is K>1 , then transformer is called step-up transformer.
(2) If N
2
<1, that is K<1 , then transformer is known as step-down transformer.
Again for an ideal transformer,
Input V
1
= output V
1

V
1
I
1
= V
2
I
2

Or, I
2
/I
1
= V
1
/V
2
= 1/K
Voltage ratio =

= K
Current ratio =

Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.
Example 2.1
A 20 kVA, single-phase transformer has 200 turns in the primary and 40 turns
in the secondary. The primary is connected to 1000V,50 Hz supply. Determine
i) The secondary voltage on open circuit, ii ) The current flowing through the
two winding on full load, iii ) The maximum value of flux.
Given data:
Transformer rating = 20 kVA; Number of primary turns N1 = 200 ;
V1 = 1000V
Number of secondary turns N2 = 40 ; Supply frequency f = 50 Hz
Solution
i. Secondary voltage on open circuit
By using transformation ratio (K)

K=

V2 =

= 200V

ii. The current flowing through the two windings on full loads
Full load secondary current I
2

= 100A
Full load primary current I
1

= 20

I
1
= 20 A

iii. The maximum value of flux ( m)
The maximum value of flux ( m) can be find out from the emf
equation of the Transformer

V1 = E1 = 4.44 f m N1

m =

= 22.52 mwb


Example 2.2 .
The no-load ratio required in a single-phase 50Hz transformer is 6600/300 V. If
the maximum value of flux in the core is to be about 0.09 Weber, Find the
number of turns in each winding.
Given data:
Supply frequency f = 50Hz, Primary voltage V1 = 6600V
Secondary voltage V2 = 300V, Maximum value of flux
m = 0.09 wb

To find The number of turns in primary and secondary windings (N1 and N2)
Solution:
The primary and secondary turns can be found out from the emf equation of the
transformer.

V1 = E1 = 4.44f mN1 ---- (1)

V2 = E2 = 4.44f m N2 ---- (2)
From equation (1)

Primary turns

= 330

= 15


Example 2.3.
A single-phase,25 Hz transformer has 50 primary turns and 600 secondary
turns. The cross sectional area of the core is 400 sq-cm. If the primary of the
transformer is connected to 230 v supply. Find 1) the secondary induced emf ii)
the flux density (peak) in the core.
Given data:
Supply frequency f = 25 Hz , Primary turns N1 = 50
Secondary turns N2 = 600, Primary voltage E1 = 230v

Cross sectional area of the core A = 400 sq-cm = 400 10
-4
sq-m

Solution
i. The secondary induced emf (E2)

= 230

= 2760 v

ii. Maximum value of flux density (Bm)

E1 = 4.44f m N1

= 0.0414 wb

= 1.036 wb/sq.m


Example 2.4.
The emf per turn of a single phase, 6.6kV/440V, 50Hz transformer
approximately 12 V. Calculate number of turns in the HV and LV windings and
the net cross sectional area of the core for a maximum flux density of 1.5 T

Given data
Emf per turn = 12V
Primary voltage = 6.6 kV
Secondary voltage = 440V
Frequency f = 50 Hz
Maximum flux density Bm = 1.5 T
To find
Number of turns in the HV and LV windings
Net cross sectional area

Solution:

E1 = N1 emf induced/turn

N1 =

= 550 turns

N2 =

= 37 turns


E1 = 4.44 f N1 Bm A

A =

= 0.036 m
2


Example 2.5.
A 2200/250V transformer trakes 0.5A at a power factor 0.3 on open circuit. Find
magnetizing and working componenets of no-load primary current.

Given data:
Primary voltage V
1
= 2200V
Secondary voltageV
2
= 250V
No-load current I
o
= 0.5A
No load power factorcos
0
= 0.3


To find

i) Magnetisingcomponent I

, ii) Working componentI

Solution :
i) Magnetisingcomponenet

I
=
I
o
sin
0


sin
0
=sin ( cos
-1
0.3) = 0.9539

I

= 0.5 0.9539

I

= 0.476 A

ii) Working componenet

I

=I
o
cos
0
= 0.5 0.3

I

=0.15 A

Example 2.6.
Find active and reactive components of no-load current. Ii) no-load current of a
440V/220V single phase transformer , if the input power on no-load to the high
voltage winding is 100w and power factor of no-load current is 0.3 lagging.
Given data:
Primary voltage V1 = 440V, Secondary voltage V2 = 220V
No-load input power P
0
= 100W , No-load input power factor cos
0
= 0.3 lag


Solution:

P
0
=V
1
I
o
cos
0

I
o =

= 0.757 A

1.Active component (I

)

I

=I
o
cos
0
= 0.757 0.3 = 0.2271 A

Ii Reactive component ( I

)
sin
0
= 0.953

I
=
I
o
sin
0
= 0.757 0.953 = 0.722 A

Example 2.7.
Find (i) active component and reactive component of no-load current and (ii) no-
load current of a 230/115V single-phase transformer, if the power input on no-
load to the high voltage winding is 70W and power factor of no-load current is
0.25 lagging.
Given data:
Primary voltage V1=230V,Secondary voltage V2=115V
No-load input power W0=70W,No-load input power factor cos0=0.25 lag.
Solution:
i. Active component (I

)
I

=


=

= 0.3043 A
ii) No-load current (I
o
)

P
0
=V
1
I
o
cos
0


I
o =

= 1.217 A


iii) Reactive component ( I

)

________ ______________
I
o =
I

2
+ I

2
= 1.217
2
0.3043
2

I
o
= 1.179 A
Example 2.8.
Assume the transformer of Fig. 2.8 (d) to be the ideal transformer. The
secondary is connected to a load of 5 30
o
Z . Calculate the primary and secondary
side impedances, current and their p
f
, and the real powers. What is the
secondary terminal voltage?
Solution
The circuit model of the ideal transformer is drawn in Fig,2.9.(d)

Fig.2.9.(d)

2 5 30
o
Z = Z O
1 2
/ 150 / 75 2 a N N = = =
'
1
2 2
5 30
1.25 30
(2)
o
o
Z Z
Z
= = = Z O
2
200 / 2 100 ; V V = =
(Secondary terminal voltage)
2 100 0 / 5 30 20 30
o o o
I A = Z Z = Z

or 2 20 ; cos 30 0.866
o
I A pf = = = Lagging

'
1
2
20 30 / 2 10 30
o o
I I A = = Z = Z
or 1 10 ; cos 30 0.866
o
I A pf = = = Lagging

2
P (Secondary power output) =
2
(20) Re5 30
o
Z
400 4.33 1.732kW = =

1
P (primary power input) =
2
P (as the transformer is lossless)
= 1.732kW
or otherwise

1 1 1 1
cos 200 10 0.866 P V I u = =
= 1.732kW
2.6. Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
In Fig 2.10 the current
1
I flowing in the primary of the semi-ideal transformer
can be visualized to comprise two components as below:
i) Exciting current
0
I whose magnetizing component
m
I creates mutual
flux | and whose core-loss component
1
I provides the loss associated
with alternation of flux.
ii) A load component
'
2
I which counterbalances the secondary mmf
2 2
I N so that
the mutual flux remains constant independent of load, determined only by
thus
1
E . Thus

'
1 0 2
I I I = +
------- (2.22)

Where
'
2 2
1
2
I N
N
I
=
------- (2.23)

The exciting current
0
I can be represented by the circuit model of Fig. 3.7 so
that the semi-ideal transformer of Fig.3.13 is now reduced to the true ideal
transformer. The corresponding circuit (equivalent circuit) modeling the
behavior of a real transformer is drawn in Fig. 3.14(a) wherein for ease of
drawing the core is not shown for the ideal transformer.
In the equivalent circuit,
R1,X1 Primary winding resistance and reactance in
R0 No load resistance in
X0 No load reactance in
I1 Full load primary current in A
I0 No load primary current in A
I2' Load component of primary current in A
Iw working component


Fig. 2.10. Evolution of transformer equivalent circuit
The impedance
2 12
( ) R jX + on the secondary side of the transformer can now be
referred to its primary side resulting in the equivalent circuit of Fig.2.10 (b)
wherein

2
' 1
2 2
2
l l
N
X X
N
| |
=
|
\ .
------ (2.24)


2
' 1
2 2
2
N
R R
N
| |
=
|
\ .
------ (2.25)

The load voltage and current referred to the primary side are

2
' ' 1
2 2
2
N
V V
N
| |
=
|
\ .
------ (2.26)


2
' ' 1
2 2
2
N
I I
N
| |
=
|
\ .
------ (2.27)

Therefore there is no need to show the ideal transformer reducing the
transformer equivalent circuit to the T-circuit of Fig 2.10 (c) as referred to side
1. The transformer equivalent circuit can similarly be referred to side 2 by
transforming all impedances (resistances and reactances), voltages and currents
to side 2. It may be noted here that admittances (conductances and
susceptances) are transformed in the inverse ratio squared in contrast to
impedances (resistances and reactances) which as already shown in Sec.3.4
transform in direct ratio squared. The equivalent circuit of Fig.2.10 (c) referred
to side 2 is given in Fig.2.10(d) wherein

' ' 2
1 1
1
N
V V
N
=

' ' 1
1 1
2
N
G I
N
=

2 2
' ' 1 1
1
2 2
;
i m m
N N
G G B B
N N
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .


2 2
' ' 2 1
2 2 1 1
1 2
;
l l
N N
R R X X
N N
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .

With the understanding that all quantities have been referred to a particular isde,
a superscript dash can be dropped with a corresponding equivalent circuit as
drawn in Fig. 2.10 (e).
In the equivalent circuit of Fig 2.10 (c) if
i
G is taken as constant, the core-
loss is assumed to vary as
2
1
E or
2 2
max
f | (Eq.(3.6)). It is fairly accurate
representation as core-loss comprises hysteresis and eddy-current loss expressed
as
1.6 2 2
max max
( )
h e
K f K f | | + . The magnetizing current for linear B-H curve varies
proportional to
1
max
E
f
. If inductance ( )
m
L corresponding to susceptance
m
B is
assumed constant,
1
2
m
m
E
I
fL t
=
It therefore is a good model except for the fact that the saturation effect has been
neglected in which case
m
B would be a nonlinear function of
1
. E lf It is an
acceptable practice to find the shunt parameters ,
i m
G B at the rated voltage and
frequency and assume these as constant for small variations in voltage and
frequency.
The passive lumped T-circuit representation of a transformer discussed
above is adequate for most power and radio frequency transformers. In
transformers operating at higher frequencies, the interwinding capacitances are
often significant and must be included in the equivalent circuit. The equivalent
circuit given here is valid for a sinusoidal steady-state analysis. In carrying out
transient analysis all reactances must be converted to equivalent inductances.
The equivalent circuit developed above can also be arrived at by
following the classical theory of magnetically coupled circuits [40]. The above
treatment is, however, more instructive and gives a clearer insight into the
physical processes involved.
Example 2.9.
A 20 kVA, 2000/200 V, single-phase, 50Hz transformer has a primary
resistance of 2.5 and reactance of 4.8 . The secondary resistance and
reactance are 0.01 and 0.018 respectively. Find i) Equivalent reactance
referred to primary. Ii) Equivalent impedance referred to primary. Iii)
Equivalent reactance , impedance and reactance referred to secondary, iv)
Total copper loss of the transformer.
Given data:
Transformer rating = 20 kVA, Primary voltage V1 = 200V
Secondary voltage V2 = 200 V, Supply frequency f = 50 Hz
Primary resistance R1 = 2.5 , Primary reactance X1 = 4.8
Econdary resistance R2 = 0.01 , Secondary reactance X2 = 0.018
Solution:
i. Equivalent resistance referred to primary (R01

R01 = R1 +R2 = R1 +

Transformer ratio K =

== 0.1
R01 = 2.5 +

= 3.5


iii) Equivalentimpedance referred to primary (Z01)

X01 = X1 + X2 = X1+

= 4.8 +

= 6.6
__________ _________
Z01 = R01
2
+X01
2
= 3.5
2
+ 6.6
2
= 7.47
iii. Equivalent resistance referred to secondary (R02)
R02 = R2 + R1K
2
= 0.01 +2.50.1
2
= 0.035
Equivalent reactance referred to secondary (X02)
X02 = X2 +X1K
2
= 0.018 + 4.80.1
2
= 0.0665
Equivalent impedance referred to secondary (Z02)
__________ _____________
Z02 = R02
2
+ X02
2
= 0.035
2
+ 0.066
2
= 0.075

iv. Total Cu losses
P
cu
= I
1
2
R01

=


=

= 10A

P
cu
= 10
2
3.5 = 350W

Example 2 10.
Consider the transformer of Example (Fig. 3.8) with load impedance as
specified in Example 3.3. Neglecting voltage drops (resistive and leakage
reactive drops), calculate the primary current and its pf. Compare with the
current as calculated in Example 3.3
Solution
As per Eqs (3.28) and (3.29)

'
1 0 2
I I I = + and
'
2 2
1
2
I N
N
I
=
As calculated in Example 3.3

'
2
10 30
o
I A = Z
Further as calculated in Example 3.2

'
0
2.3 70.5
o
I = Z
Hence
1
2.3 70.5 10 30
o o
I = Z + Z
(0.75 2.17) (8.66 5) j j = +
= 9.41-j7.17=11.83 37
o
A Z

1
11.83 , cos37 0.8
o
I A pf = = = Lagging
Compared to the primary current computed in Example 3.3 (ignoring the
exciting current) the magnitude of the current increases slightly but its pf
reduces slightly when the exciting current is taken into account.
In large size transformers the magnitude of the magnetizing current is 5%
or less than the full -load current and so its effect on primary current under
loaded conditions may even be altogether ignored without any significant loss in
accuracy. This is a usual approximation made in power system computations
involving transformers.

Example 2.11.
A 20 kVA, 50 Hz, 2000/200 Distribution transformer has a leakage

impedance of 0.42 0.52 j + Oin the high- voltage (HV) winding and 0.004+j 0.05
O in the low-voltage (LV) winding. When seen from the LV side, the shunt
branch admittance
0
Y is (0.002-j 0.0015) (at rated voltage and frequency). Draw
the equivalent circuit referred to (a) HV side and (b) LV side, indicating all
impedances on the circuit.
Solution
The HV side will be referred as 1 and LV side as 2.
Transformation ratio,
1
2
2000
200
N
a
N
= = = 10 (ratio of rated voltages; see Eq. (3.27))
(a) Equivalent circuit referred to HV side (side 1)
' 2
2
(10) (0.004 0.005) 0.4 0.05 Z j j = + = + O
( )
'
2 2
1
0.002 0.015
(10)
Y j = (Notice that in transforming admittance is
divided by a
2
)
The equivalent circuit is drawn in Fig. 2.11(a).
(b) Equivalent circuit referred to LV side (side 2)
'
1 2
1
(0.42 0.52) 0.0042 0.0052
(10)
Z j j = + = +
The equivalent circuit is drawn in Fig. 2.11(b)

Fig. 2.11.
2.6.1 Approximate Equivalent Circuit
In constant frequency (50Hz) power transformers, approximate forms of
the exact T-circuit equivalent of the transformer are commonly used. With
reference to Fig. 2.11(c),it is immediately observed that since winding
resistances and leakage reactances are very small,
1 1
V E ~ even under conditions
of load. Therefore, the exciting current drawn by the magnetizing branch
( )
i m
G B would not be affected significantly by shifting it to the input terminals,
i.e. it is now excited by
1
V instead of
1
E as shown in Fig.2.12 (a). It may also be
observed that with this approximation, the current through
1 1
,
l
R X is now excited
by
1
V instead of
1
E as shown in Fig. (a). It may also be observed that with this
approximation, the current through
1 1
,
l
R X is now
'
2
I rather than
'
1 0 2
I I I = + . Since
1
I is very small (less than 5% of full - load current), this approximation. The
winding resistances and reactances being in series can now be combined into
equivalent resistance and reactance of the transformer as seen from the
appropriate side (in this case side 1). Remembering that all quantities in the
equivalent circuit are referred either to the primary or secondary dash in the
referred quantities and suffixes ,1 l and 2 in equivalent resistance, reactance and
impedance can be dropped as in Fig.2.12(b).



` Fig.2.12. Approximate equivalent circuits of a transformer
Hence,

eq
R (equivalent resistance) =
1 2
R R +

eq
X (equivalent resistance) =
1 2 l l
X X +
eq
Z (equivalent resistance) =
1 eq eq
R j X +
In computing voltages from the approximate equivalent circuit, the
parallel magnetizing branch has no role to play and can, therefore, be ignored as
in Fig. 2.12 (b).
The approximate equivalent circuit offers excellent computational ease
without any significant loss in the accuracy of results. Further, the equivalent
resistance and reactance as used in the approximate equivalent circuit offer an
added advantage in that these can be readily measured experimentally , while
separation of
1 l
X and
2 l
X experimentally is an intricate task and is rarely
attempted.
The approximate equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.12 (b) in which the
transformer is represented as a series impedance is found to be quite accurate
for power system modeling . In fact in some system studies, a transformer may
be represented as a mere series reactance as in Fig 2.12 (c). This is a good
approximation for large transformers which always have a negligible equivalent
resistance compared to the equivalent reactance.
The suffix 'eq' need not be carried all the time so that R and X from now
onwards will be understood to be equivalent resistance and reactance of the
transformer referred to one side of the transformer.
Example 2. 12
A 2000/200V transformer has primary resistance and reactance of 2 and 4
respectively. The corresponding secondary values are 0.025 and
0.04.Determine i) Equivalent resistance and reactance referred to secondary
ii) Total resistance and reactance referred to secondary iii) Equivalent
resistance and reactance referred to secondary referred to primary iv) total
resistance and reactance referred to primary.
Given data:
V1 = 2000V , V2 = 200V, R1 = 2 , 1 = 4
R2 = 0.025, X2 = 0.04
To fi nd:
1) R1 , X1 2) R01 3) R2 , X2 4) X02
Solution:
1) Transformation ratio k =

= 0.1
Equivalent resistance of primary referred to secondary
R1 = R1 k
2

= 2 0.1
2

= 0.025
Equivalent reactance of primary referred to secondary
X1 = X1k
2

= 4 0.1
2

X1 = 0.04
2) Total resistance referred to secondary
R02 = R2 + R1 = 0.025 + 0.02
R02 = 0.045
Total resistance referred to secondary
X02 = X2 +X1 = 0.04+0.04 = 0.08
3) Equivalent resistance of secondary referred to primary

R2 =

= 2.5
Equivalent resistance of secondary referred to primary
X2 =

= 4

4) Total resistance referred to primary (R01)
= R1 +R2
= 2 +2.5 = 4.5
Total reactance referred to primary X01
= X1 +X2
X01 = 4+4 =8

2.7 Losses in transformer
In a transformer, there exists two types of losses.
i) The core gets subjected to an alternating flux, causing core losses.
ii) The windings carry currents when transformer is loaded, causing
copper losses
Core or Iron losses
Due to alternating flux set up in the magnetic core of the transformer, it
undergoes a cycle of magnetization. Due to hysteresis effect there is loss of
energy in this process which is called hysteresis loss.
Hysteresis loss =

f v watts
Where

= Hysteresis constant depends on material.

= Maximum flux density

f = frequency.
v = Volume of the core.
The induced e.m.f in the core tries to set up eddy currents in the core and
hence responsible for the eddy current losses. The eddy current loss is given by
Eddy current loss =

watts / unit volume

= eddy current constant

t = thickness of the core
The flux in the core is almost constant as supply voltage

at rated frequency f
is always constant. Hence the flux density

in the core and hence the

hysteresis and eddy current losses are constant at all the loads. Hence the core or
Iron losses are also called Constant losses. The iron losses are denoted by

.
The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core material like
silicon steel which has very low hysteresis loop and by manufacturing the core
in the form of laminations.
Copper losses
The copper losses are due to the power wasted in the form of

R loss
due to resistance of the primary and secondary windings. The copper loss
depends on the magnitude of the currents flowing through the windings.
Total Cu loss =

) =

)
=

The copper losses are denoted by

. If the current through the windings is full

load current, we get copper losses at full load. If the load on transformer is half
then we get copper losses at half load which are less than full load copper
losses.
For transformer , VA rating is

or

. As

Copper losses are proportional to its kVA rating.

(kVA)
2

Total losses = Iron losses + Copper losses
=

2.8 Testing of the Transformers
i) Open circuit Transformer
ii) Ii) Short circuit test (or) Impedance test
By using these two tests we can find,
1. Circuit constants (R
0
,X
0
,R
01
,X
01
,R
02
and X
02
)
2. Core loss and full load copper loss
3. Predetermine the efficiency and voltage regulation.\
These tests are convenient to perform and very economical because they
provide the required information without actually loading the transformer.
iii) Load test
iv) Sumpners test

2.8.1 OPEN -CIRCUIT TEST
Figure 2.13 shows the connection diagram for the open circuit test. The
high voltage (hv) side is left open.






Fig.2.13 open circuit test
A voltmeter V, an ammeter, A, and a wattmeter W are connected in the
low-voltage(lv) side (primary in our case) which is supplied at rated voltage and
frequency. Thus, the voltmeter V reads the rated voltage V
1
of the primary.
Since the secondary is open- circuited, a very small current I
0
, called the no-load
current, flows in the primary. The ammeter A, therefore, reads the no-load
current I
0
. The power loss in the transformer is due to core loss and a very small
I
2
R loss in the primary. There is no I
2
R loss in the secondary since it is open and
I
2
=0. Since the no-load current I
0
is very small (usually 2 to 5 percent of the
full-load primary current), the I
2
R loss in the primary winding can be neglected.
The core loss depends upon the flux. Since the rated voltage V
1
is applied, the
flux set up by it will have a normal value so that normal core losses will occur.
This core loss is the same at all loads. Therefore the wattmeter which is
connected to measure input power reads the core loss (iron loss)P
i
only. The
readings of the instruments in an open-circuit test are as follows:
Ammeter reading = no-load current I
0

Voltmeter reading = primary rated voltage V
1

Wattmeter reading = Iron or core loss P
1

From these measured values the components of the no-load equivalent
circuit can be determined.

1 0 0
cos
i
P V I | =
The no-load power factor,
0
1 0
cos
i
P
V I
| =

0 0 0 0
cos , sin
W
I I I I

| | = =

1 1
0 0
,
W W
V V
R X
I I
= =

2.8.2 Short circuit test
The Short circuit test is useful to find
i) Full load copper loss
ii) Equivalent resistance and reactance referred to metering side
In the short circuit (SC) test (Fig. 2.14), usually the low-voltage side is
short-circulated by a thick conductor (or through an ammeter which may serve
an additional purpose of indicating rated load current). An ammeter, a voltmeter
and a watt meter are connected on the high-voltage side. The reasons for short-
circuiting the lv side and taking measurements on the hv side are as follows:

2.14 Short circuit test on a transformer
(1) The rated current on hv side is lower than that on lv side This current can
be safely measured with the available laboratory ammeters.
(2) Since the applied voltage is less than 5 percent of the rated voltage of the
winding, greater accuracy in the reading of the voltmeter is possible when
the hv side is used as the primary.
The high voltage is supplied at the reduced voltage from a variable voltage
supply. The supply voltage is gradually increased until full-load primary current
flows. When the rated full-load current flows in the primary winding rated full-
load current will flow in the secondary winding by transformer action.
Readings of the ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter are noted. The ammeter
reading
1SC
I gives the full-load primary current. The voltmeter reading
1SC
V gives
the value of the primary applied voltage when full-load currents are flowing in
the primary and secondary. Since the applied voltage is low (usually about 5 to
10 percent of the normal rated supply voltage), the flux uproduced is low.
Also, since the core loss is nearly proportional to the square of the flux, the core
loss is so small that it can be neglected. However, the windings are carrying
normal full-load currents and therefore the input is supplying the normal full-
load copper losses. Thus the wattmeter gives the full-load copper losses
cft
P .The
output voltage V
2
is zero because of the short circuit. Consequently, whole of
the primary voltage is used in supplying the voltage drop in the total impedance
1e
Z referred to the primary

1 1 1 SC SC e
V I Z =
If cos
1SC
| = power factor at short circuit then
1 1
cos
cft SC SC
P V I sc | =
The readings of the instruments in a short-circuit test are as follows:
Ammeter reading = full-load primary current,
1SC
I
Voltmeter reading = short circuit voltage
1SC
V
Wattmeter reading = full-load copper loss of the transformer
cft
P
From the readings of the instruments on short-circuit test, the following
calculations can be made:
Equivalent resistance of the transformer referred to primary
1 2
1
cft
e
SC
P
R
I
=
Equivalent impedance referred to primary
1
1
1
SC
e
SC
V
Z
I
=
Equivalent reactance referred to primary

1 1
2 2
1 e e e
X Z R =

1
1
cos
e
SC
e
R
Z
| =
With short-circuit test performed only on one side the equivalent circuit
constants referred to other side can also be calculated as follows:
1
2
2
1 1 2
1
e
e e
Z
T
Z Z
T a
| |
= =
|
\ .

1
2
2
1 1 2
1
e
e e
R
T
R R
T a
| |
= =
|
\ .

1
2
2
2 1 2
1
e
e e
R
T
X X
T a
| |
= =
|
\ .

Efficiency from OC and SC test
From the open circuit test , we can get core loss (Pi)of the Transformer
and short circuit test, we can get full load copper loss (Pcu).
Now, we can find the full load efficiency of the Transformer at any
power factor without actually loading the transformer.
Efficiency =

For any load (n)
=

2.8.3 BACK-TO-BACK TEST
(SUMPNER'S TEST OR REGENERATIVE TEST)
In order to determine the maximum temperature rise, it is necessary to
conduct a full-load test on a transformer. For small transformers full-load test is
conveniently possible, but for large transformers full-load test is very difficult.
A suitable load to absorb full-load power of a large transformer may not be
easily available. It will also be very expensive as a large amount of every will
be wasted in the load during the test. Large transformers can be tested for
determining the maximum temperature rise by the back-to-back test. This test is
also called the Regenerative test or Sumpner's test.
The back-to-back test on single-phase transformers requires two identical
transformers. Figure2.14, shows the circuit diagram for the back-to-back test on
two identical single-phase transformers
1
r
T and
2
r
T . The primary windings of the
two transformers are connected in parallel and supplied at rated voltage and
rated frequency. A voltmeter, an ammeter and a wattmeter are connected to the
input side as shown in Fig.2.14.

Fig.2.15. Back to Back test on two identical single phase transformer
2.8.4 TEST FOR POLARITY
Polarities can be checked by a simple test requiring only voltage
measurements with transformer on no load. In this test, rated voltage is applied
on one winding, and electrical connection is made between one terminal from
one winding and one terminal from the other, as shown in Fig.2.16. The voltage
across the two remaining terminals (one from each winding) is then measured.
If this measured voltage V' is greater than the input test voltage V, the polarity
is additive. If the measured voltage V' is smaller than the input test voltage V,
the polarity is subtractive. The terminals are then marked accordingly.

2.16. Polarity test

Example 2.13.
Obtain the approximate equivalent circuit of a given 200/2000 V, single-phase
25kVA transformer having the following test results.
O.C test : 200V,6A,350W on l.v side
S.C test : 70V, 15 A, 600W on H.V side
Given data:
Primary voltage

200V, Secondary voltage

= 2000V, Transformer rating

= 25kVA
Solution :
O.C test ( l.v side):
Here, the instruments are connected in the low voltage side
Primary voltage

= 200V , No-load input current

= 6A
No-load input power

= 350W

No-load input power factor

= 0.2916

= 0.956
Wattfull component (working component)

= 6

Representing the core loss

= 114.28
Wattless component (magnetizing component)

= 60.956 = 5.736A
Magnetizing reactance

= 34.86
S.C test (H.V side)
Here, the instruments are connected in the high voltage side
Short circuit voltage

= 70 V, Short circuit current

= 15 A,
Losses

= 600W
Impedance of transformer referred to h.v side

= 4.66

= 2.66
Transformation ratio K =

= 10
Referred to 200V (l.v side)

= 0.0466

= 0.0382

2.9 Efficiency of a Transformer
Due to the losses in a transformer , the output power of a transformer is
less than the input power supplied.
Power output = Power input Total losses
Power input = Power output + Total losses
= Power output +

The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of thr power output to
power input.
The efficiency is
=



=

Now power output =

cos
Where cos = load power factor
The transformer supplies full load current

and terminal voltage

=Copper losses on full load =

But

= VA rating of a transformer
=

% =

100
This is full load percentage efficiency with,

= Current Full load secondary c

But if the transformer is subjected to fractional load then using the appropriate
values of various quantities, the efficiency can be obtained.
N = Fraction by which load is less than full load =



For example, if transformer is subjected to half load then
n =


=

= 0.5
When load changes , the load current changes by same proportion.
New

= n (

) F.L
In general for fractional load the efficiency is
% =

100
Since the transformer is a static device, there are no rotational losses such as
windage and frictional losses in a rotating machine. In a well-designed
transformer the efficiency can be as high as 99% .
Since the transformer is a static device, there are no rotational losses such as
windage and frictional losses in a rotating machine. In a well-designed
transformer the efficiency can be as high as 99% .
Example 2.14.
A 4 kVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has equivalent
resistance referred to primary as 0.15 . Calculate,
i) The total cupper losses on full load
ii) The efficiency while supplying full load at 0.9 p.f lagging
iii) The efficiency while supplying Half load at 0.9 p.f leading
Assume total iron losses equal to 60W
Solution :

= 200 V ,

= 400 V, S = 4 kVA ,

= 0.15 ,

= 60 W
K =

= 2

0.15 = 0.6

F.L) =

=10 A
(i) Total copper losses on full load,
(

) F.L = (

F.L))
2

= (10)
2
0.6 = 60 W
(ii) cos = 0.9 lagging and full load
% =

100

% =

96.77%
(iii) cos = 0.9 leading and half load
As half load n = 0.5
(

) H.L =

= (0.5)
2
60 15 W
% =

100
=

100 = 95.52%

2.9.1 CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
The per-unit (pu) efficiency at load current I
2
is

2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2
cos
cos
ft
e i
V I
V I I R P
|
q
|
=
+ +
------(2.28)


2 2
2 2 2 2 2
cos
cos ( / )
e i
V
V I R P I
|
|
=
+ +
------ (2.29)
Equation (1.29) shows that the efficiency varies with the load. The plot of
efficiency q versus load (or load current) is shown in Fig.2.17

2.17. Efficiency Vs Load curve
It is seen that the efficiency is low at small loads and reaches a maximum value
for a certain load. The efficiency then deceases as the load is increased,
Sometimes it is desired to know under what conditions and at which value of
the load, the transformer will operate at its maximum efficiency.
At maximum efficiency

2
0
d
dI
q
= and
2
2
2
0
d
dI
q
<
Since
2
V and
2
cos | are constants for a given load, the efficiency will be a
maximum when the denominator
2
2 2 2
2
cos
e
Pi
Dr V I R
I
|
| |
= + +
|
\ .
is a maximum.
For a minimum value of the denominator Dr

2
0
dDr
dI
= and
2
2
2
0
d Dr
dI
>

2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
cos 0
i
e e
P d d Pi
Dr V I R R
dI dI I I
|
+
| |
= + = +
|
\ .

For a minimum Dr,

2 2
2
0
i
e
P
R
I
=

2
2
2 e i
I R P =
------ (2.30)

Also,
2
2 2 2 3
2 2 2 2
2
0 0
i
e
P d Dr d Pi
R
dI dI I I
| |
= = + >
|
\ .

Since
2
2
2
d Dr
dI
is positive, the expression given by Eq. (2.30) is a condition
for the minimum value of Dr, and therefore the condition for maximum value of
efficiency.
Equation (2.30) shows that the efficiency of a transformer for a given
power factor is a maximum when the variable copper loss is equal to the
constant iron (core) loss.
2.9.2 CURRENT AND kVA AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
Let
2 ft
I = Full-load secondary current

2M
I = Secondary current at maximum efficiency

ft
S = full load VA = rated VA =
2 2 ft
V I

M
S = VA at maximum efficiency
2 M
V I =
For maximum efficiency, variable copper loss= constant iron loss

2
2 2 M e i
I R P =

2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2
fl i
i
M
e fl e
I P
P
I
R I R
= =

2
2 2 2
2
i
M fl
fl e
P
I I
I R
=
-----(2.31)



Equation (1.31) gives the value of current at maximum efficiency.
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (1.31) by
2
V we get

2 2 2 2
i
M fl
cfl
P
V I V I
P
=
----- (2.32)


i
M fl
cfl
P
S S
P
=
Current at maximum efficiency = (full-load current) x
tan cons t iron loss
full load copper loss

Equation (1.38.2) gives the value of VA at maximum efficiency.
Maximum efficiency

2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
cos
cos
M
M
M M e i
V I C
V I I R P
|
q
|
=
+ +

At maximum efficiency

2
2
2
,
M e i
I R P =
2 2
;
M fl
I m I =
i
cfl
P
m
P
=

2 2 2
2 2 2
cos
cos
fl
M
fl i i
mV I
mV I P P
|
q
|
=
+ +


2
2
( ) cos
( ) cos 2
M
i i
m rated VA
m rated VA P
|
q
|
=
+
------- (2.33)


2.9.3 EFFICIENCY CURVES OF A TRANSFORMER
We have seen that maximum efficiency of a transformer occurs at the
load point where variable copper loss is equal to fixed core loss
i
P . That is
2
2
2 e i
I R P =
------ (2.34)

The load current at which maximum efficiency occurs is
2
2 2 2
2
i i
M fl fl
fl e cfl
P P
I I I
I R P
= =
------ (2.35)

Equations (2.34) and (2.35) enable us to predict the shape of the efficiency
curves under various load and power factor conditions. Equation (2.35) shows
that regardless of the power factor of the load, maximum efficiency occurs at
the same load (current) value
M
I as shown in Fig. 2.17.(b). The maximum
efficiency for any power factor occurs at the same load and the highest possible
efficiency occurs at unity power factor.



Fig. 2.17.(b). Effect of power factor on Efficiency
Example 2.15.
A 100 kVA, 2.2 kV/220V, 50 Hz transformer has an iron loss of 900 W and
full load copper loss of 1000 W. Determine the efficiency at full load 0.8 p.f.
Given data:
Transformer rating = 100 kVA, Primary voltage = 2.2 kV

Secondary voltage = 220 V,
Iron loss

= 900 W
Full load copper loss

= 1000W ,
Power factor cos = 0.8
Solution:
% =

% =

% = 97.68%

Example 2.16.
For a 40 kVA, single phase transformer, the iron losses and full load copper
losses are 350W and 400 W respectively. Find the efficiency at unity power
factor on full load and determine the load for maximum efficiency.
% =

% = 98.16%
The load for maximum efficiency
= Full load kVA

= 40

= 37.41 kVA

Example 2.17.
A 120 kVA,6000/400 V,star/star, 3 phase 50 Hz transformer has a iron loss of
1800 W. The maximum efficiency occur at full load. Find the efficiency of
the transformer at 1) full load and 0.8 2) the maximum efficiency at unity pf
Since maximum efficiency occurs at full- load, copper loss at full
l,oad equals iron loss of 1800W.
Copper loss at full load = (4/3)
2

i) Full load output at 0.8 p.f = kVA
= 120
= 1800 +3200 = 5000W
=

100
=

= 95.04%
ii) Maximum efficiency occurs at full load when iron loss equals
copper loss.
Total loss = 1800
Output power at unity pf
=

= 90kW
Input power = 90000+3600 = 93600W
=

= 96.15%


2.10 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER
Majority of loads connected to the secondary of a transformer are
designed to operate at practically constant voltage. However, as the current is
taken through the transformer, the load terminal voltage changes because of the
voltage drop in the internal impedance of the transformer. The term voltage
regulation is used to identity the characteristic of the voltage change in a
transformer with loading.
The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the arithmetical
difference in the secondary terminal voltage between no-load
2
( 0) I = and full-
rated load
2 2
( )
ft
I I = at a given power factor with the same value of primary
voltage for both rated load and no-load. It is expressed as either a per unit or a
percentage of the rated load voltage. Rated voltage is usually taken to be the
nameplate value.
The numerical difference between no-load and full-load voltage is called
inherent voltage regulation.
Inherent voltage regulation
2 2 nl fl
V VV
=
A
------ (2.36)

Where
2 fl
V = rated secondary terminal voltage at rated load

2nl
V = no-load secondary terminal voltage with the same value of primary
voltage for both rated load and no load.
The quantities in Eq. (2.36)are magnitudes, not phasors.
Per-unit voltage regulation at full load
1
2 2
2
tan
nl fl
fl
V cons t
V V
V
A
=

=
----- (2.37)

Percent voltage regulation at full load

1
2 2
2
tan
100
nl fl
fl
V cons t
V V
V
A
=

=
------ (2.38)

The conditions under which the regulation is to be figured are as follows:
(1) Rated voltage, current and frequency
(2) When regulation is stated without specific reference to the load
conditions, rated load is to be understood.
(3) Waveform o voltage should be assumed sinusoidal unless stated
otherwise.
(4) Power factor of the load should be mentioned. If the power factor is not
specified, its value is to be assumed unity.
The voltage regulation is an important measure of transformer performance.
The limits of voltage variation are specified in terms of voltage regulation. For
example, transformers in public supply systems must be so adjusted that the
voltage at the terminals of the consumers must not exceed 5%
2.10.1 VOLTAGE RGULATION IN TERMS OF PRIMARY VALUES
Per unit voltage regulation

2 2
2
nl fl
fl
V V
V

=

1
2nl
V
V
a
=
pu voltage regulation

1
2
2
fl
fl
V
V
a
V

=
------ (2.39)


2.10.2 CALCULATION OF VOLTAGE REGULATION
The voltage regulation of a transformer can be calculated in terms of its
circuit parameters. The approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer
referred to the secondary is shown in Fig. 2.18


Fig.2.18. Approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to
secondary

By KVL,
2
1
2 2 e
V
V I Z
a
= +
Since
2
2 e
I Z depends on the power factor of the load, the regulation
depends on the load power factor. In order to calculate regulation the following
steps are used:
(1) Take
2
V as reference phasor

2 2 2
0 0
o
V V V j = Z = +
(2) Write
2
I in phasor form
For lagging power-factor
2
cos|

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos sin I I I jI | | | = Z =
For leading power factor
2
cos|

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos sin I I I jI | | | = + = +
For unity power factor

2 2 2
0 0
o
I I I j = Z = +




Example 2.18
The primary and secondary winding resistance of a 10kVA, 6600/250V
single-phase transformer are 10 and 0.02 respectively. The equivalent
leakage reactance as referred to the primary winding is 35 .Find the full
load regulation for load power factors of (i) unity (ii)0.8 lagging
(iii)0.8leading
Given data:
Transformer rating = 40kVA, Primary voltageV1 = 6600V, secondary
winding resistanceR1 = 10 , secondary winding resistance R2 = 0.02
Solution:
Equivalent leakage reactance as referred to the primary winding X01 =
35
Transformation ratio K =

= 0.0378
Equivalent resistance referred to the primary winding

R01 = R1 +

= 10 +

= 24

Primary current

= 6.06 A
1. Unity power factor
% regulation =

Regulation =

= 2.202%
2. 0.8 power factor
% Regulation =

= 3.69%
3. 0.8 power factor Lead

% Regulation =

= -1.165%

Example 2.19.
A single phase transformer on full load has an impedance drop of 20 V.
calculate the value of power factor when its regulation will be zero.

Given data
Impedance drop

= 20V, Resistance drop

= 10V
To find:
Power factor when regulation will be zero

Solution:
Regulation can be zero only when power factor is leading. Then

= 0

= 17.32 v

= 0

= 0.5773

= 30
cos

= cos 30 = 0.866 leading

2.11 Autotransformer (or) Variac
A transformer in which part of the winding is common to both the primary and
secondary is known as an auto transformer. The primary is electrically
connected to the secondary, as well as magnetically coupled to it.
The auto transformer differs from a conventional two winding transformer in
the way in which the primary and secondary are interrelated. In the conventional
transformer, the primary and secondary windings are completely insulated from
each other but are magnetically by a common core. In the autotransformer the
two windings primary and secondary are connected electrically as well as
magnetically, in fact a part of the single continuous winding is common to both
primary and secondary.
2.11.1 SINGLE-PHASE AUTO TRANSFORMER
A Single-phase autotransformer is a one-winding transformer in which a
part of the winding is common to both high-voltage and low-voltage sides.
Consider a single winding abc of Fig. 2.1. The terminals a and c are the
high-voltage terminals. The low-voltage terminals are b and c where b is a
suitable tapping point. The portion bc of the full winding abc is common to both
high-volt-age and low-voltage sides. The winding bc is called the common
winding and the smaller winding ab is called the series winding because it is
connected in series with the common winding.


Fig 2.1. Auto transformer (step down)
A step-down autotransformer is one in which the primary voltage is
greater than the secondary voltage. The source voltage V
H
is applied to the full
winding abc and the load is connected across the secondary terminals bc. This
arrangement is called the step-down autotransformer as shown in Fig. 2.1
Since the transformer windings are physically connected, a different
terminology is used for the autotransformer than for other types of transformers.

H ac
T T = = number of turns of full winding abc
= number of turns of hv side

L bc
T T = = number of turns of full winding bc
= number of turns of the lv side
ab H L
T T T = = number of turns of full winding ab

H
V = input voltage on the hv side

L
V = input voltage on the lv side

H
I = input voltage on the hv side
Current in the series winding =
ab H
I I =
Current in the common winding
cb
bc I I = =
In an autotransformer there are two voltage ratios namely circuit voltage ratio
and winding voltage ratio. The circuit -voltage ratio
H H
A
L L
V V
a
V T
= =
------ (2.40)

The quantity
A
a is called the transformation ratio of the autotransformer,
It is seen from Eq. (1.40) that
A
a is always greater than 1.
When the load is connected across the secondary terminals a current I
flows in the common winding bc. It has a tendency to reduce the main flux but
the primary current
H
I increases to such a value that the mmf in winding ab
neutralizes the mmf in winding bc. That is,

ab ab bc bc
I T I T =
or ( )
H H L L
I T T I T =
----- (2.41)

1 1
H L H
A
H L L
T T T I
a
I T T

= = =
----- (2.42)

The winding-voltage ratio is

ab ab H L
bc bc L
V T T T
a
V T T

= = =
1
A
a a =
----- (2.43)

or
Since the right-hand side of Eq. (2.43) is a pure number, it follows that
the current in windings ab and cb are in phase.
By KCL at point b

L L H
I I I =
------ (2.44)


L H
I I I =
------ (2.45)

Since
H
I and I are in phase

H H
I I
I I
=
------ (1.46)

Therefore Eq (2.43) becomes
1
A
H
I
a
I
=
1
L H
A
H
I I
a
I

=
or
L
A
H
I
a
I
=
and
L
H
A
I
I
a
=
----- (2.47)

From Eqs, (1.43)) and (1.47)

1
A
L A
a I
I a

=
---- (2.48)

The induced voltages in windings ab and bc are in time phase because
they are induced by the same flux.
Let
1 ac H
E E E = =

2 bc L
E E E = =

ab ac bc
E E E = =
1
ab ac bc ab
bc bc bc
E E E E
E E E

= =
1
H
L
E
E
=
1
ab
A
bc
E
a
E
=
----- (2.49)

and 1
ab
A
bc
E
a
E
= +
or 1
A
a a = +
------ (2.50)

where
ab
bc
E
a
E
=
= two -winding transformation ratio
Equation (2.50) shows that the transformation ratio of an autotransformer
is greater than that if the same set of windings were connected as a 2-winding
transformer.
Equations (2.40) and (2.48) show that the ratio of voltages and currents in
the windings ab and bc are the same as if turns T
ab
formed the primary and the
turns T
bc
formed the secondary of an ordinary transformer having a ratio of
transformation of ( 1)
A
a . Thus, an autotransformer may be considered as an
ordinary transformer, treating winding ab as the primary and the winding bc as
the secondary. In other words, the transformer action present in the
autotransformer takes place in the windings ab and bc.
2.12 Three phase connections of Transformer
The generation of electric power is three-phase in nature and the generated
voltage is 13.2kV, 22 kV or higher. Transmission of power is carried out at high
voltages like 132kV or 400kV. Before transmission, it is required to step-up the
voltage and for this a three phase step-up transformer is required. Similarly, at
the distribution sub-station the voltage must be stepped down and it is necessary
to reduce the voltage up to 6000V, 400 V, 230V and so on.
Here a three phase step down transformer is required. Therefore it is
economical to use three phase transformers for transmission and utilization
purposes.
Three phase transformer construction is similar to single phase transformer like
shell or core type. It is shown in fig
Three phase shell type transformer has three limbs. Here we are using only I
core. Around each limb, the primary and secondary windings are placed. Due to
this, three phase flux is produced in the primary winding.
This flux is linked with secondary winding. Depending upon the number of
turns in the secondary, the secondary voltage will be stepped up or stepped
down. The primary and secondary windings can be connected either in star or
delta.
Advantages of Three Phase Transformer
1. It occupies less space for same rating, compared to a bank of three single
phase transformers.
2. It weighs less.
3.The cost is also low
4.Easy to handle
5. It can be transported easily
6. The core is of a smaller size and hence less material is required.
Three Phase Transformer Connection
The following are the most useful and commonly used transformer connections
- Star Star connection
- Delta delta connection
- Star delta connection
- Delta star connection
2.12.1 DELTA-DELTA ( AA) CONNECTION
Fig, 2.12(a) shows the AA connection of three identical single-phase
transformers or three identical windings on each of the primary and secondary
sides of the three-phase transformer. The secondary winding
1 2
A A the terminals
1
A and
1
a have same polarity. The polarity of terminal a connecting
1
a and
2
c is
the same as that of A connecting
1
A and
2
C Fig. 2.12 (b) shows the phasor
diagrams for lagging power factor cos | . Magnetizing current and voltage drops
in impedance have been neglected. Under balanced conditions, the line currents
are 3 times the phase (winding) currents and displaced behind the phase
currents. In the AAconfiguration the corresponding line and phase voltages
are identical in magnitude on both primary and secondary sides.


Primary Secondary
Fig.2.19. Delta-Delta connection of Transformer (0
0
phase shift)
The secondary line-to-line voltages
, ab bc
V V and
, ca
V are in phase with
primary line-to-line voltages
, AB
V
, BC
V and
, CA
V with voltage ratios equal to the
turns ratio:

BC CA AB
ab bc ca
V V V
a
V V V
= = =
The current ratios when the magnetizing current is neglected are

1
BC CA C AB A B
ab bc ca a b c
I I I I I I
I I I I I I a
= = = = = =
It is to be noted that in Fig. 2.19 each winding is drawn along the line of
the phasor of its induced voltage. The voltage and current phasors are
determined very easily from the windings drawn in this manner.
It is seen from the phasor diagram [Fig2.19(b)] that the primary and
secondary line voltages are in phase. This connection is called 0
0
-connection.
If the connections of the phase windings are reversed on either side, we
obtain the phase difference of 180
0
between the primary and secondary systems,
Such a connection is known as 180
0
- connection. In Fig.2.20 delta-delta
connection with 180 phase shift is shown.

Primary Secondary
Fig. 2.20 (a)

Primary Secondary
Fig 2.20 (b) --- phasor Diagram
In Fig with 180
0
phase shift is shown. Here
1 2 2 2
b c c a and
1 2
a b are
connected to form delta on secondary side as shown in Fig. 2.20(a). Fig 2.20(b)
shows the phasor diagrams. It is seen that the secondary voltages are in phase
opposition to the primary voltages.
The AA transformers has no phase shift associated with it, an no
problem with unbalanced loads or harmonics.
Advantages of AA Transformation
1. The AA connection is satisfactory for both balanced and unbalanced
loading.
2. If a third harmonic is present, it circulates in the closed path and therefore
does not appear in the output voltage wave.
3. If one transformer fails, the reaming two transformers will continue to
supply three-phase power. This is called open-delta (or V-V) connection.
The operation of V-V connection is discussed later in this chapter.
However, the AA connection has the disadvantages that there is no star point
(neutral point) available. A AA connection is useful when neither primary nor
secondary requires a neutral and the voltages are low and moderate.
2.12.2 STAR-STAR (Y-Y) CONNECTION

Fig.2.21 tar-tar connection of transformer
(a)

phase shift (b)

phase shift

Fig. 2.21 shows the Y-Y connection of three identical single-phase
transformers or the three identical windings on each of the primary and
secondary sides of the three-phase transformer. The phasor diagrams are drawn
in the similar manner as done in AA connection. The phase current is equal to
the line current and they are in phase. The line voltage is 3 times the phase
voltage. There is a phase separation of 30
0
between line and phase voltages.
Fig.2.21(a) shows the Y-Y connection for 0
0
phase shift and in Fig.2.21(b) there
is a phase shift of 180
0
between primary and secondary systems.

For ideal transformers the voltage ratios are
AN BN CN
an bn cn
V V V
a
V V V
= = =
and current ratios are

1
C A B
a b c
I I I
I I I a
= = =
The Y-Y connection has two very serious problems:
1. If the neutral is not provided, the phase voltage tend to become
severely unbalance when the load is unbalanced. Therefore, the Y-Y connection
is not satisfactory for unbalanced loading in absence of a neutral connection.
2. The magnetizing current of any transformer is verynonsinusoidal and
contains a very large third harmonic, which is necessary to overcome saturation
in order to produce a sinusoidal flux. In a balanced three-phase system, the third
harmonic components in the magnetising currents of three primary windings are
equal in magnitude and in phase with each other. Therefore they will be directly
additive. Their sum at the neutral of a star connection is not zero. Since thre is
no path for these current components in an ungrounded star connection these
components will distort the flux wave which will produce a voltage having a
third harmonic in each of the transformers, both on the primary and secondary
sides. The third harmonic component of induced voltage may be nearly as large
as the fundamental voltage. When this voltage is added to the fundamental, the
peak voltage is nearly two times the normal value.
Both the unbalance and third harmonic problems of the Y-Y connection
can be solved using one of the following methods:
1. Solid grounding of neutrals. By providing a solid (low impedance)
connection between the star point of the primary transformer and the neutral
point of the alternator allows third harmonic currents to flow in the neutral
instead of building up large voltages. The triple-frequency currents in the
neutral wire may interfere with nearby telephone and other communication
circuits. The neutral also provides a return path for unbalanced currents due to
unbalanced loads.
2. Providing tertiary windings. When it is necessary to have a Y-Y
connection without neutral, each transformer is provided with a third winding in
addition to primary and secondary. The third winding is called tertiary. It is
connected in delta. This connection is called Y- A-Y connection.
2.12.3 DELTA-STAR ( A-Y) CONNECTION
A A-Y connection of 3-phase transformers is shown in Fig.2.22(a). In A
-Y connection, the primary line voltage is equal to the primary phase voltage
( )
LP pP
V V = . The relationship between secondary voltages is 3
S
LS
p
V V = .
Therefore, the line-to-line voltage ratio of this connection is

3
S
pP
LP
LS
p
V
V
V
V
=
But
P
S
p
p
V
a
V
=

3
LP
LS
V a
V
=



Fig.2.22. (a) Delta star connection of transformer , phase shift

lead (b) Phasor Diagram
Fig. 2.22(b) shows the phasor diagrams for the Y A connection
supplying a balanced load at power factor cos | logging. It is seen from the
phasor diagram that the secondary phase voltage
an
V leads the primary phase
voltage
AN
V by 30
0
. Similarly,
bn
V leads
BN
V by 30
0
and
CN
V leads
CN
V by 30
0
. This
is also the phase relationship between the respective line-to-lien voltages. This
connection is called +30
0
connection.
By reversing the connections on either side, the secondary system
voltage can be made to lag the primary system by 30
0
as shown in Fig.2.23.
This connection is called -30
0
connection.

Fig. 2.23 . Delta star connection of transformer (phase shift

lag).

2.12.4 STAR-DELTA ( ) Y A CONNECTION
The ( ) Y A connection of three-phase transformers is shown in Fig.
2.24. In this connection, the primary line voltage is equal to 3 times the
primary phase voltage
( )
3
LP pP
V V = . The secondary line voltage is equal to the
secondary phase voltage
( )
LS pS
V V = . The voltage ratio of each phase is

S
pP
p
V
a
V
=
Therefore line-to-lien voltage ratio of a Y A connection is

3
3 .
pP
LP
pS
LS
V
V
a
V V
= =



Fig. 2.24. Star - Delta connection of transformer ( phase shift

lead).
The phasor diagrams can be drawn with the help of winding diagrams.
There is a phase shift of 30
0
lead between respective line-to-line voltages.
Similarly, a phase shift of 30
0
lead exists between respective phase voltages.
This connection is called + 30
0
connection.
Fig 2.25 shows the star-delta connection of transformer for a phase shift
of 30
0
lag. This connection is known as -30
0
connection.
It is to be noted that a Y A connection is simply obtained by
interchanging the primary and secondary roles in Y A connection.

Fig.2.25 . Star - Delta connection of transformer (phase shift

lag).
The Y A connection or Y A connection has no problem with
unbalanced loads and third harmonics. The delta connection assures balanced
phase voltages on the Y side and provides a path for the circulation of the third
harmonics and their multiples without the use of a neutral wire.
Example 2.20
Determine the number of turns per phase in each winding of a 2-phase
transformer with a ratio of 20,000/2000 V at 50Hz. The high-voltage winding is
delta connected and the low voltage winding is star connected. Each core has a
gross section of 500cm
2
. Assume a flux density of about 1.2 Wb/m
2
.
SOLUTION.

1
1
4.44
ph m ph
E B Af T =

1
1
4.44
ph
ph
m
E
T
B Af
=
Since the primary winding (hv) is connected in delta, the phase voltage is equal
to the line voltage.

1 1
1
20000
ph
E E V = =
and
1 4
20000
4.44 1.2 500 10 50
ph
T

=


1500 =
The low voltage secondary winding is connected in star. Hence the
phase voltage is equal to
1
3
times the line voltage.

2
2
1 1
2000 1154.7
3 3
ph
E El V = = =

2 2
1 1
ph ph
ph ph
E T
E T
=

2 1
2
1
1154.7
1500 86
20000
ph
ph ph
ph
E
T T
E
= = =
Example 2.21.
An 11000/440 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase transformer is delta connected on the hv side
and the lv windings are start connected. There are to be 12V per turn and the
flux density is not to exceed 1.2
2
/ Wb m .Calculate the number of turns per phase
on each winding and the ne iron cross-sectional area of the core.
SOLUTION. Induced voltage in the primary per turn
1
1
12
ph
p
E
T
=
Since the hv side is delta connected, phase voltage = line voltage

1
1 1
11000
ph
E E = =

1
11000
12,
p
T
=
1
1
11000
917
p
p
T
T
= =
Also,
2
2
2
1
12, 440
3
p
ph
ph
E
E
T
=

2
2
440 / 3
21
12 12
ph
ph
E
T = = =

2
2
4.44
ph
m
ph
E
B Af
T
=
12 4.44 1.2 50 A =

2
12
0.0450
4.44 1.2 50
A m
A
= =



4 2 2
0.0450 10 450 cm cm = =


2.12.5 OPEN-DELTA OR V-V CONNECTION
If one transformer of a AAsystem is damaged or accidently opened,
the system will continue to supply 3-phase power. If this defective transformer
is disconnected and removed, as shown in Fig.2.1, the remaining two
transformers continue to function as a 3-phase bank with rating reduced to
about 58per cent of that of the original AA bank. This is known as opern-delta
or V-V system. Thus, in the open-delta system, two instead of three single-
phase transformers are used for 3-phase operation. Let ,
AB BC
V V and
CA
V be the
applied voltages of the primary. The voltage induced in transformer secondary
or lv winding II is
bc
V . There is no winding between points a and cm, but there is
a potential difference between a and c. This voltage may be found by applying
KVL around closed path made up of points a,b and c. Thus,
0
ab bc ca
V V + + =
------ (2.51)


ca ab bc
V V V +
------ (2.52)

Let 0
o
AB P
V V =

120
o
BC P
V V =
and 120
o
CA P
V V = +
where
p
V is the magnitude of the line voltage on the primary side.
If the leakage impedances of the transformers are negligible, then
0
o
ab s
V V =
V
bc
= Vs 120

where
s
V is the magnitude of the secondary voltage.

Fig.2.26. open-delta ( or v-v connection )
a) common physical arrangement b) schematic diagram
Substituting the values of
ab
V and in
bc
V in Eq. (2.51)
0 120
o o
ca s s
V V V =
( 0.5 0.866 )
s s s
V V j V = = 0.5 0.866
s s
V j V
=
0 120
o o
ca s s
V V V =
It is seen that
ca
V is equal in magnitude to the secondary transformer
voltage and 120
0
apart in time from both of them. Thus balanced 3-phase line
voltages applied to the V-V primaries produce balanced 3-phased voltages on
the secondary side if leakage impedances are negligible.
If appears that removal of one transformer would permit the remaining
two transformers to carry two-thirds (66.7%) of the load kVA. This, however, is
not the case. If
2B
V and
2B
V are the rated secondary voltage and rated secondary
current of the transformers, the line current to the load of a closed delta system
is
2
3
B
I
Closed delta load VA
5 3
AA
= line voltage line current

( ) 2 2 2 2
3 3 3
B B B B
V I V J = =
When one transformer is removed, the AAtransformer becomes open delta (V-
V) connected transformer. The line is in series with the windings of the
transformers and therefore secondary line current
2B
I is equal to the rated
secondary current
2B
I of the transformer. The VA load that can be carried by the
open delta bank without exceeding the ratings of the transformers is
2 2
3
V V B B
S V I

=

2 2
2 2
3 1
0.577
3 3
V V B B
B B
S V I
S V I

AA
= = =
Thus, is seen that the load that can be carried by the open-delta bank
without exceeding the ratings of the transformers is 57.7 per cent of the original
load carried by the AAbank.

1
57.7%
3
V V
S S
AA
= = of S
AA

Also in open-delta system
2 2
2 2
1
0.577
3 3
3
B B
B B
VA per transformer V I
total VA
V I
|
= = =
Thus, the VA supplied by each transformer in a V-V system is not half
(50%) of the to the total VA but it is 57.7 per cent.
If three transformers in AA are supplying rated load and as soon
as it becomes a V-V transformers, the current in each phase winding is
increased by 3 times. That is, full line current flows in each of the two phase
windings of the transformers. Thus each transformer in the V-V system is
overloaded by 73.2 per cent.
Summary
1. Load in VA transformer in V-V bank
1
3
= original load in AAbank.
2. Per cent rated VA load carried by each transformer in V-V bank,

100
load in VA pertransformer in V V
VA ratings per transformer

=
3. Total VA rating of V-V bank
3 VA = rating per transformer in V- V bank
4. Ratio of VA ratings
1
0.577
3
V V
S
S

AA
= =
5. Per cent increase in VA load on each transformer when one transformer is
removed
( ) ( 100
73.2%
VA load per transformer in V V original VA load per transformer in
original VA load per transformer in
( AA

=
AA


Power Supplied by Open-Delta System
When a V-V bank of two transformers supplies a balanced 3-phase load
operating at a power factor cos| the angle between the line voltage and line
current in one transformer is (30 )
o
| + while the angle between the line voltage
and line current in the order transformer is (30 )
o
| . Therefore one transformer
operates at a power factor of cos (30 )
o
| + and the other of cos (30 )
o
| and the
powers supplied by the two transformers are

( )
1
cos 30
o
L L
P V I | = +

( )
2
cos 30
o
L L
P V I | =
The total power supplied by the transformers

1 2
P P P = +
cos(30 ) cos(30 )
o o
L L L L
V I V I | | = + +
cos 30 cos sin 30 sin cos30 cos sin30 sin
o o o o
L L
V I | | | | ( = + +


2 cos30 cos
o
L L
V I | =
2 cos30 cos
o
L L
V I | =
3 cos30
o
L L
P V I =
At unity power factor of the load, cos 1, 0
o
| | = =
Therefore the power supplied by each transformer is

1 2
3
cos30
2
o
L L L L
P P V I V I = = =
APPLICATIONS OF OPEN-DELTA SYSTEM
The open-delta system is used in one of the following circumstances:
1. As a temporary measure when one transformer of a AAsystem damaged
and removed for repair and maintenance.

2. To provide service in a few development area where the full growth of load
may require several years. In such cases a V-V system is installed in the
initial stage. This reduces the initial cost. Whenever the need arises at a
future date to accommodate the growth in the power demand, a third
transformer is added for AAoperation. The addition of one transformer
increase the capacity of the total bank by 73.2 per cent.

3. To supply a combination of large single-phase and smaller 3-phase loads

Example 2.22.
A 400 kVA load at 0.7 pf lagging is supplied by three 1 | transformers
connected in AAEach of the AAtransformers is rated at 200 kVA,
2300/230V. If one defective transformer is removed from service, calculate for
the V-V Connection:
a) the kVA load carried by each transformer.
b) Percent rated load carried by each transformer.
c) total kVA ratings of the transformer bank in V-V.
d) ratio of V-V bank to AAbank transformer ratings.
e) percent increase in load on each transformer when one transformer is
removed.
SOLUTION. (a) Load in kVA per transformer in V-V bank

1
3
= original load in AA bank

1
3
= 400 = 230.9kVA
(b) Per cent rated load carried by each transformer
100
load in kVA per transformer in V V
kVA rating per transformer in V V

230.9
100 115.5
200
= = per cent
(c) Total kVA rating of the V-V bank
3 kVA = rating per transformer in AA
(d)
V V bank rating
rating

AA


346.4
0.577
3 200
V V
S
S

AA
= =

pu = 57.7%
(e) Original load kVA per transformer in AA

1
3
= total load kVA

1
3
= 400 = 133.3kVA
Percent increase in load on each transformer when one transformer is removed.

increase in kVA load per transformer in V V bank
original kVA load per transformer in

=
AA

( ) (
100
VA load per transformer in V V original VA load per transformer in
original VA load per transformer in
( AA

AA


230.9 133.3
100 73.2%
133.3

= =


Example 2.23.
A 900-kVA load is supplied by three transformers connected in delta-delta.
The primaries are connected to a 2300-V supply line, while the secondaries are
connected to a 230-V load. If one transformer is removed for repair, what load
can the remaining two transformers supply without over loading? What are the
currents in the high-and low voltage sides of the transformer windings when
connected in open delta?
Solution. Delta-delta operation
If
1
L
V and
1
L
I are the line voltage and line current respectively on hv side,
3
I I
L L
S V I
AA
=

3
900 10 3 2300
I
L
I =

3
900 10
225.9
3 2300
I
L
I A

= =

Transformer current per phase on hv side

1
1
3
p
I = line current =
1
1
3
p
I = 225.9=130.4A
Transformer current per phase on lv side

1
2300
130.4 1304
230
p
I A = =
Open-delta operation
When one transformer is removed from chosed delta, the currents through
the phase windings of the transformers should not exceed the rated currents to
avoid overloading. Therefore the permitted phase winding currents on hv and lv
sides are 130.4 A and 1304 A respectively. For open delta the line is in series
with the windings of the transformer and therefore, the secondary the line
current is equal to the rated secondary current of the transformer. Therefore the
VA load that can be carried by the open-delta bank without overloading is

2 2
3
V V B B
S V I

=

2 2
3
L p
V I =
3 230 1304 519.5 VA kVA = =
Alternatively

2
2 2 2 1 1
1
3
3
L
V V L L L L L
S V V I V I

= = =

900
519.6
3 3
S
kVA
AA
= = =
It is seen that the kVA supplied by the V-V bank is
1
3
times the original
closed-delta kVA.
Example 2.24.
Two 40-kVA single-phase transformers are connected in open-delta to supply
a 230-V balanced 3-phase load.
(a) What is the total load that can be supplied without overloading either
transformer?
(b) When the delta is closed by the addition of a third 40-kVA transformer,
what total load can now be supplied?
(c) Percent increase in load.
SOLUTION (a) The rated secondary transformer current

3
2
40 10
173.9
230
B
I A

= =
This is also the load line current. Therefore the load kVA is

3
2 2
3 10
B B
V I

=
3
3 230 173.9 10 69.28kVA

= =

69.28
0.866
2 40
load kVA
total capacity of two individual transformers
= =

b) When the delta is closed by the addition of a third 40-kVA transformer, the
AAbank will operate at full capacity of the individual transformers. Therfore
the load kVA supplied by the AAbank is

3 40 120 S kVA
AA
= =
(c) Percent increase in load kVA =
120 69.28
100 73.2
69.28

=
2.12.6 SCOTT THREE PHASE/TWO-PHASE CONNECTION
The scott connection is the most common method of connecting two
single phase transformers to perform the 3-phase to two-phase conversion and
vice-versa. The two transformers are connected electrically but not
magnetically. One transformer is called main transformer and the other is
known as auxiliary or teaser transformer. Fig.2.27 shows the Scott transformer
connection. The main transformer is centre-tapped at D and is connected across
the lines B and C of the 3-phase side. It has primary BC and secondary
1 2
a a .The
teaser transformer is connected between the line terminal A and the centre
tapping D. It has primary AD and secondary
1 2
b b

Frequently identical interchangeable transformers are used forth Scott
connection, in which each transformer has a primary winding of
p
T turns and is
provided with tappings at 0.289
, p
T 0.5
, p
T and 0.866
, p
T



Fig. 2.27. scott connection of transformer

2.13 PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are said to be connected in parallel when their primary
windings are connected to a common voltage supply and their secondary
windings are connected to a common load.
When the load outgrows the capacity of an existing transformer, it may be
economical to install another one in parallel with it rather than replacing it with
a single larger unit. Also, sometimes in a new installation, two units in parallel,
though more expensive, may be preferred over a single unit for reasons of
reliability - half the load can be supplied with one unit out. Further, the cost of
maintaining a spare is less with two units in parallel. However, when spare units
are maintained at a central location to serve transformer installations in a certain
region, single-unit installations would be preferred. It is, therefore, seen that
parallel operation of the transformer is quite important and desirable under
certain circumstances.
The satisfactory and successful operation of transformers connected in
parallel on both sides requires that they fulfill the following conditions:
i) The transformers must be connected properly as far as their polarities
are concerned so that the net voltage around the local loop is zero. A
wrong polarity connection results in a dead short circuit.

ii) Three-phase transformers must have zero relative phase displacement
on the secondary sides and must be connected in a proper phase
sequence. Only the transformers of the same phase group can be
paralleled. For example, Y/Y and Y/ A transformers cannot be
paralleled as their secondary voltages will have a phase difference of
30
0
. Transformers with +30
0
and - 30
0
phase shift can, however, be
paralleled by reversing the phase-sequence of one of them.

iii) The transformers must have the same voltage-ratio to avoid no-load
circulating current when transformers are in parallel on both primary
and secondary sides. Since the leakage impedance is low, even a small
voltage difference can give rise to considerable no-load circulating
current and extra I
2
R loss.

iv) There should exist only a limited disparity in the pet-unit impedances
(one their own bases) of the transformers. The currents carried by two
transformers (also their kVA loadings) are proportional to their ratings
if their ohmic impedances (or their pu impedances on a common base)
are inversely proportional to their ratings or their per unit impedances
on their own ratings are equal. The ratio of equivalent leakage
reactance to equivalent resistance should be the same for all the
transformers. A difference in this ratio results in a divergence of the
phase angle of the two currents, so that one transformer will be
operating with a higher, and the other with a lower power factor than
that of the total output; as a result, the given active load is not
proportionally shared by them.

REASONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION
The main reasons for operating transformers in parallel are as follows:
(a) For large loads it may be impracticable or uneconomical to have a single
large transformer.
(b) In substations the total load required may be supplied by an appropriate
number of transformers of standard size. This reduces the spare capacity
of the substation.
(c) There is a scope of future expansion of a substation to supply a load
beyond the capacity of the transformers already installed.
(d) If there is a breakdown of a transformer in a system of transformers
connected in parallel, there is no interruption of power supply for
essential services. Similarly, when a transformer is taken out of service
for its maintenance and inspection, the continuity of supply is maintained.
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS IN PARALLEL
Fig. 2.28 shows the circuit diagram of two transformers A and B in
parallel.
Let a
1
= turns ratio of transformer A
a
2
= turns ratio of transformer B
Z
A
= Equivalent impedance of transformer A referred to
secondary
Z
B
= Equivalent impedance of transformer B referred to
secondary
Z
L
= Load impedance across the secondary
I
A
= Current supplied to the load by the secondary of transformer A
I
B
= Current supplied to the load by the secondary of transformer B
V
L
= Load secondary voltage
I
L
= Load Current




Fig. 2.28 . Two single phase transformer in parallel

By KCL,
A B L
I I I + =
----- (2.52)

By KVL,
1
1
L A A
V
V I Z
a
=
----- (2.53)

( )
1
2 2
L B B L A B
V V
V I Z I I Z
a a
= =
----- (2.54)

Solving Eqs. (2.53) and (2.54) we get

1 2 1
1 2
( )
( )
B L
A
A B A B
Z I V a a
I
Z B a a Z Z

= +
+ +
----- (2.55)


1 2 1
1 2
( )
( )
A L
B
A B A B
Z I V a a
I
Z Z a a Z Z

= +
+ +
----- (2.56)

Each of the these currents has two components; the first component represents
the transformer's share of the load current and the second component is a
circulating current in the secondary windings. Circulating currents have the
following undesirable effects:
(a) They increase the copper loss.
(b) They overload one transformer and reduce the permissible load kVA.
Equal Voltage Ratios
In order to eliminate circulating currents, the voltage ratios must be
identicated. That is
1 2
a a =
Under this condition,

B L
A
A B
Z I
I
Z Z
=
+
------ (2.57)


A L
B
A B
Z I
I
Z Z
=
+
------(2.58)


A B
B A
I Z
I Z
=
----- (2.59)

Equation (2.41.8) shows that the transformer currents are inversely proportional
to the transformer impedances.
Also,
A A B B
I Z I Z =
------ (2.60)

Multiplying Eqs.(2.57) and (2.58) by common load voltage V
L
Changes
currents into volt amperes. Hence writing

L L L
S V I = = total load VA

A L A
S V I = = VA of transformer A
and
B L B
S V I VA = = of transformer B, we get

B
A L
A B
Z
S S
Z Z
=
+
----- (2.61)

A
B L
A B
Z
S S
Z Z
=
+
----- (2.62)

From Eqs. (2.61) and (2.62)

A B
B A
S Z
S Z
=
------ (2.63)

Thus, the volt ampere load on each transformer is inversely proportional
to its ohmic impedance. Hence to share the load in proportion to their ratings,
the transformers should have ohmic impedances which are inversely
proportional to their ratings. In terms of per-unit values, the above statement
may be expressed as follows:
The transformers should have equal per-unit impedances in order to share
the load in proportion to their volt ampere ratings.
Equation (2.60) shows that for efficient parallel operation of two
transformers, the potential differences at full load across the transformers'
internal impedances should be equal. This condition ensures that the load
sharing between them is according to the rating of each transformer. If the per
unit equivalent impedances are not equal, the transformers will not share the
load in proportion to their kVA ratings, so that the overall rating of the
transformer bank is reduced.
It is often convenient to specify the percentage or per-unit values of
resistance and leakage reactance for a transformer. In these circumstances Eqs.
(2.57) to (2.63) do not, in general, apply directly.
We have, per unit impedance =
actual impedance
base impedance


pu
b
Z
Z
Z
=
----- (2.64)

Then
2
r r
pu b pu pu
r r
V V
Z Z Z Z Z
I S
= = =
Where
r
V is the rated voltage and
r
S is the rated VA. Then

2
2
Apu
A rA rB
B Bpu rB rB
Z
Z V S
Z Z V S
= ----- (2.65)
Since
1 2
,
rA rB
a a V V = =
Therefore
Apu
A rB
B Bpu rB
Z
Z S
Z Z S
=
----- (2.66)

Equation (2.66) shows that, if the transformers are to share the load in
proportion to their ratings, their per-unit impedances must have the same
magnitude and that, if the transformers are to operate at the same power factor,
their per-unit impedances must have the same phase angle.
Since
A A A
Z R j X = +

B B B
Z R j X = +

1
tan
A
A A A A
A
X
Z Z Z
R
u

= =

1
tan
B
B B B B
B
X
Z Z Z
R
u

= =
If the impedance angles of both transformers are equal, that is,
A B
A B
X X
R R
=
then
A
I and
B
I will be in phase and the load current
L
I will be the arithmetic
sum of
A
I and
B
I .That is
L A B
I I I = +
But if ,
A B
u u = that is,
A B
A B
R R
X X
= the magnitudes of the currents remain
inversely proportional to the magnitudes of the impedances, but
A
I and
B
I will
not be in phase. At rated load, the load current
L
I will be the phasor sum of
A
I
and
B
I . Since the phasor sum of
A
I and
B
I is less than the arithmetic sum of
A
I
and
B
I the load kVA (=
L
S ) is less than the sum of the transformer kVAs.
Finally both the transformers should have the same polarity while
connecting them in parallel..
Example 2.25
A 600-kVA, single-phase transformer with 0.012 pu resistance and 0.06pu
reactance is connected in parallel with a 300-kVA transformer with 0.014pu
resistance and 0.045pu reactance to share a load of 800kVA at 0.8pf lagging.
Find how they share the load (a) when both the secondary voltages are 440V
and (b) when the open-circuit secondary voltages are respectively 445V and
455V.
Solution
(a) The pu impedance expressed on a common base of 600 kVA are
1 0.012 0.06 0.061 79
o
Z j = + = Z
2 2(0.014 0.045) 0.094 73
o
Z j = + = Z
1 2 0.04 0.15 0.155 75
o
Z Z j + = + = Z
The load is
800(0.8 0.6) 800 37
o
L S j kVA = = Z
From Eqs (3.86) and (3.87)
1
0.094 73
800 37 485 39 377 305.2
0.155 75
o
o o
o
S j
Z
= Z = Z =
Z

2
0.061 79
800 37 315 33 264 171.6
0.155 75
o
o o
o
S j
Z
= Z = Z =
Z

It may be noted that the transformers are not loaded in proportion to
their ratings. At a total load of 800kVA, the 300kVA transformer operates with
5% overload because of its pu impedance (on common kVA base) being less
than twice that of the 600kVA transformer.
The maximum kVA load the two transformers can feed in parallel
without any one of them getting overloaded can now be determined. From
above it is observed that the 300kVA transformer will be the first to reach its
full-load as the total load is increased. In terms of magnitudes

2
0.061
(max) ( ) 300
0.155
L
S S rated kVA = =

300 0.155
(max) 300
0.061
L
S kVA

= =
while the sum of the ratings of the two transformers is 900kVA. This is
consequence of the fact that the transformer impedances (on common base) are
not in the inverse ratio of their ratings.
(b) In this case it is more convenient to work with actual ohmic impedances,
Calculating the impedances referred to secondary
1
440
( ) (0.012 0.06) 0.0039 0.0194
600 1000
440
Z actual j j = + = +

0.0198 79
o
= Z
2
440
( ) (0.028 0.09) 0.009 0.029
600 1000
440
Z actual j j = + = +

0.0304 73
o
= Z

1 2
0.0129 0.0484 0.05 75
o
Z Z j + = + = Z
The load impedance
L
Z must also be estimated. Assuming an output voltage on
load of 440V.

3 2 3
* 10 ( / ) 10 800 37
o
L L L
V I V Z

= = = Z

2
3
(440)
0.242 37
800 10 37
o
L o
Z = = Z
Z

0.1936 0.1452 j = +
From Eqs (3.98) and (3.99)

1
445 0.0304 73 10 0.242 37
0.0198 79 0.0304 73 0.242 37 0.05 75
o o
o o o o
I
Z Z
=
Z Z + Z Z

940 34
o
A = Z

2
445 0.0198 79 10 0.242 37
0.0198 79 0.0304 73 0.242 37 0.05 75
o o
o o o o
I
Z + Z
=
Z Z + Z Z

883 44
o
A = Z
The Corresponding kVAs are

3
1
440 940 10 34 413.6 34
o o
S

= Z = Z

3
2
440 883 10 44 388 44
o o
S

= Z = Z
The total output power will be
413.6 cos 34 388 cos 44 625.5
o o
kW + =
This is about 3% less than 800 0.8 640kW = required by the load because of the
assumption of the value of the output voltage in order to calculate the load
impedance.
The secondary circulating current on no-load is
1 2
1 2
( ) 10
200
0.05
E E
A
Z Z

= =
+

Which corresponds to about 88kVA and a considerable waste as copper-loss.
2.14 TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS
Voltage variation in power systems is a normal phenomenon owing to the
rapid growth of industries and distribution network. System voltage control is
therefore essential for:
i) Adjustment of consumers' terminal voltage within prescribed limits.
ii) Control of real and reactive power flow in the network.
iii) Periodical adjustment (1-10%) to check off-set load variations.
Adjustment is normally carried out by off-circuit tap changing, the
common range being 5% in 2.5% steps. Daily and short-time control or
adjustment is carried out by means of on-load tap changing gear.
Besides the above, tapping are also provided for one of the following
purposes.
i) For varying the secondary voltage.
ii) For maintaining the secondary voltage constant with a varying
primary voltage.
iii) For providing an auxiliary secondary voltage for a special purpose,
such as lighting.
iv) For providing a low voltage for starting rotating machines.
v) For providing a neutral point, e.g. for earthing.
The principal tapping is one to which the rating of the winding is related. A
positive tapping means more, and a negative tapping implies less turns than
those of the principal tap. Tap changing may be achieved in one of the three
conditions, viz.
i) Voltage variation with constant flux and constant voltage turn
ii) With varying flux
iii) a mix of (i) and (ii). In (i) the percentage tapping range is same as the
voltage variation.
Location
The taps mage be placed on the primary or secondary side which partly
depends on construction. If tappings are near the line ends, fewer bushing
insulators are required.
If the tappings are placed near the neutral ends, the phase-to-phase
insulation conditions are eased.
For achieving large voltage variation, tappings should be placed near the
centres of the phase windings to reduce magnetic asymmetry. However, this
arrangement cannot be put on LV windings placed next to the core (as in core
type transformer) because of accessibility and insulation consideration. The HV
winding placed outside the LW winding is easily accessible and can, thus, be
tapped easily.
It is not possible to tap other than an integral number of truns and this
may not be feasible with LV side tappings. For example 250V phase winding
with 15 V/turn cannot be tapped closer than 5%. It is therefore essential to tap
the HV windings which is advantageous in a step-down transformer.

Fig. 2.34 Location of transformer tappings

Some of the methods of locating tappings are depicted in Fig.2.34(a) and (b).
Axial mmf unbalance is minimized by thinning out the LV winding or by
arranging parts of the winding more symmetrically. For very large tapping
ranges a special tapping coil may be employed.
Tap changed causes changes in leakage reactance, core loss,
2
I R loss and
perhaps some problems in parallel operation of dissimilar transformers.
2.14.1 No-load (off-load or off-circuit) tap changing
The cheapest method of changing the turn ratio of a transformer is the use
of off-circuit tap changer. As the name indicates, it is required to deenergize the
transformer before changing the tap. A simple no-load tap changer is shown in
Fig.2.35. It has eight studs marked one to eight. The winding is tapped at eight
points. The face plate carrying the suitable studs can be mounted at a convenient
place on the transformer such as upper yoke or located near the tapped positions
on the windings. The movable contact arm A may be rotated by handwheel
mounted externally on the tank.
If the winding is tapped at 2% intervals, then as the rotatable arm A is
moved over to studs 1,2;2,3;6,7;7,8 the winding in circuit reduces
progressively by it from 100% with arm at studs (1,2) to 88% at studs (7,8).
The stop F which fixes the final position of the arm A prevents further
anticlockwise rotation so that stud 1 and 8 cannot be bridged by the arm.
Adjustment of tap setting is carried out with transformer deenergized. For
example, for 94% tap the arm is brought in position to bridge studs 4 and 5. The
transformer can then be switched on.






Fig. 2.35. No- load tap changer
To prevent unauthorized operation of an off-circuit tap changer, a mechanical
lick is provided. Further, to prevent inadvertent operation, an electromagnetic
latching device or microswitch is provided to open the circuit breaker so as to
deenergize the transformer as soon as the tap changer handle is moved; well
before the contact of the arm with the stud (with which it was in contact) opens.
2.14.2 On-load Tap Changing
On-load tap changers are used to change the turn ratio of transformer to
regulate system voltage while the transformer is delivering load. With the
introduction of on-load tap changer, the operating efficiency of electrical system
gets considerably improved. Nowadays almost all the large power transformers
are fitted with on-load tap changer. During the operation of an on-load tap
changer the main circuit should not be opened to prevent (dangerous) sparking
and not part of the tapped winding should get short-circuited. All forms of on-
load tap changing circuits are provided with an impedance, which is introduced
to limit short-circuit current during the tap changing operation. The impedance
can either be a resistor or centre-tapped reactor. The on-load tap changers can in
general be classified as resistor or reactor type. In modern designs the current
limiting is almost invariably carried out by a pair of resistors.
On-load tap changing gear with resistor transition, in which one winding
tap is changed over for each operating position, is depicted in Fig.3.69. The
figure also shows the sequence of operations during the transition from one tap
to the next (adjoining) (in this case from tap 4 to tap 5). Back-up main
contractors are provided which short-circuit the resistor for normal operation.
To ensure that the transition once started gets completed, an energy
(usually a spring device) storage is provided which acts even if the auxiliary
power supply happens to fail. In resistor - aided tap changing the current break
is made easier by the fact that the short- circuit resistor causes the current to be
opened to have unity power factor.

Fig. 2.36 Simple switching sequence for on-load tap changing
On-load tap changer control gear can be from simple push-button
initiation to complex automatic control of several transformers operating in
parallel. The aim is to maintain a given voltage level within a specified
tolerance or to raise it with load to compensate for the transmission line voltage
drop. The main components are an automatic voltage regulator, a time delay
relay prevents unwanted initiation of a tap change by a small transient voltage
fluctuation. It may be set for a delay unto 1 min.
At present tap changers are available for the highest insulation level of
1475kV (peak) impulse and 630kV power frequency voltage. Efforts are
underway to develop tap changers suitable for still higher insulation levels.
More compact tap changers with high reliability and performance are being
made by employing vacuum switches in the diverter switch. Also, now
thyristorized tap changers are available for special applications where a large
number of operations are desired.
2 MARK Questions
1. What is the function of Transformer?
Transformer are energy converting devices, converting AC electrical
energy with one level of voltage and current , to AC electrical energy with
another level of voltage and current.
2. What is meant by step up and step- down Transformer?
When transformation ratio K>1, The voltage available in the secondary U2
will be greater than the input voltage U1, the Transformer is called as
STEP-UP Transformer.
When transformation ratio K<1, The secondary voltage available in the load
U2 will be less than the input voltage U1, the Transformer is called as
STEP-DOWN Transformer.
3.Distinguish between step up and step- down Transformer.
In step -up Transformer, the output voltage is greater than the input voltage
with K>1. In step - down Transformer, the output voltage is less than the
input voltage with K<1.
4. List out the general applications of Transformer,
1.Stepping up of voltage 2. Stepping down of voltage 3. Instrument
extension 4.Electrical isolation 5.Impedance mat6ching 6.Link between AC
and DC system.
5. Enumerate the various kinds of Transformers.
- By numbers of phases single and the three phases
- By relative position of winding and core core and shell
type
- By number of windings / phase One winding (Auto
transformer), Two winding and three winding .
- By power rating small, medium and high capacity.
- By voltage rating low, medium and high voltage.
- By methods of cooling AN,AB,ON,OB,OF,OW< OFW
etc.
- By sensitive condition normal. Instrument, isolation,
welding etc.

6. How are Transformers classified according to number of windings.
- One winding per phase- Auto transformer part of single winding act as
primary and part of it act as secondary.
- Two windings per phase one primary winding and one secondary
winding is provided in each phase. The KVA rating of both windings
are equal.
- Three winding Transformer per phase one primary winding and two
secondary windings at two different voltage ratings are provided in each
phase.The KVA rating of primary winding is the sum of KVA ratings of
the two secondary windings.

7.Why the central limb of shell type single phase Transformer has al most
twice the cross section as that of outer limbs?
Single- phase shell type Transformer has two magnetic circuits.The total flux
passing through the central limb divide into 2 halves in the yoke, one towards
left and the other towards right and complete their path via the outer limbs and
the other yoke. As the centre limb carry twice the flux, its cross section is
almost twice as that of outer limbs.
8. Distinguish between single phase core and shell type Transformer.
A single phase core type Transformer has 2 limbs, 2 yokes and one window.
Around each limb half of LV coil and half of HV coil are housed. A single
phase shell type Transformer has 3 limbs, 1 centre limb and 2 outer limbs, 2
yokes and 2 windows. The entire LV and HV coils are housed around the centre
limb.
9.What is the purpose of constructing Transformer core by silicon content steel
laminations?
Steel and steel alloy offers less resistance to the path of magnetic field. Addition
of 3 to 5 percent silicon with steel reduces Hysteresis loss incurred in the core.
Laminations reduces eddy current loss.
10. Why is Transformer core laminated?
Laminating the core reduces the eddy current loss incurred in the core.
11. What is the need for stepped core in Transformer?
In Transformers of medium and large capacity, only circular coils are used
which are mechanically stronger. It is more economical to house circular shape
coils around stepped core. For the same area of iron core, required by magnetic
flux the diameter of the circumscribing circle get reduced with increase in
number of steps. Reduction of diameter of circle reduces the length of mean
turn of the winding around the core which ultimately reduce the volume of the
copper conductor and also the resistance of the coil.
12. What is the function of Bucholtz relay
Automatic monitoring of oil level is provided by Bucholtz relay fitted along
the tube connecting conservation tank and Transformer tank. If the oil level
comes down below this level without notice, the relay will initially given an
alarm and if not attende, the relay will cause tripping off power supply to the
Transformer.
13. What are the advantages of 3 phase Transformer over 3 numbers of single
phase Transformers ?
- A single 3-phase transformer occupies less space than installing 3
numbers of 1- phase Transformers of equal capacity.
- Cost of single 3 phase Transformer is less than 3 numbers of 1 phase
Transformers.
- It is enough to install only one Transformer.

14. What is staggering in the construction of transformer ?
In transformer, the joints in the alternate layers are staggered in order to avoid
the presence of narrow gaps right through the cross- section of the core.
15.Classify the transformer according to the construction.
1. Core type Transformer
2. Shell type Transformer
3. Berry type Transformer

16.What are the two components in transformers no load current?
1. Active working component (Iw)
2. Reactive or magnetizing component (Iu)
17 .Why Transformer rating is expressed in terms of KVA?
Copper loss depends on current and iron loss depends on voltage. Hence the
total loss in a transformer depends upon volt-ampere (VA) only and not only on
the phase angle between voltage and current i.e it is independent of load power
factor. That is why the rating of a transformer is given in KVA and not in KW.
18. Give the conditions to be satisfied for parallel operation of transformer.
1. The voltages rating of both primaries and secondaries must be the same. i.e
transformation ratios are same.
2. The transformer polarities must be connected properly, otherwise dead short
circuit ocuurs
3. The ratio of the equivalent resistance to equivalent reactance of the
transformers should be equal.
4. The equivalent impedances should be inversely proportional to the respective
KVA ratings of the transformer.
19. State the condition for maximum efficiency of a transformer. Then what is
the corresponding output current?
Iron loss = copper loss or constant loss = Variable loss
Hence efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper losses are
equal to iron losses.
The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given by
I
2
Pi/R
02

20. Define all day efficiency of a transformer.
The ratio of output kwh to input in kwh of a transformer over a 24 hour period
Is k known as all-day efficiency.

all -day
=




21.Define regulation and efficiency of a transformer.
The regulation of a transformer is defined as reduction in magnitude of the
terminal voltage due to load with respect to the no-load terminal voltage.
% regulation =




22. Name the factors on which hysteresis loss depends
1. frequency
2. Volume of the core
3. Maximum flux density

23. Why the open circuit test on a transformer is conducted at rated voltage?
The open circuit test on a transformer is conducted at rated voltage because
core loss depends upon the voltage. This open circuit test gives onl;y core loss
or iron loss of the transformer.
24. Explain why the wattmeter in OC test on a transformer reads core loss and
that in SC test reads copper loss at full load..
In open circuit test , the transformer secondary is open. The transformer is
operated at rated voltage . The iron loss occur in transformer core. Therefore the
wattmeter in OC test on transformer reads core loss only.
In short circuit test, the transformer secondary winding is short circuited. Here
the transformer os operate at rated current. Here the input voltage is low. The full
load current depends upon the copper loss. Therefore the wattmeter in SC test on
transformer reads copper loss only.
25. Why is the short circuit test on a transformer performed on HV side?
The short circuit test normally conduct on transformer HV side and LV side is
short circuited, because the high voltage side, the current rating is low. So we
have to use normally available meter range.
26. What is the use of load test of a transformer?
Load test is helpful to determine the following
1. Efficiency of the transformer
2. Regulation of the transformer

27. What are the advantages of Sumpners test?
1. The power required to carry out the test is small.
2. The transformers are tested under full-load conditions
3. The iron-losses and full load copper losses are measured simultaneously.
4. The temperature rise of the transformers can be noted.

28.What is the use of open circuit test and short circuit test ina transformer?
The open circuit test is useful to find
i. No load loss (or) core loss
ii . No load current
iii. R
0
and X
0

The short circuit test is useful to find
i. Full load copper loss
ii. Equivalent resistance and reactance referred to any side.

By using above two test, we can predetermine the
i. Efficiency of the transformer
ii. Regulation of the transformer


30. How can the iron loss be minimized in a transformer?
The iron loss in a transformer is made up of a hyteresis loss and eddy current
loss. Hysteresis loss can be minimized by using steel of high silicon content for
the transformer core. The eddy current loss can be minimized by using very
thin laminations of transformer core.

31. What are the advantages of OC and SC test of the transformer?
1. The power required to carry out these test is very small as compared to the
full load output of the transformer.
2. These tests enable us to determine the efficiency of the transformer
accurately at any load and power factor without actually loading the
transformer.
3. The short circuit test is used to determine R01 and X01 ( or R02 and X02).
By using this data , we can find out voltage drop and voltage regulation of the
transformer.
32. Mention the difference between core and shell type transformers.
In core type , the windings surround the core considerably and in shell type the
core surround the winding.

33. What is the purpose of laminating the core in a transformers ?
To reduce eddy current loss.

34. Give the emf equation of a transformer and define each term Emf induced in
primary coil E1 = 4.44 f mN1 volt
Emf induced in secondary coil E2 = 4.44f mN2 volt
Where f is the frequency of AC input
m is the maximum value of flux in the core
N1, N2 are the number of primary and secondary turns.

35. Does the transformer draw any current when secondary is open ? Why ?
Yes,it (primary) will draw the current from the main supply in order to
magnetise the core and to supply iron and copper losses on no load . There will
not be any current in the secondary since secondary is open.

36. Define voltage regulation of a transformer (April 98)
When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage , the secondary
voltage decreases for lagging power factor load, and increases for leading pf
load because of its internal resistance and leakage reactance . The change in
secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load expressed as a percentage
of no load or full load voltage is termed as regulation .
% regulation down = (0V2-V2) x 100/0V2
% regulation up = (0V2-V2) x 100/V2

37. Full load copper loss in a transformer is 1600 watts. What will be the loss at
half load ?
If x is the ratio of actual load to full load then copper loss = x2(full load copper
loss).Here Wc = (0.5)2 x 1600 = 400 watts

38. Define all day efficiency of a transformer .
It is the computed on the basis of energy consumed during a certain period ,
usually a day of 24 hrs.
all day = output in kWh /input in kWh for 24 hrs.

39. Why transformers are rated in kVA ?
Copper loss of a transformer depends on current and iron loss on voltage .
Hence total losses depends on Volt- Ampere and not on the power factor. That
is why the rating of transformers are in kVA and not in kW.

40. What are the typical uses of auto transformer ?
(i)To give small boost to a distribution cable to correct for the voltage drop.
(ii)As induction motor starters.
(iii)As furnace transformers
(iv)As interconnecting transformers
(v)In control equipment for single phase and 3 phase elective locomotives.

41. What are the applications of step-up and step-down transformers?
Step-up transformers are used in generating stations. Normally the generated
voltage will be either 11 kV or 22 kV. This voltage is stepped up to 110 kV or
220 kV or 400 kV and transmitted through transmission lines. (In short it may
be called as sending end). Step-down transformers are used in receiving
stations. The voltage are again stepped down to 11 kV or 22 kV and transmitted
through feeders. (In short it may be called as receiving end). Further these 11
kV or 22kV are stepped down to 3 phase 400 V by means of a distribution
transformer and made available at consumer premises. The transformers used at
generating stations and receiving stations are called power transformers

42. Explain on the material used for core construction.
The core is constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations assembled to
provide a continuous magnetic path with a minimum of air gap included. The
steel used is of high silicon content sometimes heat-treated to produce a high
permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux densities. The
eddy current loss is minimized by laminating the core, the laminations being
insulated from each other by light coat of core-plate vanish or by an oxide layer
on the surface .the thickness of laminations varies from 0.35 mm for a
frequency of 59 Hz and 0.5 mm for a frequency of 25 Hz.

43. When will a Bucholz relay operate in a transformer?
Bucholz rely is a protective device in a transformer. If the temperature of the
coil exceeds its limit, Bucholz relay operates and gives an alarm.

44 How does change in frequency affect the operation of a given transformer?
With a change in frequency, iron loss, copper loss, regulation, efficiency and
heating varies and thereby the Operation of the transformer is affected.

45. What is the angle by which no-load current will lag the ideal applied
voltage?
In an ideal transformer, there are no copper loss and no core loss,(i.e. loss free
core).
The no load current is only magnetizing current. Therefore the no-load current
lags behind by an angle of 90. However the windings possess resistance and
leakage reactance and therefore the no-load current lags the applied voltage
slightly less than 90.

46. List the advantages of stepped core arrangement in a transformer.
(i) To reduce the space effectively.
(ii) To obtain reduced length of mean turn of the windings.
(iii) To reduce I2R loss.
47. Why are breathers used in transformers?
Breathers are used to entrap the atmospheric moisture and thereby not allowing
it to pass on to the transformer oil. Also to permit the oil inside the tank to
expand and contract as its temperature increases and decreases. Also to avoid
sledging of oil i.e. decomposition of oil. Addition of 8 parts of water in 1000000
reduces the insulations quantity of oil. Normally silica gel is filled in the
breather having pink colour. This colour will be changed to white due to
continuous use, which is an indication of bad silica gel, it is normally heated
and reused.

48. What is the function of transformer oil in a transformer?
Nowadays instead of natural mineral oil, synthetic oils known as ASKRELS
(trade name) are used. They are noninflammable; under an electric arc do not
decompose to produce inflammable gases. PYROCOLOR oil possesses high
dielectric strength. Hence it can be said that transformer oil provides, (i) good
insulation and (ii) cooling.

49. A 1100/400 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has 100 turns on the
secondary winding.
Calculate the number of turns on its primary.
We know that V1 / V2 = k = N2 / N1
Substituting in above equation 400/1100 = 100/N1
N1 = 100/400 x 1100
= 275 turns.
50. Give the method of reducing iron loss in a Transformer
The iron losses are minimized by using high-grade core material like silicon
steel having very low hysteresis loop and by manufacturing the core in the form
of laminations.
QUESTION BANK
PART-A
1. What is a Transformer?
2. Enumerate the various kinds of transformers.
3. Why is the transformer windings are divided into several coils ?
4. Draw the Phasor diagram of an ideal transformer.
5. Give the two general types of transformer.
6. What is an air core transformer?
7. Draw the equivalent circuit of single phase transformer.
8. Name the two tests that are used to determine parameters of equivalent
circuit, voltage regulation and efficiency.
9. State the different losses in transformer.
10. Define hysteresis and eddy current losses.
11. What is Steinmetzs constant and give its range.
12. Define efficiency and All day efficiency.
13. Enumerate the various testing of transformers.
14. What is Auto transformer?
15. Distinguish between transformer and Auto transformer.
16. What is tap- changer ?
17. Classify the various types of tap- changer.
18. What are the different three phase connections?
19. What is the EMF equation of a transformer?
20. Define voltage regulation.
21. What is transformation ratio?
22. At what frequency core loss and iron loss are equal?
23. What is polarity test in transformers?
24. What is equivalent resistance of transformer ? How it is calculated in
primary terms ?
25. Define all- day efficiency .
26. What is equivalent reactance of transformer ? How it is calculated in
primary terms ?
27. What are the two components of core loss ?
28. Draw the phasor diagram of inductive and capacitive load.
29. At what condition core loss and iron loss equal ?
30. Define voltage transformation ratio.
PART- B
1. Explain the operation of transformer in no load and loaded condition with
phasor diagram.
2. Draw the equivalent circuit of a transformer and derive the components
with respect to primary side.
3. Derive the EMF equation of a transformer.
4. Explain with a neat diagram the O.C and S.C test of transformer.
5. What is auto- transformer? State the application of auto- transformer.
6. Explain the parallel operation of transformer.
7. What is tap changer and explain its various types.
8. Explain the various testing of transformers.
9. What are the various losses of the transformers and give its efficiency.
10. What is voltage regulation?
11. Draw the various three phase connections.
12. What is sumpners test? Draw the circuit diagram to conduct the test .
13. Explain Scott connection and explain in detail.
14. Explain Hysteresis and eddy current loss.
15. What is polarity test of transformer?
16. (a) Explain the principle and operation of auto transformer.
(b)Draw and explain the no load phasor diagram of a single phase
transformer.
17. (a) Derive the emf equation of single phase transformer.
(b) A 120kVA, 6000/400V, Y/Y, 3- phase, 50Hz transformer has a iron
loss of 1800W. The maximum efficiency occurs at full loads. Find the
efficiency of the transformer at (i) Full load and 0.8 pf (ii) The
maximum efficiency at unity pf.
18. A100 kVA, 6.6kV/415V, single phase transformer has an effective
impedance of (3+8j) referred to HV side. Estimate the full load voltage
regulation at 0.8 pf lagging and 0.8 leading pf.
19. A 100 kVA, 6.6 kV/415V, single phase transformer has an effective
impedance of (3+j8) referred to HV side. Estimate the full load voltage
regulation at (1) 0.8 pf lagging (2) 0.8 pf leading [ Ans : 1.653%, -
0.55%].
20. The primary and secondary windings of a 30 kVA, 6.6 kV/240V
transformer gave resistance of 10 and 0.013 respectively. The
leakage reactance of the windings are 17 and 0.022 . Estimate the
percentage voltage regulation of the transformer when it is delivering
full-load at 0.8 pf lagging the rated voltage. [Ans : 2.5%]
21. (a) Explain the working of auto transformer and prove that when
transformation ratio approaches unity, the amount copper used
approaches smaller value.
(b)The emf per turn of a single phase, 6.6kV/440V, 50 Hz transformer is
approximately 12V. Calculate the number of turns in the HV and LV
windings and the net cross sectional area of the core for a maximum flux
density of 1.5T.
22. Draw the circuit diagrams for conducting OC and SC tests on a single
phase transformer. Also explain how the efficiency and voltage regulation
can be estimated by these tests.
23. a) Obtain the equivalent circuit of a 200/400V,50Hz,single phase
transformer from the following testdata:
OC test: 200V,0.7A,70W on LV side
SC test: 15V, 10A, 85W on HV side.
(b)With the help of circuit diagrams, explain any two types of three phase
transformer connections.
24. Find the approximate equivalent circuit of a single- phase 400/4400 V
transformer having the following test readings.
O.C test : 400V, 5.2 A, 600W on l.v side
S.C test : 155V, 50A, 1850 W on h.v side
25. What is the sumpners test? Draw the circuit diagram to conduct this test
and explain its principle.
26. (a) Derive the condition for maximum efficiency in a transformer.
(b) A11000/230 V, 150 KVA, 1-phase, 50 Hz transformer has core loss
of 1.4kW and F.L cu loss of 1.6 Kw .Determine (i) The kVA load for
maximum efficiency and the value of maximum efficiency at unityp.f.
(ii) The efficiency at half F.L 0.8 pf leading.
27. Explain in detail about parallel operation of single phase transformers.
28. Data of a 500KVA, 3300/400 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer is given
below.S.C test: 1250 W, 100 V secondary short circuited with full load
current in it O.C test: 1000 W with normal primary voltage.
29. Calculate the full load regulation and efficiency at a power factor of
0.8(lag).
30. (a) Derive the equivalent circuit of a single phase two winding
transformer.
(b) The maximum efficiency of a single phase 250kVA, 2000/250 V
transformer occurs at 80% of full load and is equal to 97.5% at 0.8 pf
determine the efficiency and regulation on full load at 0.8pf lagging if the
impedance of the transformer is 9 percent.
31. A 600 kVA, single phase transformer when working at unity pf has an
efficiency of 92% at full load and also at half load. Determine its
efficiency when it operates at unity power factor and 60% of full load
[Ans : 92.32%]
32. A 100kVA, 1000/10kV,50Hz, single phase transformer has an iron loss
0f 1100W. The copper loss with 5A in the high voltage winding is 400W.
Calculate the efficiencies at (i) 25% (ii)50% and (iii) 100% of normal
load for power factor of (1) 1.0 and 0.8. The output terminal voltage
being maintained at 10kV. Find also the load for maximum efficiency at
both power factors.[Ans : At upf: 94.33%,97.08%, 98.52%, : At 0.8 pf ,
93.02%,96.38%,98.15% ]
33. Explain in detail about tap changing of transformers.
34. With the help of circuit diagrams, explain any two types of three phase
transformer connections.
35. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of transformer when it is operating
under load.
36. a)Write short notes on parallel operation of transformers
b) What are the necessary conditions for parallel operation of
transformers?
37. Describe the construction of single phase transformer
38. Discuss about working principle of transformer.
39. Explain in detail about scott connection.
40. What are the tests required to draw the equivalent circuit of a Single
phase Transformer? How they are conducted?
41. Draw phasor diagram to represent conditions in a single-phase
transformer-supplying load at 1. Unity p.f , 2.Lagging p.f 3. Leading p.f
42. Explain the Back to back method of testing of two identical single phase
transformers
43. Explain the construction and principle of operation of single phase
transformer
44. Deduce the equivalent circuit of a Transformer
45. Derive the emf equation of the Transformer
46. List the losses, which occur in a loaded transformer. Deduce the
relationship between losses for maximum efficiency
47. Derive the condition for maximum efficiency of a Transformer
48. Explain the types of testing of transformer
49. Explain the Construction of 3 phase Transformer
50. Describe the various three phase transformer connections.