Unit III ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The chief advantage of electric energy over other forms of energy is the
relative ease and high efficiency with which it can be transmitted over long
distances. Its main use is in the form of a transmitting link for transporting other
forms of energy, e.g. mechanical, sound, light, etc. from one physical location to
another. Electric energy is seldom available naturally and is rarely directly utilized.
Obviously two kinds of energy conversion devices are neededto convert one form
of energy to the electric form and to convert it back to the original or any other
desired form. Our interests in this chapter are the devices for electromechanical
energy conversion. These devices can be transducers for low-energy conversion
processing and transporting. These devices can be transducers for processing and
transporting low-energy signals. A second category of such devices is meant for
production of force or torque with limited mechanical motion like electromagnets,
relays, actuators, etc. A third category is the continuous energy conversion devices
like motors or generators which are used for bulk energy conversion and
utilization.
Electromechanical energy conversion takes place via the medium of a magnetic
or electric fieldthe magnetic field being most suited for practical conversion
devices. Because of the inertia associated with mechanically moving members,
the fields must necessarily be slowly varying, i.e. quasistatic in nature. The
conversion process is basically a reversible one though practical devices may be
designed and constructed to particularly suit one mode of conversion or the other.

The role of electricity in modern technology is that of an extremely versatile
intermediary. Although energy is seldom directly available in electrical form, and
ultimately it is seldom required in electrical form, yet conversion of other forms of
energies into electrical energy is a common practice. The chief advantages of this
conversion are that energy in electrical form can be transmitted, controlled and
utilized with relative simplicity, reliability and efficiency. Energy conversion
devices are required first to convert energy in non-electrical form to energy in
electrical form can be transmitted, controlled and utilized with relative simplicity,
reliability and efficiency. Energy conversion devices are required first to convert
energy in non-electrical form to energy in Electrical form and then to convert
electrical energy into the desired useful form, such as light, heat, sound or
mechanical energy. Thus energy conversion devices are needed at both ends of the
electrical system. One typical example is generation of electrical energy
(conversion of non-electrical form energy into electrical form) at nuclear power
station and then transmission and distribution over lines and finally conversion into
mechanical energy by an electric motor for final use. Another example is the
conversion of sound energy into electrical energy at the talker;s end, its
transmission in electrical form over lines and then its final conversion to sound
waves at the listener's end

We are concerned here with the lector-mechanical energy- conversion
process, which takes place through the medium of the electric or magnetic field of
the conversion device. Although the various conversion devices operate on similar
principles, their structures depend upon their function. Devices for measurement
and control are frequently referred to as transducers; they usually operate under
linear input-output conditions and with relatively small signals. The many
examples include torque motors, microphones, pickups, and loudspeakers. A
second category of devices such as solenoids, electromagnets and relays. The third
category is of continuous energy- conversion equipment and includes generators
and motors.
3.1.2 Magnetic Circuits :
Many of the everyday electric device depend on proper magnetic design as
much as they do proper electrical design.
`The material which attract a piece of iron, placed near to it is called a magnet.
It attracts the iron piece by the existence of a field which consists of imaginary
lines called as Flux-lines. This field is known as magnetic field.
This field can also be created by means of a current carrying conductor.

3.1.3 Magnetic Quantities:

The various terms involved with magnetism are grouped as along with their
characteristics.
1.Lines of magnetic flux closer to each other and having the same direction will
repel each other while those having opposite direction will attract each other.
where is the angle in wb and a is the area of cross section in m
2


3.2 ENERGY IN MAGNETIC SYSTEM
Energy can be stored or retrieved from a magnetic system by means of an
exciting coil connected to an electric source. Consider, for example the magnetic
system of an attracted armature relay of Fig. 3.1.












i

Fig.3.1. Attracted armature relay

The resistance of the coil is shown by a series lumping outside the coil
which then is regarded as an ideal loss-less coil. The coil current causes magnetic
flux to be established in the magnetic circuit. It is assumed that all the flux | is
confined* to the iron core and therefore links all the N turns creating the coil flux
linkages of

N | =
-------- (3.1)

The flux linkage causes a reaction emf of

d
e
dt

=
--------- (3.2)

to appear at the coil terminals with polarity (as per Lenz's law) shown in Fig.1.5
The associated circuit equation is
v iR e = +
d
iR
dt

= +
-------- (3.3)

The electric energy input into the ideal coil due to the flow of current i in
time dt is
e
dW ei dt =
----------(3.4)

Assuming for the time being that the armature is held fixed at position
x
, all
the input energy is stored in the magnetic field. Thus

e f
dW ei dt dW = =
--------- (3.5)

where
f
dW is the change in field energy in time dt. when the expression for e in Eq.
(3.2) is substituted in Eq. (3.5), we have

e f
dW i d d dW | = = =
--------- (3.6)

where Ni = the magnetomotive force (mmf)

i
relationship


The relationship i or is a functional one corresponding to the
magnetic circuit which is general is nonlinear (and is also history- dependent, i.e. it
exhibits hysteresis). The energy absorbed by the field for finite change in flux
linkages for flux is obtained
2 2
1 1
( ) ( )
f
W i d d
|
|
| | A = =
} }
-------(3.7)

As the flux in the magnetic circuit undergoes a cycle
1 2 1
| | |
, an
irrecoverable loss in energy takes place due to hysteresis and eddy-currents in the
iron, assuming here that these losses are separated out and are supplied directly by
the electric source. This assumption renders the ideal coil and the magnetic circuit
as a conservative system with energy interchange between themselves so that the
net energy is conserved.
The energy absorbed by the magnetic system to establish flux | (or flux
linkages ) from initial zero flux is
0 0
( ) ( )
f
W i d d
|
| | = =
} }
-------(3.8)

This then is the energy of the magnetic field with given mechanical
configuration when its state corresponds to flux | (or flux linkages ).
The i- relationship is indeed the magnetization curve which varies with
the configuration variable x (Fig.3.1: the air-gap between the armature and core
varies with position x of the armature. The total reluctance of the magnetic path
decreases as x increases). The i- relationship for various values of x is indicated
in Fig.3.2. It immediately follows that this relationship can be expressed as







Fig. 3.2. i- relationship with variable X

( , ) i i x =
If is the independent variable or as
( , ) i x =
If i is the independent variable.
Therefore, the field energy (Eq.4.8) is in general a function of two variables,

( , ) i i x =
If is the independent variable or as

i.e ( , )
f f
W W x =
-------- (3.9)

or ( , )
f f
W W i x =
------- (3.10)

According to Eqs (3.9) and (3.10) field energy is determined by the instantaneous
values of the system states ( ( , ) x or ( , ) i x ) and is independent of the path following
by these state to reach the present values. This means that the field energy at any
instant is history independent.
A change in with fixed
x
causes electric-magnetic energy interchange
governed by the circuit equation (3.5) and the energy equation (3.8). Similarly, if
x
is allowed to change with fixed energy will interchange between the magnetic
circuit and the mechanical system.
As per Eq. (3.10) the field energy is the area between the -axis and i-
curve as shown in Fig. 1.7. A new term, co-energy is now defined as
'
( , ) ( , )
f f
W i x i W x =
wherein by expressing as ( , ) i x the independent variables of
'
f
W become I and
x- The co energy on Fig. 3.3. is shown to be the complementary area of the i
rectangle. It easily follows from Fig.3.3. that

Fig. 3.3. Field Energy and co energy

Example 3.1.
A conductor of 1m length is dragged with a velocity of 100m/sec, perpendicular to
a field of 1T. What is the value of emf induced?
l = 1m v = 100m/sec, B= 1 web/m
2
= /2
e= Blv sin
= 1

Example 3.2.
An inductive coil of 10 mH is carrying a current of 10 A . What is the energy
stored in the magnetic field.
L = 10

I = 10A
Stored energy W =

10

2

= 0.5 joules

Example 3.3.
The total flax of an electromagnet is 8 x 10
4
Wb. (a) If the cross-sectional area of
the core is 5cm2, find the flux density, (b) the coil of the electromagnet has 100
turns and a current of 5A flows through it. If the length of the magnetic circuit is
50cm, find the mmf and magnetic field intensity.
Given: = 8 x 10
4
Wb; A = 5 x 10
4
m
2
; N = 100; = 50 x 50
4
m
2
; I = 5
Amps

Solution:
(a) Flax Density B =

B = 1.6 Wb/m
2
.

(b) mmf = NI
= 100 x 5
mmf = 500 AT

(c) Magnetic field Intensity
H =

H = 1000 AT/m

Example 3.4.
The core of the magnetic mode of cast iron. Find the total flux for the same
exiting mmf.
Solution:
mmf = 318 AT
H =

= 1590 AT/m

For cast iron when H = 1590 AT/m, B = 0.5T
Flux = 0.5 x 5 x 10
4

= 2.5 x 10
4
Wb
I =1.59 Amps.



Example 3.5.
The co-efficient of coupling between two coils is 0.85. Coil 1 has 250
turns. When the current in coil 1 is 2 Amps, the total flax in this coil 1 is 3 x
10
4
Wb. When
1
is decreased from 2A to zero linearly in 2ms, the voltage
induced in coil 2 is 63.75V. Find L
1
, L
2
, M and N
2
.

Given: K = 0.85 1 = 3 x 10
4
Wb
N
1
= 250 V
2
= 63.75 V
I = 2 Amp di/dt =

Solution:
(i)

L
1
= 37.5 x 10
3
H

(ii) V
2
=

63.75 = M x

M = 63.75 x 10
3
H

(iii) M = K

63.75 x 10
3
=

L
2
= 150 x 10
3
H

(iv)

N
2
= 500

Example 3.6.
Two coils having 30 and 600 turns are wound side by side on a closed iron
circuit of 100cm
2
cross-sectional area and mean length of 150cm.
(a) Estimate the self inductance of the two coils and the mutual inductance if

r
of iron is 2000.
(b) Calculate the voltage induced in coil if the current changes from 0 to 10A
steadily in 0.01 sec.

Given data: N
1
= 30 turns N
2
= 600 turns
a = 100cm
2
= 100 x 10
4
m
= 150 cm = 150 x 10
2
m

r
= 2000

= 250 A/seconds.

Solution:
(a) L =

Where,
= o r
= 4t x 10
7
x 2000
= 2.5132 x 10
3

L
1
=

L
1
= 150.8 x 10
4
H

L
2
=

L
2
= 60320 x 10
4
H

M = (

) K = 1 (assume)
M =

M = 3016 x 10
4
H

(b) V
2
=

= (3016 x 10
4
) (

)
V
2
= 301.6 V

3.3 Magnetic-field System: Energy and Co-energy
3.3.1 Linear System

Fig .3.4 (a) Magnetic Circuit





Fig.3.4. (b) Characteristic of a magnetic circuit Fig.3.4. (c) Energy and co-energy


A simple magnetic current is shown in Fig 3.4(a), with assumption that air-
gap length at the joints is negligible, and the magnetic medium is not saturated.
With A as the cross-sectional area of the core and
m
L as the mean length of the
path, a coil with N turns carrying a current of i amp has an mmf of F, establishing a
flux of | , related by
m
F P | =
-------(3.11)

Where
m
P =Permeance of the Magnetic circuit
o r
= /
m
A L
with
r
= relative permeability of the magnetic medium
This corresponds to the following relationships:
Coil Inductance,
2
/ /
m
L N P N i i | = = =
-------- (3.12)

where = flux-linkage of the coil, in weber- turns

fld
W = Energy stored in the coil =
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
m m
Li N P i F P = =

1 1
( )
2 2
m
F FP F| = =
In this eqn.,
m
P is the slope of the characteristic in Fig 3.4. (b). Hence, the
inductance is proportional to the slope of F | plot. In Fig. 3.4. (b), for the
operating point A, the mmf is F
1
and the flux
1
| . At the point A, the energy stored
in the field is given by eqn. below:

1 1
1
2
fld
W F| =
------ (3.13)


1
F is due to the current
1
.
fld
i W is given by area OATO is Fig 3.4.(b)
In Fig 3.4.(b), the origin refers to the system without magnetization.
The system can reach the point A, starting from O as the current in the coil is
increased from O to
1
i .
Let us understand the intermediate events.
At point B, the flux is | due to the mmf F.
An increment in coil current results into increase in mmf by dF. This
increases the core-flux by d| . New operating point is C.
Eqn. (3.11) is to be suitably re-written in terms of these incremental values.

1 1
0 0
fld fld
W dW Fd
| |
| = = =
} } }
(area of the strip NBB'Q) = area of triangle OAT

1
1 1
0
1
(1/ ) . .
2
m
P d F
|
| | | = = =
}
------- (3.14)

Alternatively, we have the area of elemental strip
"
. kBB M dF | =
Area of
1
0
F
OAS A =
}
(area of the strip
"
KBB M

1 1
1 1 1
0 0
2 1
.
2 2
F F
m m
dF P F dF P F F | | = = = =
} }
------- (3.15)

In order to distinguish with respect to the terms in eqn. (3.15), this area is
called as the "Co-energy of the field" and is represented by
'
fld
W . For a Linear
system, however, for a given operating point, say A, the two energy -terms and
equal. Hence.

' 2
1 1 1
1 1
2 2
fld fld
W W F Li | = = =
------ (3.16)

In order to have a simple and clear distinction between the two energy terms,
it can be said that the different variable "Current" (or mmf) is related to Co-energy
and the differential variable "Flux-linkage" (or flux) is related to Energy.
This energy stored in the magnetic field comes from the electrical source
connected to the coil in Fig. 3.3(a).

3.3.2 A Simple Electromechanical System
A simple electro-mechanical system is shown in Fig.3.5.(a)




Reference point O corresponds to the un stretched spring. Energy stored in
the spring is then Zero. In position A of the movable member, the spring is then
Zero. In position A of he movable member, the spring is elongated by x, and the
corresponding energy stored in the spring is
2
1
2
s
K x , where
s
K I "spring-constant"
of the linear system in Nw/m. In Fig. 3.5.(a), the distance OA is x. The elemental
distance AB is dx, so that OB is x dx + . For simpler analysis, it is assumed that
magnetic material is highly permeable and that the clearance at point M (for
movement of the member) is negligible. So that the mmf of the coil is required to
drive the flux in the region OABC only. The flux-mmf relationships are plotted for
these two positions in Fig 3.5. (b). In position A, the movable member has moved a
distance of x from its un stretched position or reference point. Let the operating
point be H, so that the coil -mmf OA (=F) establishes a flux ( ) | = . In this position,
the movable member experiences a force in such a direction that the energy stored
in the field tends to increase. It tends to reach B, so that an additional displacement
of dx shifts the characteristic upwards and final operating point in position B is C.
From H to C', the operating point can move in any open of the following ways:

Fig.3.5. (a) Fig. 3.5. (b)
(a) HC' vertically, if the mechanical movement is too slow so that change of flux is
slow and induced emf in the coil is negligible. This corresponds to the coil-mmf
remaining constant at F during the transition. Constant mmf means vertical
travel of the operating point from H to C.

(b) H to K horizontally and then K to C' along the characteristic corresponding to
( ) x dc + as the displacement of the movable part. This is possible when the
motion is very fast, resulting into flux remaining constant till the operating
point traverses from H to K. Then, from K to C. the flux increases, an emf in
induced the coil and the mmf finally teaches its value of F, at the point C;

(c) In reality, the transition form H to C will be somewhere in between these two
extremes mentioned above.

However, for simplicity, one of these extreme conditions has to be accepted. In
(a) above, the mmf remains constant, In (b) above, the flux (and hence the flux-
linkage) remains constant. Let us take the case of constant-mmf. If the process has
taken a time of dt.

Electrical -energy input during the process =
elec
dW
= (Voltage applied to the coil) Current dt = eidt
/ d dt i dt id i N d Fd | | = = = = = area of rectangle B'HC'D
In this case, coil - resistance has been neglected.

In terms of Field Energy
At the previous operating point H, the energy stored in the magnetic field

1 fld
W = area of ' OHB A
At the new position corresponding to the operating Point C, the field energy
stored is given by
2 fld
W = area of the ' OC D A
The difference of these two is the change in the energy stored in the
Magnetic field =
| |
1
' ' ' '
2
fld
dW OA A C OA A H =

| |
1 1
' ' ' ' ' '
2 2
OA A C A H OA HC = =

1 1
. .
2 2
elec
F d dW | = =
----- (3.17)-

Out of the energy delivered by the source, half is stored in the magnetic
field. Where has the remaining half been utilized. Obviously, this must have been
transformed into the mechanical work done. In this case, neglecting losses, it is
finally stored in the stretched spring due to its elongation by dx.
Comparing this with the equation ()3.17,
elec mech fld
dW dW dW = +
1
2
mech elec
dW dW = +
------ (3.18)

Or
1
2
mech fld elec
dW dW dW = = =
Consider that a force F is operative at the displacement of X. This force is in
such a direction that x increases or the movable member is attracted towards D. In
the same direction, a displacement by dx results into the increase in the energy
stored by the spring. Relating the concerned terms,
s
F k x =
mech
dW = Mechanical work done against the force of the stretched spring

fld
F dx dW = =
or F / ,
fld
dW dx = in this case
/ ,
fld
W x o o = in general
Alternatively, the difference in the energy stored in the spring also gives a
very useful relationship.
In the position corresponding to x dx + the energy stored in spring

2
1
( ) .
2
s
k x dx = + Similarly, at x , the energy =
2
1
2
s
k x
Difference
2 2
1
( ) ( )
2
s
k x dx x ( = +



2 2 2
1
2 . ( )
2
s
k x x dx dx x ( = + +



1
2. .
2
s
k x dx ( =

neglecting
2
( ) dx
. .
s
k x dx F dx = =
------ (3.19)

This difference is nothing but
mech
dW which is equal in magnitude to
fld
dW and
confirms the relationship obtained earlier.


3.4 FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE
In an electric field, the electric field strength or electric field intensity, E is
defined as the vector force on a unit charge.
Obviously the force on a charged particle will be as given by the expression.

F QE =
------ (3.20)

This force is in the same direction as the electric field intensity (for a
positive charge) and is directly proportional to both E and Q. If the charge is in
motion, the force at any point in its trajectory is then given by equation (3.20).

A charged particle in motion in a magnetic field of flux density B is found
experimentally to experience a force whose magnitude is proportional to the
product of the charge Q, its velocity v, and the flux density B, and to the sine of the
angle between the vectors v and B. The direction of the force is perpendicular to
both v and B and is given by a unit vector in the direction of v x B. The force may,
therefore, be expressed as
F Q v B =
------ (3.21)

A fundamental difference in the effect of the electric and magnetic fields on
the charged particles is now apparent, for a force which is always applied in a
direction at right angles to the direction in which the particle is proceeding can
never change the magnitude of the particle velocity. In other words, the
acceleration vector is always normal to the velocity vector. The kinetic energy of
the particle remains unchanged, and it follows that the steady magnetic field is
incapable of transferring energy to the moving charge. The electric field, on the
other hand, exerts a force on the particle which is independent of the direction in
which the particle is progressing and, therefore, affects an energy transfer between
field and particle in general.

The force on a moving particle due to combined electric and magnetic fields
is obtained easily by superposition
( ) F QE Qv B Q E v B = + = +
----- (3.22)

This equation is known as the Lorentz force equation, and its solution is
required in determining electron orbits in the magnetron, proton paths in the
cyclotron, plasma characteristics in a magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) generator,
or, in general, charged particle motion in combined electric and magnetic fields.

3.4.1 FORCES AND TORQUES IN MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEMS
According to Lorentz force equation

( ) F q E v B = +
--------- (3.23)











Where F is the force in newtons on a particle of charge q coulombs in the presence
of electric and magnetic fields, E being in volts per metre, B in Teslas and v is the
velocity of the particle relative to the magnetic field, in m/s.

Thus in a pure electric field system, the force is determined simply by the
charge on the particle and the electric field.
F qE =
------- (3.24)

The force F acts in the direction of the electric field and is independent of
the particle motion.
In magnetic field systems the situation is somewhat more complex. Here the
force is given as
( ) F q v B =
-------- (3.25)

and is thus determined by the magnitude of the charge on the particle and
the magnitude of induction density B as well as the velocity of the particle. In
fact the direction of force is always perpendicular to both the direction of
Fig 3.6 Right Hand Rules For Determination
of Direction of Lorentz Force
Fig 2.8
particle motion and the direction of magnetic field. Mathematically, this is
given by the vector cross product v x B in equation (3.25). The magnitude of
this cross product is equal to the product of the magnitudes of v and B and the
sine of the angle between them; its direction can be determined from the right
hand rule, which states that when the thumb of the right hand points in tL
direction of v and the index finger points in the direction of B, the force
points in th direction normal to the palm of the hand, as depicted in fig. 3.6.
For situations where large number of charged particl es are in motion,
it is convenient to rewrite equation (3.25) in terms of the current density J, in
which case the force is a force density
F = J x B N/m
3
------- (3.26)
For currents flowing in conducting media, equation (3.26) can be employed for
determination of force density acting on the material itself.
For situations in which the forces act only upon current-carrying elements
and which a of simple geometry. Equation (3.26) usually the simplest and
easiest way to determine forces acting on the system. Very few practical
situations fall into this class, however. In i--j most electromechanical energy-
conversion devices contain magnetic material; in such system! forces act directly
on the magnetic material and clearly cannot be calculated from equation (3.26)
Techniques for calculating the detailed, localized forces acting on the magnetic
material are extremely complex and need detailed knowledge of the field
distribution throughout the structure.

Fortunately, most electro-mechanical energy-conversion devices are
constructed of rigid, non-deforming structures. In these devices, it is the net
force or torque that is of importance, and the details of the localized force
distribution are of secondary interest. For example, in a properly designed
motor the net accelerating torque acting on the rotor determines the motor's
characteristics; accompanying forces, which act to squash or make the solid
rotor oval, play no significant role and generally are not even computed.

For understanding the behavior of rotating machinery, a simple physical
picture is quite useful. Associated with the rotor structure is a magnetic field,
and similarly with the stator; one can picture them as a set of north and south
poles associated with each structure. Just as a compass needle tries to align
with the earth's magnetic field, these two sets of fields attempt to align, and
torque is associated with their displacement from alignment. Thus in a motor,
the stator magnetic field rotates ahead
of that of the rotor, pulling on it and
performing work. The opposite is true
for a generator, here the rotor does the
work on the stator.

Various techniques have been evolved for calculation of the net forces of
concern in electromechanical energy conversion. The technique usually
employed is known as the energy method and is based upon the principle of
conservation of energy. The basis for this method can be understood with
reference to fig.3.7.(a) where a magnetic field-based electromechanical energy-
conversion device is indicated schematically as a lossless magnetic energy
storage system with two terminals. The electric terminal has the terminal
variables voltage e and current i and the mechanical terminal has the terminal
variables force
field
f and position x. This sort of representation is valid in
situations where the loss mechanism can be separated out from the energy-
Fig .3.7. (a) Schematic Magnetic Field
Electro-Mechanical Energy-
Conversion Device
storage mechanism; in these cases the electrical losses such as ohmic losses
can be included as external elements connected to the electrical t erminals and
the mechanical losses such as frictional losses can be included external to the
mechanical systems.
-
Fig. 3.7.(b) shows a typical example of such a system; a simple force
producing device with a single coil forms the electrical terminal, and a
movable plunger








Fig, 3.7. (b) .Simple Force Producing Device
The interaction between the electric and mechanical terminals, i.e., the
electromechanical terminals, i.e., the electromechanical energy conversion,
occurs through the medium of the magnetic stored energy. Since the energy
storage system is lossless, it is a simple matter to write that the time rate of
change of
field
W , the stored energy in the magnetic field, is equal to the
electric power input less the mechanical power output of the energy - storage
system i.e,
field
field field
dW
dx dx d dx
ei f i i f
dt dt dt dt dt

= = = ------- (3.27)


d d
e N
dt dt
|
= =
-------- (3.28)

or
field field
dW id f dx
=

Equation (3.28) permits us to solve the force simply as a function of the flux
linkage and the mechanical -terminal position x . This result comes about as a
consequence of our ability to separate the losses out of the physical problem,
resulting in a lossless energy storage element, as in fig. 3.7 (a).
Equations (3.27) and (3.28) form the basis for the energy method. "This
technique is quite powerful in its ability to compute forces and torques in complex
situations of electromechanical energy-conversion systems. It is to be noted
here that this power comes at the expense of a detailed picture of the force-
producing mechanism. The forces themselves are produced by such well known
physical phenomena as the Lorentz force on current-carrying element, or the
interaction of the magnetic fields with the dipoles in the magnetic material.
Example 3.7.
A non-magnetic rotor having a single-turn coil is placed in a uniform
magnetic field of magnitude 0.8 T, as shown n fig 3.8. The coil sides are at a
radius of 0.125 m, and the coil carries a current of 12 A, as shown. Determine
the 9-directed torque as a function of rotor position ex.
Rotor may be assumed to be 0.5 m long.
Solution: The force per unit length on a wire carrying a
current of I amperes can be determined by multiplying
equation (2.9) by cross-sectional area of the wire.



Single Coil Rotor
Fig. 3.8
As the product of the current density and the cross-sectional area of the wire is
simply the currentI, the force per unit length acting on the wire is given as
F I B =
Thus, for wire 1 carrying a current of I amperes into the paper, the 9-
directed force is given as
1
sin F I B l
u
o =
and for wire 2 located 180 away from wire 1 and carrying a current of I
amperes out of paper is given as
2
sin F I B l
u
o =
where / is the length of rotor in metres. The torque acting on the rotor is given
by the sum of the force-moment-arm products for each wire i.e.
2 sin 2 12 0.8 0.125 0.5sin 1.2sin T I B R l N m o o o = = =



3.5 SINGLY EXCITED MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEMS
Energy in Magnetic System. Energy can be stored or retrieved from a
magnetic system by means of an exciting coil connected to an electrical source.
Consider, for instance, the magnetic field system of an attracted armature relay
shown in fig.3.9. The resistance r of the exciting coil is shown by a series
resistance lumping outside the coil which then is considered as an ideal loss-less
coil. The magnetic flux is produced in the magnetic circuit due o flow of current
i in the exciting coil. It is assumed that all the flux so created is confined to the
iron core and, therefore, links all the N turns producing the coil flux linkages y
which is equal to N|






Fig 3.9. Electro-magnetic Relay

The instantaneous voltage equation for the electric circuit is written,
according to Kirchhoffs voltage law.
d
i r e i r
dt

u = + = +
------- (3.29)

Multiplying both sides of above equation (3.29) by i dt we have
2
i dt i r dt i d u = +
or ( ) ir i dt i d u =
or e i dt i d =
------- (3.30)

The electrical energy input to the ideal coil due to flow of current i in time dt is
given as
elec
dW e i dt i d = =
------- (3.31)

Assuming for the time being that armature is held fixed at position x , all the input
energy is stored in the magnetic field. Thus
elec field
dW e i dt dW = =
------- (3.32)


where
feiled
dW is the change in field energy in time dt. Substituting ei dt i d = from
equation (3.31)in above equation (1.69) we have
elec field
dW i d i N d M d dW | | = = = =
------- (3.33)

where M=Ni, the mmf
The relationship i or M is a functional one corresponding to the
magnetic circuit which in general, is non-linear and also it exhibits hysteresis. The
energy absorbed by the field for finite change in flux linkages or flux is given,
from the above equation (3.33), as
2 2
1 1
( ) ( )
field
W i d M d
|
|
| | A = =
} }
------- (3.34)

As the flux in the magnetic circuit undergoes a cycle
1 2 1
| | | , an
irrecoverable loss in energy takes place due to hysteresis and eddy currents in the
iron. Assuming here that these losses are separated out and are supplied directly by
the electric source, the ideal coil and the magnetic circuit becomes a conservative
system with energy interchange between themselves so that the net energy is
conserved.
The energy absorbed by the magnetic system is establishing flux linkages
or flux | from initial zero value.
0 0
( ) ( )
field
W i d M d
|
| | = =
} }
------- (3.35)


Fig. 3.10 Current - Flux Linkages curve with variable x
This is the energy of the magnetic field with given mechanical configuration when
its state corresponds to flux | or flux linkages
The i

relationship is actually the magnetization curve and this curve
varies with the configuration value x, as illustrated in fig.3.10.
The total reluctance of the magnetic path decreases with the increase in x
and air-gap between the armature and core varies with position x of the armature.
Thus i relationship can be expresses as
( , ) i i x if is the independent variable
or ( , ) i x = if i is the independent variable.
Thus, the field energy [equation (3.35)] is in general, a function of two
variables i.e.
( , )
field field
W W x =
------ (3.36)

( , )
field field
W W i x =
------- (3.37)

According to above equations field energy is determined by instantaneous
values of the system states ( , ) x or ( , ) i x and is independent of the path followed by
these states in attaining these values.
It means that the field energy at any instant is history independent (does not
exhibit hysteresis)
A change in with fixed x causes electro-magnetic energy interchange
which is governed by equations (3.33). Similarly a change in x with fixed
causes interchange of energy between the magnetic circuit and the mechanical
system. The general case of such energy interchanges (3.35), the field energy is the
area between the -axis and i curve as illustrated in Fig.3.11. A new term, co-
energy is now defined as


W
field
(i, x) = i W
field
(,x) ------ (3.38)
wherein by expressing flux linkages as
( , ) i x the independent variables of
field
W
become i and x. The co energy on fig. 3.11 is shown to be complementary area of
i rectangle.
Wfield =

-------- (3.39)




Fig.3.11 Field energy and co energy


3.5.1 Linear Case. Electro - mechanical energy conversion devices contain air-
gaps in their magnetic circuits so as to separate the stationary and moving
members. In most of such cases the reluctance of the air-gap is much larger than
that of the magnetic material. Thus the predominant energy storage occurs in the
air-gap, and the properties of the magnetic circuit are determined by the
dimensions of the air-gap.
Because of the simplicity of the resulting relations, magnetic non-linearity
and core losses are often neglected in the analysis of practical devices. The final
results of such approximate analysis can, if necessary, be corrected for the effects

of these neglected factors by semi empirical methods. Thus, analysis are carried
out under the assumption that the flux and mmf are directly proportional, as in air,
for the entire magnetic circuit. With the linearity assumption the analysis is greatly
simplified.
Assuming linearity, equation (3.35) becomes
2
1 1 1
2 2 2
field
W i M S | | = = =
------ (3.40)

Where S is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit and is equal to . .
mmf N
i e
| |

Since coil inductance is given as
,
N
L
i i
|
= =
i
L

= and the field energy can be expressed as

2
1
2
field
W
L

= ------ ( 3.41)

1 1
2 2
i
L

=
In the linear case the inductance L is independent of current i but is a fuction
of configuration x. Thus the field energy is a special function of two independent
variables and i.e.

2
1
( , )
2 ( )
field
W x
L x

=
-------- (3.42)

The field energy is distributed throughout the space occupied by the field.
Neglecting losses and assuming permeability to be constant, the energy of the field
is obtained from equation (3.35) i.e.

2
3
0 0
1 1
/
2 2
B
field
field
field
W
Ni B
W d H d B HB J m
W l N

o
= = = = =
} }
------- (3.43)

where H is magnetic field intensity in AT/m and is equal to
Ni
l
and B is magnetic
field density in
2
/ Wb m or Tesla.
The above expression for energy density is important from the point of view
of design wherein the capability of the material is to be fully utilized in arriving at
the gross dimensions of the device.
For linear case it easily follows from equation (3.39) or fig. 3.11 that the co
energy is numerically equal to energy i.e.

2
1 1 1
2 2 2
field field
W W i M S | | = = = =
------- (3.44)

Also in terms of coil inductance

2
0 0
1
2
i i
field
W di Li di Li = = =
} }

N
N i Li
i
|
| = = =
or in general

2
1
( , ) ( )
2
field
W i x L x i =
------- (3.45)

The expression for co energy density Is given as
0
H
field
W BdH =
}
------- (3.46)

For linear case the above expression becomes

2
2 3
1 1 1
/
2 2 2
field
B
W BH H J m

= = =
------ (3.47)

The fact that field energy can be expressed in terms of circuit parameter L,
clears the way for electric circuit approach to the analysis of electrical machines
i.e. the generalized theory of electrical machines. Thus the field energy approach
serves as the physical basis for the generalized theory of electrical machines.

General Analysis of Electro - magnetic System (Field Energy and Mechanical
Force)
Consider once again the attracted armature relay excited by an electrical
source, as illustrated in fig. 3.9. The field develops a magnetic force

mch field
dW F dx =
------ (3.48)

This energy is drawn from the field by virtue of change dx in field
configuration. According to the principle of energy conservation
Mechanical energy output= Electrical energy input = increase in field energy
or
field elec field
F dx dW dW =
or
field field
F dx i d dW =
-------- (3.49)

It may be seen that
field
F dx is the gross mechanical output and a part of it
will be lost in mechanical friction.
From equation (3.48) we have
( , )
field field
W i W i x =
So ( ) ( , )
field field
dW d i dW i x =

field field
W W
i d di di dx
i x

c c
(
= + +
(
c c

------- (3.50)

Substituting for
field
dW from equation (3.50)in equation (3.49) we have

field field
field
W W
F dx id id di di dx
i x

( c c
= + +
` (
c c
)

or
field field
field
W W
F dx di dx
i x

c c
= +
`
c c
)
--------- (3.51)

Because the incremental changes di and dx are independent and di is not
present in the left-hand side of above equation (3.51), its coefficient on the right
hand must be equal to zero

. . 0
field
W
i e
i

c
=
c

or
field
W
i

c
=
c
---------- (3.52)

Thus field from equation (3.51) becomes

'
( , )
field
field
W i x
F
x
c
=
c
---------- (3.53)

The above expression for magnetic or mechanical force produced applies
when i is an independent variable i.e. when it is a current excited system.
( , )
field field
W W x =
and
field field
field
W W
dW d dx
x

c c
= +
c c
--------- (3.54)

Substituting
field
dW from above equation (3.54) in equation (3.49) we have

field field
field
W W
F dx i d d dx
x

c c
(
= +
(
c c


or
field field
field
W W
F dx dx i d
x

c c

= +
`
c c
)
-------- (3.55)

Since d the independent differential is not present on the left-hand side of the
above equation (3.56) its coefficient on the right hand must be equal to zero
. . 0
field
W
i e i

c
=
c

or
( , )
field
W x
i

c
------- (3.57)

Hence from equation (3.57)

( , )
field
field
W x
F
x
c
=
c
-------- (3.58)

In the above form of expression for the magnetic force, is independent
variable i.e. it is a voltage controlled system as voltage is derivative of .
Equations (3.50) and (3.58) are equivalent and can both be used to calculate
the force for a given system, user preference and convenience often dictate the
choice.
In linear systems where inductances are specified it is more convenient o use
co energy for finding the force produced - refer equation (3.50).
In case of voltage controlled system, the current can be determined by
writing the necessary circuit equations.
In a rotary case, the equations (3.50) and (3.54) for force will apply for
torque by replacing x with angular rotation u

3.5.2 Direction of Mechanical Force Developed. From equation (3.54) it is
obvious that mechanical force developed
field
F is positive when
( , )
field
W x
x
c
c
is
negative. It means that stored energy of the field is reduced with the increase of x
while flux linkages are kept fixed. In the particular case of electro-magnetic
relay shown in fig.1.18, as the armature moves towards left (i.e. as x increases), the
field energy for fixed flux linkages is reduced. This is due to reduced air gap.
Thus it can be concluded that the mechanical force developed by the field acts in a
direction to reduce field energy or in other words the system seeks a position of
minimum field energy. Similarly from equation (3.51) it follows that the system
seeks a position of maximum co energy.
Also in case of magnetic relay shown in fig,. 3.11 the mechanical force
developed acts in a direction to increase x thereby reducing the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit and increasing the inductance of coil.
Determination of Magnetic or Mechanical Force. (a) Non-Linear Case.
Mechanical force developed by the magnetic field is given by partial derivatives of
co energy or energy [Equations (3.54) and (3.58). In the general non-linear case,
the derivative must be determined numerically or graphically by assuming a small
increment . x A Thus
' '
tan
tan
field field
field i cons t field
cons t
W W
F or F
x x

=
=
A A
= =
A A
------ (3.59)

The above two expressions will give slightly different numerical values of
field
F because of finite x A . Obviously,
field
F is the same in each case as 0 x A .
(b) Linear Case (Neglecting Reluctance of Iron Path)

2
1
( , ) ( )
2
field
W i x L x i =
or
2
1
( )
2
field
W i L x c = c
and mechanical force developed,

'
2
1 ( )
2
field
field
W
L x
F i
x x
c
c
= =
c c
------- (3.60)

From above equation it is obvious that the mechanical or magnetic force
developed acts in a direction to increase the exciting coil inductance, as already
mentioned. Also From equation (3.43)

2
1
( , )
2 ( )
field
W x
L x

=
So
2
( , )
1 ( )
2 ( )
field
field
W x
L x
F
x L x x

c
( c
= =
(
c c

-------- (3.61)

Since i
L

= , equations (3.60) and (13.61) are equivalent.

Also from equation (3.41),
2
1
2
field
W S| =


2
1 ( )
2
field
field
W
S x
F
x x
|
c
c
= =
c c
------- (3.62)

It is worth mentioning here that and | do not differ as independent
variables because these are related by a constant ( ) N N | = . From above equation
(3.62) it is obvious that the force acts in a direction to reduce the magnetic system
reluctance, as already mentioned.

Also from equation (3.41)

1
( , ) ( )
2
field
W x i x =
or
1 ( )
2
field
field
W
i x
F
x x

c
c
= =
c c
------- (3.63)

Similarly in a rotary case

( , )
field
field
W i
T
u
u
c
=
c
------ (3.64)

The above cases are applicable to motion through a limited distance or
rotation through a definite angle and are the equations for singly excited systems
such as in electro-magnetic relays, reluctance motors. In such systems the electro-
mechanical energy conversion takes place through only one source (ac or dc)and
that is why they are called singly excited magnetic field systems.

3.5.3 Mechanical Work Done. Figure 3.12(a) shows the magnetic circuit of a
relay initially with air gap between the core and the armature. On the closure of
switch S, the exciting current i increases from zero to
1
V
i
r
= where r is the
resistance of the coil. As explained earlier, the energy stored in the magnetic field
is given by the hatched area oabo in fig. 3.12(b).




(a) Magnetic circuit (b) Current Flux Linkages Curve

Fig 3.12. Electro magnetic relay in open position

In fig. 3.13(a), the armature is assumed in the closed position i.e. the air gap g is
zero. On closure of switch S, the exciting current again rises from zero to
1
V
i
r
=
whereas the flux linkage increases from zero to
2
. It is to be noted here that the
flux linkages
2
will be greater than the flux linkages
1
, because reluctance of the
magnetic path is considerably reduced for the given mmf. The energy stored is the
magnetic field is now given by the hatched area ocdo ( fig.3.13(b)).
With the armature in open position, as the magnetic field builds up,
magnetic pull between the core and the armature develops. Under the action of the
magnetic pull (a mechanical force), the armature moves to the closed position.
During the armature movement, from its open position, the reluctance of the
magnetic path decreases, thereby increasing the flux linkages from its initial value
of
1
. Because of these increments in flux linkages, an emf, known as counter emf,
is induced in the coil. The induced emf opposes the flow of exciting current i, i.e.,

Current
V E
i
Coil impedance

=



(a) Magnetic circuit (b) Current-Flux linkage Curve
Fig 3.13. Electro magnetic relay in closed position

The magnitude of counter emf induced in the exciting coil depends how fast the
armature moves. We will consider the two extreme cases. One, the current is
allowed to establish and gap g is reduced to zero very slowly (i.e. at almost zero
speed). Second when the armature is held in position till the current i establishes
and then the armature is allowed to move and reduce the gap g to zero in zero time
(i.e. instantly). Neither of these two would be followed in practice.
(a) Slow Movement of Armature.
With the armature in the open position, the exciting current is
1
i the flux
linkages is
1
and the operating point is a. When the armature is allowed to move
very slowly, the flux changes at negligibly low rate, the induced emf is, therefore,
negligible, the current
1
i stays substantially constant
1
V
i
r
| |
=
|
\ .
. Operating point a
must move in such a way that
1
i is maintained. Thus it moves along the vertical

dotted line ac in fig3.14. Consider the significance of the various areas in fig.3.14.
Area
'
o a a b o to the left of the original magnetization curve (i.e. area
'
o a a b o )
represents the energy abstracted from the electrical source and absorbed by the
magnetic field during the initial excitation of the coil while the armature is in open
position. For simplicity, neglect hysteresis and eddy currents. This energy then is
stored in the magnetic field. After the armature has moved into the final
magnetization curve (i.e. area
'
o a c d b o ). Consequently the increase in energy
stored in the field,

field
W A = Magnetic energy stored in the closed position
- Magnetic energy stored in the open position
= Area
'
o a c d b o - area
'
o a a b o
------- (3.65)

While the armature is moving, the flux linkages is increasing from
1
to
2

and an emf is induced in the coil. The corresponding energy abstracted from the
electrical source during this time period .


2
2
1 1 2 1
( )
elec
W i d i

= = =
}
Area
'
a c d b a o
----- (3.66)

Substituting equations (3.65) and (3.66) in equation
d W
field
= eidt =d W
field
+d W
mech
we have

elec field mech
W W W = A +
or Area
'
a c d b a o = (Area
'
o a c d b o - area
'
o a a b o +
mech
W

mech
W = Area
' '
a c d b a o + area
'
o a a b o - area
'
o a c d b o
= area
' '
o a c a o
------ (3.67)

The above equation (3.67) shows that the mechanical work done (or energy
converted into mechanical form) equals the area enclosed between the two
magnetization curves at open and closed positions and the vertical i locus during
the slow movement of the armature. This is illustrated by cross batched area in
fig.3.14.

Fig.3.14. Mechanical Work Done Fig.3.15 . Mechanical Work Done
With Slow Armature Movement With Slow Armature Movement
(Non-Linear case) (Linear case)

It is to be noted here that out of the total electrical energy supplied during
slow armature movement, some energy gets stored in the magnetic field and the
remaining is converted into mechanical energy.

Linear Case. Again electrical supplied,
1 2 1
( )
elec
W i = . For linear case, it follows
from the geometry of the fig. 3.15 that

'
1 2 1
1 1
( )
2 2
field field mech elec
W W W i W A = A = = =
------ (3.68)

It means that half the electrical energy input gets stored in the field and the
other half is output as mechanical energy.

(b) Instantaneous Movement of Armature. When the armature moves to close
the air gap instantaneously (i.e. in zero time), change in flux linkages will be

negligible and will remain constant at
1
. This is because the flux linkages with an
inductive circuit cannot change abruptly. The operating point, therefore, moves
along the horizontal dotted line from a to a', and after the armature has closed, the
operating point moves along the closed position magnetization curve a'c as
illustrated in fig.3.16(a), because the final operating point has to be c.


(a) Non-linear Case (b) Linear Case

Fig. 3.16. Mechanical work done with instantaneous Armature movement

During the instantaneous movement of armature from open position (operating
point a ) to the closed position (operating point a ) in fig. 3.16 we have

Electrical energy supplied
1
2
0
elec
W i d

= =
}

Change in the magnetic stored energy,

field
W A = Area
'
o a b o area
'
' o a a b o
But
elec field mech
W W W = A +
i.e. 0 =
elec mech
W W = A
or
mech field
W W = A = [area
'
o a b o area
'
' o a a b o ]

= area
'
o a a b o area
'
o a b o = area
'
o a b o
---- (3.69)


From the above equation (3.69) it is obvious that the mechanical work done
is equal to the area enclosed between the two magnetization curves at open and
closed positions and the horizontal i locus during the instantaneous movement
of the armature. Since there is no electrical input, the mechanical energy output is
at the expense of the field energy stored.
i.e. Mechanical energy output = Reduction in the energy stored in the field
For linear case [fig. 3.16(b)]

1 1 2
1
( )
2
mech
W i i =
------ (3.70)

( C) Transient Movement of Armature. The armature movement will neither
be too slow nor too fast, but will be somewhere in between the two extreme
limits discussed above. The flux linkage-current ( i ) relationship is a general
path from a to c as illustrated in figs. 3.17 (a) and 3.17 (b)
In general case

elec
W A = Area ' b a a c d

field
W A = Area ' o a c d o - area
'
' o a a b o
and
mech elec field
W W W = A A
=Area ' b a a c d - area
'
' o a a b o + area
'
' o a a b o
= Area
'
' o a a b o
----- (3.71)


(A) Non-Linear Case (B) Linear Case

Fig.3.17 .Mechanical Work Done During Transient Movement of Armature

Equation (3.71) again shows that the mechanical work done is equal to
the area enclosed between the two magnetization curves at open and closed
positions and the
( ) i locus during the transient movement of armature.
Since ac is a general movement, the area ' o a c d o which represents the
mechanical energy output has to be computed graphically or numerically.

Example 3.8
The -i characteristics of singly excited electromagnet is given by I = |2|

for
if air gap is 5 cm and a current of3A is flowing 0<i<4A, 0<x<10 cm. in the coil,
calculate
1. Field energy, 2. C0-energy, 3. Mechnical force on moving part
Solution:
1. Field energy
Field energy =

i 0 , l 0
i 4, l 3.63636 for x 5 cm

3.63636

+
0
Field energy

= 4.848 J
2. Co energy
Wf =

di

4

=

} =

0
Wf =

- = 9.69696J

3). Force
Force =

Wf = 1939.39

F =

( 1939.39)2x
At x 5 cm = 3878.78 5

Force F = 193.939N


3.6 MULTIPLY EXCITED SYSTEMS

Singly-excited devices discussed earlier, are generally employed for motion
through a limited distance or rotation through a prescribed angle. In singly-excited
devices, electromechanical conversion takes place through dc or ac source and that
is why they are called singly excited devices. Examples of singly-excited devices
are electromagnets, relays, moving-iron instruments, reluctance motors etc.
A doubly -excited magnetic system is one which has two independent
sources of excitation. Most of the electromagnetic devices belong to doubly-
excited or multiply-excited magnetic systems. In measurement systems it is often
desirable to obtain torques proportional to two electric signals, power as the
product of voltage and current is a common example. Similarly, most continuous
energy conversion devices - generators and motors need multiple excitation
(multiple windings). One group of windings is mounted on a stationary member
and the other group on a movable member. The tendency for the magnetic field
energy to change when one group of windings moves with respect to the other
gives rise to mechanical forces. The theory of numerous types of energy-
conversion devices, including most rotating machines, is based on this general
principle. DC shunt machines, synchronous machines, loud-speakers, tachom-eter
etc. fall in this category of the devices.
A simple model of a doubly- excited magnetic system is shown in fig. 1.28.
The model consists of stator iron having N
1
turn energized from source 1 and rotor
iron having N
2
turn coil energised from source 2. The mmfs produced by both the
stator and rotor windings are in the same direction and the electromagnetic torque
T
e
is in the counter- clockwise direction, as illustrated in fig. 3.18. Magnetic
saturation and hysteresis, for convenience may be neglected.
The electrical energy supplied from two sources us given as
1 1 2 2 elec
dW i d i d = +
------ (3.72)

where
1
and
2
are the instantaneous flux linkages of stator and rotor windings
respectively. Since magnetic saturation is assumed to be negligible, the flux
linkages
1
and
2
may be expressed in terms of self and mutual inductances


1 1 1 12 2
Li M i = +
and
2 2 2 21 1
L i M i = +
------ (3.73)

where
1
L is self inductance of stator winding L
2
is self inductance of rotor winding
and M
12
(or M
21
)is mutual inductance between stator and rotor windings.



Fig. 3.18.Doubly-Excited Magnetic system
Let initially both of the windings be unexcited (i.e.both
1
i and
2
i aer zero) and space
angle between stator and rotor axes be
r
u . Now let the stator and rotor windings be
switched on to their respective supply sources, so that the currents rise from 0 to
1
i
and
2
i respectively.

If the rotor is held fixed, then mechanical work done
and 0
elec mech field field
dW dW dW W = + +
------ (3.74)

i.e. with rotor is held fixed, all the electrical energy input by the two supply
sources is stored in the magnetic field and from equation (3.74)
1 1 2 2 1 1 1 12 2 2 2 2 21
( ) ( )
field elec i
dW dW i d i d i d Li M i i d L i M i = = + = + + +
---- (3.75)

Since
2 2 2
/
o r
o r
N a N N
L
l l a S


= = = and
1 2 1 2 1 2
/
o r
o r
N N a N N N N
M
l l a S


= = =

2 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
;
N N
L L
S S
= = and
1 2
12 21
12
N N
M M
S
= =
where
1 2
, S S and
12
S are the respective reluctances seen by the stator flux, rotor flux
and by the resultant of stator and rotor flux.
Since the rotor is held fixed (not allowed to move), the reluctances and,
therefore, inductances are constant. Thus the differential changes in inductances
1 2
, , dL dL and
12
dM are all zeros and equation (3.75) is reduced to

1 1 2 2 2 1 12 2 2 21 1 1 1 2 2 2 12 1 2
( , )
field l
dW i L di i L di i M di i M di i L di i L di M d i i = + + + = + +
The magnetic field energy stored in establishing the currents from zero to
1
i and
2
i
is given as
1 2 1 2
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2 12 1 2 1 1 2 2 12 1 2
0 0 0
1 1
( )
2 2
i i i i
field
W L i di L i di M d i i Li L i M i i = + + = + +
} } }
---- (3.76)

Let us assume that the rotor moves through a virtual displacement
r
du
in the
direction of magnetic torque T
e
, as illustrated in fig. 3.18. With the movement of
rotor, reluctances, S
1
, S
2
and S
12
and therefore, inductances L
1
, L
2
, M
12
must
change.
Differentiation of equation (3.75) with respect to inductances and currents
provides for electrical energy input
2 2
1 1 1 12 1 2 1 1 1 2 12 2 2 2 21 2 1 2 2 1 2 12 elec
dW Li di M i di i dL i i dM L i di M i di i dL i i dM = + + + + + + +
---- (3.77)
Similarly from equation (3.76), the increment in field energy is

2 2
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 12 1 2 12 2 1 1 2 12
1 1
2 2
field
dW Li di i dL L i di i dL M i di M i di i i dM = + + + + + +
----- (3.78)

The differential mechanical work done during virtual displacement
r
du

mech e r
dW T du =

From the law of conservation of energy

elec e r field
dW T d dW u = +
-----(3.79)

When the values of
elec
dW and
field
W are substituted from equations (3.77) and (3.78)
in equation (3.79), the four terms
1 1 1 2 2 2 12 1 2 12 2 1
Li di L i di M i di M i di + + + expressing the
electrical energy input caused by current increments
1
di and
2
di are balanced by
identical terms expressing the corresponding increments in field energy. These
terms, therefore, cancel, In other words, differential changes in currents have no
effect on the mechanical forces. Thus we get

2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2 1 2 12 1 1 2 2 2 2 12
1 1
2
2 2
e r
i dL i dL i i dM T d i dL i dL i i dM u + + = + + +
-----(3.80)

or
2 2 1 2 12
1 2 1 2
1 1
2 2
e
r r r
dL dL dM
T i i i i
d d d u u u
= + +
----- (3.81)

The translational equivalent of equation (3.81) is obtained if torque
e
T is
replaced by translational force
e
f and angular displacement
r
du by linear
displacement dxin the direction of force. The extension of equation (3.81) to a
situation involving several circuits whose self and mutual inductances depend upon
the angular position of some member should be obvious from consideration of the
line of reasoning followed in the derivation of equation (3.82). For example, with
three circuits.

2 2 2 3 23 31 1 2 12
1 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
e
r r r r r r
dL dM dM dL dL dM
T i i i i i i i i i
d d d d d d u u u u u u
= + + + + +
(3.82)

Examination of equation (3.80) shows that the sum of the three terms on the
RHS expressing the increment in magnetic field energy at constant currents is half
of the LHS expressing the electrical energy input at constant currents. The other
half of the electrical energy input at constant currents is delivered as mechanical
energy. The increment in field energy at constant currents, therefore, equals the
mechanical energy delivered, hence the torque or forced equals the rate of increase
of field energy with respect to motion at constant current.
Thus differentiation of equation (3.76) gives

1 2
( , , )
field
e r
r
W
T i i u
u
c
=
c
-----(3.83)

in which the field energy must be explicitly expressed in terms of the currents and
angle
r
u and the partial derivatives must be taken with the currents treated as
constants. The translational equivalent of equation (3.83) is

1 2
( , , )
field
e
W
f i i x
x
c
=
c
------ (3.84)

where
e
f is the electromagnetic force acting in the positive direction of x .
Integration of equation (3.77) for
elec
dW with constant currents, gives

2 2
1 1 2 2 1 2 12
2
elec
W i L i L i i M = + +
------ (3.85)

For a linear magnetic circuit,
elec field
W W = therefore, equation (3.83) can be written
as
feild
e
r
W
T
u
c
=
c
-------(3.86)

Doubly Excited Linear Magnetic field System.
Fig,3.19 illustrates a simple model of doubly excited linear magnetic system.
There are two poles, produced by current sources
1
i and
2
i hence there is a
force of attraction between two poles. The differential electrical energy input
elec
dW from two energy sources is







Fig. 3.19

1 1 2 2 elec
dW i d i d = +
where
1 1 1 12 2
Li M i = +

2 1 2 2 1
Li M i = +
and
12 21
M M =
The magnitude of magnetic force
e
f can be obtained by adopting the procedure as
followed for magnetic torque. The translational equivalent of equation (3.81) is

2 2 1 2 12
1 2 1 2
1 1
2 2
e
dL dL dM
f i i i i
dx dx dx
= + +
or
1 2 1 2
( , , ) ( , , )
field field
e
W W
f i i x i i x
x x
c c
= =
c c
----- (3.87)




3.7 Electromagnetic and Reluctance Torques.

The total torque produced by the doubly excited magnetic system is given by
equation (3.81)
In fig.3.18, if rotor current
2
0 I = , then from equation (3.81)
2 1
1
1
2
e
r
dL
T i
du
=
----- (3.88)

and if stator current
1
I =0, then from equation (3.81)

2 2
2
1
2
e
r
dL
T i
du
=
------- (3.89)

Equation (3.88) reveals that even with rotor unexcited
2
( . . 0) i e i = the torque is
developed. This is because reluctance S
1
seen by stator flux changed with rotor
position. A change in S
1
causes the stator self- inductance L
1
to change with
r
u .
Similarly equation (3.89) reveals that with stator unexcited
1
( . . 0) i e i = the torque can
be produced because rotor inductance L
2
is a function of rotor position. The torque
expressions given by equation (3.88 and 3.89) are called reluctance torques. Thus
in a magnetic system shown in fig.3.19, the reluctance torque is present with any
one of the currents acting alone. The physical concepts about the development of
reluctance torques in salient pole machines is very important. In case when only
the stator is excited, then the stator flux would turn in counter-clockwise direction.
In case when only the rotor is excited, the rotor flux would turn in counter-
clockwise direction. In case when only the rotor is excited, the rotor flux would
tend to follow a minimum reluctance path and this is possible only when the rotor
turns in counter-clockwise direction.
Now let the salient pole rotor be replaced by a smooth cylindrical rotor and
the excited by current
2
i as before. The torque
e
T according to equation (3.81), is
given by the expression

2 2 12
2 1 2
1
2
e
r r
dL dM
T i i i
d d u u
= +
------ (3.90)

The reluctance torque term
2 1
1
1
2
r
dL
L
du
is absent. This is because the reluctance S
1
seen
by the stator flux does not vary with the movement of rotor, consequently L
1
is
constant and
1
r
dL
du
is zero.
Thus we conclude that the first two terms of equation (3.81), involving the
change of self- inductances L
1
and L
2
represent reluctance torques for the
mechanical structure shown in fig3.19 while last term
21
1 2
r
dM
i i
du
represents that
component of total torque, which is dependent on the currents in both the stator an
rotor windings and also ion the angular rate of change of mutual inductance
12
M .
This component of torque i.e. the torque represented by the last term
12
1 2
r
dM
i i
du
in
equation (3.81) is commonly called the electromagnetic torque of electromagnetic
energy conversion devices. It means that electromagnetic torque can be developed
only when both of the stator and rotor windings are mutually coupled and carry
currents.
The physical concept about development of electromagnetic torque for the
mechanical structure shown in fig.1.28 is as follows:
The north and south poles produced on stator by stator current i
1
and south
and north poles produced on rotor by rotor current i
2
attract each other tending to
align their fields. The torque produced in this way by the interaction of stator and
rotor magnetic fields is called electromagnetic or interaction torque.
The worth nothing point is that the reluctance torque component is
independent of direction of flow of currents through stator and rotor windings
while the interaction torque component does depend on the direction of currents i
1

and i
2
, In fig.3.18, with the indicated direction of currents i
1
and i
2
, the
electromagnetic or interaction, torque is counter-clockwise, as illustrated. If the
direction of flow of current through either stator or rotor is reversed, the interaction
torque would be opposite to that shown in fig, 3.18. i.e. in clockwise direction, but
the direction of reluctance torque would still be in the same direction as before the
reversal of direction of current flow i.e. counter clock wise.

Example 3.9.
Determine approximately the maximum torque that the motor can develop when it
is connected to 230V, 50Hz supply. It is given that the exciting winding has 1,500
turns; the inductance of the winding in direct-axis position is 0.8H and when the
rotor is in quadrature - axis position, the inductance is 0.4H.

Solution : Inductance of exciting winding
when the rotor is in direct - axis position, 0.8
d
L H =
when the rotor is in quadrature - axis position, 0.4
q
L H =

max
230
0.00069
4.44 4.44 4.44 50 1, 500
E V
fN fN
| = = = =

weber
2 2
6
(1, 500)
5.625 10 /
0.4
q
q
N
S AT Wb
L
= = =
and
2 2
6
(1, 500)
2.8125 10 /
0.8
d
q
N
S AT Wb
L
= = =
The value of the maximum torque that the motor can develop,

( )
2 2 2
( )max max
1 1
(0.00069) (5.625 2.8125) 10 0.1677
8 8
e av q d
T S S Nm | = = =



2 mark Question and answer


1.State the principle of electromechanical energy conversion.
As electrical energy is not readily available in nature, it has to be generated , to
meet the demands of electricity. The mechanical energy is converted to electrical
energy the vice versa of which also is possible is called electro-mechanical energy
conversion which takes place through either electric field (or) magnetic field.

2. What is an electromechanical system?
The system in which the electromechanical energy conversion takes palace via the
medium of a magnetic or electric field is called electromechanical system.

3. How energy is stored?
Energy can be stored of retrieved from the magnetic system by means of an
exciting coil connected to an electric source.

4. Distinguish between statically induced and dynamically induced emf.
When emf is induced in a conductor placed stationary in a field , it is called as
statically induced emf.
If emf is induced in a conductor due to relative motion between the conductor and
the field , it is called as dynamically induced emf.

5.What does speed voltage mean ?
It is that voltage generated in a coil, when there is a exist relative moment
between the coil and magnetic field.

6.Define field energy.
The energy drawn by virtue of change in the distance moved by the rotor in
electrical machines in field configuration is known as field energy.

7.How the energy stored in magnetic field?
When the moving part of any physical system is held fixed, and then the entire
electrical energy input gets stored in the magnetic field.

8. Why energy stored in a magnetic material always occur in air gap?
In a magnetic material in case of iron core (or) steel core the saturation and ageing
effects from hinderance in storage.
But in air gap as reluctance as well permeability are constant, the energy storage
takes place linearly without any complexity.
Hence energy is stored in air gap always in a magnetic medium.
9. Define mmf.
Magnetic motive force (mmf) is given by
Mmf = flux reluctance
Mmf = . R Amp.turns.


10. In a solenoid coil with an inductance of 5 mH current is increasing at the rate
of 100A/sec. What is the value of induced emf?
Emf = L

= 5

= 0.5v

11. What is the expression for energy stored in magnetic field ?
W =

Where
L is the inductance
I is the current

12. What is the energy density in the magnetic field?
Energy density w =

BH
=

13. Define co energy.
Co energy is an energy used for a linear system computation keeping current as
constant. It will not be applied to the non linear systems.

14. What is the significance of co-energy?
When electric energy is fed to a coil not the whole energy is stored as magnetic
energy.
The co-energy gives the measure of other energy conversions which takes place in
a coil than magnetic energy storage.
1 field energy 2 Co-energy

15.Write the expression for the principle of energy conversion.
Mechanical energy output (work done by the field force) = Electrical energy input
increased in field energy

16. Give an example for each of single and multiple excited system.
Single excited system : Eg : Reluctance motor, single phase transformer, Relay
coil.
Multiple excited system : Eg: Alternator, Electro-mechanical transducer.

17. Write the application of single and doubly fed magnetic system.
Singly excited system are employed for motion through a limited distance (or)
rotation through a prescribed angle.
Whereas multiply excited system are used where continuous energy conversion
takes place and in case of transducers where one coil when energized produces a
proportional signal either electrical (or) mechanical.

18. Describe multiply excited magnetic field system.
The specially designed transducers have the special requirement of producing an
electrical signal proportional to forces or velocities of producing force proportional
to electrical signal. Such transducers requires two or more excitation called as
multiply excited magnetic field system.

Part B
1. Derive the expression for field energy produced in a doubly excited magnetic
field system?
2. The magnetic flux density on the surface of an iron face is 1.6 T which is a
typical saturation level value for ferromagnetic material. Find the force density on
the iron face.
3. What are the special applications where the electric field is used as a coupling
medium for electromechanical energy conversion? Also explain why electric field
coupling is preferred in such applications?
4. Find an expression for the force per unit area between the plates of a parallel
plate condenser in terms of the electric field intensity. Use both the energy and co
energy methods. Find the value of the force per unit area when E = 3 x 106 V/m,
the breakdown strength of air.
5. Explain with neat diagram and sufficient expressions, the multiply excited
magnetic field systems.
6.Explain i - characteristics of a magnetic system. Also derive the expression for
co energy density. Assume i - relationship of the magnetic circuit is linear.
7. Explain the concept of singly excited machines and derive the expression for
the electromagnetic torque.
8. Obtain the expression for energy stored in magnetic field.
9 .A faraday copper disc of 0.3m diameter is rotated at 60 revolution per second
on a horizontal axis perpendicular to and through the centre of the disc, the axis
lying in a horizontal field of 20 wb/

. Determine the emf induced between

brushes.
10..An iron ring of relative permittivity 100 is wound uniformly with two coils of
100 and 400 turns of wire. The cross section of the ring is 4 cm and the mean
length is 50 cm. Calculate the self inductance of each of the two coils and the
mutual inductance.
11.Two identical coupled coils in series has an equivalent inductance values of
0.08 H and 0.0354H. Find the values of self inductances, mutual inductance and
coupling coefficient.
12. A three phase 16 pole alternator has a star connected winding with 144 slots
and 10 conductors per slot. Flux per pole is 0.04 and runs at 375 rpm. Calculate the
line and phase values of induced emf ( Ans : 3543.6 v, 2046)