US-China Education Review 2013 6A

US-China Education Review A
Volume 3, Number 6, June 2013 (Serial Number 25)
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Publication Information: US-China Education Review A (Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-623X) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA. Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review A, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-practice researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Sociology of Education, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. Editorial Board Members: Professor Alexandro Escudero Professor Ghazi M. Ghaith Professor Gner Tural Professor Michael Eskay
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US-China Education Review

A
Volume 3, Number 6, June 2013 (Serial Number 25)
Contents
Curriculum and Teaching
Analyzing Activities in the Course of Science Education, According to Activity Theory: The Case of Sound Xarikleia Theodoraki, Katerina Plakitsi Assessing Translation Misconceptions Inside the Classroom: A Presentation of an Instrument and Its Results Pauline Anne Therese M. Mangulabnan Teaching and Learning Mathematics in a Non-native Language: Introduction of the CLIL Methodology in Italy Franco Favilli, Laura Maffei, Roberto Peroni Conducting a SWOT Analysis for Program Improvement Betsy Orr The Best Ways of Teaching English to Children: Using Childrens Operas in Teaching to 5- to 6- Year-Old Children Natalya Achkasova The Best of All Worlds: Immersive Interfaces for Art Education in Virtual and Real World Teaching and Learning Environments Janette Grenfell 391 385 381 374 365 353
Educational Technology
Harnessing the Use of Open Learning Exchange to Support Basic Education in Science and Mathematics in the Philippines Josephine S. Feliciano, Louie Carl R. Mandapat, Concepcion L. Khan Identifying the Factors Impacting the Adequately Yearly Progress Performance in the United States Ju-Shan Hsieh 417 407
US-China Education Review A, ISSN 2161-623X June 2013, Vol. 3, No. 6, 353-364
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Analyzing Activities in the Course of Science Education, According to Activity Theory: The Case of Sound*
Xarikleia Theodoraki, Katerina Plakitsi
University of Ioannina, Dourouti, Greece
In the present study, we analyze activities on the topic of sound, which are performed in the science education laboratory lessons in the third-year students of the Department of Early Childhood Education at the University of Ioannina. The analysis of the activities is based on one of the most modern learning theories of CHAT (Cultural Historical Activity Theory). The use of CHAT contributes to the emergence of new and flexible ways of evaluating educational activities at European and global level. According to CHAT, the activity is not considered fragmented and isolated, disconnected from the socio-cultural and historical context that supports it. The subjects, rules, tools, and community learning do not operate in isolation, however, all parts/factors are in constant interaction. It is evident that a single change in the factors can cause a change in activity system. Furthermore, teaching and learning are influenced by socio-cultural and historical factors that coexist in the activities (Roth & Tobin, 2007). The analysis of the teaching of science activities to university students illuminates aspects concerning the development and reshaping of curricula from the first stages of education. The socio-cultural theory of CHAT, as a vital component of our ever changing society, contributes to the childs development as a future active citizen. Keywords: CHAT (cultural historical activity theory), laboratory lessons of sound, science education, early childhood
Introduction
This research is connected with a wider research program of science education. The approach uses the CHAT (Cultural Historical Activity Theory) and focuses on a series of laboratory lessons of science education. This study approaches the problem of inefficiency of science education, according to the results of PISA 2009. It is an innovation which follows the transfer of the socio-cultural education in science education, supported by scientists around the world (Cole, 2006; Lee, 2004; Engestrm, 2005; Plakitsi, 2008). In this study, we approach the concept of sound, as it is organized and carried out in laboratory lessons of the third-year students of the Department of Preschool Education of the University of Ioannina. Activity theory is a cultural-historical theory, which was inaugurated by Russian psychologists, S. L. Rubinstein and A. N. Leontiev, in the early 20th century. It tries to explain the social and cultural work practices by associating them with the cultural and historical context in which this theory takes place. The basic
*
This paper is developed in the context of a research project which is co-funded by the European Union-ESF (European Social Fund) and National Sources, in the framework of the program HRAKLEITOS II of the Operational Program Education and Life Long Learning of the Hellenic Ministry of Education, lifelong learning and religious affairs. Xarikleia Theodoraki, Ph.D. candidate, School of Education, University of Ioannina. Katerina Plakitsi, assistant professor, School of Education, University of Ioannina.
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ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
unit of analysis as suggested by the activity theory is the activity itself. The rapid spread of information technology and therefore the HCI (human-computer interaction) led to focus on the terminal user. Designers very often face to the difficulties in identifying the problems of the user or the complex methodological conditions of application of new technologies where the users needs are in the center. Activity theory can provide a framework, firstly, to re-interpret the users needs, and secondly, to study the development and operation of different interactive systems that occur in each activity. Moreover, activity theory supports a hierarchical analysis of human action in the context of socio-cultural approaches. Nevertheless, the theory focuses on more flexible forms of hierarchy rather than static divisions of the whole parts. When we refer to the activity, we do not just connect the act-doing, but in transforming-mediating action translate a concept, doing in order to transform something. We focus on the activity as a whole-system activity system (Engestrm, 1987, 2000; Kutti, 1996). This underlying relationship between subjects and the final object is constructed and mediated by several factors, including tools, community, rules, and division of labor. It is, therefore, quite complex to one-sided and one-dimensional treatment of the activity theory. To tackle this obstacle, we adopted the triangular model of Engestrm (1987), focusing on the object, which is constantly changing in relation to the objectives of the activity, but also manifests itself in different forms for different participants at different times of activity (Hasu & Engestrm, 2000). So, we focus on the subject-object which depends on: (1) The different participants in the activity (subjects); (2) The different phases of the activity (Hasu & Engestrm, 2000). Learning, knowledge, and expertise are distributed effectively through the involvement of people (subjects) in community learning (learning community). We notice that the notion of authority and specialization are disputed, as they are identified within each individual (subject). The thought is distributed, and therefore, can be redefined through social-cultural contexts (CHAT). Our research, therefore, focuses on the implementation of activity theory in certain areas of science. As in other related studies, it aims at ratifying the activity theory as a tool for evaluating the scientific activities in different learning environments, such as classroom, laboratory lessons, university lessons, etc..
Rationale
In this study entitled the laboratory lesson LLSAT (Laboratory Lesson of Sound Based on Activity Theory), we conduct a research on the use and applicability of activity theory as an analytical tool for the activities of science education. Activity theory is a theory with expanding applications in various areas, such as science and science education in particular. The unit of analysis is the activity and students work in groups defined in the community, using intermediary tools for a common purpose. These objects play an important role in creating new concepts and ideas within the rules that the entire community follows. This makes the transition from one activity to another flexible and takes advantage of prior knowledge. Thus, the construction of knowledge is important for students who interact with each other and with the tools and resources within the community of students, but also in the activity (Engestrm, 1999). Our initial goal was to build the LLSAT laboratory, which is an attempt by the research team @ FISE in the Department of Early Childhood in the field of science education. We use the laboratory lesson as a methodological tool for preparing students to teach the topic of sound in preschool classes in the city of Ioannina. The basic point of LLSAT was our position on the educational success or failure that would use this
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theory in collective activities in social context. The organization of LLSAT included the following steps: (1) Awareness: At this stage, university students decide together for the theme that they will focus on during their practical training in preschool classes in the city of Ioannina, which will last two weeks. The sound was the most interesting and popular topic for university students. This is the stage where university students cooperate with each other for the same subject (sound) and they review the literature that will be needed. At this stage, the students record the concepts they know, and those who want to explore more on the subject of sound; (2) Comparison: We compared the laboratory lesson of sound to previous laboratory lessons and the attitudes, as a result that knowledge and skills were built by university students. University students made a first comparison of the method followed in relation to the older more traditional methods; (3) Exploration/activate prior knowledge: In this stage, we tried to capture the cognitive obstacles of university students when dealing with the issue of sound. Then, we conducted a bibliographical search on the cognitive obstacles encountered in children aged five to nine when dealing with the issue of sound; (4) Creation: Having developed additional information about the sound, we created activities based on the needs of both university students and preschool pupils. The university students used the prior knowledge on the subject to produce sounds with different objects. Then, they received more information about the properties of sound (intensity, hue, etc.) and put the materials into different categories, depending on how they produce sounds (ringing, blowing, etc.). Finally, they were asked to consider the cognitive obstacles that occur in five- to nine- year old children on the issue of sound and to reform the activities they chose to teach. This study is part of a wider research, which uses activity theory as an analytical tool of science education activities. Through this intervention, we try to evaluate the activity theory as a tool for analysis of activities in different learning environments-classroom, laboratory courses (community), acting with different subjectsuniversity students, preschool pupils, teachers, etc. (subjects). The research questions that concern us in developing the lab lesson of sound LLSAT during the intervention course were: (1) What tools were used by subjects to capture the learning object and how? (2) What were the rules used by the subjects? (3) How was the division of labor related to the subject? (4) What were the tools used by the learning community? (5) What rules affected the learning community and how? (6) How did the division of labor affect the way the learning community conquered the learning object? The selection of teams that conducted the intervention was made by a sample of 80 third-year university students. Three pairs of university students were selected, which were assigned to teach the qualities of sound, and the production of sounds with different objects or body parts. University students were trained through: (1) Laboratory lessons: A series of workshops on issues related to sound, its properties, the means, and the different ways of producing sounds; (2) Lessons of science education: The lectures and the theoretical part, acted as support to the education of university students and aimed to familiarize them with issues from the field of science education; (3) Individual and group work on the sound: Individual-group work was made at regular intervals, it helped groups of students interact effectively, work as a team, but also understand the methodological framework of activity theory, under which they would make the intervention in preschool classes.
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Their training was evaluated: (1) From the laboratory, courses through their work they had done, but also through their familiarity with concepts of science (sound); (2) From the teaching intervention, they made in the course of their internship in preschool classes in the city of Ioannina. The intervention took place in three different public preschools classes in the city of Ioannina during the two weeks of practical training of students in schools. To do this, university students should follow the steps of the laboratory lesson of sound LLSAT that we had coorganized during the spring semester. At this point, we should mention that the university students had little previous experience of real class and had to work with 18 to 20 preschool pupils in each preschool class. Finally, we note that the contribution of the in-service teachers of preschools was very important, as they were willing to cooperate and assist preschool pupils on classroom management during the intervention.
Methods
We use the eight-step of Mwanza, so as to analyze our didactical intervention. University students participated in both the planning activities of the laboratory course, and their assessment according to the following eight stages of Mwanza (2001). The following assessment is a part of a wider research carried out and continues to be controlled by the @ FISE group of the Department of Early Childhood Education, University of Ioannina. Activity of Interest (Activity of Interest) At this stage, students define and choose the type of activity which most interests themselves and their pupils. Production of sounds with different objects and study the production of sounds with parts of the body, were the activities, which were studied and evaluated by both teachers and the students. At this stage, the organization of the workshop on the sound (LLSAT) took place. The Aim of the Activity (Objective of Activity) Students set the objective of activities in research and education. The findings resulting from the intervention were evaluated through filming and recording of the intervention carried out in preschool. Each group of students presented its findings and made comments on the outcome of activities. Subjects Activity (Subject in This Activity) The groups discuss about who were involved in the activity (students, teachers, parents, etc.). At this stage, they discuss about how the different objects were involved, the decisions taken and the different roles that evolved during the course. Tools Mediate the Activity (Tools Mediating Activity) Books, Internet, animations, and other materials were the tools with which subjects (students) used for the activities. At this stage, students reshaped the course of business, and redefined how to use different tools (tools) to better understand the properties of sound from the students. We note that the selection and use of tools (tools), which are common in everyday life, seemed to be very effective. The Rules of Mediation Activity (Rules and Regulations Mediating the Activity) Groups of students recorded: (1) the rules (rules) that they themselves chose to set the group (community); and (2) the rules chosen by the members of the groups of students to carry out activities. Each pair of students
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worked together to explore different ways of producing sounds with different materials, and each pair recorded its findings. When students completed the nursery experimenting, they discussed their findings in class. The Division of Labor as a Mediator in Business (Division of Labor Mediating the Activity) The division of labor during the teaching intervention was divided into two categories: (1) Master class: He showed how to make adjustments in order to place these activities (without actually affecting the substantive outcome of the results) also brought the class to take place around the discussion of results through interaction, posing probing questions (What happened? Which objects produce sounds? How can you produce sounds with your body and what conclusions can we make?); (2) Students: Who worked in pairs, cooperated within their group as well as other groups to determine the properties of sound, which will be investigated and arranged in the pattern of instructional intervention. Community in Which They Conducted Business (Community in Which Activity Is Conducted) At this stage, they defined the environment in which the activity took place. More specifically, the environment, the community was the class of each nursery, which held the teaching intervention. Results (Outcomes) This is the final stage, which takes into account the results in the course of the teaching intervention. University students: (1) Recorded their findings through questionnaires and interviews of students who made the teaching intervention; (2) Processed and generated the data, both during configuration of LLSAT and during the intervention; (3) Took account of the recordings (video, recordings, notes, etc.) during the practical exercises of students; (4) Analyzed the activities of the teaching intervention, using activity theory.
LLSAT Summary
Students identify and describe different sounds and how each sound is made using simple materials and objects so as to explore the properties of sound (frequency, pitch, loudness, wavelength, and period). Students will be guided to experience how sound and volume change. LLSAT engages students in active learning experiences that build understanding of the properties of sound. Teacher-researcher points out the inquiry strategies as students discover the properties of sound and share their findings with the members of their group and with other groups. Scientific inquiry is occurring as students are learning content. Students also engage in a variety of experiences in which they explore, observe, and explain how sound is transmitted, reflected, and absorbed through a variety of materials. They also connect sound and sound properties with everyday life. Students also demonstrate that sound moves through different states of matter and observe that sound moves differently through different means. Producing Sounds With Body Parts Students start to produce as many sounds, as they can use different parts of their body. Students create a band of sounds with body parts (see Figure 1), which are divided into groups and each one agrees to produce the same sound with the cue of the teacher (e.g., one group claps, the second makes the sound A with the voice, and the third hits the knees). The researcher-teacher encourages students to use different body parts to produce sounds. Each student
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chooses the body parts which will be used for the activity. At this stage, students work individually and they have to cooperate with the researcher-teacher. The interaction between the researcher-teacher and the students helps the mediation of the subject-object-tool system. We encourage students (subjects) to use the different parts of their body (tools) to produce different sounds. Students (subjects) make a sound with their hands, with their mouth, or by stamping their feet. The different types of sound that are produced (object) help students to understand the different type of body parts that will produce sound as well as the different sound that will be produced. The interaction that occurs among students is very important and the interactive system, subject-object-tool, allows both the students and the teacher-researcher to work towards a common goal-object. The students produce sounds with different body parts (legs, hands, mouth, etc.). The teacher-researcher suggests that they: (1) use one body part each time; (2) make one sound each time; and (3) beat or wiggle one body part.
Figure 1. Children are listening to heartbeats.
The interactive system helps activate and involve students-subjects in the activity, and create rules within the group during the activity. Students (subjects) make rules (use one body part each time, create one sound each time, etc.) (object). The interaction of the subject-object-rule system help us to understand that the rules, as well as the tools, and contribute to achieving the object. The researcher-teacher helps the group of students to choose the different body parts and lets them use it. Then students give instructions to each other about the way in which they will work (individually or in smaller groups). One student, for example, may be responsible for the hand clapping, another for the feet-stamping, etc.. Finally, a student can keep notes to record activity progress, and final to keep notes, indicating which body part makes the louder sound and which makes the quieter sound. In this interactive system (subject-object-division of labour), students-subjects cooperate during the activity and find ways to share responsibilities (division of labour) in each separate group. Some students may be responsible for different sounds, some others for the different body parts that the team has to use, and the rest of them can keep notes for the activity progress. The students-subjects as a group constantly collaborate with the researcher-teacher, who is also involved in the activity.
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During the activity, the group of students interacts with other groups of students. It is, therefore, possible to ask some questions of the students in other groups, to determine differences between the use of different parts of the body to make sounds. The interactive system learning community-tool-object could help the team to interact and share their data and their observations with other groups. The learning community could be the class, and the exchange tools (verbal, materials) help students collaborate, make different comments, and exchange their perspectives about the results of each group. The groups of students decide which rules will be followed during the activity. They decide to: (1) use one body part each time; (2) create one sound each time; (3) collaborate with the other members of their group; (4) collaborate with the teacher-researcher; and (5) share and exchange their observations and data. The following interactive system (learning community-object-rules) helps develop the activity. The rules (use one body part each time, create one sound each time, etc.) that students can use to develop themselves and promote better collaboration in each group. Furthermore, the rules ensure the mobility and interaction of the different groups. The different effects-objects in each group provide different aspects of the outcome for the same activity, which leads to new interactive systems. The groups of students record their observations and the results obtained from the outcome of the activity. They distribute their responsibilities within each group and present the results to other groups. The researcher-teacher encourages students to work in groups and gives details, only if the group requests them. Each group presents the different body parts and the sound that each part could create and explains their observation to the other groups. The interactive system (learning community-division of labour-object) develops different functions for the members of each group (division of labour). The division of labour is formed in the wider learning community (community). The learning community is formed by students participating in the activity and the researcher-teacher (subject), who plays a supportive and cooperative role rather than acting as leader. Producing Sounds With Different Objects The researcher-teacher gives each student an object that produces sounds as follows: (1) Shake (paper and flexible plastic); (2) Crinkle (plastic glass and nylon bag); (3) Tear (newspaper and magazine); (4) Hit (chopsticks, spoons, and stones); (5) Grate (grater and spoon, bottle with an uneven surface, and combs). Students use objects to produce as many different sounds as they can (see Figure 2). Then, the researcher-teacher asks them to present a sound and the way it is produced (e.g., sound with hits). The researcher-teacher also helps students to use the materials-tools (paper, flexible plastic, plastic glass, nylon bag, etc.) by giving them the opportunity to experiment freely with the materials. Each student uses the chosen materials. They may work together, creating smaller groups, and they may also cooperate with the researcher-teacher. The interaction between the researcher-teachers and students helps the mediation of the subject-object-tool system. The students (subjects) use the materials (tools) as they wish and try to divide them into categories according to the sound that they create. During the activity, students observe the sounds created. They observe
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the frequency, pitch, loudness, wavelength, and the period of each sound. The interaction that occurs among the students is important and effective, as it allows them to create smaller groups and choose materials and tools they want to use by setting rules. The interactive system subject-object-tool allows the students and the teacher-researcher to work towards a common goal-object.
Figure 2. Producing sounds with different objects.
Students experiment freely with the materials-tools (paper, flexible plastic, plastic glass, nylon bag, etc.). The teacher-researcher proposes: (1) To use one object-material each time; (2) To shake, crinkle, tear, hit, or grate the materials and observe what type of sound is produced; (3) To place materials into groups according to their behaviour. The resulting interactive system subject-rules-object promotes activation and involvement of the student-subject in the activity and the development of sequence rules within the team during the activity. The students (subjects) use rules (use one object-material each time, shake, crinkle, tear, hit, or grate the materials, etc.). The rules, as well as tools, contribute to reaching the final object, which may be different in each group. The object depends on the interests, desires, scientific knowledge of the group, and use of the materials. The researcher-teacher helps the group of four students to choose the materials they want to experiment with. Then, he/she lets students to give instructions to their teams about the way in which they will work (individually or in smaller groups). One student may be responsible for the management of materials, another for the operation and use of different materials, or another may undertake to create categories in which materials are placed according to their behaviour (frequency, pitch, loudness, wavelength, and the period of each sound). Then, the students, as groups or as individuals, may describe the behaviour of the materials. The resulting interactive system (subject-object-division of labour) helps subjects cooperate during the activity and find ways for sharing responsibilities (division of labour) in each individual group. The division of labour in each group depends on the students ideas about sound and properties of sound. The students-subjects of each group constantly collaborate with the researcher-teacher. The students (subjects) can describe the
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behaviour of the materials using the appropriate terminology (object). The object could be different for each student and for each group. The groups of students that form during the activity collaborate. Each group has the opportunity not only to ask questions of the students in other groups, but also to collaborate with other groups, create larger groups, and share tools (paper, flexible plastic, plastic glass, nylon bag, etc.). The interactive system learning community-tools-object may help the groups interact with and transfer data and observations to other groups. The learning community (student-teacher-class) could transfer and exchange tools (paper, flexible plastic, plastic glass, nylon bag, etc.). The exchange of tools (verbal, materials) helps students not only collaborate, but also make different observations, share the materials they have, and exchange perspectives after consulting the results of each group. In addition, groups record keywords and phrases pertaining to the subject involved, which helps obtain scientific knowledge about sound and the properties of sound and also use scientific procedures. Groups of students set the rules that are followed during the activity. They decide to: (1) use one material each time; (2) to shake, crinkle, tear, hit, or grate the different materials; (3) place the tools materials into different groups categories; and (4) list on paper the materials in both categories. The groups of students must write down their observations and the results obtained from the outcome of the activity. Having defined the responsibilities for each group, they present the results to the other groups. The role of the researcher-teacher is supportive, as he/she gives details only at the request of the students. Each group presents the properties of different materials used and explains to the other groups the way they decide to work with the materials. The resulting interactive system learning community-division of labour-object displays the different functions that each group determines for its members (division of labour). Moreover, the division of labour is formed in the wider learning community (community) and in the individual community (groups). The learning community is formed by students participating in the activity and the researcher-teacher (subject), who plays a supportive and cooperative role rather than leading. The learning community can then be revised, and more students or students classes can be added. The Travel of Sound Does sound travel through paper, plastic, or metal? The sound travels in air, liquids, and solids. Students put a ringing alarm clock in a paper bag, they close the bag and try to hear the clock ringing. They repeat the experiment using a plastic box and a metal can. They also try to experiment with the travel of sound into the water (see Figure 3). They fill a glass jar nearly full of water, one student covers one ear with her/his hand and puts the other ear against the glass jar. Finally, another student hits two spoons together under water and the other student tries to hear the sound. Do they hear the sound that is produced? The researcher-teacher gives students different type of materials (plastic box, paper bag, metal can, and a clock). Students use different type of materials and try to observe the properties of sound in different conditions. The researcher-teacher also helps students to use the materials-tools (plastic box, paper bag, metal can, and the clock) by giving them the opportunity to experiment freely with the materials. Each student uses the chosen materials. They may work together, create smaller groups, and also cooperate with the researcher-teacher.
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Figure 3. The travel of sound into the water.
The subject- object- tool system, mediate between researcher-teacher and the students, resulting the division of materials (tools) into different categories, according to their behaviour. The students (subjects) observe the hear of the sound and how loud it is (Is the sound heard in different types of materials?) From the resulting interactive system learning community-object-rules, it is possible to construct the activity, as the rules set by students and followed by the groups making cooperation between groups easier and more effective. Furthermore, the rules ensure the mobility and interaction of the different groups that have emerged. The different effects-objects obtained in each group provides different aspects of the activitys outcome, and then lead to new interactive systems. The learning community within which the activity takes place is not a separate part of the broader learning community, but an integral part of it.
Results and Conclusions

During our cooperation with the university students, we noticed the importance of developing, implementing, and studying science education. We tried to offer both university students of the Department of the University of Ioannina and the pupils of preschool in the city of Ioannina, the opportunity to work with new and more flexible methods. Through design LLSAT, given to the third-year university students the opportunity to work at different levels of scientific method, using new concepts for the education (activity theory). Moreover, they were given the opportunity of collecting and processing data (empirical data) or as a comment, either through design of experiments (LLSAT) (Roth & Tobin, 2007). The LLSAT provides many opportunities for students discovery of objects and the sounds which they make. During the initial evaluation of data and outcomes, the tools (tools) used by subjects to capture the learning object depends on both the cultural-social environment in which they work according to their own interests. This means that employees at three public preschool classes in the city of Ioannina discovered different ways to use the tools given to students. The cultural-social environment was a key to use these tools. Furthermore, we mention that the rules (rules) were amended during the conduct of different activities. For this reason, the rules were recorded in four levels. Rules developed among: (1) students-students; (2)
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student-teachers; (3) student-student groups; and (4) teacher-student teams. We note that the division of labor among subjects concerns the management tools (verbal-materials). The tools we used in the learning community, help to achieve scientific literacy, active learning in the learning community and management of cognitive obstacles. Initial results (outcomes) show that the division of labor affects how the learning community (community) conquers the learning object (object), which varies depending on their interests and prior knowledge. After LLSAT, the students could relate the pitch of sound to the length of a vibrating object and to define words (frequency, pitch, loudness, wavelength, and the period of each sound). They also examined hearing acuity using different materials and means. Moreover, we have to notice the importance of university students training to use new tools and new learning methods and methodological tools, both in their own education and in their practical training in school classrooms. The use of new methods of activities analysis by university students and prospective teachers marks the continuous and effective education and familiarity with these methods. This research part, even limited, may be the growth driver of the science education in the early grades of education. The study based on Engestrms original model for the activity theory, focuses on the use and effectiveness of tools, which are associated with socio-cultural and psychological aspects of the tool. This approach emphasizes the importance of cultural behavior of the tool supported by the analysis of human activities using the tools. The results of this study supported by the existing results of the teaching intervention LLMAT, which took place in preschools classes of the city of Ioannina (Theodoraki & Plakitsi, 2009). In conclusion, we note that the interference with the use of CHAT served as an opportunity to improve the teaching of science in the classroom. Furthermore, our collaboration with university students at the workshop gave them the opportunity to explore a real class and discuss the data collection with other university students, and preschool teachers involved in the teaching intervention. The most important part was that university students were able to design activities for science education and evaluate the progress of their teaching by using eight-step model of Mwanza (2001).
References
Cole, M., and The Distributed Literacy Consortium. (2006). The fifth dimension: An after-school program built on diversity. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Engestrm, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit. Engestrm, Y. (1999). Activity theory and individual and social transformation. In Y. Engestrm, R. Miettinen, & R. L. Punamki (Eds.), Perspectives on activity theory (pp. 19-38). New York: Cambridge University Press. Engestrm, Y. (2000). Activity theory as a framework for analyzing and redesigning work. Ergonomics, 43(7), 960-974. Taylor & Francis Group. Engestrm, Y. (2005). Developmental work research: Expanding activity theory in practice. Berlin: Lehmanns Media. Hasu, M., & Engestrm, Y. (2000). Measurement in action: An activity-theoretical perspective on producer-user interaction. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 53(1), 61-89. Kutti, K. (1996). Activity theory as a potential framework for human-computer interaction research. In B. A. Nardi (Ed.), Context and consciousness: Activity theory and human-computer. Cambridge: MIT Press. Mwanza, D. (2001). Where theory meets practice: A case for an activity theory based methodology to guide computer system design. In H. Michitaka (Ed.), Proceedings of INTERACT2001: Eighth IFIP TC 13 International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, Tokyo, Japan, July 9-13, 2001, IOS Press Oxford. (UK INTERACT 2001 Download paper as
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KMi Technical Reports version in PDF KMI-TR-104). Plakitsi, K. (2008). Science education in early childhood: Trends and perspectives. Athens: Patakis. (in Greek) Roth, W. M., & Tobin, K. (2007). Science, learning, identity, sociocultural and cultural-historical perpectives (pp. 203-204). New York: Sense Publishers. Theodoraki, X., & Plakitsi, K. (2009). Activity theory and learning in science education laboratory lessons. The case of magnetism. In G. Cakmakci, & M. F. Tasar (Eds.), Contemporary science education research: Learning and assessment (pp. 207-213). Retrieved from http://www.esera2009.org/books/Book_4.pdf
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Assessing Translation Misconceptions Inside the Classroom: A Presentation of an Instrument and Its Results*
Pauline Anne Therese M. Mangulabnan
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
This is a descriptive research on the difficulties of Filipino high school students in translating algebraic word problems into mathematical equations. This research is composed of three parts: (1) development of an 11-page Filipinized questionnaire; (2) analysis of the mathematical thinking processes of the respondents based on the answers to the questionnaire; and (3) identification of the alternative conceptions or errors of the students in translating word problems which lead to incorrect or misconceived answers. Through the instrument and students answers analysis, this research categorizes the assimilation errors made by high school respondents as LBE (language-based errors), OIE (operational-influenced errors), ATE (algebraic translation errors), and RSE (relational-symbol errors). This research recommends a review of the construction of word problems in terms of its realness and logic to match students mathematical background. Keywords: mathematics, classroom assessment, algebraic translation, students misconceptions
Introduction
Mathematics, no matter how relevant, is usually feared by learners. Mathematics education researchers all over the globe point to the students classroom bad experience, lack of internal and/or external motivation, natural mathematical ability, social status, and unpleasant encounters with teachers as some of the causes of such anxiety. Because of this anxiety, there are quite a number of college students who would choose as their major the one involving the least amount of mathematics. But no matter how students would want to avoid mathematics, it is an undeniably part of their everyday existence. A simple form of early mathematics is when a child thinks of his new age on the day of his birthday. From this simple application, mathematics is encountered as one tries to label and explain the complexities of the world. Galileo had expressed this perfectly when he said that mathematics is the language of the universe. All its riddles and mysteries are modeled and resolved by mathematics and problem-solving. Problem-solving, which is the universal remedy for all mathematical problems, (and mathematics) has been an integral way of life and component of mathematics (Schoenfeld, 2004). Its importance is supported by the fact that it involves high order thinking skills, such as application, synthesis, critical thinking, and
Acknowledgements: The authors deepest gratitude to her college thesis partners, Ms. Cristine Ann Paderes and Ms. Nathalie Joyce Lim, for starting a very valuable research for Filipino math learners and for trusting her to further improve the study they once started, to her dear math education mentor, Dr. Auxencia Limjap, for unconditionally supporting the author with all her researches and idiosyncrasies, to her family and friends who never get tired of dealing with her and her loony work schedule, and to her beloved Philippines for always giving her a reason to continue empowering our educational system through research. Pauline Anne Therese M. Mangulabnan, Lilyrose School, De La Salle University.
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ASSESSING TRANSLATION MISCONCEPTIONS INSIDE THE CLASSROOM
evaluation. A mathematical problem as a task as defined by Charles and Lester (1982) for which the problem solver wants or needs to find a solution, has no readily available procedure for finding the solution, must make an attempt to find a solution (Pothier, 2000). Polya (1949) even stressed that to solve a math problem is to find a way where no way is known as off-hand, to find a way out of difficulty, to find a way around an obstacle, and to attain a desired end, which is not immediately attainable by appropriate means. As crucial as it sounds for the students mathematical journey, problem-solving is a greater challenge for mathematics teachers. The latter would have to ensure that such ambitious goals are met (i.e., students are able to understand math word problems and translate them into mathematical equations to solve). Indeed, translating word problems into mathematical equations posits problems which are affected by several factors. This does not only include mathematical skills, but also linguistic skills and verbal skillsparticularly in the English language, since both private and public schools in Philippines utilize English as the medium of discourse (Mangulabnan, Paderes, & Lim, 2007). Another obstacle in problem-solving is that a pupil is expected to have good foundations in mathematics (Cathcart, Pothier, Vance, & Bezuk, 2000). Furthermore, in any type of word problem, a problem-solver uses his/her prior knowledge in obtaining an accurate solution and answer. Truly, understanding a word problem in problem-solving is a complex method that involves several determining factors, which either affect or influence the process in which solvers find the correct answer.
Theoretical Background
Lesh (1987; as cited as Nickson, 2000) described three significant translations in solving algebraic word problems. Students translate a word problem formulated as a sentence in English to an algebraic sentence (equation), then from the algebraic sentence to an arithmetic sentence, and finally from an arithmetic sentence back to the original problem situation. Therefore, in order to obtain the right answer, it is significant for solvers to first analyze, comprehend, and translate thoroughly the English problem structure into a mathematical equation. However, most students do not recognize the similarities and differences between arithmetic and algebra which impose a problem in translation. Van Ameron (2002) stated that arithmetic deals with the calculations of known numbers, while algebra requires reasoning of unknown variables, making it hard for the students to learn/shift to algebra. Algebraic expressions include letters or symbols which represent unknown numbers, while the symbols written in an arithmetic equation are usually abbreviations or units. When students encounter such difficulty, they resort to other conceptions which they believe will help them solve the math problem regardless whether the method is sensible or not. In one of his works, Clement (1982) focused on a deeper understanding of a particular type of misconception in word problem translation known as the reversal error. He posited that students mistakes on misplaced numerical coefficients are not simple errors due to carelessness but rather are deep-seated difficulties brought about by a thought processreversal error. Reversal error is an offshoot of student word problem translators to treat numerical variables, as if they stood for objects rather than numbers (Clement, 1982). For example, when a student is asked to comprehend a statement like for every two students (S), five books (B) are given, he/she will think of the variables as either students or books but not as numerical quantities of an unknown. Hence, such assimilation may lead to a reversal error (e.g., 5S = 2B or 2S = 5B) in representation by either syntactic method or semantic method. Clement (1982) described the two conceptual sources of reversal errors (which he also observed even in translations that involve pictures to equations, data tables to equations,
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and equations to sentences) as follows: (1) Syntactic word order matching process is when the student simply assumes that the order of key words in the problem statement will map directly into the order of symbols appearing in the equation. In the above given example on students and books, a student who assimilated the problem through syntactic method will translate it into 2S = 5B because two is near the word students in the same manner that five is near books. For many problem-solvers, this method is convenient and handy, because it gives them a sound equation without much thinking. Also, such method works for some word problems; (2) Semantic static comparison process is achieved when a student relates real life experiences in reasoning out for the translation that has occurred. There is some semblance of reason in this approach as an intuitive symbolization strategy, but the approach is very literal attempt to compare the sizes of the two groups. In the above given example on students and books, a student who assimilated the problem through the semantic method will answer and will reason that there should be more books than students. Thus, five is multiplied to S to show a greater quantity. Using the abovementioned thinking processes, many problem-solvers jump into hasty generalizations and write equations which are not based on any mathematical reasoning. Even more alarming is that Clement (1982) conducted his study to a group of engineering students who, more than students in other disciplines, are tasked to do more difficult mathematical problems. In this research, there are three research aims: (1) to develop an instrument that classroom teachers and other education stakeholders can use to assess various misconceptions and thinking processes in translation in algebra students; (2) to verify whether the same thought processes are present among Filipino students before they enter college level; and (3) to provide other thinking processes among Filipino students which lead to an alternative conception in translating algebraic word problem into a mathematical equation. This is also crucial for Filipinos, because unlike Clements respondents, Filipinos learn mathematics in their second languageEnglish. Latu (2006) claimed that if a students aim is to achieve success in mathematics, but he/her is continually hampered by reading or language problems, frustration and lessening of self-expectation are likely to occur. Hence, problems arising due to language barrier will also be discussed.
Instrument
The core of this phenomenological qualitative research lies in the 11-page questionnaire developed in 2007 by Mangulabnan, Paderes, and Lim. The instrument consists of six word problems with underlying questions in each problem designed to be answered by high school students who had accomplished the Secondary Algebra Curriculum as prescribed by the Philippine Department of Education. Each word problem was constructed in Filipino context. Hence, the word problems involve objects, situations, and nouns that are Filipino in nature or at least familiar to the majority of Filipino students. However, questions (see Table 1) were written in English which is the medium of instruction for high school mathematics in the country and a second language for most of the respondents. All six major algebraic word problems are open-ended questions, so that the students will be able to reason out their answers. The first two questions lifted from John Clements paper. However, the original problem from Clements paper used strudel cake which was changed to banana cake to adapt to Philippine setting. Clements problems in translation were used to verify whether the semantic and syntactic errors under the reversal error of the Western students also apply to Filipinos.
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The next four questions were constructed after long and rigid researching of different word problems seen in different booksAlgebra-related and those that are not. The remaining four questions were finalized with the help of experienced high school algebra teachers and in accordance to the limitation of the instrument which is on solutions of linear equations for high school students. The underlying questions helped in pinpointing the thinking processes or alternative conceptions which are emerging in the course of the word problem translation and solving for the final answer. The most important component of each underlying question is the restatement of the problem. This is an initial filter for identifying whether the difficulty of answering the problem is due to language comprehension or mathematical in nature. Also, the underlying questions for every item were based on the hypothesis of various math educators towards the possible difficulties of student respondents. These underlying questions are product of experts suggestions and pilot-testing results. Table 1 Instrument Word Problems With Underlying Questions and Percentage of Wrong Answers During Pilot Testing
Questions A1. At Mindys restaurant, for every four people who ordered cheesecake, there were five people who ordered banana cake. (Use C and B as variables) 1. What are the given? 2. How will you represent the number of cheesecake and the number of banana cake? Explain your representation fully. A2. There are six times as many students as professors in this university. (Use S and P as variables) 1. What is the given? 2. How will you represent the number of students and the number of professors? Explain your representation fully. B. Two persons are to run a race. Jose can run 10 meters per second while Cristine can run six meters per second. The race track is 600 meters. If Cristine had a 50 meter head start, who will win the race? 1. What is the given? 2. How did you understand the phrase If Cristine has a 50 meter head start? Are you going to use it to solve the problem? Why or why not? 3. Do you know the distance formula? Did you consider using it? 4. Who won the race? Why did you say so? C. A farmer has cows and chickens in his farm. He had counted 13 heads and 36 feet. How many cows and how many chickens does he have all in all? 1. What is the given? 2. What is being asked in the problem? 3. What does 13 heads and 36 feet mean? D. The weight of the tub and a monkey inside it is eight kilos. The weight of the same tub and a bear in it is 802 kilos. If the combined weight of the monkey and the bear is 800 kilos, what is the weight of the tub? 1. What is the given? 2. What is being asked in the problem? 3. How will you explain the problem in your own words? E. When Janes friend visited her, Jane had just finished eating one-fourth of the eight ChocNut candies. Jane and her friend each ate one-half of the remaining ChocNut. How many ChocNut did Janes friend eat? 1. What is the given? 2. What is being asked in the problem? 3. What does the sentence Jane had just finished eating one-fourth of the eight ChocNut candies mean? 4. What does the sentence Jane and her friend each ate one-half of the remaining ChocNut mean? Total respondent Percentage of wrong final answers (%)
29
93.10
21
76.19
37
35.14
30
30.00
17
88.24
21
28.57
ASSES SSING TRAN NSLATION MISCONCEP M PTIONS INSIDE THE CL LASSROOM
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Resu ults and Analysis

The in nstrument was w answered by 120 fou urth-year stud dents from fo our different schools in Philippines. P Before the start of the te est, the respo ondents were given the com mplete instruc ctions. The st tudents shoul ld use a ball pen; the stu udents must show their co omplete solu utions; erasure es are okay; students are n not allowed to t have any other scratc ch papers, ev verything mu ust be written in the questi ionnaire; the students may y explain the e answers in Filipino, if f they wish to o; and studen nts are encouraged to take e their time as a they answe er the instrum ment. It was stressed tha at the goal of f the study is to understand d how the res spondents thi ink individual lly and that is s the reason why they were w not allo owed to talk to their seatm mates. All the e questions raised r by the participants were noted down. The respondents were also ins structed to write down the eir reactions towards t the le evel of difficu ulty of each question an nd/or did they y understand the problem or not. After r the test, ran ndom intervie ews were don ne to further probe on th he answers of f the students. Figure e 1 shows th he percentage es of the resp pondents wh ho got the an nswers correc ctly. Figure 2 shows the comparison n of responde ents wrong final f answer between b the pilot-testing and the actua al implement tation of the instrument.
Figu ure 1. Results of f the actual imp plementation of f the instrument t to 120 respond dents.
P e r c e nta ge of W r ong A ns w e r
120 0.00% 100 0.00% 80 0.00% 60 0.00% 40 0.00% 20 0.00% 0 0.00% A1 A2 B 3 C 4 Que estionnaire It tem D 5 E 6
Series1
pilot test
Series2
ac ctual test
Figure 2. Com mparison of the results of pilot-testing and act tual implementa ation.
It wa as interesting g to note tha at at a large er scale, the errors ballo ooned. Such number for r the actual implementation was ch hosen to ens sure that the e answers of f the respon ndents were already exha austed, and
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repetition of reasoning was attained for the reliability of the categories (on errors and alternative conceptions) formed. After the analysis, four alternative conceptions or errors on the students thinking processes on translating word problems into mathematical equations were categorized: (1) LE (language error); (2) OIE (operation-influenced error); (3) ATE (algebraic-translation error); and (4) RSE (relational-symbol error). Among the four types, LE were the most prevalent one among the respondents. This is an error committed when students cannot understand words, phrases, or even sentences in the given word problem. Most of the students commented that the problems look easy, but they were hard to translate as a whole, so some refused to answer the items they cannot already restate. Words, like bear, candy, gave, etc., are ordinary words which are difficult to translate when taken collectively. The phrase for every was a difficult for the majority of the students, so they just deleted that phrase in the restatement of the problem. Because they were not able to understand the phrase, students just added the numbers and equated it to zero (e.g., 4C + 5B = 0, 6S + P = 0). The phrase head start was another difficult phrase for the students; some said that it was just a nuisance in the problem; others added the head start to the length of the race track or to the speed of Christine (e.g., Christine runs 56 m/s, race track is 650 m). The phrase, The farmer counted 13 heads and 36 feet, was another difficult phrase for many. Some argued that 13 is the heads of the chicken and 36 is the feet of the cow. Others who were not able to understand said that it is impossible to have 13 heads, because the number of feet is an even. There were others also who said that 13 heads included the farmer. The misunderstanding that happened in the last problem is mostly with the interpretation of the phrase Jane and her friend each ate one-half of the remaining ChocNut. The common restatement is that Jane and her friend had shared in three ChocNut candies. They did not understand that from the remaining six candies, it is divided into two three for Jane and the other three for her friend. Mostly, the error in understanding this problem lies on the comprehension of fractions. They do not know whether one fourth will be multiplied, divided, or subtracted from eight. When the respondents were asked to state what do they do when they cannot understand the problem, the majority answers were to guess an equation based on how the numbers are positioned from the variables, to perform arithmetic operations until an answer is achieved, to see whether there is something like that in real life, so they can just relate it and get an answer and think of a formula they have learned before and substitute the numbers to get an answer (many of the respondents used for problem C). A majority of the students mentioned that they had a hard time for answering, because they are not good in English. It must also be noted that Clements reversal errors are present among Filipinos. OIE was categorized for a prevailing use of the basic mathematical operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division in the solutions of students. Although the basic mathematical operations are really what we use in solving mathematical problems, OIE pertains to an illogical and irrational use of such operations just to get an answer which could have not been thought wisely in the first place. This error includes the wrong assimilation of the students to multiply, add, subtract, and/or divide all the numbers that are in the problem to come up with an exact number. Thus, the assimilation of a problem-solver to find an exact number for an answer falls under this error (many sees non-integers as wrong answers for the lack of exposure to such solution set). One of the best examples is when a student was trying to answer item D. The student made use of this equation, where to solve for the missing weight. The student said that he/she had made up this equation, because weight is being asked in the problem. More so, he/she was expecting that from this equation, he/she will be able to come up with the answer, because he/she could not really figure out what is the
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supposedly correct answer. This particular student was able to correctly restate the problem. However, because of his lack of algebraic understanding, this was answered. Other variations include adding 4c, 5b, c + b, etc.. For the students, when there are numbers and operations involved, answers come out easily. That is the reason why they always try to substitute a number for the variables like in the equation respondent got x = 5, because y is represented by the number zero. This alternative conception falls under OIE, because the respondent wanted to get an exact value for x despite the fact that an algebraic representation is being asked in the problem. In another form, students wrote equations and reasoned that with addition, they will know the total number of what is being asked. In this alternative conception, students see an equation as a representation of an operation. Unfortunately, any arithmetic error that is part of what they did not learn from grade school (e.g., poor mastery of fractions, ratios, percentages, etc.) is carried out together with this misconception. ATE is the error in writing the variable representation in algebraic equations. ATE is an error in the direct translation of the word problems into mathematical sentences. It also includes the misconception that algebra is all about solving for x and y, and that representation only involves those variables. There are respondents who constructed the equation, 2x + 4x = 36. The numerical coefficients are correct, but the literal coefficients are wrong. In the equation, x is used to represent for both the feet of chickens and of the cows where they do not understand that the feet of chickens is different from the feet of the cows, such that two different variables must be used. This shows that students did not know how to use variables correctly and could not differentiate one variable representation from the other. In problem A2, there were many students who had made a variable representation of: let x be the number of students and 6x be the number of professors. These students correctly comprehended what was being asked by the problem, but used a different variable disregarding what was given. Students also tended to disregard some of the givens in the problem when they could not represent the phrase in a mathematical sense. For example, in problem C, there were students who use the information of the 13 heads and disregarded the 36 feet, because they cannot represent the given algebraically. From 13 heads, the respondents tried to guess numbers (although trial and error is an acceptable solution, this is not what is assessed in the test) like six and seven and allot these numbers of chickens and cows respectively. It is clear that there are students who disregard some information in the problem, if they do not know how to represent them correctly. With the same problem, another student represented x as the cows head and that y for the chickens head which is wrong. They thought that since chickens head is smaller than a cows head, they can represent it as y. In problem D, a student represented x as the weight of the monkey and x + 1 as the weight of the tub. He understood the problem comprehensively but was not able to come up with the correct variable representation. He just assumed that the weight of the tub is one kilo more than the weight of the monkey. He does not understand that the statements in the problem should be used to solve for the problem. In this error, the common mistake is that the students try to represent everything in one variable without considering its relationship to the other variables concerned. Lastly, a RSE (relational-symbol error) is an alternative conception resulting to the misuse of relation symbols like = sign, < sign, and > sign in a translation of word problems. An alternative conception is created when a student tries to take into consideration comparison of the two different numbers found in the problem which then affects the generalization of what mathematical relationship symbol will be used. RSE is common in problems A1 and A2, but is not present in the rest of the items of the instrument. In item A1, there are students who answered C < B. The students considered that since 4 < 5, respondents
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believed that the correct representation should be C < B with C representing the number of people who ordered cheesecakes and B representing the number of people who ordered banana cakes. Another example of this appears in item A2, there are students who misinterpreted the phrase six times as many students as professors as 6S > P. There are respondents who justified such representation by saying, I write 6S, because the students are greater than the professors. To further justify the representation, there is a respondent who wrote that there are 600 students and 120 professors to show that their representation is correct. The equations C = B and S = P also appears in the respondents answers. In these cases, students overlook the concept of equality. They used the equality sign to formulate a mathematical equation, because they have this notion that an equation should include an equal sign. It is clearly stated in the problem that the numbers of people who ordered cheese cakes and banana cakes are different, but they still equated them without considering the other givens in the problem. Another student represented the problem like this: let six be equal to the number of students and > 6 be the number of professors. Instead of using the = sign for the representation, they use the > sign, because they would want to emphasize the relationship between the number of the students and the number of professors, but forget about other rules in representation in algebra like equality symbol used to show that two quantities are the same.
Conclusions
Even though a mathematical problem may be answered in infinitely many ways, mathematics still offers an elegant solution which is an accumulation of prior mathematical concepts learned. It is difficult for a math learner to learn a topic without mastering the previous one. In the same manner, the errors identified in this research are intertwined. Upon reading the problem and the student does not understand the mathematical concept presented, he/she may result to the use of semantic or syntactic method to achieve a sound equation. From such equation, the student will then manipulate the variables using the operations he/she learned from his/her previous math subjects. Hence, with little understanding of the units involved in the problem, AET or PSE will occur. Thus, a problem-solver gets either a right or a wrong answer which is never based on any mathematical concept. In the same way, the anxiety caused by limited knowledge in arithmetic makes a problem-solver rely on algebraic representation that will allow him/her to do away with fractions, ratios, or other arithmetic concepts and get an answer which is a product of mixed mathematical concepts used inappropriately. Many respondents admitted in the interview that they were able to get some items correctly or they were at least able to understand the problem through the guide questions. In this case, sadly, this research shows how unprepared Filipino students are for independent problem-solving. It is alarming to know that many fourth-year students are still unequipped even with the most basic mathematical concepts of arithmetic. In this regard, when will they be ready for a more abstract math which is needed for economic development? Perhaps, future researchers can make a comparative study of the usage of lingua franca in word problem translation as opposed to the usage of English as the medium of instruction. Also, a review of how arithmetic is being bridged to algebra, and how the formers mastery will aid in a deeper understanding of the latter should be accomplished. Math education stakeholders and classroom teachers should also probe whether the errors in this research are present among their students. From there, the misconceptions may be used as a springboard for classroom learning designs and preparation of content flow. Most importantly, math teachers must reflect whether they are, as educators, contributing to the alternative conceptions or errors of their own students.
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References
Cathcart, G., Pothier, Y., Vance, J., & Bezuk, N. (2001). Learning mathematics in elementary and middle schools (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.. Clement, J. (1982). Algebra word problem solutions: Thought processes underlying a common misconception. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 13(1), 16-30. Foster, D. (2007). Making meaning in algebra: Examining students understandings and misconceptions. Assessing Mathematical Proficiency, 53. MSRI Publications. Latu, V. (2006). Language factors that affect mathematics teaching and learning of Pasifika students. University of Auckland. Retrieved from http://www.merga.net.au/documents/RP532005.pdf Mangulabnan, P., Paderes, C., & Lim, N. (2007). Alternative conceptions on the assimilation of senior high school students in translating algebraic word problems to mathematical equations (Bachlors thesis, College of Education, De La Salle University). Nickson, M. (2000). Teaching and learning mathematics: A teachers guide to recent research. Cassell Publishing. Schoenfeld, A. (2004). The math wars. Educational Policy, January and March. Retrieved from http://www.mathismore. net/articles/pdf/Schoenfeld_MathWars.pdf
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Teaching and Learning Mathematics in a Non-native Language: Introduction of the CLIL Methodology in Italy
Franco Favilli, Laura Maffei, Roberto Peroni
University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
The recent reform act for the Italian upper secondary school has ruled the gradual introduction, from the 2012-2013 school year onwards, of the CLIL (content and language integrated learning) methodology in the Licei and technical schools. While CLIL clearly offers students great opportunities for developing their skills and abilities in a foreign language, used as the medium of instruction, the impact of CLIL on the teaching/learning process, for the non-language subject contents, still needs to be investigated. The paper focuses on the training of mathematics CLIL teachers. Then, we try to identify the areas of competence that are necessary for CLIL teachers in general and mathematics CLIL teachers in particular. Our analysis is supported by the outcomes from a questionnaire. In the analysis, we make mainly use of the text linguistic perspective. Keywords: CLIL, mathematics, language, teacher training
Introduction
The CLIL (content and language integrated learning) methodology aims at making students acquire both language skills and the content at the same time (Marsh, 2002). In Europe, the issues related to the language teaching/learning are inspired by the CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference), which are consistent with teaching/learning contexts which integrate language and content. In Italy, the recent Upper Secondary School Reform has introduced the introduction of the CLIL methodology in a large number of schools (the Licei and Istituti Tecnici). Moreover, the new Initial Teacher Training Act provides for a module on CLIL for future teachers, whichever subject they will teach. Until now, a theoretical reflection on issues concerning the introduction of the CLIL methodology in Italian schools has not been carried out. As a consequence, pilot experiments which have been implemented in a few schools can be only exploited firstly to identify critical points which might arise, and secondly to define a suitable theoretical framework to address them. In this paper, we suggest a theoretical framework compatible with the perspective of text linguistics which seems to be effective to analyze different ways of using language when the content is mathematics.
Mathematics Taught in a L2 (Second Language)

In order to investigate issues to be taken into account in promoting the use of CLIL methodology as far as mathematics is concerned, we propose an analytical model suitable for the different ways the L2 (non-native
Franco Favilli, professor, Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa. Laura Maffei, Ph.D., Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa. Roberto Peroni, professor, Department of Linguistics, University of Pisa.
TEACHING AND LEARNING MATHEMATICS IN A NON-NATIVE LANGUAGE
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language) is used in classroom. This contribution is focused on a linguistic approach, namely, a text linguistic approach which is exploited to analyze different types of discourse emerging in classroom. As to mathematics being taught using CLIL methodology, apart from a few papers (e.g., Hofmannov, Novotn, & Pipalov, 2004), we can only refer to studies about peculiar teaching contexts, such as bilingual schools (Barton & Neville-Barton, 2003; Barwell, 2002; Clarkson, 1992) and multicultural classrooms (Barton, Barwell, & Setati, 2007; Setati & Adler, 2001). In these contexts, pupils are actually taught in a L2, but the educational aims differ, sometimes significantly, from CLIL teaching. In particular, in the majority of the above-mentioned studies, the ordinary classroom language is a L2 only for (sometimes just a few) students and it is used to teach all content subjects. Moreover, the language of the classroom is often either the teachers mother tongue or fully mastered by them. This is not the case for the Italian context where the CLIL methodology provides for only a single subject to be taught in a language that is a L2 for both the teacher and the students.
The Key Competences of CLIL Teachers

Once stating the lack of theoretical references, how can CLIL mathematics teachers be trained nowadays? How can we tackle this issue? We think that the theoretical framework of the CLIL across context project (Hansen-Pauly, 2009) can be used as a basis to investigate what critical issues are to be taken into account. In fact, the main project output is represented by the identification, definition, and description of the following areas of education and competence (see Figure 1) which are considered necessary to CLIL teachers, whichever the subject (mathematics included) to be taught.
Figure 1. Key areas of CLIL teacher competence.
In fact: (1) CLIL teaching always takes place in a social and cultural context where different languages may be usedcontext and culture;
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(2) CLIL requires more planning, moving from less to more language demand in units, integrating content and language objectivesplanning; (3) CLIL teachers are learning academic and other content at the same time; it is important to pay attention to learners experiences, language levels, and needs in learning the subjectlearners needs; (4) CLIL teaching involves teaching the text types and typical language patterns and value in the subject areassubject literacy; (5) CLIL requires teachers to mediate both language and content through the use of talk in interaction in the classroom (the types of question we ask, getting students to elaborate, and widening types of interaction)interaction; (6) CLIL is a pedagogy which requires more cooperation between subject and language teachers, between teachers in preparing materialcooperation and reflection; (7) CLIL teaching involves not only language but other ways of communicating meaning (pictures, tables, graphs, mathematical symbols, and use of tools)multimodal teaching and learning; (8) Assessment in CLIL raises important issues about the relationship between subject knowledge and language abilityevaluation/assessment. The complexity and, at the same time, the interrelations of the above competences made it impossible to address, at least at an initial investigation of the introduction of the CLIL methodology, many areas of competence at the same time. For that reason, we focus our initial study on only three areaslearners needs, subject literacy, and interactionin which the teachers are more concerned about, as it will emerge from the analysis of the questionnaire. As far as mathematics is concerned, a first study (Favilli, 2010) on possible modalities for training teachers to teach mathematics in a foreign language has been carried out, within another European project Making Mathematics Teachers Mobile. As part of the activities in the project, a questionnaire has been introduced to secondary school mathematics teachers in Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, and Italy. Outcomes from its analysis help, firstly, investigate mathematics teachers attitudes about CLIL teaching; and secondly, plan their training.
Italian Mathematics Teachers Attitudes About CLIL

The main aim of the questionnaire was to collect information about the respondents and their opinions about future teaching of mathematics in a foreign language. The questionnaire included 24 items which can be grouped as follows: (1) Foreign languages spoken and levels of competence: Teachers are asked to say what languages they know and what are their levels of competence; (2) Prior experiences: Teachers are asked to say if they have experienced teaching their subject in a foreign language, and to say if, when and how they interacted with a language teacher; (3) Present opinions: Teachers are asked to evaluate the relevance of knowing a foreign language when teaching mathematics. Moreover, they are questioned about possible additional difficulties students could encounter when teacher and students do not use their mother tongue; (4) Expectations: Teachers are asked about the possibility to teach mathematics in a foreign language and to figure out possible impacts on the subject learning; (5) Professional development: Teachers are asked to consider their own needs if asked to teach in a foreign
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language, and possible resulting changes in their teaching practice. The eight areas of competence for CLIL teachers, which we have introduced in the previous section, have been somehow, implicitly or explicitly, also mentioned by more than 300 mathematics teachers, who answered the questionnaire. In the next part of this section, our perspective on the areas of competence for mathematics CLIL teachers in Italy is presented.
The Impact of the L2 in Mathematics

While, as expected, learners needs, interaction, and subject literacy are the competences most referred to by the respondents, it is surprising to see how evaluation/assessment is not such a worrying issue for them. On the contrary, the poor cooperation of mathematics and language teachers and the lack of prior CLIL teaching experience are the main reasons why planning, multimodal teaching and learning, cooperation and reflection, context and culture are not paid too much attention to. We are now presenting some comments about the three areas which are mostly addressed by the teacher so as to identify a possible link among them. Not only these areas are the most addressed, but they also give evidence of the specific role played by L2 in the teaching/learning processes and how the language influence the content. For that very reason, we present in the next section a model to take into account possible changes in the use of the language in math lesson in L2 compared to math lesson in the native language. Apart from the positive comment:
CLIL teaching is challenging for pupils.
learners needs are mostly characterized through two different points of views: considering L2 as an obstacle and considering the necessity to modify the way the language is used.
It would be confusing for many students and learning requires concentration and most part of the concentration would be necessary to understand the language.
The two answers above can be clearly referred to the L2 as an obstacle, whereas here after a comment refers to the need for changing the way the language is used:
A prerequisite is the ability to communicate using terms understandable by pupils.
This prerequisite is also connected to another area of competence: interaction. As to the interaction, teaching mathematics in a foreign language could represent a possible support for mathematics teaching/learning, as the L2 is recognized as a useful barrier to prevent misunderstandings:
Teachers and students need to take greater care in the use of the language, also including a more rigorous and synthetic use of the mathematical language and teachers develop a deeper concern about the difficulty of mathematics and then about its teaching.
But it can also consider as an obstacle which is difficult to overcome, despite of the possibility to combine the use of language with symbols:
The language would represent a barrier despite the universal symbolism of mathematics.
As to the prerequisites needed, interaction in a CLIL classroom requires great ability in using standard
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mathematical terminology, but also non-formal language knowledge, to make it possible for teachers to give additional explanations and examples. Furthermore, positive interaction in CLIL teaching requires methodological changes by teachers as,
they should pay more attention to language accuracy, and use more concise language.
Subject literacy is, certainly, the CLIL competence area of biggest interest for mathematics teachers, as clearly shown by their comments. The importance of knowing a foreign language and using it to teach mathematics could even make teachers reflect on,
what teaching mathematics means.
In particular, the knowledge of the language,

increases ability to teach and explain, using simple but rigorous words thanks to the particularly limited and specific mathematics vocabulary.
Subject literacy is also important for making it possible to teach mathematics in a foreign language,
thanks to its rules that one can understand also without speaking and the specificity of its language, and the use of symbols.
CLIL teaching is a possible support for mathematics learning as it represents,

a proof of the universality of mathematics and its independence from the language
and it requires,
greater reflection on the concepts to be taught.
As to the prerequisites needed, teachers say that subject literacy includes both,
good knowledge of the to-be-taught topic and the mastery of the language at least on a scientific level.
The Text Linguistic Approach

In order to investigate the role played by L2 in a math CLIL lesson, as outlined in the learners needs, subject literacy, and interaction areas of competence, we move from a text linguistic approach, since as it will emerge in the following, it can also give the possibilities to address semiotic, psychological, and social issues, and as a consequence, to entail other areas of competence. In the text linguistics perspective, four basic types of mathematical discourse in classroom can be distinguished: dialogic, descriptive, argumentative, and regulative-directive discourse (Benveniste, 1966; Weinrich, 2001; MacWhinney, 1995; Searle, 1969). The first three types of mathematical discourse not only can be used to analyze the mathematical discourse in classroom, but also constitute the basic linguistic aspects of the communicative competence (dialogue, description, and narration). In particular, argumentative language in mathematics appears to represent a sort of mathematical specificity in the large category of narrative language. The regulative-directive discourse type is a particular kind of dialogical language related to definite (e.g., educational) contexts or hierarchical relationships between linguistic interlocutors.
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According to Givn (1979; 1991), it is relevant to capture the logic of the linguistic complexity which moves from an informal linguistic pragmatic polarity to a more formal syntactic, lexical, and morphological counterparts. This is consistent with the importance of taking into account the dynamics of the classroom interaction. Direct translation of the complexity scale into the above-quoted partition of types produces the following implicative formulation: dialogue (with a present speaker) description (of referents in context) narrative (where a world is re-created in absentia). In this view, in order to analyze how L2 affects the use of mathematical language in classroom, we identify an analytical model for the mathematical classroom discourse. The model aims at taking into account both the mutual integration of complexity sequences of linguistic phenomena and the dynamics of verbal interaction in classroom by means of three different mathematical discursive types. The dialogic (content non-specific) language is constituted by an informal discourse to speak about the content. It is characterized by the use of colloquial linguistic expressions which are common in everyday language and a very limited use of content specific expressions. Such a type of discourses mainly appears in direct discourses and dialogues. It is intentionally used by the teacher so as to introduce a specific mathematical content going back to mathematical/non-mathematical situations that the teacher considers familiar to the students. The descriptive (content semi-specific) language is characterized by a rich amount of descriptions and occurrences of common descriptive discourse. It is often supported by gestures either to indicate elements accessible in context or to stand for specific content objects (e.g., positioning an arm so as to indicate the slope of a line). Such type of discourse is used by the teacher in order to pose a problem, also stimulated by means of (rhetoric) questions. It is also used by teacher so as to refer to a specific mathematical object by means of gestures aiming at representing it and as a consequence with the intention to give a visual interpretation to support students to understand the discourse. Students usually make great use of semi-specific language, since they often use such type of discourse in argumentation, when a formal language should be required. The argumentative (content-specific) language is a type of argumentative language which is characterized by the formal language used mainly in an argumentative style, also by the support of specific mathematical symbols and formulas. Symbols and formulas are often used to synthesize the discourses they stand for. The content-specific language is the target language which should be mastered by students learning mathematics. It is used by the teacher mainly in proving statements and students should make use of this in formal situation, i.e., oral and written tests.
The Research Study

The different types of discourse emerging in classroom can be exploited to firstly plan and secondly to analyze a math CLIL lesson. In fact, the analytical model detailed above should not only allow identifying the types of language any part of the CLIL math lesson refers to, but also provide a frame in which making a priori analysis, suggesting to the teacher in which specific teaching/learning situation using a specific type can be more effective than another. In addition, it could provide a frame to design specific tasks aiming at making a
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specific type of language emerging in students production. Some of the answers given by teachers, which we have already classified previously according to the three areas of competence, can be generally referred to the three types of discourse, even though not specifically to only one of them.
A prerequisite is the ability to communicate using terms understandable by pupils. Teachers and students need to take greater care in the use of the language, also including a more rigorous and synthetic use of the mathematical language should pay more attention to language accuracy, and use more concise language increases ability to teach and explain, using simple but rigorous words thanks to the particularly limited and specific mathematics vocabulary. Thanks to its rules that one can understand also without speaking and the specificity of its language, and the use of symbols.
In the comments reported above, it is not clear whether,

A prerequisite is the ability to communicate using terms understandable by pupils. It can be classified as belonging to content non-specific or to content specific.
Continuous shifting from a type of discourse to a different one, even though it is not always identifiable, surely impacts the effectiveness of the use of the L2 in math classroom. Therefore, further research is necessary on the impact of this shifting on the teaching/learning process, thus, making teacher aware of their impact and management during the classroom activities.
References
Barton, B., & Neville-Barton, P. (2003). Investigating the relationship between English language and mathematical learning. In M. A. Mariotti (Ed.), Proceedings of CERME-3, CD. Pisa: PLUS-Pisa University Press. Barton, B., Barwell, R., & Setati, M. (Eds.). (2007). Multilingualism in mathematics education. Special Issue of Educational Studies in Mathematics, 64(2). Barwell, R. (2002). Understanding EAL issues in mathematics. In C. Leung (Ed.), Language and second/additional language issues for school education: A reader for teachers (pp. 69-80). Watford: NALDIC Publications Group. Benveniste, E. (1966). Problmes de linguistique gnrale (Vol. 1). Paris: Gallimard. Clarkson, P. C. (1992). Language and mathematics: A comparison of bilingual and monolingual students of mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 23(4), 417-429. Favilli, F. (2010). Making mathematics teachers mobile. Pisa: PLUS-Pisa University Press (DVD, in EN-CZ-DE-DK-FR-IT). Retrieved from http://mta.dm.unipi.it Givn, T. (1979). On understanding grammar. New York: Academic Press. Givn, T. (1991). Syntax: A functional-typological introduction. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Hansen-Pauly, M. A. (2009). Teacher education for CLIL across contexts: From scaffolding framework to teacher portfolio. Luxembourg: University of Luxembourg Press. Retrieved from http://clil.uni.lu Hofmannov, M., Novotn, J. & Ppalov, R. (2004). Assessment instruments for classes integrating mathematics and foreign language teaching. Retrieved from http://www.icme-organisers.dk/tsg27/papers/16_Hofmannova_et_al_fullpaper.pdf MacWhinney, B. (1995). The CHILDES project: Tools for analyzing talk. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum. Marsh, D. (Ed.). (2002). CLIL/EMILEThe European dimension: Actions, trends and foresight potential. Public Services Contract DG EAC. Strasbourg: European Commission. Retrieved from http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/languages/ index.html Searle, J. R. (1969). Speech acts: An essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Setati, M., & Adler, J. (2001). Between languages and discourses: Language practices in primary multilingual mathematics classrooms in South Africa. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 43(3), 243-269. Weinrich, H. (2001). Tempus: Besprochene und erzaehlte welt. Muenchen: Beck.
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Betsy Orr
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Conducting a SWOT Analysis for Program Improvement
University of Arkansas, Arkansas, United States
A SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis of a teacher education program, or any program, can be the driving force for implementing change. A SWOT analysis is used to assist faculty in initiating meaningful change in a program and to use the data for program improvement. This tool is useful in any undergraduate or degree program. Strengths and weaknesses are revealed and adjustments to curriculum, internships, learning activities, education policies, etc., are justifiable if based on a SWOT analysis of a program. Major improvements to a program can be a direct result of using this analysis with undergraduate and graduate students. Keywords: program improvement, business education, assessment
Introduction
How do you have meaningful involvement with the candidates in your teacher education program? Most institutions require an assessment system that collects and analyzes data on applicant qualifications, candidate and graduate performance, and unit operations to evaluate and improve the unit and its programs. SWOT is an acronym for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. A SWOT analysis is a simple tool to assist faculty to initiate meaningful change in a program and to use the data for program improvement. After spending a considerable amount of time with undergraduate students in advising sessions, it was evident that these same students were capable of assessing the existing program and could vision how a restructured program should look. A SWOT analysis was conducted at the undergraduate and graduate levels with students who were admitted to the teacher education program. Strengths The strengths refer to the things the organization does well. To identify the strengths, we consider the areas that others view the organization or program as doing well. Strengths may be the curriculum, leadership, school relationships, faculty, and/or reputation. Other questions to ask are What do you do better than anyone else?; What unique resources do you have access to?; What do your stakeholders see as your strengths?; and What are the indicators of success at your school?. Weaknesses Weaknesses refer to the things the organization needs to improve. Weaknesses in resources or capabilities hinder the organization from achieving a desired goal or mission. Consider what people in your area are likely to see as weaknesses. By understanding your weaknesses, you can focus on specific areas you need to improve.
Betsy Orr, Ed.D., Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Arkansas.
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CONDUCTING A SWOT ANALYSIS FOR PROGRAM IMPROVEMENT
Questions to address are What could you improve?; What should you avoid?; What are people in your area likely to see as weaknesses?; and What factors hurt you in recruitment?. Opportunities Opportunities are trends that your organization could take advantage of. These are outside factors or situations that exist that may affect your organization in a positive way in achieving a desired goal or mission. Examining the trends is helpful in identifying opportunities. Threats What obstacles do you face in your organization? This is the time to look at what others are doing. What are they doing better? Threats are outside factors that current exist that affect your organization in a negative way.
Literature Review
Classroom assessment should involve active participation between the students and the educator to ensure that there is a clear understanding of what is expected (McLaurin, Bell, & Smith, 2009). Danca (2006) described How a SWOT analysis works. It accomplishes this by assessing an organizations strengths (what an organization can do) and weaknesses (what an organization cannot do) in addition to opportunities (potential favorable conditions for an organization) and threats (potential unfavorable conditions for an organization). SWOT analysis is an important step in planning and its value is often underestimated despite the simplicity in creation. According to Balamuralikrishna and Dugger (1995), a SWOT should cover the internal environment of the institution (i.e., faculty and staff, learning environment, current students, operating budget, various committees, and research programs), and the external environment of the institution (i.e., prospective employers, parents and families of students, competing colleges, preparatory high schools, population demographics, and funding agencies). Osgood (2006) suggested that the SWOT list becomes the basis for further strategic planning. This suggestion is supported by Creswell, LaVigne, Simon, Dawes, Connelly, Nath, and Ruda (2000) that,
The results of a detailed SWOT analysis also provide valuable material for continued planning and support-generating activities. The strengths can be presented and emphasized to potential supporters. Discussion of weaknesses and threats provides useful information for strengthening the project or plan where possible, or anticipating the effects of environmental threats.
Utilizing a SWOT analysis can be used as a means for departure of a strategic plan, thus, making it a flexible instrument. To operate in this manner, the company must concentrate its future objectives on its strengths (Houben, Lenie, & Vanhoof, 1999).
Relevance
A SWOT analysis is a high-level and critical thinking exercise for students. The practice can be duplicated in any education setting. Teachers can conduct a SWOT analysis of their particular classes, teacher preparation program, or internship experience. Frequently, educators have a vague idea of their SWOT. Discussion of these areas takes place in meetings with students, other faculty, or mentor teachers. However, action is usually never
CONDUCTING A SWOT ANALYSIS FOR PROGRAM IMPROVEMENT taken on the ideas for program improvement.
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The implementation of a SWOT analysis should be considered as just one input to strategic planning. It should never be used alone.
Procedures for Conducting a SWOT Analysis

The procedures for conducting a SWOT analysis are simple and straight forward. However, in most cases, the procedures are determined by the person conducting the SWOT analysis: (1) Identify the group you will work with: for example, one particular class, all students enrolled in a particular program, a subset of advisees; (2) Explain the purpose and goal of the activity; (3) Choose a recorder: This should not be the facilitator; (4) Use a flip chart or some other method, in round-robin fashion, each participant will identify strength. The recorder will record the responses on the flip chart. If a participant chooses to pass, he/she will say Pass and the next person will continue. Example strengths may be high quality students, strong support staff, current technology, accreditations, locations, and curriculum; (5) A different sheet of paper will be used for weaknesses. Examples of weaknesses are lack of diversity in faculty, outdated buildings, morale, limited budget, outdated curriculum, scheduling of when courses are offered, and out of date software; (6) A different sheet of paper will be used for opportunities. Examples of opportunities are changes in technology, changes in population profiles, industry trends, and geographic area; (7) A different sheet of paper will be used for threats. Examples of threats are competition from other universities, national decline in teaching, legislative effects, economy, and geographic area. In developing the list of SWOT, the institution and organization goals and missions should be considered. The SWOT analysis should illustrate where you are now and where you want to go.
Implication for Action

A SWOT analysis of a teacher education program or any program can be the driving force for implementing change. It is one tool to use in a strategic planning process. Strengths and weaknesses are revealed and adjustments to curriculum, internships, learning activities, education policies, etc., are justifiable if based on a SWOT analysis of a program. The SWOT provides a focused measure on how your students perceive the program. Contextual factors, such as students, subject, and societal influences may cause a SWOT analysis to be misled. For example, if students in a particular class had negative impressions of the instructor, the SWOT analysis could show that the curriculum was weak, if the students participating in the SWOT identified the curriculum as a weakness.
References
Balamuralikrishna, R., & Dugger, J. C. (1995). SWOT analysis: A management tool for initiating new programs in vocation schools. Journal of Vocational and Technical Education, 12, 1. Creswell, A., LaVigne, M., Simon, S., Dawes, S., Connelly, D., Nath, S., & Ruda, J. (2000). And justice for all: Designing your business case for integrating justice information, center for technology in government. Retrieved May, 2000, from http://www.ctg.albany.edu/publications/guides/and_justice_for_all?chapter=9 &section=2
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CONDUCTING A SWOT ANALYSIS FOR PROGRAM IMPROVEMENT
Danca, C. (2006). SWOT analysis. Retrieved April 12, 2006, from http://www.stfrancis.edu/ba/ghkickul/stuwebs/btopics/works/ swot.htm Houben, G., Lenie, K., & Vanhoof, K. (1999). A knowledge-based SWOT-analysis system as an instrument for strategic planning in small and medium sized enterprises. Decision Support Systems, 26(2), 125-135. Retrieved from http://0-www. sciencedirect.com.library.uark.edu/science/article/pii/S016792369900024X McLaurin, S. E., Bell, B., & Smith, C. (2009). A practical rationale for classroom assessment: The SWOT approach. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://0-www.eric.ed.gov.library.uark.edu/PDFS/ED507140.pdf Osgood, W. R. (2006). Where is my business headed and why? Retrieved April 12, 2006, from http://www.buzgate.org/ me/bft_swot.html
DA VID
PUBLISHING
The Best Ways of Teaching English to Children: Using Childrens Operas in Teaching to 5- to 6- Year-Old Children
Natalya Achkasova
High School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
This article invites teachers to consider how to strengthen links between English, music, arts, and acting, maximizing the potential for children to become successful language learners at a young age. It will show how childrens opera can act as a catalyst for learning and using the language. The findings demonstrate that teaching English with a childrens opera allows developing the basics of elementary communicative competence as it has everything that children of this age like rhythm, melody, story, and acting. Keywords: childrens opera, conscious learning, music, interactional context
Parents Want Their Children to Start English Early

It is a fact that the idea of teaching English to very young children is now attracting the attention of many teachers, linguists, and psychologists. Interest in this subject in Russia has developed over the last years from ad hoc, individual research efforts into the setting up of formal and professional research programmes. Today, children start English in the first grade (6-7 years old). Lyceums and gymnasiums run courses of English beginning at the age of five. In kindergartens, children are very often exposed to English from the age of three. Kids get easily involved in different activities and games, and ask to play them again and again. It is amazing how much easier they acquire new vocabulary compared to teenagers.
Why to Teach a FL (Foreign Language) Early

In spite of the fact that the history of successfully teaching young learners FLs dates back to late 1950s and early 1960s, the issue is still debated. Is it possible to teach young learners in a common public preschool and school to a level of language proficiency which will be higher than that reached by students starting in junior school? The experience of hundreds of schools which teach English starting from five to seven and also from 10 shows that by the end of secondary school, the former young learners can express more effectively, have more functional reading skills, are much more relaxed about mistakes they might make, and thus, communicate with foreigners without major problems. There were special tests conducted by language specialists of the Russian Academy of Education which prove that. There are a number of reasons, named by the methodologists and ELT (English Language Teaching) practitioners, why to teach a FL at an early age. That is the most favorable period for linguistic development (up to the age of eight). It can be used to form a solid basis for linguistic education.
Natalya Achkasova, Ph.D., Department of Foreign Languages, High School of Economics.
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THE BEST WAYS OF TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN
An early start provides maximum learning time for Englishthe earlier you start, the more time you have to learn. Biboletova and Trubaneva (2004, p. 2) said that, from an early age, children are exposed to the cultures of the countries where the target language is spoken, they grow up to be tolerant and sympathetic to other peoples. Buzchinsky (1992), talking about the first steps of teaching English to children, spoke about phonological aspects of speech,
According to the data of psycholinguists, the first features to be acquired are those of intonation and rhythm. Thus, supposed the rhythm and intonation the child develops consciousness of meaningful chops of words and word combinations, forming mental images of this relevant pronunciation features. As for isolated sounds are concerned, the child forms their images later, in extensive practice of manipulation with the given sounds in various phonetic contexts. All that is what a natural top-down acquisition of pronunciation amounts to. (p. 67)
Lenskaya (1999) thought that,

One of the major reasons for young children being more successful than adults in learning a foreign language is that they are praised and positively reinforced more. It is easier for them to feel success as the amount of vocabulary they need to accumulate to be able to communicate with their peers is significantly smaller than adults would need for the same purpose. (p. 8)
Very Young Children? Lets Watch Them

Research shows that a 5-year-old child develops his/her sense of self through social rather than private activitiesthrough a vast Web of interactions with his/her elders, his/her parents, teachers, and companionsthe Web of interpersonal relations. Most of activities of 5-year-old child are game-orientated. They play with dolls, dressing them, putting them to bed, and talking them. They like painting, drawing, cut-outing, and easily picking up with tunes and sing. Children of 6-year-old continue to share the interests with children of 5-year-old, but acquire a greater intensity of feeling. The drawings are more realistic and more concrete. The boys and girls are keen on active cooperative games, such as hide-and-seek, ball games, blocks, wagons, bicycles, and soldiers. Mainly, children at this age like school and want to do real work. Social and personal behaviors of 7-year-old show an increasing awareness of self and others. They especially like guns, funny books, and coloring. In general, they play similarly to children of 6-year-old, but display weaker propensity for pretending, demanding more realism. They are very self-conscious, which affects their behavior. Seven-year-old children can still engage in solitary play. They are fond of puzzles and table games. Eight-year-olds children, however, need another parsons rapt attention and involvement. They acquire a new sense of complexities of interaction, active relationships, and practical use. They dramatise everything: characters from books, movies, and cartoons. Games for children are viewed as the most admirable social institutions (Jean Piaget), routed by which children come to terms with their social institutions.
Most Discussed Questions in Teaching FL to Children

The majority of children like school and are ready to do something real. An early start in teaching English is viewed as one of the means of fostering and enhancing language training. Furthermore, preschool
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childhood is considered to be a favorable period for acquiring an FL. Before going any further, the author would like to identify some of the most discussed questions in teaching FL to very young children in Russia today: (1) When should teaching be started? And could it be harmful for the childrens development? (2) What kind of motivation should teaching be based on? (3) Should learning be through unconscious imitation or conscious mastering of the language? (4) With such an early start, can the problem of continuity be solved?
Research
Research has identified the following views and approaches to teaching English to the very young in Russia today: (1) Effective learning of FL by preschool children can be achieved if we provide a conscious and purposeful system of forming FL skills (children at five are fully ready for conscious learning); (2) Learning should rely on the motivation of play, and all activities must be game-like activities; (3) The development of native language skills and FL skills in kindergarten occurs simultaneously; (4) The use of imagery (tales, stories, rhymes, and favorite characters) stimulates the acquisition of the FL by preschool children.
Practical Outcomes
Taking into consideration the approaches and strategies developed with young learners and relying on our personal experience with children, we came to some of our own conclusions. Effective teaching of the FL to the very young should be: (1) Conducted with varied activities, natural to the child: drawing, dancing, movement, listening to stories, drama, and modelingall, in fact, means of communication; (2) Organized in accordance with the childrens natural need for self-expression through music. Music has been viewed by many authors as means of fostering personal, social, communicative, and linguistic competence at a preschool age. Research into the connections between the mechanisms of production and the perception of music and speech at this age shows that they are very similar. In watching children, we see that they naturally switch from singing to talking and back. They translate music into dance. They like experimenting with rhythm, tempo, and intonation in speech and music. Therefore, we are convinced that music should be the leading means in the exposure of children to FL. Childrens opera (a musical tale where story, dance, acting, singing and talking, drawing, and modeling all go together) is means of combining teaching with all the natural activities of the children. The result of our research can be presented as follows: Childrens opera: music + interactional context + combination of activities familiar to children from a very early age = successful learning. Additionally, childrens opera provides the interactional context that builds phonological awareness, necessary for the acquisition of pronunciation and speech. In the interactional context, speech functions become obvious. The approach is to use opera in both languages, first in Russian, and then in English. This immediately produces ideas and the concept of plot. Transferring into the FL will then occur with pleasure and without any difficulty. This approach first produces conditioned manner and behavior in the childrens native language.
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This manner and behavior are then easily transferable into the FL. Childrens opera includes drama and role-play. For every child, drama and role-play activities are vital in their development. Instinctively, they identify themselves with everything that happens around them. They have a natural tendency to express and organize new experience through muscular reactions. They react with their whole body. Children of 5+ years old use body postures, gestures, and speeches to give expression to emotions and ideas, which are taking shape with them. It helps children relate others experiences to their own lives. They assimilate their own thoughts and feelings and try them out in real world through drama and role-play. Mother tongue primary drama techniques are known to increase body and space awareness, language abilities, mimes, improvisations, and interpersonal relationships. Clearly, for children of 5+, dramatic self-activation is a method of learning. Accordingly, the same drama games and techniques will definitely provide a child with a valuable life experience and good language practice in a necessary and entertaining way. Language as a communicative tool is clearer to a child. In communicative teaching the language code, ability to communicate and comprehend with gestures, mime, or intonation, and desire to cooperate and interact are all essential components, and drama is a tool for acquiring for these elements.
Demonstration of the Approach

Usually, frequently occurring vocabulary is quickly learned by children, but it does not always matter whether they use it naturally and appropriately, as at this age, they are not very experienced in the acquisition and activation of new vocabulary in their native language. For example, if we take opera as a context, Goldilocks and the Three Bears, there is a scene where Goldilocks meets and talks to the house. Using this approach, we should first explore the situation in Russian: What did Goldilocks tell the house? How did it greet her? What do people usually say when they meet? How do they move and look? The children would then act out the parts of the house and Machenka (the Russian Goldilocks), after which, they will be prepared to perceive the same situation in the new language. Music, with its emotional nature, makes exposure to a new language desirable, interesting and as we observed, easy for children. Movement, decorations, and singing will serve as reference points, which make learning effective. Using childrens opera gives us the opportunity to teach communication from the very first class. A top-down perspective allows children to focus their attention on the interactional dynamics of the communication process. This approach allows us from the very first lesson to introduce authentic language in stretches of discourse. Characters from opera greet, request, agree, and question, which makes the new language natural and communicative from the very beginning.
Some Ideas About the Methodology

Music furthers the natural self-expression which makes the child move naturally while using the language. Thus, kinetics (or body language) goes together with speech and speech goes together with kinetics. Melody sets the tempo and aids fluency. This is what authentic language requires. Melody provides the keys for the childrens self-control. Everyone has experienced this process: begin a melody and the words swim out from the memory. Consequently, when we ask the pupils to draw or model, we switch on the tape with the music
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from the opera and children, of course, unconsciously repeat it. Courses based on one childrens opera over three months with two 45-minute classes a week give us the opportunity to introduce about 200 words and 50 functions, related to a child of preschool age (e.g., introducing, requesting, questioning, expressing joy, arguing, etc.). Such a course includes a learner-oriented syllabus (where students act instead of the characters doing so), making English words and sentences their own, which motivates them to continue their studies and provides them with an encouraging start. The very young, especially, need to express themselves from the very first lesson: singing and speaking out, dancing and acting with decorations they have prepared. This is inspired by the magical force of music and the sound of a new language. In this way, the question of continuity in teaching communicative is resolved.
The Place for Games in Teaching of Children

Russian psychologists (e.g., Vygotsky, Zaporozets, Leontyev, and Elkonin) consider a game to be the leading activity of the age. Today, games are widely used in teaching FLs. In text-books and resource books, it is possible to find games of different types and categories, with the focus on oral or written language, pronunciation or grammar, loud or quiet, long or short, and team games or group games. And they are wonderful source if they are used appropriately in the teaching situation. The author will stress the following point here: In elementary teaching, games should not be an adjunct to teaching guided by the slogan, When we have time, we will play. Games are the leading activity at that age that they cannot be something complementary to teaching, and they are the core of it. Every learning exercise, every item for practice with young children should be developed as a game. Games are governed by rules, which set up defined goals; games involve a contest (between players or between a player and the object), and they are engaging and fun. For example, let us imagine that we want children to be able to reproduce the words for vegetables they remember. It is not interesting and stimulating just to name them or identify pictures of them. It is different if the goal of the game is set up as: Cook the best soup, choosing the ingredients you need. Everybody will be involved, even if the child voices the final recipe of their soup. Another example is that we want children to distinguish between plural and singular forms, and ask them to jump up when calling out plural and to remain seated when pronouncing the singular forms. This can be a contest between two teams.
Priorities for the Very First Lesson With preschool Children

It is very important to establish priorities for the children for the very first lesson. It is reasonable to have this expectation of speaking fluently and correctly at the beginning of the yearly language programme with young learners. They will have time for that. We probably would not focus on Hello, my name is from the linguistic point of view at the first or second lesson, though very often today, it seems to take precedence over the value of providing a relaxed learning environment. For a child, a new language is not learning forms and vocabulary or greeting in a new way. It is a new game and a new experience. The priorities include: (1) Providing the motivation to learn English; (2) Building confidence; (3) Encouraging children to communicate with the help of any language they have (mime, gestures, etc.); (4) Giving a child an experience of a wide range of language in a nonthreatening environment;
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(5) Showing that English is fun. During the teacher training course, the author asked the participants to remember the phrase in Language 3 Hello, my name is, and introduce themselves in front of the class. The results were not so great (sorry!). They repeated the sentence, but stated that they experienced much stress being a new learner. The results were different when they were asked not only to introduce themselves, imitating the new structure, but to invent the gestures, characterizing them, and getting the next person to copy it. The teachers stated that it was funny, not stressful and they even remembered the names of each other. Friendly and supportive atmosphere makes learning easier in any age group, but especially in a childrens group.
Drama-Like Activities for Children

Drama-like group formation activities are not merely ice-breakers, but they support each other to make physical contact or get confident. There is a difference between getting to know names and being able to risk speaking in front of the class. Group formation activities may be: (1) Broken telephone (playing with a mime); (2) Listening to nice songs and dancing; (3) Children draw the characters from the first page of the course book and make a display; (4) Children act out the characters. They can play hide and seek or do any other game or activity, such as provoking, acting together, making physical contact, or eye-contact. In this way, children will start learning in the environment which will: (1) Provide ideal context to introduce, recycle, and practice the language; (2) Produce maximum motivation; (3) Build positive attitudes; (4) Encourage active participation; (5) Provide joy and a feeling of success. Experience shows that first lessons have a very strong effect on young learners, this is an early and important experience, which strengthens the childrens confidence in his/her own abilities in general and ability to learn a FL as well.
Conclusion
The author hopes that it is shown that teaching very young children is not solely a preparatory phase. It is rather an important process of immersing a child in the ocean of real speech. He/she will then be bathing with pleasure in the waves of melodies and rhythm and will float to the surface, purposefully and consciously, with the teacher, who enjoys the process as well!
References
Biboletova, M., & Truvaneva, N. (2004). Enjoy English (Teachers Book). Moscow: Prosvechenie. Buzchinsky, V. (1992). The methods of teaching pronunciation culture to children. Moscow: Prosvechenie. Lenskaya, E. (1999). How to teach how to teach young learners effectively. Russia, Moscow: British Council.
DA VID
PUBLISHING
The Best of All Worlds: Immersive Interfaces for Art Education in Virtual and Real World Teaching and Learning Environments
Janette Grenfell
Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
Selected ubiquitous technologies encourage collaborative participation between higher education students and educators within a virtual socially networked e-learning landscape. Multiple modes of teaching and learning, ranging from real world experiences, to text and digital images accessed within the Deakin studies online learning management system and a constructed virtual world in which the users creative imagination transports them to the other side of their computer screens is discussed in this paper. These constructed environments support interaction between communities of learners and enable multiple simultaneous participants to access graphically built 3D (three dimensional) environments, interact with digital artifacts and various functional tools and represent themselves through avatars, to communicate with other participants and engage in collaborative art learning. A narrative interpretative research approach was used to profile the 21st century higher education student learner, to investigate the lived experience and multiple art learning perspectives documented in students visual journal entries and art educator observations to ascertain if an e-technology rich-augmented learning environment resulted in the establishment of more effective e-learning communities of practice. Keywords: art education, collaborative e-learning, mixed reality, virtual worlds
Introduction
The transition from a traditional instructional model to a more collaborative model of e-learning enabled a class of 32 second year undergraduate students enrolled in the trimester unit Navigating the visual world, and the art educator to establish a community of learners within an augmented immersive environment. This included the graphically built 3D (three dimensional) virtual world of Deakin Arts Education Centre in SL (second life), the Deakin Learning Management System, D2L (desire2learn), on campus an art studio and field trips to selected art sites. Within this environment, artistic practice and work-based learning were enhanced through the creation of digital artifacts to support shared knowledge building and authentic learning tasks. Collaborative engagement was identified as an important aspect of the learning experience, given that students prior learning in the visual arts varied from students completing a visual art major in an undergraduate teacher education degree to those who had no prior experience in art making and were completing the unit as a single elective subject in another discipline degree.
Profiling the 21st Century Learner

Identifying and understanding student attitudes to learning, their demonstrated expertise in manipulating
Janette Grenfell, lecturer, School of Education, Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University.
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THE BEST OF ALL WORLDS: IMMERSIVE INTERFACES FOR ART EDUCATION
traditional art media and techniques, their level of e-technology skills and how they interact with their peers, socially and within formal and informal education, settings were important factors influencing the initial design of the unit Navigating the visual world. A preliminary survey of 32 students enrolled in the unit revealed that 75% were school leavers of whom, 95% were women. Similarly, of the remaining 25%, all were female and categorized as mature age students. Of the participants, 95% were undertaking a visual art major in a primary education undergraduate course, and the remainders (5%) were completing the unit as an elective in other courses across the university. A review of literature profiling 21st century higher education learners variously describes them as the Net Generation, Digital Natives, Millennials, or the Y Generation. They inhabit a world dominated by the use of information and communication technologies, where the use of Web and mobile-based applications are commonplace and years of participation in interactive game play had generated high-level new media, visual, audio, and digital literacy skills (Oliver & Goerke, 2007). Prensky (2001a; 2001b) argued that these students effectively accommodate the language of new technologies because it is, and always has been, part of their reiterated experience. This implies that many students entering higher education have acquired the ability to articulate new ideas, and to create and interpret digital artifacts using new technologies. It is also suggested that these students comprehend rapid information delivery, prefer multi-tasking, non-linear access to information and active experiential learning (Oblinger, 2003). However, observation of student participation in art studio activities identified that some students, initially assumed to be a part of the e-generation conform more to the profile of digital immigrants (Prensky, 2001a) and are situated within a digital melting pot. This indicates a lack of homogeneity amongst students with regards to experience and the acquisition of skills in using new technologies. Similarly, Lorenzo, Oblinger, and Dziuban (2006) stated that a typical student cohort in higher education is not just the new age of Net Generation, nor have they all had the benefit of state-of-the-art ubiquitous technology. These findings were considered during the development of introductory computer-based workshops and were supported by the responses in a student questionnaire that revealed that not all participating students conformed to Prenskys (2001a) initial definition. In fact, some mature age students, displayed more sophisticated skills than those of their younger colleagues. As a result of these early findings the potential for a digital divide between students was overcome when students with advanced skill levels and capabilities were invited to work collaboratively to develop technical and digital manipulation skills among lesser competent class members (Grenfell, 2009). Examples of the positive outcomes from this practice are recorded in the images (see Figures 1a and 1b). The comments accompanying the images are from the two students who worked collaboratively in a computer based workshop activity. Their responses illustrate the diverse range of computer skills identified in the class. One student identified as exhibiting Y Generation characteristics (Prensky, 2001a) stated:
In this activity, I appropriated Da Vincis Drawing of a woman (see Figure 1a). The original image depicts a serene woman, with the face beautifully rendered but the hair and neck merely suggested with sketched lines in order to keep the face as the focal point. The face almost appears to be coming out of the drawing, as though peering through a veil. I chose to appropriate this image, because I admire the womans beauty and serenity, as well as the skill displayed by the artist. I was trying to show my appreciation of Da Vincis skill and my desire to learn by paying homage this way. Instead of drawing with cont-crayons, I created my image with photo-shop by selectively cropping an image of myself and then merging it with the original drawing through various filters and careful editing. I ended up with a much warmer hue than the original, but decided to leave it that way, because it better suited my personality. (Grenfell, 2011b)
THE BEST OF ALL WORLDS: IMMERSIVE INTERFACES FOR ART EDUCATION The second student (see Figure 1b) identified herself as a digital immigrant. She commented:
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Wow, what a process! For a Photoshop virgin, I think I did all right! There is obviously much room for improvement which I think can be seen most in top right-appropriation (where Mazzas face is coming through way too much). It was tricky for me to change the color of my face to the vivid colors that Andy Warhol used, but I think it still has a level of success. Keen to practice more! (Grenfell, 2011b)
Figure 1a. Digital image manipulation (images reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b). Figure 1b. Journal entry comment digital immigrant.
As a result of these preliminary activities, directed computer-based sessions were timetabled to develop student competencies in a range of digital software, such as the Adobe Creative Suite including Photoshop, movie editing, and Web design including digital manipulation and problem-solving exercises. Students were also introduced to the Deakin online study environment, D2L and after acquiring an avatar, they began to participate in exercises in the virtual world of the Deakin Art Education Centre in SL. As students mastered new skills in the 3D virtual environment (see Figure 2), they worked together to create new scenarios, including personal studio spaces and a group exhibition space. They considered as potential collective courses of action to develop deeper thinking processes and alternative perspectives in particular social, cultural, and educational contexts (Grenfell & Warren, 2012). Throughout this process, students were encouraged to record their experiences. They took screen shots of in-world activities (see Figure 3), uploading them in the online discussion area within D2L and recording their experiences in their visual journals.
Figure 2. Orientation activities in the sandpit located in the virtual arts education centre (image reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b).
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THE BEST OF ALL WORLDS: IMMERSIVE INTERFACES FOR ART EDUCATION One student reported:
To live in-world, you need to develop your avatar. When you join the SL community, you are invited to choose from a number of basic avatar types. Having arrived in-world, you are invited to customize your look or appearance. A number of possibilities are available free or you may purchase clothing, skins and accessories using Linden dollars from a vendor. Shopping is addictive! (Grenfell, 2011b)
Figure 3. Student B: Studio in SL (image reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b).
In an interview, Student B demonstrated advanced digital technology skills when she outlined how she planned and built an individual exhibition space to present her portfolio of artworks for assessment (See Figure 3). She stated:
I wanted the studio to reflect my personality. It was an extension of the ideas and images I explored in my work, I thought of the space as an installation. I used a number of appropriated images and gave them new meanings but with social, cultural and political underpinning. I will present my final folio of artworks in both the real world studio and the virtual studio on Deakin island in SL. (Genfell, 2011b)
The Role of the Educator

Laurillard (2002) stated that the introduction of e-learning technologies has the potential to change the role of the educator from transmitter of knowledge to that of facilitator of knowledge transformation, requiring her to adjust her pedagogical models to enhance new generation learning (Oblinger, 2003; Frand, 2000). To facilitate this process, Laurillard (2002) invited the educator to question what is the nature of learning and how does it occur within a rich technology and e-learning environment. Of concern is Prenskys (2001a) statement regarding an apparent lack of technological literacy amongst some educators. In a more recent study, D. G. Oblinger and J. L. Oblinger (2005) confirmed that as information and communication technologies influence the Net Generation, they have significantly impacted on the growing currency of the educator as a co-learner. This requires re-thinking by some educators to include innovative ways to accommodate augmented learning modalities, and maximize the value of e-technologies to promote new forms of student engagement. In this unit, the role of the educator was perceived as facilitator and co-learner, to embrace new pedagogies and practices to support active, collaborative, and authentic art learning. It was also recognized that given the diverse and developing digital and technological skills of higher education students, an instructional role would be assumed by the educator during some aspects of the unit. Throughout the trimester, the educator engaged in a self-reflective journaling process. She recorded that before the beginning of the trimester, bringing all of the
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selected learning environments together under the concept of augmented learning was quite challenging, particularly in developing an e-technology skill base that includes designing and developing learning artifacts for online learning, the building of the 3D virtual art education centre in SL and of course working with digital manipulation technologies in image creation. Once the unit began, one of the most valuable experiences for her was to invite support from more skilled students when confronted with a skills-based issue, admitting lack of knowledge and asking for advice. In setting up, this process in both the studio and the computer lab, most students began to share their expertise and to support lesser experienced colleagues. The concept of a community of learners began to evolve (Grenfell, 2011b).
Pedagogies
Emerging collaborative learning pedagogies to promote active learning (Jara, Candelas, Torres, Dormido, Esquembre, & Reinoso, 2009) have a central place in students construction of knowledge and skill development. Expressly designed for and carried out by interacting groups (Barkley, Cross, & Major, 2004), collaborative learning is most effective when participants verbalize their ideas, challenge others and unite to achieve collective solutions to problems (Shih & Yang, 2008). Within an augmented learning environment, students seamlessly use new technologies to access new ways of learning (Metcalf, Clarke, & Dede, 2009) to present their ideas or respond to discussion threads (Prensky, 2001a). They have the capacity to talk and interact in real time, share still or move digital images, audio streams or add to the digital infrastructure of the virtual environment, while engaging in art learning episodes or mounting simulated art exhibitions of their work (Grenfell & Warren, 2012). In establishing an art education e-learning community, the idea of the centrality of the participant in the process of knowledge creation is not new. What is innovative, however, is the ability for students to engage in collaborative and active authentic learning and to construct knowledge within an augmented immersive environment. Punie (2007) contended that the collaborative engagement of participants in common or linked experiences and projects has the potential to establish communities of learners based on the perception that the more participants believe they can learn from a community by sharing their experiences, projects, and values, the more likely they are to engage and participate as active members of that community.
Figure 4a. Student avatars and art educator in SL (Courtesy Grenfell, 2011b).
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Because of the asynchronous nature of working in the virtual world (see Figure 4a), students met in-world and worked on the development of the art exhibition space in the evening. The educator reported that there was a small group who met her in-world in the evening. They worked on building the exhibition for a time, then teleported to other locations, such as the street art Laneways (see Figure 4b) build in SL. On return, they reported on their experiences and resumed work, building the exhibition space. One of the most interesting aspects recorded by the educator was the social interaction between the students and the educator (Grenfell, 2011b). She observed that this collaborative relationship continued to develop during on campus studio sessions.
Figure 4b. Street art laneway on Deakin Island in SL (left) and student photographic report on street art located in Hosier Lane Melbourne (image reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b).
Student and Educator Collaboration in the E-learning Process

To facilitate student and educator discussion, a framework based on Meredith and Newtons (2003, p. 52) cycle of e-learning was devised. This model focuses on the idea that deep learning results from active participation in problem-solving using a process of experimentation, implementation, and reflection, to achieve an initial solution. The learning cycle continues as new variants and approaches emerge. This model enabled student and educator participants to review outcomes from activities and discussions and to make suggestions to progressively modify and enhance the unit design, content and class activities ranging from text based and image making to interactive virtual constructions. During discussions, the group sought ways to encourage participatory collaborative learning, and to support the emerging learning community. Key questions were devised and provided a common framework: (1) How does the concept of augmented reality support a collaborative community of learners in a technology-rich environment? (2) Are there benefits of integrating virtual and real world e-learning contexts to students accustomed to a traditional atelier environment? (3) What skills do students have or need to acquire to actively engage in a predominantly technology-based e-learning environment? (4) What do you consider are the roles of students and the art educator in a collaborative community of learners? (5) Did computer workshop activities and peer tutoring support student skills development in digital image manipulation and in-world construction of artifacts?
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The Learning Environment

In the unit Navigating the Visual World, all learning artifacts were located within the Deakin learning management system: D2L. The aim was to encourage students to move seamlessly from e-technology based content, consisting of text, static and moving images and audio and movie clips, to online activities linked to discussion boards. These learning experiences are further enhanced by student participation in studio activities using traditional media and techniques or digital image manipulation software and field trips to art focused locations. By recording their explorations using mobile technologies and data-collection devices (including digital cameras, iPhones, and iTouch), the collaborative learning experience extends beyond the studio or field trip, as students upload and annotate their visual experiences on group discussion boards in D2L and in individual visual journals. Student participation in the unit culminated with mounting a virtual exhibition of their art works in the art gallery on Deakin art education island in SL. One of the central ideas in developing, this unit was to encourage students to actively contribute to the content development of the unit and to explore concepts of visual literacy in art and popular culture. What this means is to have students actively engage in knowledge creation, to question and to develop their own ideas both in making and responding to art works. The unit study materials are a beginning, providing students with a starting point to their exploration of ideas and key art concepts. Here, participatory engagement is central to the learning experience. Individual journaling participation in online discussion is part of the process that includes uploading visual and text based responses to class activities and personal explorations. Although some students were initially reluctant to participate, their confidence in using technologies grew as they engaged in dialogue with each other, looking at the images, commenting on ideas and the use of media and technique, looking at the appropriation of images and links between text and image. Students also learned to access online study materials from within the virtual environment in SL (see Figure 5).
Figure 5. The learning environment: Accessing online study materials from within the virtual art gallery in Deakin arts education centre in SL 2011 (image reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b).
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The focus of the project within the unit Navigating the Visual World was to investigate the lived experience and multiple art learning perspectives of all participants and to profile the 21st century higher education student learner to ascertain whether introducing students to a e-technology rich-augmented learning environment resulted in the development of a more effective e-learning community of practice. In this unit, students engaged with selected ubiquitous e-technologies and traditional artistic processes to focus on the theme personal identity. An example of this activity is illustrated in Figure 6 where the student experimented with a range of techniques and styles to represent visually, ideas of his personal identity. Students experienced visual journaling as a form of research inquiry, meaning making, and collaborative learning (La Jevic & Springgay, 2008, p. 37), a practice supported by Connelly and Clandinin (1990, p. 14) who contend that humans make meaning of experience by telling and retelling stories about themselves. In this context, the focus (Beath, 1991; Jeffers, 1993) was on students personal learning journeys and the interpretation of the lived experience (Van Manen, 1990; Tan, Wilson, & Olver, 2009) encompassing art making and engagement with virtual scenarios and online e-learning. This notion of the lived experience was chosen for its ability to capture the immediacy and subjectivity of experience (Tam, 2008; Crotty, 1998) and includes contextual and personal frames to enable participants to explore how meaning is constructed as they visually interpret the world around them (Crotty, 1998).
Figure 6. Individual student exploration of the theme personal identity in the studio (image reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b).
Throughout the trimester, the art educator in the role of collaborator actively participated in dialogue with the student group (Barnacle, 2001) to encourage self-study, to facilitate the visual communication of ideas, critical reflection, and dialogue (Van Manen, 1990, p. 32) and to capture a phenomenon of life in linguistic description that is both holistic and analytical (Van Manen, 1990, p. 39). Throughout this process, students and the art educator engaged in journaling activities to assist in the process of reflection and interpretation. Students documented their exploration of ideas, experimented with media including traditional mark making techniques, and the digital manipulation of images. Their artistic decision-making included the construction of a visual language, incorporating image, text and video, and recorded responses published in the online discussion room and in their visual journals. The educator also engaged in a process of self-reflection, to articulate her own experience and to identify ways in which her position may influence the interpretation of issues addressed in student responses (Laverty, 2008). To aid this process, four procedures (Jeffers, 1993, p. 14) were used to construct an interpretative, textual, and visual framework. They were: (1) Collaborative student and educator engagement in the construction of participation in augmented immersive learning environments; (2) Investigating experience as we live it, student and educator participation in art making processes, including visual journaling;
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(3) Reflecting on the essential themes which characterize the immersion in artistic practice and dialogue; (4) Describing image creation and dialogue as an expression of ideas incorporating an interpretative narrative approach. The interpretative narrative research focus enabled students to explore the creative process associated with image making, individually, collaboratively an audience. Image making experiences manifests themselves within a spiraling phenomena of problem-solving, experimentation, implementation, and resolution, where the parts integrate to form the whole experience to support further engagement with the existing artwork and which may result in additional creative work (Glass, 2008). This concept is expressed in the following diagram (see Figure 7).
Figure 7. An interpretative narrative framework within an art making process (image reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b).
The Narrative of Visual Journals

Visual journals were introduced into the unit Navigating the Visual World to enable students to engage in research into their own practice and to develop an embodied and relational understanding between self and other (La Jevic & Springgay, 2008, p. 73). Throughout the trimester, the students visual journals became an environment in which they explored ideas, beliefs, and opinions through image and text. Grauer and Naths (1998) believed that the inclusion of text describes and supports depictions and become graphic devices that aid reflection on personal themes and metaphors (p. 14). Visual journals formed part of the assessment of the students engagement with online study materials, experimentation with media and technique, articulation of ideas and concepts, imagery and text. In Figure 8, Student C incorporates image and text to respond to the question But what is art?
Figure 8. Student C response: What is art? (image reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b).
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THE BEST OF ALL WORLDS: IMMERSIVE INTERFACES FOR ART EDUCATION She recorded in her visual journal:
I have always interested in art. For me, it is a source of release and relaxation. Art never judges you on how good you are at, like math and English for which you are always marked on your content. Art allows the exploration of uncommon issues and also feelings. It is the exploration of these feelings that has at times allowed me to explore my and express my own from time to time, as it does not judge or stereotype. I am an only child, and therefore, had to amuse myself a lot of the time, I spent most of this time making things, drawing and or painting. It was always and is still funny for me. (Grenfell, 2011b)
In the following example from Student D (see Figure 9), the focus of the exercise was to explore the concept of personal identity using a photomontage technique developed by the artist David Hockney:
Figure 9. Students employed a drawing medium in their explorations of personal identity (image reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b).
Students were encouraged to annotate their visual responses to problem-solving activities:

Art is important in my life because of its freedom, art is subjective and does not stereotype, it allows you to explore issues that are not commonly spoken about. Having that freedom has allowed me to find something that I enjoy and is for me, it enables me to have fun and explore. I feel that art is not just paint and canvas, but is music, ink, drama, film, cooking, anything creative or that shares something about you. Being in a large family and having somewhat of a challenging childhood, I love having this freedom to express myself without others involving themselves. It is my voice (see Figure 9).
Another Student E demonstrated the diversity of ideas generated by the visually rich located, online and virtual learning environment. She outlined her focus:
I was aiming to question the importance of fashion in these pieces, and how it influences our identity, much like Krugers work titled Your Body is a Battle Ground. I was trying to portray the way women in todays society are expected to cover up their true selves through the parody of super balanced and how much we are expected to sacrifice in order to be accepted by society, including physically giving up our health in order to be thin (seen in the skeletal images of fashion models). In earlier pieces, I used bright colored pencils to emphasize the obvious cover-up, and used a black background to further enhance this through vivid contrast I used a grey-lead pencil on black paper to create an x-ray-like effect on another piece to portray the transparency of women who allow their identities to be dictated by others. In these postcards, I appropriated found images in the style of Kruger to further explore the stereotyping of women. The overall message I was attempting to communicate was how we are willing to make ourselves ridiculous in order to fit in, and how society abuses its power by pressuring women to conform, perpetuating the idea that our existence can only by validated through the acceptance of others, rather than encouraging women to form their own identities. (Grenfell, 2011b)
Throughout the trimester, student and educators reflective visual journals recorded individual and
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collective experiences of all aspects of the unit. In addition, pre- and post- trimester questionnaires and weekly group discussions enabled students to reflect and comment on their overall participation in the unit. This synergistic collaboration (Salmons, 2011) contributed to the ongoing design and development of the e-learning environment.
Art in the E-learning Virtual Environment

Devised as an assessment task, students participated in a collaborative project to design, to build, and to curate an exhibition of artworks in the Deakin virtual art gallery in SL. Early in the project, students were surveyed about their skill levels in using digital technologies and their experiences with 3D virtual environments including SL. The survey revealed that while all students had been varying levels of technological competencies, no students had prior experience with working in virtual worlds. These results led to the development of workshops enabling students to acquire necessary technological skills to access the virtual platform. They included scheduled group help sessions with educators in face-to-face and in-world modes, comprehensive written tutorial guides and instructional videos outlining the basics of SL. These sessions and resources were crucial in assisting students develop skills associated with navigating and building in 3D worlds and in digital image creation and manipulation. During these sessions, students with more highly developed technological skills and experience with computing technologies were encouraged to work in partnership with less technologically competent colleagues. One of the most rewarding outcomes was the willingness of students to support each other, both verbally and through shared knowledge to acquire new technical skills. Individual success in achieving a positive outcome from what may initially have been a frustrating process was met with great enthusiasm by the group. During these timetabled computer sessions, it was evident that peer group encouragement was important factor in retaining student interest and engagement throughout the initial stages of the project. This observation is supported by Salmons (2011) concept of the learning community, in which participants are, joined together by mutual interest, exchange existing knowledge and work collaboratively on shared problem-solving activities. One of the initial tasks involved the requirement for all participants to create an avatar and to individualize the appearance of their alter ego. Nowak (2004) believed that the individuals avatar alter ego can increase the sense of social presence and awareness of issues surrounding personal identity. Students also explored the concept that avatars are individually sculptured art forms designed by their owners and as such contribute to the aesthetic of the virtual environment. By acknowledging, these personae are different from real human life presence and appearance, students individually explored of the look of their avatar as a means of expression of their virtual self as an artistic form. From feline to robot, attractive top models to amorphous beings or objects, each student created avatars involving multiple textures and shapes (Annetta, Klesath, & Holmes, 2008; Giresunlu, 2010). Students quickly realized that they had the ability to explore the character of their virtual personas at any time by changing clothing, hairstyles, or other elements of visual appearance. To support individual skills development, each student participated in activities that required interaction with avatar colleagues in the Deakin Art Centre. Students were also encouraged to develop proficiency in using in-built audio, text, and online communication tools, uploading objects including image textures into personal inventories, experimenting with building and rezzing objects in the sandpit. The successful completion of each task further enhanced students growing confidence in navigating and working in-world. Many students
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carried out these in-world tasks outside of formal class times. For some, the Deakin Art Centre (see Figure 10) became a regular meeting place, where their alter ego avatars congregated before teleporting to other SL sites, returning to report their experiences to fellow classmates and educators. Mindful of social issues occasionally encountered in some SL locations, students are encouraged, to set their home base to the Art Education Centre before venturing away from Deakin island.
Figure 10. The teaching environment of the Deakin Arts Education Centre in SL (image reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b).
Throughout the project, students held regular timetabled meetings, initially, on campus and later in-world, to facilitate group decision-making and information exchange. Because of the complexity of the project asynchronous, in-world meetings became more frequent as students continued to work outside timetabled classes to design and construct the exhibition space, upload artworks to personal inventories and generally, to curate the exhibition. They also continued to work in the studio and to upload images and comments into the discussion site in D2L. Their reflective journals charted individual experiences relating to their art making and engagement in the project. Student participation was underpinned by two of the most powerful developments to impact on contemporary art experience, the use of e-learning strategies for art teaching and learning and the acceptance of technology enhanced artistic practice that includes still images, video, film, animation, machinima and 2D, and 3D installations. The virtual environment offered its simulation platform as open land for students willing to explore digital expression in tandem with studio-based art activities, blurring the edges between reality and fantasy to create and reflect their artistic imagination. One outcome of this development was that the divide between, what is traditionally categorised as high and popular art, diminished as art students pushed the boundaries of innovative and creative practice. Giresunlu (2010) supported the idea that when digital artworks undergo a transformation from real life to a simulated digital environment, new contextual avenues for their aesthetic re-evaluation occur. The virtual environment became a social space for its residents to generate 3D art works using digital graphic media and creation tools available within the virtual platform. Digitally rendered installations were scripted and built to rotate. At the beginning of the project, participating students collectively chose personal identity as the overarching theme for the art exhibition. They began the individual collaborative, and creative processes of researching and exploring ideas, experimenting digital media and techniques to create a collection of artworks. A conceptual framework in which the artist is perceived as a cultural agent who individually and collectively creates visually aesthetic objects for public viewing, underpinned this strand of the project. For virtual viewers, aesthetic contexts are socially constructed through collaborative interactions and conversations about the artworks with their creators.
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Figure 11. Student images of self using digital imaging technologies in a virtual art exhibition (image reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b).
Figure 12. Students used traditional art making techniques, such as drawing, painting and print making (image reproduced with permission of Grenfell, 2011b).
In timetabled studio sessions, students explored issues of their own identity within broad societal and cultural frameworks (see Figures 11 and 12). This process encouraged frank discussion of issues relating to gender, class, and identity, and how these issues impact on individual lives and personal experience. Students selected artworks and critically examined the definition of art within historical, social, and cultural frameworks. They debated the use of irony and parody as strategies for critical social commentary and the appropriation of artworks to fuse fine art traditions and popular cultural statements. Many of their own artworks reflected these discussions. They also considered the practical roles of artists, gallery directors, and curators in the creation and presentation of the artwork to a wider real and virtual community of viewers. Throughout the trimester, students continued to make journal entries, researching and annotating works related to their own art making and in response to gallery activities. They located Web-based resources, including the blogs of established virtual world artists where machinima used to record in-world installations. Direct exposure to virtual art worlds enabled students to transition from experiencing in a totally real world environment to progressively develop technical capabilities to enable them to work collaboratively in-world, and to construct their exhibition space on Deakin island. To support this process of a meeting with curatorial experts from a regional gallery in Victoria, Australia provided students with valuable insights into the process of mounting an art exhibition and provided useful spatial design concepts for students to consider and incorporate into the construction of the virtual exhibition space in SL.
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Conclusions
Throughout the trimester, observations recorded by the educator of the level of individual student and group engagement in unit activities reinforced the view that the progressive development of a strong technology skills base is crucial for successful participation in an augmented e-learning environment. Discussion during weekly meetings, online discussion, journal entries, and end of trimester surveys revealed that introducing students to an e-technology rich-augmented learning environment had resulted overall in a high degree of student satisfaction in the development of more effective community of practice. Students reported that they were fully immersed in problem-solving activities that enabled them individually and collaboratively to explore, experiment, research, improvise, reflect, discuss, critique, and evaluate their digitally manipulated artworks. However, there were a small number of students who indicated that although they had developed higher levels of technology and digital manipulation skills, they would prefer to continue to make artworks using more traditional media and techniques in a studio environment. Finally, the deliberate intention of creating a learning community involving students enrolled in separate degrees, with different educational, professional, and technological capacities and aspirations, was forged through unified, collaborative, and participation in an augmented e-learning environment. As technology and educational practice continue to bridge the divide between the virtual and the real, the test for educators is to develop meaningful collaborations relevant to their own students and professional fields. This development is only confined by the imagination and the willingness to translate conventional teaching methods into a more collaborative, and social model of e-learning with discernible real-world relevance.
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DA VID
PUBLISHING
Harnessing the Use of Open Learning Exchange to Support Basic Education in Science and Mathematics in the Philippines
Josephine S. Feliciano
Science Education Institute, Taguig, Philippines
Louie Carl R. Mandapat

Department of Science and Technology, Taguig, Philippines
Concepcion L. Khan
University of the Philippines, Laguna, Philippines
This paper presents the open learning initiatives of the Science Education Institute of the Department of Science and Technology to overcome certain barriers, such as enabling access, cost of replication, timely feedback, monitoring and continuous improvement of learning modules. Using an open-education model, like MITs (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) OCW (open courseware), a Web-based system was developed to improve the capacity and capability building in primary science and mathematics education in the Philippines, by developing freely accessible, interactive teaching and learning resources. Finally, the paper presents the current status of the project, and discusses the systems potential to deliver better value for money, particularly with the economies of scale, when distribution and monitoring of quality learning modules became nationwide in scope. Keywords: science and mathematics education in the Philippines, Philippines open learning initiative, ICT (information and communications technology) in education
Introduction
Once one of the best in Asia, the education system of the Philippines is perceived to be lagging behind other countries specifically in the Southeast Asian region, such as Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore among in terms of quality and access to resources. In 2003, results of the TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics And Science Study) conducted by the IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement), the Philippines ranked the 23rd out of the 25 countries in Grade 4 and the 42nd among 45 countries in Grade 8 (second year high school) for science. For mathematics, the country ranked the 23rd in Grade 4 and the 41st in Grade 8 (second year high school), putting the country in the bottom group along with countries like Chile, Morocco, Tunisia, and South Africa (Mullis, Martin, Gonzalez, & Chrostowski, 2004). Several reasons were given as causes of the unsatisfactory achievement of Filipino students, particularly in science and mathematics subjects. Among these are lack of qualified science and mathematics teachers and their beliefs about teaching the subjects, the science and mathematics curriculum, large classes resulting to overcrowded classroom, limited or lack of school resources like basic equipment, science laboratory, textbooks,
Josephine S. Feliciano, science research specialist II, Science Education Institute, Department of Science and Technology. Louie Carl R. Mandapat, science research specialist II, Management Information Service, Department of Science and Technology. Concepcion L. Khan, associate professor, Institute of Computer Science, CAS (College of Arts and Sciences), University of the Philippines-Los Baos.
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OPEN LEARNING EXCHANGE TO SUPPORT BASIC EDUCATION
enhancement materials, and student opportunities for learning among others. Through the years, the government has been looking for new solutions and innovations that will uplift and improve the quality of education system and deliver basic education more effectively. Recognizing the opportunities and potential benefits of integrating ICT (information and communications technology) into the education systems, several national policies have been formulated in an attempt to address those issues. The first of these national policies is the MTPDP (Medium Term Development Plan of the Philippines) 2004-2010, which envisions ICT as a development tool: ICT will be harnessed as a powerful enabler of capacity development. It will, therefore, be targeted directly towards specific development goals like ensuring basic education for all and lifelong learning, among others (National Economic Development Authority, 2004). The 2002 BEC (Basic Education Curriculum) likewise recognizes the need to harness ICTs in the acquisition of life skills, a reflective understanding and internalization of principles and values, and the development of the persons multiple intelligences. BEC 2002 is conceived as an interactive curriculum that promotes integrated teaching and interdisciplinary, contextual, and authentic learning. The use of ICTs in all learning areas is encouraged as a means for promoting greater interactivity, widening access to knowledge that will enrich learning, and for developing skills in accessing, processing, and applying information, and in solving mathematical problems and conducting experiments (BEC, 2002). The Philippine EFA (education for all) 2015 also identified the strategies to achieve the MTPDP targets on basic education and one of these is on Progressive Curricular Reforms which states that,
Teaching-learning processes will be made more learner-centered; indigenization of learning materials will be encouraged and teaching-learning approaches will be aligned with science and mathematics curricula to advance the subjects quality. A vital part of the restructured curriculum is the use of ICT in every learning area. (Philippine EFA, 2015)
The National Framework Plan for ICTs in Basic Education (2005-2010) meanwhile set the goals and strategies to use ICTs to: broaden access to basic education, improve the quality of learning, improve the quality of teaching, and improve educational planning and management (The National Framework Plan for ICTs in Basic Education, 2005-2010). Guided by its vision that By 2020 and beyond, SEI (Science Education Institute) shall have developed the Philippines human resource capability in science and technology required to produce demand-driven outputs that meet global standards (Science Education Institute Annual Report, 2011), it is in this context that the DOST (Department of Science and Technology) through the SEI in continuing effort to support the upgrading and improvement of science and mathematics education in the country and to assist in addressing the challenges in Philippine education spearheaded ICT projects that would strengthen the capabilities in science and technology of its stakeholders. Among these are the open-learning initiatives: the MITC (mobile information technology classroom), e-training for science and mathematics teachers and the development of computer-aided instructions for science and mathematics.
The DOST-SEI Initiatives

In leveraging ICT in education, the SEI continuously initiates projects that are inclined towards the adoption of an open learning exchange that would assist in promoting ICT-awareness and usage through hands-on computer and other interactive learning activities and expose elementary and high school students and
OPEN LEARNING EXCHANGE TO SUPPORT BASIC EDUCATION teachers to state of the art education technology as an alternative method of learning and instruction. These initiatives provide OER (open educational resources) in different forms. OER refers to:
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The open provision of educational resources enabled by information and communication technologies, for consultation, use and adaptation by a community of users for non-commercial purposes. It includes open content, as well as software tools and standards. (Education With Online Learning and Open Educational Resources, 2008)
The term includes free (no charge) and open (for modification) resources, such as digital content, open source software, and intellectual property licenses. OER takes many forms, including formal courses; course-related materials, such as syllabi, lectures, lesson plans, and assignments; textbooks; or collections of digital media, such as libraries of images and videos. The principles of OER are founded on the academic traditions of freely and openly sharing and extending knowledge (OECD Giving Knowledge for Free: The Emergence of Open Educational Resources, 2007). The MITC The MITC which started rolling in 2000, is a specially designed 32-seater air-conditioned bus loaded with ICT facilities that include laptop computers, LCD (liquid crystal display) projector, and television, VHS (video home system) player, public address system and science and mathematics lessons in VHS and CD-ROMs (compact disk read-only memory). It is targeted to minimize the digital divide and provide service to disadvantaged communities and schools without ICT facilities, promote science literacy through ICT and provide learning experiences to students. The MITC was deployed in nine regions from Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao up to date had served around 309,941 students in 4,998 schools. It is managed by science and mathematics teachers who have been trained to use its facilities and integrate the learning materials of MITC into the school curriculum. E-training for Science and Mathematics Teachers The e-training for science and mathematics is a 10-month online training designed to upgrade the competence and confidence of public science and mathematics teachers who are non-major but are actually teaching these subjects in the elementary and secondary levels through the effective use of ICT. Thirteen selected TEIs (Teacher Education Institutions) served as the nationwide training venues where participants held and took their orientation and final examinations respectively. Faculties from the TEIs specializing in science and mathematics education served as the participants online trainers using LMS (learning management systems) VClass (virtual class) and blackboard. The UPOU (UP Open University) conducted the training of trainers for VClass as well as the conduct of the monitoring and evaluation of the program in 2006, while UST (University of Sto. Tomas) provided the training and hosting for the blackboard LMS in 2008. Development of CAIs (Computer-Aided Instructions) for Science and Mathematics In 2004, the Science Education Institute collaborated with the ASTI (Advanced Science and Technology Institute) also an agency of the DOST and a frontrunner in ICT, to enable schools to take advantage of ICT in conducting classroom lectures and to assist Filipino students to be more competitive by exposing them to computer-based technologies. The modules in science and mathematics for elementary schools (see Figure 1) project was initiated and produced 101 interactive multi-media modules in science and mathematics. The project aims to optimize, streamline, and standardize educational lesson presentation in science and mathematics through the use of cost-effective and high-quality solutions, with the aim of developing
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competitive elementary students who can maximize and enhance learning through the use of ICT as well as equip teachers with supplemental tools to assist them not only in teaching, but also in motivating their students to learn and participate in class discussions.
Figure 1. The modules in science and mathematics for elementary schools.
The modules, developed using Macromedia Flash (then), Adobe Photoshop, and other open source applications like the GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program) which feature local Filipino characters and situations to establish branding for DOSTs initiatives, were packaged in CD-ROM. Initially, 1,500 copies were distributed for free during its launching in November 2006 to select elementary schools, public offices, guests, and educational institutions among others. Among these initiatives, the e-training for teachers project was first to be concluded. The MITC continues to reach and serve as many stakeholders as possible with the remaining four of out five units deployed in Bicol, Cebu, Davao, and Siargao provinces. The courseware on science and mathematics for elementary schools, on the other hand, gained an overwhelming response from its stakeholders which prompted the SEI to replicate 10 thousand (10,000) copies of the package in December 2007 to accommodate requests especially from the Philippine legislators to distribute those to schools under their respective congressional district. Thus, this paper will focus initially on the problems and barriers for the said initiative.
Problems/Barriers
In bringing better value for money, particularly with the economies of scale, when distribution and monitoring of quality learning modules became nationwide in scope, some problems need to be addressed in order to maximize the potentials of these open educational resources. These are as the follows. Cost of Replication To data about 8,000 copies of the courseware was distributed for free to various recipients including elementary schools, public offices, some foreign guests, science centrums, non-government organizations, and lawmakers. The cost of replication to provide each 38,351 public elementary school (DepEd Factsheet as of Nov. 16, 2011, 2011), a copy, however, is very high that which costs the government roughly around 800,000.00 for 10,000 copies replicated in 2007. The multi-million peso budget to spend for replication could instead be used to develop and produce new sets of modules in science and mathematics.
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Distribution and Promotion Mechanism Since the acquisition of courseware is per-request on a limited basis, distribution of copies to target recipients particularly elementary schools is not maximized, thus, losing some opportunities for learners and teachers to take full advantage of this free supplemental modules in science and mathematics. Promotional activities and materials, such as participation to various exhibitions and distribution of bookmarks and flyers were seem not enough to promote the courseware, not to mention the costs for the implementation and production of such. Lack of Comprehensive Monitoring System on Courseware Website Users for Timely Feedback and Evaluation of Content for the Continuous Improvement of Modules In 2009, the courseware development group of SEI and ASTI developed and launched a Website to serve as a repository of the modules and enable target clients to download and practically acquire a copy of those for free anytime, anywhere. The thrust of the project now is to utilize technology-driven mode of education as to open and distance e-learning, to widen access to quality learning materials, effective learning and the development of more efficient and cost-effective education tools and services. The current Website, however, has only limited features as to: (1) could only generate data on the number of downloads or hits and the number of most downloaded modules per subject area, lesson and grade thus, lacking efficient reports of generation mechanism; (2) feedback rate is low; (3) demographics of user/visitor are unknown; (4) unavailable administrator on-site management functionality; and (5) search feature is not available.
Reforms/Solutions
To address the problems on cost, distribution, promotion and monitoring of site users and modules downloads the following mechanisms were innovated. Courseware Website ImprovementThe Courseware Project Filipinos spend an average of 18.6 hours on Internet usage compared to the Asian average of 16.4 hours. The age distribution of Filipinos Internet users is more towards the younger generation, with the 15-24 years old, making up 40% of the Internet population in Philippines (ComScore Media Matrix Demographic Report, 2010). In a paper by Cajilig that seeks to investigate on the adoption patterns of Metro Manila public secondary school teachers while ICT is being integrated into their teaching, evidence shows that the majority of the teachers had highly favorable attitudes toward the use of new technologies in instruction. This disposition was brought about, among other things, by the influence of authority and/or the status individuals normally attach to technology innovation (Cajilig, 2009). ICTs are also transformational tools which, when used appropriately, can promote the shift to a learner-centered environment. ICTs, such as videos, television, and multimedia computer software that combine text, sound, and colorful, moving images can be used to provide challenging and authentic content that will engage the student in the learning process (Tinio, 2002). The MITs (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) OCW (open courseware) is a Web-based publication of virtually all MITs course content. OCW is open and available to the world and is a permanent MITs activity (Massachusetts Institute of Technology Open Courseware, 2001). It is this model that the DOSTs
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Courseware Project drew inspiration to harness the potentials of ICT to improve and uplift the state of science and mathematics education in the country. To refurbish and enhance the current Website, a prototype courseware portal Webpage (see Figure 2) was developed which features the following major functionalities.
Figure 2. The courseware portal project.
User Download Access and Registration To access and download the modules for free, user must register through a registration form to provide information on age, gender, school, school type, geographical location, profession, organization, etc.. Once registered, a user can now login to the courseware site and may also have the option to edit profile, change password, delete account, and send message to site administrator. For unregistered users, download link is disabled or unavailable, thus only the information about the module can be viewed on click of the module title such as ISBN (International Standard Book Number), file size along with the number of times the said module was downloaded. An option to download the modules in bulk by subject and by grade level is also available. Reports Generation Currently, there are 12 reports that could be generated from the Website including those which show the number and specific modules downloaded, registered user demographics (gender, age group, year level, school and type, geographical location, etc.). This feature, however, is for site administrators only. Feedback Gathering There are two ways by which to manage or view feedback. First, option is through the site administrators feedback functionality where users could send their comments privately. Print mechanism for this feature is available at the reports module. The second is through the comments box attached to each module similar to threads to allow interaction and collaboration among users by allowing them to freely post comments on the thread for each module. User Administration/Module Administration The administrator can view information and total number of registered users as well as delete user records. Additional site administrators may also be added if needed. Upload of modules is made flexible by the modules
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upload functionality wherein resource materials can be categorized and a user-input form is provided to specify module details. Search Mechanism Search mechanism feature is available both for administrator, registered and non-registered users. The search returns for keyword found in the titles and description of the module. User Tracking and Website Traffic Monitoring Mechanism Aside from the registration mechanism, the site will also use the GA (Google analytics) to efficiently track information not captured in the registration. GA is an enterprise-class Web analytics solution that gives rich insights into Website traffic and marketing effectiveness. It is extremely comprehensive, quick-to-setup, easy-to-use, and free traffic analytics service from Google. It is a powerful tool that can help Webmasters better understand Website traffic, visitors online behavior, measure performance of individual pages, identify low performing Webpage, and generate detailed statistics about the visitors to a Website and more. Because the modules are made available online, it is not necessary to replicate the modules in CD-ROMs, since the same copy can now be downloaded for free from the Website, sparing the government from spending millions of pesos for replication alone. As Internet usage among Filipinos becomes significantly higher, distribution of modules online can be the most practical strategy for the government to reach more stakeholders, and at the same time, gives them more opportunity to learn science and mathematics and harness ICT, as the modules become available and accessible ubiquitously. Monitoring of site user, modules downloads, feedback gathering and management, and essential administrative functionalities are made more efficient through the registration mechanism alongside the use of GA. Upcoming/Future Plans Courseware re-assembled. Courseware bundle downloading is the grouping or bundling of several files into a single self-extractable file that can be downloaded and saved. Some several self-extracting file programs for Windows are WinRar, WinZip, the builtin IExpress, and the open source software 7Zip are available. The user will now have an option to download a single file from 13 selections as: all courseware, all science, all mathematics, science for Grades 3-6 and mathematics for Grades 1-6. This option will be made available to the refurbished Website, and the courseware portal page. CMApp (courseware mobile application). Web applications and social media will drive dynamics in flourishing smartphone market in Philippines. IDC (A premier global market intelligence firm which researches of information technology companies and markets) believes that in 2011, Web applications and social media will shape trends in the smart phone space, driving dynamics in areas, such as pricing, features, and operating systems (Digital Media in Philippines from Digital Media Asia, n.d.). The usage of Web 2.0 applications through smartphone is rapidly increasing. Filipinos continuing fascination with useful applications in smartphones will result in bigger demand for smartphone, which is capable of carrying platforms, such as Android and Apple IOS (Internet Operating System) (Digital Media in Philippines from Digital Media Asia, n.d.). To keep up with the technological trends and popularity of the so-called downloadable Apps (application), a mobile version (see Figure 3) of the courseware will be developed to run on smart phones and
414
tablet PCs (personal computers). The courseware App shall lead the user to the courseware Website and will have the option to either view (run) or download the modules for storage or sharing (Bluetooth). Learning science and math are not only fun, it is also made easy, portable and most of all it is ubiquitous.
Figure 3. CMApp (Courseware Mobile Application).
Courseware Reloaded (on Social Networking Site) The use of social networking Website has become so extensive in the Philippines that the country has been nicknamed as The Social Networking Capital of the World (Digital Media in Philippines from Digital Media Asia, n.d.). According to Alexa Traffic Rank, Facebook is the number one site in Philippines (Digital Media in Philippines from Digital Media Asia, n.d.).
Figure 4. Courseware reloaded on Facebook.
Facts about Facebook statistics in the Philippines, according to Socialbakers.com, shows that as of December 2011, the country ranked eighth among all countries with 27,035,600 Facebook users which are 27.06% penetration of Philippines population, and 91.03% penetration of online Filipinos. Age brackets 18-24 (39% or 10,543,884 users) and 25-34 (24%) are the biggest segments of Facebook users in Philippines, while
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48% are male, and 52% are female (Philippines Facebook Statistics, n.d.). It ranked the 3rd in Asia, behind Indonesia and India (World Continents Facebook Statistics, n.d.). Courseware reloaded will serve as an alternate site for users to download the modules (see Figure 4). The link going through this site will also be posted in the main Website. The page containing the modules can either be viewed or downloaded. This mechanism will also allow open collaboration among stakeholders, as they post their comments or suggestions for each modules thread.
Current Status/Recommendations
The courseware project will host the 101 modules in elementary science (Grades 3 to 6) and mathematics (Grades 1 to 6). Eventually, modules from first to fourth year of secondary level (high school) will also be uploaded to the site along with other modules currently being digitized by the ASTI (Advanced Science and Technology Institute). Filipino students now have an alternative means for which modules can be readily available and accessible through the Internet without acquiring the actual package in CDs (compact disks). Aside from its DepEd curriculum-based content, the modules which can be downloaded as personal copy to personal computers or laptops and Netbooks can run both in Microsoft Operating Systems and Linux using the downloadable Flash Player. A study on the impact and to evaluate the effectiveness of these modules as perceived by the end users (teachers and pupils) in public schools in the Metro Manila area is ongoing. It aims to identify the factors and elements that constitute a quality CAI through a tool for evaluating the effectiveness of the CAI modules. An assessment, however, on the usefulness, effectiveness, and efficiency of the overall functionality of the courseware project will be conducted. Other plans for the courseware shall be implemented after the courseware portal page is institutionalized. Not only will students benefit in this e-learning facility. The modules also empower teachers to more effectively and efficiently meet the challenges of education in todays increasingly technology-infused schools, recognizing and pursuing opportunities to integrate computer-based technologies into the teaching-learning process. This will also facilitate communication among students and teachers or even beyond the classroom (as an aid to distance-learning), along with experts. It will serve as an effective tool for teachers in motivating their students to learn and participate in class discussions.
References
BEC (Basic Education Curriculum). (2002). National framework plan for ICTs in education (2005-2010) (p. 8; p. 15). Retrieved November 28, 2011, from http://www.fit-ed.org/downloads/National%20Framework%20Plan%20for%20ICTs%20in%2 0Basic%20Education.pdf Cajilig, N. G. (2009). Integration of information and communication technology in mathematics teaching. Metro Manila Public Secondary Schools, College of Education University of the Philippines, Diliman. Retrieved December 13, 2011, from http://www.journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/edq/article/viewFile/2020/1915 ComScore Media Matrix Demographic Report. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/doc/36010556/ComScoreState-of-the-Internet-Asia-Pac-July-2010; Retrieved December 19, 2011, from https://wiki.smu.edu.sg/digitalmediaasia/ Digital_Media_in_Philippines DepEd factsheet as of Nov. 16, 2011. (2011). Department of Education Website. Retrieved December 26, 2011, from http://www.deped.gov.ph/factsandfigures/default.asp Digital Media in Philippines from Digital Media Asia. (n.d.). Singapore Management University Website. Retrieved December 19, 2011, from https://wiki.smu.edu.sg/digitalmediaasia/Digital_Media_in_Philippines
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Education with online learning and open educational resources. (2008). Can they close the gap? Geith, C.: Michigan State University. UNESCO Website. Retrieved January, 2008, from http://www.unesco.org/iiep/eng/focus/opensrc/opensrc_1.htm; Retrieved November 26, 2011, from http://www.distan ceandaccesstoeducation.org/contents/JALN_v12n1_Geith.pdf Massachusetts Institute of Technology Open Courseware. (2001). MIT open courseware Website. Retrieved December 5, 2011, from http://ocw.mit.edu/about/ Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Gonzalez, E. J., & Chrostowski, S. J. (2004). Findings from IEAs trends in international mathematics and science study at the fourth and eighth grades. TIMSS 2003 International Science Report. Chestnut Hill, M. A.: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College. Retrieved November 28, 2011, from http://www. timss.bc.edu/timss2003i/scienceD.html National Economic Development Authority. (2004). National framework plan for ICTs in education (2005-2010) (p. 2; pp.12-17). Retrieved November 28, 2011, from http://www.fited.org/downloads/National%20Framework%20Plan%20for% 20ICTs%20in% 20Basic%20Education.pdf OECD giving knowledge for free: The emergence of open educational resources. (2007). In access to education with online learning and open educational resources: Can they close the gap? Geith, C.: Michigan State University. Retrieved from http://213.253.134.43/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9607041E.pdf; Retrieved November 26, 2011, from http://www.distanceand accesstoeducation.org/contents/JALN_v12n1_Geith.pdf Philippine EFA (Education for All). (2015). Implementation and challenges (p. 18). Retrieved December 1, 2011, from http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Philippines/Philippines_EFA_MDA.pdf Philippines Facebook Statistics. (n.d.). Socialbakers Website. Retrieved January 13, 2011, from http://www.socialbakers.com/ facebook-statistics/philippines Science Education Institute. (2011). Annual Report. Greater Drive, Sharper Focus. Tinio, V. L. (2002). ICT in education. Retrieved December 14, 2011, from http://www.saigontre.com/FDFiles/ICT_in_ Education.PDF World Continents Facebook Statistics. (n.d.). Socialbakers Website. Retrieved January 13, 2011, from http://www.socialbakers. com/countries/continent-detail/asia
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Identifying the Factors Impacting the Adequately Yearly Progress Performance in the United States
Ju-Shan Hsieh
National Taiwan University of Arts, New Taipei City, Taiwan
The NCLB (No Child Left Behind Act) specifies that states must develop AYP (adequate yearly progress) statewide measurable objectives for improved achievement by all students, including economically disadvantaged students, students from minority races, students with disabilities, and students with limited English proficiency. By the 2013-2014 school year, all students must be at the proficient level or above. Many factors could be possible reasons of variation in percentages of schools fail to make AYP. The purposes of this paper are employing the statistical analysis to identify factors which can explain the variation of percentages fail to make AYP under NCLB regulations. The correlation and regression analysis are used to examine the degree of relationship between these factors. Keywords: AYP (adequate yearly progress), NCLB (No Child Left Behind Act), school performance
Introduction
Formative assessment can really improve classroom teaching, particularly for low achieving students, and this point of view has been supported by researchers and practitioner communities (Borman, 2003; Shepard, 2005; Herman, 2010; Herman, Osmundson, Dai, Ringstaff, Timms, 2011). Therefore, policymakers across the world are considering formative assessment as a primary approach to educational reform (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2005; Council of Chief State School Officers, 2008). The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (The White House, 2001; U.S. department of Education, 2010) was put into law, this law not only brought each state a new challenge, but also gave the public schools a new demand. This reform requires each state to develop its own method to evaluate individual schools improvement every year, and to set up an index, called the AYP (adequate yearly progress), as a goal for schools to meet yearly. The purpose of the law is to ensure that all states and school districts demonstrate progress toward ensuring that all students, regardless of race or socioeconomic status, become academically proficient by the academic year 2013-2014. NCLB specifies that states must develop AYP statewide measurable objectives for improved achievement by all students, including economically disadvantaged students, students from minority races, students with disabilities, and students with limited English proficiency. By the 2013-2014 school year, all students must be at the proficient level or above. Therefore, states have to set up yearly goals based on state assessments, but also needs to include one additional academic indicator, such as graduation rate, dropout rate, etc. The AYP is assessed at the school level. Schools that fail to meet the AYP objectives for two consecutive years will be identified as in need of improvement. Moreover, there should be at least 95% of each group participating in
Ju-Shan Hsieh, Ph.D., Teacher Education Center, National Taiwan University of Arts.
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FACTORS IMPACTING THE ADEQUATELY YEARLY PROGRESS
state assessments. Local Educational Agencies, school buildings and school districts should report separately for each group of students, and then it can be determined whether each students group met the AYP objective. Test scores can be aggregated over several years and schools should not be penalized if there are too few students in a particular subgroup to yield reliable information. However, states set up different proficiency standards for their schools. For example, the percentage of students reported on the respective state department of education Websites to have scored at the proficient level or higher in 2001 on the state Grade 8 mathematics assessment was 39% in Mississippi, and only 7% in Louisiana. However, the percentage of students who passed the Grade 8 mathematics assessment in Texas in 2001 was 92% (Linn, 2002). Another example from The Washington Post (Jan. 22, 2003) states that because the state used test scores to label schools, Michigan is the national dunce with 1500 schools failures, and Arkansas is the national genius with zero school failures. These kinds of reports show that different standards exist in each state. Although there may exist some differences between students abilities, it is unreasonable that there are such a great difference. However, the different states standards will result in some problemsstudents may make the same progress, but different test systems or state dynamics may cause them to pass or fail. Besides, earlier report by Hall, Wiener, and Carey (2003) and Fleming (2011) concluded that several factors could explain the variation of the number of schools identified as failing to make AYP across states: (1) The size of achievement gaps: Some states have greater achievement gaps originally than other states. States with larger achievement gaps are intended to have more schools identified; (2) The distribution of low performing students: Low performing students concentrating in a few large schools tend to have less schools identified in the state. If the low performing students are distributed evenly across the state, there will have more schools identified; (3) Participation rates: There should be at least 95% of students participating the state assessment in order to make AYP. Those states which are routinely excluded the special education students or limited English proficiency students are tended to have more schools identified; and (4) Minimum N size: States need to set up the minimum number of students in the school to report AYP. Schools with the number of students less than the minimum N size do not need to report AYP. States set up larger minimum N size would tend to have fewer schools identified. However, the authors did not do any analysis to test the effect of these factors in practice. Although all of these could be possible reasons of variation in percentages of schools fail to make AYP, it would be worthwhile testing those factors with the real data from states. In addition, it is possible that there exist other factors which would relate to the variation of percentages of schools identified across states. The purposes of this paper are employing the factor analysis to identify factors which can explain the variation of percentages fail to make AYP under NCLB regulations. The correlation and regression analysis are used to examine the degree of relationship between these factors.
Method
Data Source The data are obtained from the following sources: (1) education counts database: This database is located on the Education Week Website. There are more than 250 educational indicators for each state in this Website; (2) NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress) database: Because the NAEP scores are used as a validation indicator of state assessments, it would be informative to include NAEP scores in the analysis. The
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NAEP data were obtained from its Website (Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/); and (3) States department of education Website. The general information of the each state can be obtained from their own department of education Website (such as minimum N size, participation rate, etc.). Procedure To select the variables which can explain the variation in percentage of schools among states identified as in need of improvement, several steps are adopted (see Figure 1). First, discarding the variables of states before 2000. Because NCLB implemented in 2002, the variables before 2000 may not have great impact on schools performance. If the same variable has multiple records in several years, the most recent one would be utilized for the data analysis; and Second, the exploratory factor analysis was used to reduce the number of variables which were obtained in the first step. The variables with eigenvalues greater than those with one were retained to do the correlation and regression analysis.
60
% s c h o o ls b e in g id e n tifie d
50 40 30 20 10
M in n e s o ta W is c o n s in T ex as W y o m in g N o r th D a k o ta In d ia n a Io w a M o n ta n a W e s t V ir g in ia L o u is ia n a M is s o u r i A la b a m a V ir g in ia N o r th C a r o lin a M a in e W a s h in g to n C o lo r a d o Verm ont M is s is s ip p i O k la h o m a K e n tu c k y C o n n e c tic u t O h io S o u th D a k o ta N e w H a m p s h ir e N e w M e x ic o N ew Y ork Illin o is N ev ada O regon Ark ans as F lo r id a A la s k a D is tr ic t o f C o lu m b ia H a w a ii T ennes s ee A r iz o n a P e n n s y lv a n ia Id a h o M ic h ig a n R h o d e Is la n d C a lifo r n ia M a r y la n d S o u th C a r o lin a M a s s a c h u s e tts G e o r g ia D e la w a r e N ew J ers ey
States
Figure 1. The percent of schools identified as in need of improvement. Source: Obtained from the US Department of Education, Consolidated State Performance Reports 2010-2011.
Result
After carrying out the exploratory factor analysis, there are four factors extracted to represent all variables. The four factors include: economic factor (the percent of students in districts with per-pupil expenditures at or above the U.S. average and the percent of annual education expenditures devoted to instruction); demographic variables of minority group (percent of special education students who dropped out, the percent of minority students, the percent of English limit proficiency students, and the percent of disability students); the change of other academic indicator (scale score change of NAEP in Grade 4 of mathematics from 2007 to 2009), and teachers effect (the percent of national board certificated teacher and average number of students per teacher). These variables selected by exploratory factor analysis were employed as independent variables to carry out the multiple regressions. The percent of schools identified as in need of improvement is employed as dependent variable. The bivariate correlations between all variables were examined. Bivariate Correlations For the correlation between the dependent variable and independent variable, the percent of schools
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identified as improvement was significantly correlated with the percent of minority students in the states at the level of 0.01 (see Table 1). It is in the expected direction since schools with large numbers of minority students are likely to be below the annual measurable achievement objectives. Correlation of the percent of schools identified is negative (non-significant) with the percent of disability students in the states and the percent of special education students drops out. When examining the correlation between the independent variables, we can see that many independent variables are significantly correlated with each other, which would create a collinearity problem if they are all included in the regression model. In some cases, the independent variables are more strongly correlated with each other than with the dependent variable. For example, the percent of ELL (English limited learner) students in the state is strongly correlated with the percent of minority students (corr. = 0.57). In addition, the number of students per teacher is negatively correlated to the percent expense on each pupil above US average (corr. = -0.63). In order to avoid the collinearity problem in regression analysis, two variables are dropped: the percent of ELL students and percent of expense on pupil above US average. Table 1 Correlations Among Variables
Expense on instruction Expense on 1 instruction NAEP score change 2007 to 2009 Special education student drop out Minority Disability ELL National certified teacher No. of student per teacher Expense on pupil above US average Needing improvement NAEP score change 2007 to 2009 0.16 1 Special education Minority student drop out 0.010 -0.13 -0.17 0.12 Disability ELL National certified teacher -0.10 0.37* No. of Expense students on pupil Needing per above US improvement teacher average -0.18 -0.15 0.34* 0.33 0.03 0.11
0.03 -0.28
-0.14 -0.09
-0.21 1
0.25 -0.23 1
-0.49** 0.57** -0.20 1
0.27 0.17 0.10 -0.20 1
-0.24 0.32 -0.47** 0.17 0.16
0.29 -0.36** 0.28* -0.42* 0.17
-0.22 0.42** -0.24 0.34 0.11
-0.63*
0.36
-0.27 1
Notes. * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed); ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Even though the percent of national certified teacher had only a weak bivariate correlation with the dependent variable, it is still included in the regression analysis, because it is substantively important and leaving it out would have produced bias from an omitted regressor. Table 2 shows that in the regression model, percent of minority students is the only variable whose relation with the dependent variable remains statistically
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significant at the level of 0.05. This model is telling us with a greater percentage of minority students within a state, the greater likelihood of the state having a higher percent of schools identified as in need of improvement. Table 2 Regression Result
Constant National certified teacher Scale score change in NAEP from 2007 to 2009 Expense on instruction No. of students per teacher Special education student drop out Minority Disability Coefficient -50.75 -1.13 0.93 0.33 0.94 0.03 0.26 0.25 Std. error 40.22 0.73 0.64 0.53 0.75 0.23 0.03 0.75 P-value 0.22 0.26 0.14 0.52 0.22 0.83 0.00* 0.41
Note. Dependent variable is percent of schools identified as in need of improvement.
Discussion
AYP is the continuous and substantial, yearly improvement of each Title I school and LEA (Local Educational Agency). By gradually attaining the AYP each year, schools should be able to achieve the goal under Title I of serving all children, particularly economically disadvantaged and limited-English proficient children, and can meet the states proficient and advanced levels of performance before the 2013-2014 school year. AYP is sufficiently rigorous to achieve the goal within an appropriate time frame, and links progress primarily to performance on the states final assessment while permitting progress to be established in part through the use of other measures, such as dropout, retention, and attendance rates. What might be the factors most related to the percent of schools in the state identified as in need of improvement? The result of this study indicates that the major reason is the percent of minority students in the states. States with higher percentage of minority students are more likely have schools identified. It could infer that the minority students are the population with low performing in the schools and they could result in schools fail to make AYP. However, the results from this study should be used with caution. In this study, only a simple statistical analysis of school performance is used. However, a more complicated statistical method could be used, such as structural equation modeling or hieratical level modeling technique, to validate the results obtained in this study. Why do schools with large minority students perform poorly in the state? Researchers and analysts have provided a variety of explanation. First, minority students are mainly from low income family and have the destabilized home life. The environment of their living usually creates highly stressful conditions that inhibit learning (Shannon & Bylsma, 2002); Second, high poverty and high minority schools receive significantly less state and local fund than other schools do; also, students in such schools are almost twice as likely to be taught by teachers who are inexperienced or teaching outside their specialties (Jerald, 2001; Orlofsky, 2002); and Third, the schools with large minority populations usually have the uncoordinated curriculum, superficial instructional strategies, insufficient professional development, and timid leadership. The characteristics of schools might lead the low performance of students (Jerald, 2001). It is better to set up separate goals for school buildings, instead of setting the omnibus target for all schools in the state. Critics and proponents of NCLB agree that it has brought new attention to the needs of some minority
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groups. Districts and schools which have long neglected their minority students can no longer afford to do so as they are now held accountable for the academic performance of these students. Many controversial and practical issues will be discussed continually in the future. However, no one will doubt that all students deserve these opportunities and that none child should be left behind without a high quality education.
References
Borman, G. D. (2003). How can title I improve achievement? Educational Leadership, December, 49-53. Council of Chief State School Officers. (2008). Attributes of effective formative assessment. Washington, D. C.: Author. Fleming, R. (2011). The 5 factors which affect school performance. The Education Blog. Retrieved Sep. 1, 2012, from http://blogs.msdn.com/b/education/archive/2011/07/25/the-5-factors-which-affect-school-performance.aspx Hall, D., Wiener, R., & Carey, K. (2003). What new AYP information tell us the schools, states and public education. The Education Trust. Retrieved April 22, 2012, from http://www.edtrust.org Herman, J. L., Osmundson, E., & Silver, D. (2010). Capturing quality in formative assessment practice: Measurement challenges. (CRESST Report 770). Los Angeles, C. A.: University of California, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST). Herman, J. L., Osmundson, E., Dai, Y., Ringstaff. C., & Timms. M. (2011). Relationships between teacher knowledge, assessment practice, and learning-chicken, egg, or omelet? (CRESST Report 809). Los Angeles, C. A.: University of California, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST). Jerald, C. D. (2001). Dispelling the myth revisited: Prelimary findings from a nationwide analysis of high-flying schools. The Education Trust. Retrieved April 22, 2012, from http://www.edtrust.org Linn, R. L., Baker, E. L., & Betebenner, D. W. (2002). Accountability systems: Implications of requirements of the no child left behind act of 2001. Educational Researcher, 31(6), 3-16. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2005). Formative assessment: Improving learning in secondary classrooms. Paris, France: Author. Orlofsky, G. F. (2002). The funding gap: Low-income and minority students receive fewer dollars. The Education Trust. Retrieved April 22, 2012, from http://www.edtrust.org Shannon, G. S., & Bylsma, P. (2002). Addressing the achievement gap: A challenge for Washington state educators. Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. Retrieved April 22, 2012, from http://www.k12.wa.us Shepard, L. A. (2005). Linking formative assessment to scaffolding. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 66-71. The White House. (2001). No child left behind. Washington, D. C.: The White House. U.S. Department of Education. (2010). A blueprint for reform: The reauthorization of the elementary and secondary education act. Retrieved April 22, 2012, from http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/blueprint/blueprint.pdf

US-China Education Review 2013 6A

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US-China Education Review A

Volume 3, Number 6, June 2013 (Serial Number 25)

David Publishing Company www.davidpublishing.com

David Publishing Company www.davidpublishing.com

US-China Education Review

ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

Figure 1. Children are listening to heartbeats.

ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

Figure 2. Producing sounds with different objects.

ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

Figure 3. The travel of sound into the water.

Results and Conclusions

ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

ANALYZING ACTIVITIES IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

ASSESSING TRANSLATION MISCONCEPTIONS INSIDE THE CLASSROOM

ASSESSING TRANSLATION MISCONCEPTIONS INSIDE THE CLASSROOM

ASSESSING TRANSLATION MISCONCEPTIONS INSIDE THE CLASSROOM

ASSES SSING TRAN NSLATION MISCONCEP M PTIONS INSIDE THE CL LASSROOM

Resu ults and Analysis

ASSESSING TRANSLATION MISCONCEPTIONS INSIDE THE CLASSROOM

ASSESSING TRANSLATION MISCONCEPTIONS INSIDE THE CLASSROOM

ASSESSING TRANSLATION MISCONCEPTIONS INSIDE THE CLASSROOM

ASSESSING TRANSLATION MISCONCEPTIONS INSIDE THE CLASSROOM

Mathematics Taught in a L2 (Second Language)

TEACHING AND LEARNING MATHEMATICS IN A NON-NATIVE LANGUAGE

The Key Competences of CLIL Teachers

Figure 1. Key areas of CLIL teacher competence.

TEACHING AND LEARNING MATHEMATICS IN A NON-NATIVE LANGUAGE

Italian Mathematics Teachers Attitudes About CLIL

TEACHING AND LEARNING MATHEMATICS IN A NON-NATIVE LANGUAGE

The Impact of the L2 in Mathematics

TEACHING AND LEARNING MATHEMATICS IN A NON-NATIVE LANGUAGE

In particular, the knowledge of the language,

CLIL teaching is a possible support for mathematics learning as it represents,

The Text Linguistic Approach

TEACHING AND LEARNING MATHEMATICS IN A NON-NATIVE LANGUAGE

The Research Study

TEACHING AND LEARNING MATHEMATICS IN A NON-NATIVE LANGUAGE

In the comments reported above, it is not clear whether,

Conducting a SWOT Analysis for Program Improvement

University of Arkansas, Arkansas, United States

CONDUCTING A SWOT ANALYSIS FOR PROGRAM IMPROVEMENT

Procedures for Conducting a SWOT Analysis

Implication for Action

CONDUCTING A SWOT ANALYSIS FOR PROGRAM IMPROVEMENT

Parents Want Their Children to Start English Early

Why to Teach a FL (Foreign Language) Early

THE BEST WAYS OF TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN

Lenskaya (1999) thought that,

Very Young Children? Lets Watch Them

Most Discussed Questions in Teaching FL to Children

THE BEST WAYS OF TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN

THE BEST WAYS OF TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN

Demonstration of the Approach

Some Ideas About the Methodology

THE BEST WAYS OF TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN

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