A mis abuelos Alfonso, Nieves, Manolo e Inocencia, que tanto dieron por sus hijos y nietos

List of papers

This thesis is based on the following papers, which are referred to in the text by their Roman numerals. I Mara de los ngeles Garca Juanatey, Juliane Hbert, Ari Tryggvason, and Laust B. Pedersen (2012). Imaging the Kristineberg mining area with two perpendicular magnetotelluric proles in the Skellefte Ore District, northern Sweden. Geophysical Prospecting, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2478.2011.01040.x. II Mara de los ngeles Garca Juanatey, Ari Tryggvason, Christopher Juhlin, Ulf Bergstrm, Juliane Hbert, and Laust B. Pedersen. MT and reection seismics in the northwestern Skellefte Ore District, Sweden. Submitted to Geophysics. Juliane Hbert, Mara de los ngeles Garca Juanatey, Alireza Malehmir, Ari Tryggvason, and Laust B. Pedersen. Revealing upper crustal conductivity anomalies in the Kristineberg area, Western Skellefte district, Northern Sweden with three-dimensional magnetotellurics. Submitted to Geophysical Journal International. Mara de los ngeles Garca Juanatey, Juliane Hbert, Ari Tryggvason, Christopher Juhlin, Laust B. Pedersen, Tobias E. Bauer, and Mahdieh Dehghannejad. 2D and 3D MT inversion models in the central Skellefte Ore District, northern Sweden. Manuscript.

III

IV

Reprints were made with permission from the publishers. Additional refereed conference proceedings and journal publications written during my PhD studies, but not included in the thesis are: Mara de los ngeles Garca Juanatey, Juliane Hbert, Christopher Juhlin, Alireza Malehmir, and Ari Tryggvason (2011). Integrated MagnetoTelluric and seismic reection study: Skellefte Ore District, northern Sweden. SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts, 30(1):12471251. Pietari Skytt, Tobias E. Bauer, Tobias Hermansson, Mahdieh Dehghannejad, Rodney L. Allen, Christopher Juhlin, Pr Weihed, Saman Tavakoli, Jualiane Hbert, and Mara de los ngeles Garca Juanatey (2012). Crustal evolution of the VMS-hosting Palaeoproterozoic Kristineberg area constraints from structural analysis, 3 and 4D-modelling and geophysical modelling. Mineralium Deposita, in review.

Personal Contributions

The papers included in this thesis are the result of a combination of efforts from the various authors. The individual contributions of the author of this thesis are listed below. Paper I Co-organized the eldwork and led most of the data acquisition. Performed the data processing, analysis, inversion and sensitivity tests. Participated in the discussions and interpretation. Wrote most of the manuscript. Paper II Participated in the acquisition and decoded, processed and analyzed the seismic data. Organized the eldwork for MT data acquisition and led a measuring team. Performed the data processing, analysis and inversion of the MT data. Participated in mutiple strategical discussions. Contributed substantially to the interpretations and wrote most of the manuscript. Paper III Co-organized the eldwork for new MT measurements and led an acquisition team. Participated in several discussions, assisted in the model interpretation, and in the comparison of 2D and 3D models. Helped to rene the manuscript. Paper IV Assisted in the eldwork organization and led an acquisition team. Processed and analyzed part of the data. Participated in estrategical discussions. Partially designed the calcualtion of new error oors. Performed the 2D and 3D inversions and contributed substantially to the interpretations. Wrote most of the manuscript.

Sammanfattning

Skelleftefltet r ett av de viktigaste malmdistrikten i Sverige. Malmkropparna bestr av vulkaniskvrda Massiva Sulder (VHMS) rika p Zink, Koppar, Bly, Guld och Silver, och har utforskats och brutits i mer n ett sekel. Med tanke p att de senaste tekniska framstegen tillter djupare brytning, och att nya upptckter r ovanliga idag, riktas nya anstrngningar mot att lokalisera malm p strre djup. Prospekteringsstrategierna mste drfr anpassas, och en bttre frstelse av regionala strukturer r ndvndig. Fr att lsa dessa frgor lanserades projektet VINNOVA 4D modeling of the Skellefte District. Dess frmsta syfte r att bestmma de regionala strukturerna i Skelleftefltet och dess tektoniska lge. Fr att uppn detta har nya geologiska och geofysiska data insamlats vid tv viktiga platser i distriktet. I denna avhandling presenterar jag bidrag frn inversmodellering i 2D och 3D av magnetotelluriska (MT) data samt resultaten av en reexionsseismisk prol. Mina viktigaste resultat r: bra ledande hydrotermiskt frndrade zoner inom de annars resistiva bergarterna i Skellefte-gruppen har ptrffats, djupet till tidiga och postorogeniska intrusioner har kunnat bestmmas, std fr betydande skjuvzoner i den centrala delen av omrdet har konstaterats, och att en kad reektivitet och konduktivitet vid basen av Skellefte-gruppen i hela fltet freligger. ven om tillmpningen av MT metoder och reexionsseismik r besvrlig i Skelleftefltets komplexa geologi, har jag visat att de efter en noggrann bearbetning och analys av data ger en robust bild av den lite djupare berggrunden. Dessutom har kombinationen av reektionsseismik och MT visat sig vara ett kraftfullt verktyg fr hypotesprvning fr olika geologiska tolkningar och drmed fr att utveckla den allmnna frstelsen av Skelleftefltet och dess historia. Drutver presenterar jag tv 3D inversmodeller av MT data och jmfr med resultaten frn 2D determinantinversioner. 3D tekniker visar betydande frbttringar av dataanpassningen och begrnsar observerade anomalier bttre. ven om 3D inversmodellering av MT data nnu inte r en helt mogen teknik och frgor som modellbedmning och galvaniska distorsionseffekter mste behandlas ytterligare, visar jag att med tillrcklig yttckning r resultaten frn komplexa miljer verlgsna de somerhlls med 2D modellering.

Contents

Abbreviations

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xi 13

Part I: Introduction 1

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The pilot study: 4D modeling antecedents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.1 Reection seismics for mineral exploration? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.2 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 VINNOVA 4D modeling of the Skellefte District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Diverse data acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Three different modeling scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Project partners and members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 19 19 20 20 22

The Skellefte District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3.1 Regional setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3.2 Geological units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

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Part II: Results 4 5

29

Seismic and resistivity interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 4.1 2D MT inversions with a priori information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Joint interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 The Vargfors Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 The Skellefte Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 The early intrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 The Transscandinavian Igneous Belt (TIB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 The basement of the Skellefte Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Prominent shear zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Pitfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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34 34 34 37 37 38 39 40 41 43 44 46

Part III: Discussion and conclusions 6 7 8 Geological implications Methodological aspects General conclusions

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Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 9.1 MT inversion in 3D. Are we there yet? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 9.2 Geological modeling and further integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
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References

51

Abbreviations

1D 2D 3D CSD IP Kriberg MT SD SGU

1-dimensional 2-dimensional 3-dimensional Central Skellefte District Induced Polarization Kristineberg mining area Magnetotelluric Skellefte District Geological Survey of Sweden

Part I: Introduction
Geophysical investigations of the inner Earth have been undertaken for very diverse reasons. These have been either the insatiable curiosity about the processes that drive the planet, or the similarly insatiable demand of resources that triggers the constant search of commodities in the planets crust. The work presented here can be considered as motivated by such reasons. It is part of a multidisciplinary effort aiming at unraveling the geological evolution of a mining district, with the purpose to provide a base for the mineral exploration of deeper targets. Thus, the implications are to some extent as profound as to contribute to the general understanding of geological processes in the area, and at the same time as benet directed as to provide useful insights for new ore discoveries. This thesis is made up of two components: a collection of papers and a summary that introduces them and puts them in perspective. At the same time the summary comprises three main parts: Introduction, Results and Conclusions. The rst describes the project in which the presented studies are embedded, previous investigations in the area, and general geological background of the district. The second summarizes the main ndings of the papers and the third nalizes this work with partial and global conclusions and discussions, together with a quick overview of what lies ahead.

The papers
The included papers consist of investigations with seismic reection and magnetotelluric (MT) methods in the Skellefte District. As an overview, Figure 1

shows the location of the geophysical measurements, that focus in three localities, and indicates the papers that are discussed.

Figure 1. Geological map of the Skellefte District with the location of geophysical measurements. The colored MT sites (diamonds) and seismic acquistion line are discussed in the included papers. The data acquired during the Pilot study is also highlighted for reference (see chapter 1). Additional grey lines indicate other seismic reection surveys acquired within the VINNOVA project (see chapter 2 and Dehghannejad et al., 2010, 2012). The geological map is kindly provided by the Geological Survey of Sweden (Kathol and Weihed, 2005) and is reproduced in color in Figure 3.3.

Paper I presents the data of 17 MT stations along two perpendicular proles close to the Kristineberg mine. The MT data were inverted in 2D and reections from co-located seismic proles were introduced as a priori information. Features from the resulting models were thoroughly assessed with systematic forward modeling and constrained inversions. Paper II deals with a seismic reection prole to the northwest of the district and 17 MT stations along it. Processing and analysis of the seismic line includes the evaluation of cross-dip components and binning azimuth. The MT data were inverted with a priori information from the seismic survey. A joint interpretation of the reection seismics and MT model followed, sheding new light on e.g. the extent of the postorogenic intrusions. Paper III shows the 3D inversion of already presented data (17 sites from Paper I and 20 sites from Hbert et al., 2009) and of 30 newly acquired sites to complete the areal coverage around the Kristineberg mine. The nal 3D model was computed from 42 stations and is able to t the full impedance 14

tensor reasonably well. Model assessment was done by forward modeling of the induction arrows that were not included in the inversion. The obtained results are satisfactorily compared to the previous 2D inversion models. Paper IV presents the data of 36 MT sites in the central part of the Skellefte District. The data were inverted both in 2D, along two parallel proles, and in 3D considering almost all sites. Before the 3D inversion, new error oors were calculated for each component of the impedance tensor, making use of the dispersion relations. The features observed in the 3D model were interpreted under the light of available seismic data and potential eld modeling. All 2D inversions were performed with the determinant of the impedance tensor with the code REBOCC (Siripunvaraporn and Egbert, 2000). The 3D inversions used the whole impedance tensor (diagonal and off-diagonal elements) and the code WSINV3DMT (Siripunvaraporn et al., 2005).

15

1. The pilot study: 4D modeling antecedents

The number of regional geophysical investigations besides potential eld measurements had, considering the economic signicance of the Skellefte District (SD), up until 2003 been remarkably few. The available reection seismic data consisted of the BABEL lines on the Bothnian Gulf (BABEL, 1990, 1993), a test prole near Norsj (Elming and Thunehed, 1991), and a ~30 km long prole close to Lule (~100 km to the north of the SD, see Juhlin et al., 2002). MT studies existed along the FENNOLORA prole and had reported a crustal conductivity anomaly below the SD (Rasmussen et al., 1987).

1.1 Reection seismics for mineral exploration?

From an economic point of view, individual mining companies active in the region were reluctant to nance regional geophysical investigations themselves, considering it the responsibility of the government as means of providing prospecting infrastructure. Such investigations were, however, not high on the "wish list" of the larger mining companies either, reasons being uncertainties about the information/price ratio for such endeavours. However, in 2003 Jim Bergstrm, then the director of the non-prot consortium GEORANGE, had managed to secure funding for a low-budget pilot seismic prole in the Kristineberg region (Tryggvason et al., 2006). With the seismic acquisition accomplished and a promising brute stack, further funding was secured for rened processing and interpretation of the seismic data, and also for geological eld work investigating certain features revealed in the reection seismic images that could be traced to the surface. The largest funding contribution for this stage in the work actually came from Uppsala University and the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology of Iran, who supported a PhD scholarship for Alireza Malehmir, who defended his PhD thesis at Uppsala university in September 2007 (Malehmir, 2007). The Swedish Geological Survey was the third largest nancial contributor. Funding for the subsequent MT work was granted after Uppsala University (on internal funding) conducted a pilot MT prole along one of the existing reection seismic proles, showing the potential of joint interpretaiton of reection seismics and MT models (Hbert et al., 2009). 17

1.2 Results
At its nal stage the pilot study consisted of two parallel seismic reection proles 22 km long (Tryggvason et al., 2006), an experimental seismic crossprole between them (Rodriguez-Tablante et al., 2007), ve structural sections constrained with the seismic, potential eld and geological data (Malehmir et al., 2006), 2D and 3D potentital eld forward and inverse modeling results (Malehmir et al., 2007), and a 2D MT inversion model along one of the seismic lines (Hbert et al., 2009). The location of the seismic proles and MT sites are shown in Figure 1 for reference. Some of those MT sites were included in the 3D inversion presented in Paper III. The main ndings from this comprehensive study are condensed in the thesis by Malehmir (2007), the most relevant for the work here presented are: I. a prominent north-dipping reection in both seismic lines and the crossprole survey, associated to high conductivities and interpreted as a structural basement for the Skellefte Group rocks, probably related to the Bothnian Basin Supergroup; II. the depth extension of the postorogenic Revsund granitoids was modeled at 4 to 5 km and 1 km depth, to the south and north of the seismic proles, respectively; and III. last but not least, the results from this study demonstrated the utility of regional-scale geophysical methods in mineral exploration. Thus, the Pilot study not only provided a solid ground for all coming investigations in the area in terms of data coverage, but also inclined the players in mining exploration to re-think traditional estrategies an welcome multidisciplinary projects.

18

2. VINNOVA 4D modeling of the Skellefte District

The work presented in this thesis has been carried out within the framework of the VINNOVA 4D modeling of the Skellefte District. The project was funded by VINNOVA (Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems), Boliden Mineral (major mining company in Sweden), the Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU), and, at the initial stages, Lundin Mining.

2.1 Goals
The aims of the project are to increase the current knowledge and understanding of the Skellefte District by constructing 3D and 4D geological models, that intend to reproduce the main geological units and structures that are found in the district. Modeling in 3D is absolutely necessary given the complex geometries, while the fourth dimension (geological time), provides required insights to fully comprehend the sequence of events that lead to the current conguration of the district. Then, the obtained results provide detailed knowledge of geological settings and processes from the near surface to the upper crust, that in turn helps to design exploration strategies to target deeper deposits.

2.2 Diverse data acquisition

To pursue these goals, new geophysical and geological data were acquired at different scales, concentrating on two key localities in the district: the Kristineberg mining area to the west (Kriberg), and in the central part of the district (CSD). Additional geophysical data were measured to the northwest of the district to extend the Kriberg study area. The collected geological data include: extensive structural mapping across the district (Kriberg and CSD), intensive structural and stratigraphical mapping in the Vargfors Basin (CSD), search, analysis and logging of drill cores (Kriberg and CSD), geochronology of key units (SD), and orientation of magnetic fabrics (Kriberg). The new geophysical data consisted of: 19

 142 km of seismic reection lines along six proles, (Kriberg, CSD and to the northwest of the district), 100 broadband MT sites along six proles and a 3D grid (Kriberg, CSD and to the northwest of the district), and two DC resistivity and induced polarization (IP) proles (penetration to 500 m depth, CSD). Data were collected during several eld campaigns during the years 2008 to 2010, partly constrained by the availability of instruments and other logistics. The exact locations of the acquired proles were determined by the existing geological and geophysical data, accessibility to roads, and of course also by the emerging results.

2.3 Three different modeling scales

Given the diverse nature of the various data sets, modeling was carried out in 3 different scales: I. Deposit scale: ore body modeling in close cooperation with the industrial partner (Boliden), from geological data such as drill cores, existing level plans and cross sections (Kriberg and CSD). II. Semi-regional scale: geological modeling of the Vargfors Basin from eld mapping, facies analysis, DC resistivity, IP, and potential eld modeling (CSD). III. Regional scale: wider geological modeling (1500 km2 and ~5 km depth), from structural analysis, seismic reection, MT and potential elds (Kriberg and CSD). In this manner, it is possible to take full advantage of all available and collected data, obtain maximum possible resolution at each level, and allow the reconciliation of conceptual models between the smallest and largest scales. As an example, very detailed and highly constrained, but very localized modeling at deposit scale can be placed in context by comparison with semiregional models where geological processes are better understood, which in turn provide important insights for the regional scale modeling (Bauer et al., 2009, 2010, 2011a; Skytt et al., 2009). Seismic reection and MT data, on which the papers collected in this thesis are based, are the backbone of the regional scale models.

2.4 Project partners and members

The project involves experts of different disciplines from four different institutions. Figure 2.1 is a group picture of most of the project members right at the start of the project. As an overview, a shortlist of participants is provided together with their main responsibilities within the project: 20

Figure 2.1. Group picture of project participants at the kick-off meeting in Boliden, May 2008. From left to right, back row: Ari Tryggvason, Pietari Skytt, Pr Weihed, Rolf Jonsson (Boliden), Toby Wellman (Boliden), Stig Abrahamson (Boliden) and Christopher Juhlin. Middle row: Hans Thunehed, Tobias Bauer, Bertil Sandstrm, Robert Pantze (Boliden), Annika Kruuna (Boliden) and Rodney Allen. Front row: Lena Sonnerfelt (Lundin Mining), Mara Garca (the author), Tobias Hermansson and Adriana Berbesi. Photograph provided by Boliden.

New Boliden Pierre Heeroma and Hans rebck, main industry contacts. Bertil Sandstrm and Adriana Berbesi, geophysics contacts. Rodney Allen, student advisor and SD geology expert. Tobias Hermansson, SD geology expert. Lule University of Technology (LTU) Pr Weihed, student advisor and project coordinator. Pietari Skytt, student advisor and structural geology at all scales. Tobias E. Bauer, ore and structural geology at all scales, PhD student (CSD and SD). Saman Tavakoli, DC resistivity, IP and potential eld modeling, PhD student (CSD). 21

Uppsala University Christopher Juhlin, student advisor and project coordinator. Ari Tryggvason, student advisor and project coordinator. Alireza Malehmir, student advisor and seismic reection expert (Kriberg and CSD). Mahdieh Dehghannejad, seismic reection, PhD student (Kriberg and CSD). Juliane Hbert, 2D and 3D MT, PhD student (Kriberg). Mara Garca, seismic reection, 2D and 3D MT, PhD student (Kriberg and CSD). Geovista Hans Thunehed, student advisor and multigeophysics expert (CSD). It is worth noting that since the project is based on a combination of data and integrated interpretation, there is a high degree of collaboration between the participants. Thus, the areas of (scientic and geographic) expertise listed above, are just a coarse simplication of the actual individual contributions.

2.5 Results
The main outcomes of the project activities are contained in a series of published studies, from which the papers presented in this thesis are a subset. These publications can be considered as building blocks, where the earlier ones provide a foundation for the subsequent ones. Considering that the papers included here beneted greatly from earlier works, a list of relevant project publications for each key locality is presented. Kristineberg mining area: Kinematic history of the Viterliden intrusion derived from magnetic fabrics (Skytt et al., 2010). Two perpendicular seismic reection proles (Dehghannejad et al., 2010). Geochronology of the Viterliden intrusion and Skellefte volcanic rocks (Skytt et al., 2011). A summary of the structures (Skytt et al., 2012). Central Skellefte District: Detailed mapping and geological processes in the Vargfors syncline (Bauer et al., 2011b, 2012). Three parallel seismic reection proles (Dehghannejad et al., 2012). DC resistivity, IP and potential eld modeling at semi-regional scale (Tavakoli et al., 2012b). Potential eld modeling at regional scale (Tavakoli et al., 2012a). Synthesis of the structural evolution and conceptual model of the deformation of the Skellefte District (Skytt et al., 2012). Complete Skellefte District: 22

 Animation of a conceptual 4D model (Skytt, 2012). Even though the funded time frame of the project has been exceeded, some of the data analysis and integration still continues (some of it under the ProMine project), and more studies are prepared for publication.

23

3. The Skellefte District

Gaily bedight, A gallant knight, In sunshine and in shadow, Had journeyed long, Singing a song, In search of Eldorado. Edgar Allan Poe, Eldorado

3.1 Regional setting

The SD is a Paleoproterozoic region consisting predominantly of metavolcanic rocks. It hosts a great number of Zn-Cu-Au massive sulde deposits, orogenic gold deposits, mac hosted Ni and subeconomic porphyry Cu-Au-Mo deposits (Allen et al., 1996; Weihed, 2010). It is located between two different domains of the Svecofennian crustal province: the Bothnian Basin and the Norrbotten Craton (see Figure 3.1, Gal and Gorbatschev, 1987; Weihed et al., 1992; Rutland et al., 2001). The approximate location of the inferred southern boundary of the Norrbotten Craton (the Lule-Jokkmokk zone), is located ~100 km to the north of the SD (hlander et al., 1993, 1999; Mellqvist et al., 1999). From reection seismic data, the Lule-Jokkmokk zone has been interpreted to dip towards the north at ~45(Juhlin et al., 2002). The tectonic evolution of the SD is still unclear (Weihed, 2010). Although the model of an accreted volcanic arc is commonly accepted, several variants have been proposed. It has been considered an island arc (Hietanen, 1975; Gal, 1990; BABEL, 1990; Weihed et al., 1992), a continental arc (Allen et al., 1996), a multiple accretion of volcanic arcs (Juhlin et al., 2002), or a microcontinent collision (Korja and Heikkinen, 2005).

3.2 Geological units

Given the scarcity of outcrops, signicant parts of the geological mapping in the SD is based on geophysical maps of potential eld or electromagnetic data. Figure 3.2 shows the available outcrops and the location of new geological 24

Figure 3.1. Generalized geology of the Fennoscandian shield. SD: Skellefte District. The Lule- Jokkmokk zone represents the boundary between rocks with Proterozoic and Archaean Nd-signatures (see text). Modied after Weihed et al. (2002).

observations in the area. From that Figure it is readily seen that the CSD is the best constrained area by eld observations, while mapping in Kriberg and the northwestern part of the area is heavily based on geophysical data. The main stratigraphic units in Skellefte District are (see Figure 3.3) the ore bearing Skellefte Group (1.89 - 1.88 Ga, Skytt et al., 2011), dominated by juvenile volcaniclastic rocks, lavas and subvolcanic intrusions, and the overlaying Vargfors Group (1.88 - 1.87 Ga, Billstrm and Weihed, 1996), comprising turbiditic sedimentary rocks, shales, conglomerates and local intercalations of volcanic rocks (Weihed et al., 1992; Allen et al., 1996; rebck et al., 2005). 20 The intrusive units are early-orogenic Jrn GI type intrusions (1888+ 14 Ma, Wilson et al., 1987), Viterliden intrusion in Kristineberg (1907 13 and 1980 ? Ma, Wilson et al., 1987; Skytt et al., 2011), Jrn GII-GIV phases and the Gallejaur complex (1873 10 Ma, Skild, 1988). Post-orogenic intrusions are Skellefte type granites (1.82 - 1.80 Ga, Weihed et al., 2002) and the Revsund granitoids (1788 16 Ma, Skild, 1988). All the rocks are metamorphosed to greenschists and lower amphibolite facies, with the grade of metamorphism increasing to the southeast (Weihed et al., 1992; Gonzlez-Roldn, 2010). The basement of the Skellefte District is nowhere exposed and its origin is unclear. It has been suggested that it could be constituted by older rocks of the Bothnian Basin (Rutland et al., 2001; Weihed et al., 2002), that span ages from 1874 6 Ma in the center of the basin (Welin, 1987), and 1.95 Ga to the south of the SD (Wasstrm, 1993, 1996; Eliasson and Strng, 1998). Results from the Pilot study support the hypothesis of a discordant contact between rocks of the Skellefte and Bothnia Basin rocks, where a highly conductive 25

Figure 3.2. Outcrop locations in the Skellefte District (light blue, from SGU) and observation points of geological data collected within the VINNOVA 4D modeling project. The central part of the district (around the Maurliden deposits) allows extensive detailed eld mapping, whereas Kriberg and to the north, the availability of outcrops is even more limited. Background map is the same as in Figure 3.3.

zone coinciding with a north-dipping set of reections, was interpreted to be produced by interconnected graphite (Tryggvason et al., 2006; Malehmir et al., 2006; Hbert et al., 2009) that is often found along high strain zones (Ritter et al., 2005).

26

27

Figure 3.3. Geological map of the Skellefte District showing the main lithological units of the area. Observe the large area coverage of postorogenic intrusions (in pink). MT sites and seismic reection proles are indicated in grey for reference. DNSZ: Dppis-Nsliden shear zone, Vi: Viterliden, Ga: Gallejaur, GI-GIV: Jrn phases. Modied after Kathol and Weihed (2005), the Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU).

Part II: Results

MT and reection seismics are as far apart as two geophysical methods can be in terms of resolution and the properties they respond to. Their governing equations (the diffusion and the wave equation) behave very dissimilar, and are differently implemented. The reection seismic method is essentially an imaging technique where most of the times the data is processed and displayed, while the MT method is a modeling technique in which a model of material properties is derived from the data. A further difference between the two methods is that while the MT method responds to the electrical resistivity of the ground, the reection method responds to the spatial derivative of the mechanical properties it is sensitive to (elastic properties and density). Geological processes are also likely to have rather diverse inuence on the mechanical and resistivity properties of the rocks. Concsequently, the MT and reection seismic methods are likely to provide completely independent information, and may therefore complement each other very nicely. Considering this, the key localities studied within the VINNOVA project and this thesis, have been the target of 2D seismic reection studies and 2D and 3D MT studies. Most acquisition of the MT data were done after the reection data had been processed, except in the northwest of the SD where seismic and MT data were collected, processed and interpreted simultaneously (Paper II). This part of the thesis presents results from Papers I-IV that illustrate the advantages of combining seismics and MT. The section nalizes with partial and global conclusions of the included papers.

4. Seismic and resistivity interfaces

One of the great assets of the seismic method is its potential to resolve and display lithological or structural subsurface boundaries. In order to be able to image these boundaries, rst the elastic properties (or the density) must change abruptly across them, and second, in the case of steeply dipping interfaces, the seismic segment with active geophones and the recording time must be long enough to encompass the reected energy (Eaton et al., 2003; Jones et al., 2006). In fact, vertical reectors are not possible to image. However, the presence of vertical structures can often be inferred from seismic sections if they are related to discontinuities and offsets of surrounding less steep reections. In contrast, the MT method is able to resolve lateral resistivity changes, but given the ill-posed nature of its inversion problem, the implementation of regularization schemes is necessary and the resulting resistivity models are rather smooth. It is therefore both appetizing and in some sense logical to add the sharpness of a reection seismic image to a smooth resistivity model before attempting to decipher the subsurface structures.

4.1 2D MT inversions with a priori information

The algorithm used for the 2D inversions of the MT data (REBOCC by Siripunvaraporn and Egbert, 2000), allows to introduce cuts on the regularization scheme, across which the resistivity values are set to be independent. This gives the resistivity model the possibility to present sharp contrasts in selected areas. An advantage of this procedure is that the inversion will not force a resistivity discontinuity. If the introduced boundaries are not required by the data, then a resistivity contrast will not be placed across it. Taking advantage of this feature, the most prominent reections from colocated seismic proles were inserted as cuts in the inversion of the MT data in the west of the district, in Kriberg and to the north of it (Papers I and II, the seismic data used in Paper I is described in Dehghannejad et al., 2010). Given that most of the imaged reections are actually out of the plane, instead of usign the reection geometries shown in the migrated seismic sections, the results of the 3D orientation modeling (Paper I) and cross-dip and azimuthal binning analysis were used (Paper II). The obtained results are synthesized in Table 4.1. For most of the considered reections, the resulting model showed a conductivity contrast across. In some cases this contrast was rather weak (N1 31

32
Seismic interpretation c Still unclear MT interpretation Combined interpretation Ore related Strong contrast of unclear origin Skellefte Vargfors contact Mac sills / Shear zone Shear zone within Viterliden Skellefte Vargfors contact Related to the Viterliden intrusion or the basement Base of Revsund granite Base of Revsund granite Base of Adak granite Skellefte Vargfors contact Homogeneous intrusion Base of Revsund granite Homogeneous intrusion Base of Adak granite Altered volcanic rocks or Skellefte Basement contact Skellefte Vargfors contact Homogeneous intrusion Unchangedd c Shear zone within Viterliden Skellefte Vargfors irregular contact Shear zone within Viterliden or Viterliden - ? contacte Unchangedd Contact between granitic and mac TIB intrusion Unchangedd

Table 4.1. Summary of outcomes from introducing seismic reections as cuts in 2D MT inversions. Independent interpretations for each method are shown together with the interpretation after integration.

Paper

Model

Re.

Contrast (m)

N-S

M1a

Unresolved

N-S

E1, E2a

1/100

I I I

N-S N-S E-W

C1a R1a D1a

1/100 Unresolved b

E-W

N1a

10/300

E-W

W1a

3000/100

II

104 /103

II

II

3000/104

For more details about these reections see Dehghannejad et al. (2010). No resistivity contrast was observed. The nal interpretation is that from seismics alone. Seismics and MT suggest a similar interpretation independently. In case of a lithological contact the lower unit is unrecognized but should have resistivities > 100 m.

and D) or inexistent (D1 and D), but even in those situations the integrated interpretation was overall improved in respect to individual ones. A clear example is reection D (see Figure 4.1, reproduced from Paper II). Considering the seismic data and the surface geology alone, it would have been interpreted as the base of a Revsund granite at 2 to 4 km depth. When plotted on top of the MT model, it cuts through a zone of high resistivities associated with the Revsund granites, suggesting a depth to its base of 6 km depth. Given that the inversion results with a cut along D does not show a resistivity contrast, then hypotheses able to reconcile both observations are explored. Those presented in Paper II are: a) D is depicting a fracture zone from late tectonism within the intrusion, or b) a contact between the granitoid and a similarly resistive mac intrusion below. A contrast in the acoustic impedance would be expected in either case, and hence, a reection (see Juhlin and Palm, 2003). Fracture zones might contain water and become a layer with lower acoustic impedance than of the host granite, while mac rocks generally have higher impedances than granites (Salisbury et al., 2003).

Figure 4.1. 2D inversion model of the MT data along the BrnnsAdak transect (Paper II). Projected site positions are marked as black triangles on top together with the geology along the prole. Black dashed lines represent the cuts introduced in the inversion. Note that reection D is not associated to resistivity contrasts.

33

5. Joint interpretations

Combining the local geology with features of the resistivity models, and reectivity patterns that reach the surface, it has been possible to interpret model features at further depths. Thus, besides resistivity values, estimates of the geometry and thickness of the main geological units can also be obtained. A comparison with geophysical studies elsewhere on similar settings has also proven to be a useful tool when interpreting the data (Weckmann et al., 2003; Ritter et al., 2003, 2005; Munoz et al., 2008; Farquharson and Craven, 2009; Smirnov and Pedersen, 2009; Juhlin et al., 2010; Xiao et al., 2010). In the following, a review of the ndings described in Papers I-IV regarding the characterization of the main geological units of the SD, based on the joint interpretation of resistivity models and the seismic data is presented. General remarks about the encountered difculties nalize the chapter.

5.1 The Vargfors Group

In general, the Vargfors Group present intermediate bulk resistivities, between 30 and 300 m for metasedimentary rocks (excluding shales), and between 300 and 1000 m for basaltic rocks of the Tjamstan Formation. For the graphitic shales, the associated values are rather conductive, below 3 m in Kriberg, and below 50 m in CSD (see conductors in Table 5.1). This unit cannot be easily associated to particular seismic patterns, as in most places it is too shallow to be resolved. Nevertheless, in Kriberg, to the west where the sedimentary rocks are deepest, they can be linked with high reectivity. All model features linked to the Vargfors Group are found at the surface, reaching a maximum depth of 1 km. It is worth noting that given the need for smooth models, the dominating high and low resistivities of the Skellefte Group (see next section) and the intermediate resistivities associated with this unit, the localization of deep metasediments is most likely beyond the capabilities of the MT method.

5.2 The Skellefte Group

The metavolcanic rocks of the Skellefte Group appear either as very conductive or very resistive features (see Tables 5.2 and 5.3). This dichotomy can 34

Table 5.1. Model features associated with the metasedimentary rocks of the Vargfors Group. Paper I II II III I III IV IV IV
a b c

Model E-W 2D 2D 3D N-S 3D 3D 3D 3D

Feature RV TIb TIIb CIIc CIIc CIc CVIc CTIc

Resistivity (m) 500 300 1000 1000 30 300 <1 <3 < 10 < 10 < 50

Depth (m) a 500 1500 1000 1000 200 750 500 500

Depth to the bottom, the top of all features is at the surface. Associated to the Tjamstan Formation, basaltic to andesitic rocks. Associated to graphite rich shales.

be explained by the existence of highly altered metavolcanic rocks with conductive minerals. Thus, the volcanic host rocks would be portraying the very high resistivities, while the embedded hydrothermally altered zones the high conductivities. Regarding their seismic signature, these rocks do not show a constant pattern. They alternate between high reectivities and transparent zones and it seems that there is no distinction between altered or unaltered rocks, although perhaps unaltered rocks tend to show somewhat higher reectivities.
Table 5.2. Model features associated with hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks within the Skellefte Group. Paper I I I I I III IV IV IV IV
a

Model N-S N-S E-W E-W E-W 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D

Feature CIII CIV CV CVI CVII CIII CV CTII CTIII CTIV

Resistivity (m) <1 <1 1 3 3 <1 100 < 10 1 100 1 100

Depth (m) 300 1000 500 1200 3000 1000 2000 1200 500 2000

Thickness (km) 1 1,5 4 4 1 1,2 4

Seismic signaturea T T U R T/R R T/R R T/R

T: transparent, R: reective, U: undened, and T/R: alternating transparent and reective. This nomenclature also holds for the following tables.

35

Table 5.3. Model features associated with unaltered volcanic rocks of the Skellefte Group. Paper I I I I III IV IV IV IV IV
a b c

Model N-S N-S E-W E-W 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D

Feature RIII RI RVI RVII RIIa RS RC RN RII RIb

Resistivity (m) 103 > 103 > 103 > 100 104 > 104 > 104 > 104 > 104 > 104

Depth (m) 0 0 0 4500 (?) 0 1000 0 500 750 0

Thickness (km) 1,5 2,5 (?) 1 3,5 (?) 3 6 9 9 1 2

Seismic signature R R R T LRc LRc LRc R R

It is also linked to the Viterliden intrusion. It might be related to TIB intrusions (Revsund type) instead. LR: lower reectivity.

Evidence of the relationship between high conductivities and altered volcanic rocks can be found in Paper I, where the 3D ore body geometries (kindly provided by Boliden) were projected on top of the 2D resistivity models and found to correlate with high conductivities. Even though the MT method cannot resolve small structures like the ore bodies at this depth, it is possible to image larger hydrothermally altered zones that embed them. Thus, when comparing conductors and ore bodies, the latter serve as markers of alteration zones. This evidence was only found in Kriberg, were the ore deposits have been mined to similar depths as where the conductors were found. In CSD, the mines are shallower and the conductors deeper. As can be seen from Tables 5.2 and 5.3, the high resistivities of unaltered volcanic rocks are often found at the surface, while the altered rocks are listed to be detected at 300 m or deeper (3 km). This could be due to a very conservative interpretation considering that galvanic distortions are often manifested as near-surface inhomogeneities. Another possibility is that the high conductivities are caused by interconnected graphite lms precipitated under metamorphic conditions. These graphite lms become unstable at the surface, loosing their connectivity and rising the bulk resistivity (Haak et al., 1991). The rocks of the Skellefte Group have been found to span several kilometers laterally, and vertically (from the surface to about 9 km depth). The volumes of volcanic rocks with higher resistivities are considerably larger than the conductive ones. 36

5.3 The early intrusions

In the three different studied localities, it is possible to encounter intrusions with a high degree of deformation. Table 5.4 lists them together with their associated resistivities. In Kriberg, there is the Viterliden intrusion (tonalite), depicted by the MT models as a resistive and extensive feature, and several dykes of mac composition that cannot be individually resolved. These dykes increase the bulk resistivity of the sedimentary rocks they intruded. The Viterliden shows to be reective along the E-W seismic prole, and the dykes are probably related to sub-vertical reectivity patterns to the west of Kriberg.
Table 5.4. Model features associated with early intrusions in the Skellefte District. Paper and Model I III III II IV
a b

Feature RII RIIb RIII RI Jrn

Resistivity (m) 104 104 104 > 104 10 104

Depth (km) a 3 3 2 8 6,2

Seismic signature R R T R T

Unit Viterliden Viterliden Mac dykes Brnns gabbro Jrn intrusion

E-W 3D 3D 2D 3D

Depth to the bottom, the top of all features is at the surface. It is also linked to unaltered volcanics of the Skellefte Group.

In the northwestern SD, the Brnns gabbro appears as a nearly vertical structure with very high resistivities (> 104 ) and prominent reectivity, reaching 8 km depth. The Jrn intrusion, the granitoid in CSD, shows a quite different behavior portraying very variable resistivity values from 10 to 104 m, and in some places close to the surface even below 5 m. The variability in resistivities might be due to the petrophysically heterogeneous nature of the intrusion, consisting of tonalites, granodiorites and mac enclaves (Wilson et al., 1987; Gonzlez-Roldn, 2010).

5.4 The Transscandinavian Igneous Belt (TIB)

Large amounts of the Skellefte District are made up by postorogenic intrusions associated with the TIB that extends all along Sweden. They mostly consist of granitoids and are thought to have sheet-like geometry. They all are associated with high resistivities and reectivities with the clear exception of the mac counterpart, that in CSD shows rather high conductivities, probably due to the high content of magnetic and conductive minerals (see Table 5.5). At the southern edge of the SD, the thickness of the granites is 4 to 5 km. The Revsund type granites seem to extend at greater depths towards the north, 6 to 7 km depth, while Adak granites extends to 3 km depth. The gabbro in the CSD seems to be only 1 km thick. 37

Table 5.5. Model features associated with postorogenic intrusions of the Transscandinavian Igneous Belt. Paper II II II III III IV IV IV
a b c

Model 2D 2D 2D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D

Feature RII RIII RIV b RI a RI b CII c RI RIII

Resistivity (m) 104,5 104,5 104 104 104 50 100 > 104 > 104

Depth (km) a 7 6 3 45 5 1 2 4

Seismic signature R R R R LR R R

Depth to the bottom, the top of all features is at the surface. Granite of Adak type, all other TIB granites are Revsund type. Gabbro.

5.5 The basement of the Skellefte Group

Right below the high resistivities associated with the Skellefte Group volcanics, in all resistivity models throughout the Skellefte District, there is a zone of enhanced conductivities (see Table 5.6). High conductivities in the SD were rst evidenced by Rasmussen et al. (1987) analyzing MT transfer functions along the FENNOLORA prole. These conductive regions are associated with a pattern of north-dipping reectivities along the regional proles from the Pilot study in Kriberg. In the other areas they are deeper than the penetration depth of the seismic proles.
Table 5.6. Model features associated with the basement of the Skellefte Group. Paper I I II III IV
a b

Model N-S E-W 2D 3D 3D

Feature CIb CI CI CD

Resistivity (m) <1 <1 < 100 <3 100

Depth (m) a 2,5 6 10 4 12

Seismic signature LR R

Depth to the top, thicknesses are unresolved. This feature might be related to altered volcanic rocks instead.

In Kriberg it is found at 4 km depth to the south with conductivities below 3 m. From the 2D resistivity models it can be seen that this feature extends throughout the modeled area with an important north-dipping component. In the E-W model (Paper I) it appears at 6 km depth, and from the 2D model in Hbert et al. (2009) it is possible to see it further north at about 10 km. However, the 3D model presented in Paper III does not show the continuation of 38

the super-low resistivities to the north. This could either mean that the geological structure giving rise to this anomaly does not extend towards the north and is present in the 2D models as an off-prole feature; or that it is necessary to invert more periods to image this anomaly (maximum period employed in the 3D modeling was 16 s, while in 2D 181 s). In any case, even in the 3D model in Kriberg, the resistivities are of 100 m throughout the area at 6 km depth. Further to the north, the 2D model in Paper II presents resistivities of 100 m at 10 km depth along the whole transect. Higher conductivities are observed at 14 km depth in the southwest. Similarly in the CSD (Paper IV), the high conductivities (100 m) are observed at 12 km depth. It is worth noting that only the top of the conductive region is resolved, its thickness is most likely unconstrained at all studied localities. This is in good agreement with the previously formulated hypothesis suggesting rocks of the Bothnian Basin Supergroup as the possible basement of the Skellefte Group (Rutland et al., 2001). These rocks are in origin psammites and pelites, the latter with a high carbon content, now highly metamorphosed. The high conductivities would then be caused by the high contents of graphite. Even though Bothnian Basin rocks as a basement of the Skellefte group is a widely accepted idea (Rutland et al., 2001; Weihed et al., 2002; Tryggvason et al., 2006; Malehmir et al., 2006, 2007; Hbert et al., 2009 and Skytt et al., 2012), the nature of the contact has for a long time been disputed. Rutland et al. (2001) suggested it to be discontinuous, which was supported by Tryggvason et al. (2006) and Malehmir et al. (2006) based on seismic reection data. However, Weihed et al. (2002) and Skytt et al. (2012) sustain that there is no conclusive eld evidence to advocate a discontinuity. From an electromagnetic point of view, considering the high conductivities attributed to the Skellefte Bothnian Basin interface, a shear zone between the units is the most plausible case. High strain zones provide optimal conditions for the precipitation of interconnected graphite for several kilometers, which is the most suitable explanation for the very low resistivities.

5.6 Prominent shear zones

In the CSD (Paper IV), additionally to the already mentioned conductors in sections 5.1 and 5.2, long sub-vertical conductors were imaged that are difcult to associate with any of the already described geological units (see Table 5.7). In Paper IV, considering the correspondence between the location of these conductors and mapped faults (from eld observations and magnetic maps), it is suggested that these conductors are depicting nearly vertical fault zones. Furthermore, their very low resistivities (< 3 m) are most probably caused by interconnected graphite or other precipitated conductive minerals (see the previous section). 39

Table 5.7. Model features associated with large shear zones. Paper IV IV IV
a

Model 3D 3D 3D

Feature CIII CTV CTVI

Resistivity (m) <3 <3 <3

Depth (m) 750 1200 6200

Thickness (km) a 20 (?) 14 (?) 14 (?)

Seismic signature T

It is not certain how much of the thicknesses is actually resolved.

This theory is further supported by the seismic data in the particular case of the model feature CTV as there is no conicting reectivity and the feature shows rather transparent. CIII and CTVI are not imaged by the seismic lines. This hypothesis should be tested and studied further. To begin, it is necessary to nd out how much of these conductors (laterally and vertically) is actually resolved by the inverted MT data. Then, detailed modeling with other geophysical data should provide more constraints and insights about these structures. Moreover, it would be also necessary to explore possible tectonic evolutionary models able to accommodate such large structures.

5.7 Pitfalls
Most of previous interpretations are based on the surface geology, which helps to elucidate boundaries close to the surface. At greater depths it is not possible to rely on surface observations without making assumptions about the geometry of the structures. It is in these situations that outcomes from reection seismics are most benecial (see section II). As can be seen from the resistivity values and reectivity patterns assigned to each lithological unit in Tables 5.1-5.7, there is some overlapping. Unaltered volcanic rocks of the Skellefte Group show virtually the same resistivities and just slightly different reectivity as the early and postorogenic intrusions, while shales from the Vargfors Group seem to be as conductive as hydrothermally altered volcanics or shear zones. This of course, makes the interpretation difcult, as contacts between these units are not going to be easily imaged. Thus, even though seismic and MT can image most of the geological features, additional independent information is necessary for outlining the structural relationship between those units.

40

Part III: Discussion and conclusions

Results from the work presented in this thesis consist of a reection seismic section, ve 2D and two 3D resistivity models derived from MT data, in three key localities of the Skellefte District. These outcomes were interpreted and analyzed considering other geological and geophysical data. Conclusions can be derived regarding the particular geological ndings for the Skellefte District, but also regarding the applied methodology that can be transferred to other crystalline areas with similar complications.

6. Geological implications

From the interpretations carried out in Papers I to IV and summarized in chapter 5, it is possible to conclude the following: 1. Metasedimentary rocks of the Vargfors Group reach 2,5 km, 1,5 km and 750 m depth, in Kriberg, northwestern SD and the CSD, respectively. It is not possible to determine on basis of the seismic and MT data if there are rocks of this group at further depths. 2. Ore related hydrothermally altered metavolcanic rocks within the Skellefte Group are depicted as conductors (< 5 m) and have been found from 1 to 5 km depth in Kriberg, and 1 to 6 km in the CSD. Shallower occurrences are not detected or masked by conductive shales from the Vargfors Group. 3. Unaltered metavolcanic rocks of the Skellefte Group are very resistive (with values > 104 m) and span from the surface to 3 km, 9 km and 6 km depth, in Kriberg, northwestern SD and the CSD respectively. 4. The Viterliden intrusion is about 3 km deep and show bands of high reectivity. 5. The Jrn intrusion reaches 6,2 km depth and is characterized by an inhomogeneous distribution of resistivity values. 6. The Brnns Gabbro to the north of Kriberg extends to 8 km depth and is related to prominent reections. 7. The postorogenic TIB intrusions are related to relatively high reectivities and reach 5 km depth in Kriberg, and 4 km depth in the CSD. In the northwest of the SD, the Revsund type intrusions reach 6 to 7 km depth, while the Adak type intrusions do not extend further then 3 km. 8. A conductive basement was observed throughout the district. To the south of Kriberg it has resistivities below 1 m, elsewhere it is around 100 m. It has been detected at 4 km, 10 km and 12 km depth, in Kriberg, northwestern SD and the CSD, respectively. 9. Prominent shear zones surrounding the CSD were imaged as nearly vertical conductors (< 1 m). It is likely that at least one of them is related to shallower conductors interpreted as hydrothermally altered zones, through cross-cutting transfer faults. The listed depths to basement in number 8, agree with the suggested crustal detachment in Skytt et al. (2012), based on the marked difference of metamorphic regimes (see the suggested outline of the detachment in Figure 3.3). The inferred basement depths imply that the crustal detachment must have displaced the volcanic rocks 6 to 8 km vertically. 43

7. Methodological aspects

Besides the direct geological implications relevant to the understanding of the SD, the studies here presented also offer a good working example of at least the rst steps, on how to approach and unravel the subsurface of complex geological areas. The most important aspects can be summarized as: 1. Reection seismics and MT are fundamental. Even though hard rock environments and the extreme resistivity values encountered together with the presence of highly conductive shales offer suboptimal conditions for the seismic and MT methods, it is still possible to extract a great amount of valuable information with proper data processing and analysis techniques. Besides, the resolution of these methods is superior to the one of other available methods. 2. The crookedness of the seismic reection acquisition lines complicates the data processing, but at the same time offers the possibility to extract the 3D orientation of reector planes. This is particularly useful given that in the study area the geological boundaries causing the reections are seldom subparallel and some of them will in all likelihood have at least an offprole dip component, if they are not completely out of the plane. 3. The 2D inversion of the determinant of the impedance tensor (MT transfer functions) has proved to be a useful approach in complex 3D geological settings, although with signicant shortcomings. The determinant inversion is especially practical as it offers the possibility to circumvent mode mixing and at the same time is less distorted by 3D effects (Pedersen and Engels, 2005). Given that 3D inversion of MT data is not yet a routine procedure (see section 9.1), signicant parts of the interpretation still rely on 2D models that are most likely awed due to not completely justied 2D assumptions. The toll to be paid, as demonstrated with direct comparisons against 3D inversion models of the full impedance tensor (Papers III and IV), is a loss in the resolution and the inevitable danger of misplaced off-prole features. 4. The superiority of 3D inversion results over standard 2D procedures is evident. The 3D inversion models are able to t the data to a greater extent, considering both diagonal and off-diagonal components. At the same time, they a) present more structures, as shown in Paper IV where all the 2D inverted data was used for the 3D inversion, and b) conne better the lateral and vertical extension of model features than the 2D inversion models, as evidenced in Paper III where 3D inversion models are less distorted than 2D models when considering the downward smearing of conductors. Moreover, in this particular study, the 3D resistivity models provide the means 44

to tie up interpretations from other 2D studies (e.g. reection seismics and potential eld modeling). 5. Another important aspect has been the availability of geological data and the derived evolutionary models of the area. The ultimate objective of all geophysical studies is to provide geological models of what cannot be directly observed. Thus, geological observations at the surface, or at depth in mines and boreholes, are of paramount value, not only because they provide the boundary conditions to which the aimed geological model should be adapted, but also because they provide the keys for a successful interpretation of the geophysical data. Even though there are more factors involved, the last point can be illustrated with the positive correlation between the degree of detail of the geophysical interpretations presented in the collected papers, and the amount of geological observation points for the three studied localities (see Figure 3.2). The most detailed interpretations can be found in Paper IV, at the CSD, where also most observation points have been made, while the interpretation of the BrnnsAdak transect (Paper II) is rather coarse, where no new observation points have been taken. Thus, the value of the nal geophysical product will depend in great extent on the available geological observations. This of course implies that areas with limited access to outcrops ought to present more challenges. Nevertheless, as shown for the CSD, difculties can be overcame with intensive detailed mapping.

45

8. General conclusions

The work presented here offers a sample of the great capabilities that the seismic reection and MT methods have to offer in crystalline environments. With these methods and the available geological information, it has been possible to delineate the geometry and physical properties of the main geological units, as well as to improve the existing structural model of the Skellefte District. It has also been shown that the successful application of these methods is dependent on a careful and thorough analysis of the data sets. Moreover, the interpretation of the obtained results, whether resistivity models or seismic reection sections, must be considered with caution as the 2D models and images are prone to artifacts due to the dimensional complexity of the real geological structures, and the 3D resistivity models are not fully assessed. Additionally, the symbiosis between seismic reection and MT methods, already recognized in numerous crustal-scale studies (see Jones, 1998, for a comprehensive review of deep seismic reection proles with co-located MT stations in the 90s), has proven to be a valuable asset to link deep regional structures from the upper-crust, with local geological observations at the surface. The joint interpretation of seismic sections and resistivity models has allowed to pose, develop, substantiate and reject several hypotheses, increasing the general understanding of the conguration and history of the Skellefte District. Clearly, further integration of these methods should be exploited.

46

9. Outlook

9.1 MT inversion in 3D. Are we there yet?

Even though it is already possible to estimate 3D inversion models of MT data, their meaning is somewhat limited. In order to take full advantage of the calculated model parameters, their associated uncertainties must be investigated. For 2D model assessment, a wide variety of schemes have been developed (see Bedrosian, 2007, for a review). Some of them are already computationally demanding and seldom practiced in the 2D case, making their implementation in 3D infeasible. The most popular approach in 2D studies is to explore the model space by manually modifying model parameters, often according to preconceived hypotheses, and examining the data response to these modications (see section 6 in Paper I and references therein). This procedure can be adopted in 3D. However, complications arise due to the increased number of model parameters, including longer computation times, and it would be only practical to test simple model features, as was done for the Kriberg 3D model in Paper III. Another important aspect is to assess the effect of galvanic distortions in 3D. There are several procedures that allow addressing this problem in 2D, but unlike model assessment techniques, these are not possible to transfer to the 3D case. They are deeply rooted in the simplied shape that the impedance tensor has on ideal 2D settings and are no longer valid when considering the full impedance tensor (see Jones, 2011, for a detailed description of the problem). Nevertheless, even though we are certainly not at the end of the road, 3D inversion of MT data is already a valuable tool as shown by the work presented in this thesis.

9.2 Geological modeling and further integration

Now that most of the geophysical data has been processed and modeled independently, and that joint interpretation suggests robust geological features, it is the moment to move on towards integrated 3D geophysical modeling, targetting a unique earth model able to honor simultaneously many different data sets. All types of physical properties (e.g. density for gravity and seismics, magnetic susceptibility for magnetics, the elastic moduli for seismics, and the conductive properties for different electric and electromagnetic methods, etc.) 47

would need to be assigned to the model building blocks. A possible strategy would then be a combination of forward and constrained inversion modeling with consistent updates to a common 3D geological model. Such a scheme should be feasible on todays computers, though a deep understanding of all the nuts and bolts of the individual forward modelling schemes (that today rarely is known by a single person) would be required. How to weight the datat of the different data sets, and an evaluation of the the feasibility of joint inversions, are other challenging topics of their own. Thus, this could easily be the subject of several PhD thesis to come. The more reasonable next step would perhaps be to construct a common model for forward computation of the different model responses for hypothesis testing of different (geological) model scenarios.

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Acknowledgments
Friendship is unnecessary, like philosophy, like art... It has no survival value; rather it is one of those things that give value to survival. C. S. Lewis Compiling this work and looking back to what I have done the last 4.5 years in Uppsala (5.5 with the master), have made me come to realize the very different person I have become. When I rst came to Uppsala I had very little idea about what research, MT or hard rock seismic was (I actually found it striking that people in these remote regions would drill geophones in the bedrock to get a better coupling). Additionally, I had not much clue about what it meant to live alone and without my family. Fortunately enough, I did not have the chance to deepen my knowledge on loneliness, and I have to thank all my friends for that, while I have managed to gather some wisdom on the other mentioned aspects. This I did not accomplish alone and I would like to extend my gratitude to all the people that contributed in one way or the other. I am deeply thankful to Ari Tryggvason, who at his best dexterity managed to persuade me to come back to Sweden, even though I knew that would mean at least four Novembers more. I am grateful for his innite condence in my own skills, although more than once I thought it excessive. He has been a great companion along the road and treated me all the time like a peer, although he was always able to see further, as somebody that peeks to the horizon from higher ground. I thank Chris Juhlin for his interest in MT, his patience when looking at my untidy job ows, his attempts to set me into schedules and time frames, and for nding reections when I was about to lose hopes. I highly appreciate the many academic and social discussions we had. To Laust B. Pedersen I owe my interest in electromagnetic methods. He placed high hopes on my performance since I was a master student, and has supported me ever since. He has always been keen to listen to my ideas, give me new ones, and help me with bureaucratic issues. I want to thank Alireza Malehmir for his interest in my research and the many discussions we have had about seismics in the SD. He has always been ready to answer questions about whatever detail I happened to be interested in, and had to listen to my talk rehearsals for conferences across the seas. I am most indebted to Juliane Hbert, my MT team-mate and mentor. It was thanks to her dedication and help that I got a quick grasp of the MT method and managed to lead measurements on my own. Together we have been able to successfully accomplish several projects ranging from 3D MT coverage of Kriberg, to igloo building. 49

I thank my ofce- and project-mate Mahdieh (Azita) Dehghannejad for not only helping me with seismic processing and facilitating the seismic sections in Kriberg and CSD, but also for innumerable conversations about a wide range of scientic and non-scientic aspects. Emil Lundberg is greatly appreciated for his company in a good number of adventures, either exploring distant lands down under, or teaching basic geophysics to undergraduate students, or doing seismic processing. I thank all the people that helped me and Juliane to carry out the MT measurements: Ari, Chunling, Jochen, Kristina, Mattias, Michael, Miguel, Pietari, Tobias L., Tobias B., and Lasse, together we have dug 100 vertical and 200 horizontal holes, and extended about 2 km of cable across the Skellefte District. I am thankful to the electromagnetic group at Uppsala for many fruitful discussions. To Maxim and Toivo at Oulu for teaching me how to do MT eldwork and sharing their expertise with me. I am particularly grateful for being welcomed to be part of the seismic reection group, and its activities, including eldworks, kas and weekly meetings, on which I have learned tons, and enjoyed as much. Palmi and Arnaud are deeply thanked for keeping my computer running. The team of administrators at Geocentrum are appreciated for taking care of the paperwork, particularly Ingegerd, Siv, Susanne, and Zara for helping me out with the many demands of the Venezuelan bureaucracy. I want to thank the librarians, especially Susanne, for making it so easy to get hold of information. Taher, Anna and Leif are thanked for one thousand and one favors. I thank all the project members for the many discussions and meetings we had, their collaboration throughout the projects course, and for providing a pleasant working atmosphere. In particularly Tobias Bauer for satisfying my multiple requests when things started getting tight. VINNOVA, Boliden and the Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) provided the funding. SGU and Boliden also provided additional resources like borehole data, maps, books, and expertise whenever they were requested. Reviewers of Papers I and III are thanked for constructive comments that improved the manuscripts. Stef Burchardt and Ari Tryggvason are especially appreciated for assuming the typo-hunt and checking the sobriety of the thesis. The Printing Ofce at Uppsala University is acknowledged for its many efforts to make thesis delivery a smooth process, especially Wolmar kerstrm for his assistance. Last but by no means least, I thank my family for being a source of constant inspiration and unconditional support, and Michael, for being my team-mate in life helping me to get through the many challenges I have faced the last years. July, 2012

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