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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON SEAFARER'S

WORK AND LEISURE
Andrea Russo[1], Toni Popovi[2], Vicko Tomi[3]
[1]

(Faculty of Maritime Studies, Zrinsko-Frankopanska 38, 21000 Split, Croatia,

e-mail: arusso5@gmail.com)

[2]

(NGO Healthy City, Vukovarska 65, 21 000 Split, Croatia,

e-mail: toni.popovic@zdravigrad.hr)

[3]

(NGO Healthy City, Vukovarska 65, 21 000 Split, Croatia,

e-mail: vicko.tomic@zdravigrad.hr)

ABSTRACT
Technological development has contributed to different possibilities of the seafarer leisure, as well as to providing
connections with his family and friends. Furthermore, modern ships are technologically advanced systems that
require constant investing in seafarers knowledge, working abilities and willingness of decision-making at all
levels of the crew for high-risk situations in which the ship can be found. In this sense, it is important to emphasize
the need for conscious and conscientious labor, as the data shows that, despite the distinct technological
advancement in marine systems, the majority of maritime accidents are caused by human error. Technology
boosts the productivity and quality of products or services, but only if used duly, both during working and leisure
time. A number of devices we utilize every day increases fatigue, occupies us and leads to an uncritical reliance
on technology. The most conspicuous are tensions which occupy seafarer's minds during working hours such as
the potentiality of virtual investments, gambling or participation in family activities in real time without physical
presence, by using information technology. Due to fatigue that stems from work and leisure, as well as shifting of
the initiative from human to machines, it is necessary to review the effects of technology on the successful
performance of maritime profession.

KEY WORDS
ship, technology, seafarers, work, leisure, conscience

1. INTRODUCTION
From the social science perspective, the
life of a seafarer is often considered within
the concept of total institution set up by the
American sociologist Goffman in 1961. Ori-

ginally, the concept implies marginal social

groups, separated from the outside world,
often symbolized by clear physical barriers
(high walls, barbed wire, metal doors, etc.).
Such area includes, for instance, prisons,
convents, orphanages, mental institutes

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and barracks. Individuals whose lives are

determined by a formal organization, coercion and separation from family, friends
and the wider society reside there. Their
schedule of activities is determined by the
leadership, food and items are limited and
personal contacts are mainly superficial.1
Although living and working conditions of
seafarers still differ considerably from human activities on land, they gradually move
away from the conditions of total institution
which is largely enabled by modern technology. Nowadays, the crew must constantly
invest in knowledge to comply with its obligations, a system of promotion has been
determined and organization structure gets
flexible form based on greater dispersion of
decision-making. Although frequent technological changes generate negative aspects
of labor, which are conditioned by business
profitability of shipping companies and seafarers in reaction to these circumstances
(reducing crew number, excessive and
monotonous work, uncritical reliance on the
capabilities of technology, etc.), which increase the risk of maritime accidents and
occupational injuries2, duly adjusting to
maritime activities on technological circumstances undoubtedly contributes to the
business efficiency, as much as personal
and social development.
Increase of the ship capacity and their
speed of movement have allowed the
development of a mass trade and specialization of occupations, while seafarers
educate themselves for some of them in
order to satisfy the demands of the work
environment. Their education becomes
permanent, in accordance with the required
skills. Furthermore, modern technology increases the possibilities of seafarers during
leisure. The organizational encouragement
of the company and the ship's leadership is
important by encouraging sport activities
and events, maintaining a workout, watching movies together, etc., since the
fulfillment of this period contributes significantly to the psychophysical condition,
development of self-esteem and improvement of cooperation and understanding,
which are important factors in navigation
safety enlargement. As numerous studies
have shown that the separation from the

family is one of the most dominant factors

of dissatisfaction at work, especially among
the younger seafarers (Wall, 1980; Bilii,
1992; Cheng et al, 2008; Hake et al, 2011;
etc.), the establishment of telecommunication structure has been recommended, including reasonable prices and access for the
entire crew, the shorter duration of navigation, workshops organization on discussing
common problems and providing pastoral,
psychological and medical care on board
and docks.3
Maritime industry is a social world determined by rules, customs and activities based
on tradition, but open to contemporary
changes. Although this activity has often
been defined as conservative by nature
due to the slow alignment with the capabilities of the organization of labor and
leisure, speeding up the process becomes
necessary. That is proven by the reduction
of seafarer total number (especially in economically developed countries) due to the
attractiveness of life on land.4 An effective
response to these requirements can additionally show many similarities and connections of life on land and sea, with multiple
benefits for seafarers, shipping companies
and the wider society.

2. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE

FEATURES OF TECHNOLOGICAL
PROGRESS IN THE WORK
PROCESS
As part of the material culture, technology
always carries a socially established meaning. Hence, it is necessary to learn its
usage, which involves changes in the
perception of the environment such as
changes of values and normative orientation of individuals. It irrevocably changes
the lives, depending on the period of our
adaptation.
Significant changes have been taking place
within the maritime industry since the First
Industrial Revolution. It is significant that
they were not promptly obeyed. The example of introduction of the first engineers in
the ship's collective could be presented,
along with the appearance and mainten-

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ance of tension among deck and engine. In

the early period of replacement of sailboats
to steamships, the machine was completely
unknown element of the ship. Engineers
were not seafarers, they didn`t possess
sailor skills, while the crew abusively
named them "coal loader". Technical necessity intruded the acceptance of mechanics
by traditional personnel, which was happening gradually, with difficulties and tensions
in their relations. However, nowadays the
seafarers on deck and in the engine room
are aware that the machine is an integral
part, moreover the core of the ship.5
Technological development of ships which
quickly transfer a large amount of cargo
has led to globalization and specialization
of the market, extending the standard
products at low cost. On the other hand, an
economy based on mass production led to
changes in the maritime industry being
characterized by increasing automation,
reduction of physical exertion of the crew,
faster and monotonous work (shorter
docking due to the speed of loading/unloading, faster voyage, etc.), the necessity
to acquire new knowledge and outspread
of culture of decision-making, the incidence
of multinational crews due to the costs
reduction, etc.6
Information technology has transformed
maritime industry into a truly international
maritime activity. The ship can be constructed in one country, the owner may be a
citizen of another, and the crew of a third
country, while the ship sails under the flag
of the fourth. This phenomenon is called
outsourcing, meaning the production and
provision of services in different locations.
In addition to the quality criteria, its financial background is based on the input price.
Where the price is the lowest, the activity is
established.7
Width of business has led to the necessity
of changing relationships among shipping
companies and crew, as well as to change
of organizational relationships on the board. Former functional structure, determined by unilateral decisions taken by the
shipping company, where the captain and
officers represented mainly executive factors, has begun to change under the
matrix structure, where decisions are ba-

sed on more equal communication among

the offices on the coast and the crew,
under complementary appreciation of benefits. Likewise, crew members (especially
officers) are being encouraged to participate in the decision-making process, while
the error is trying to be understood, not
punished. A typical example is the Navy of
the United States, where the following
principles have been established: 1. captain holds a meeting with officers before
departure, explaining the rules and encourages them in providing remarks and seeking clarification; 2. officer of the watch
manages the ship while the captain instructs him otherwise (he has full authority to
make decisions and supervise the regularity of human behavior and technological
systems); 3. crew is not obligated to examine how the captain will react in making
conscientious decisions.8
With a ratio of cost-effectiveness and
ability, the crew is selected precisely according to the tendency of decision making.
The Western cultures are generally considered to have been individualistic, therefore prone to making decisions, while the
Eastern are collectivist since their members
more often expect a care from the community, including decision making and
protection in case of distress.9 It is preferred to set the captain and officers who
originate from developed countries with
maritime tradition, while the crew has been
selected from the East which includes the
majority of sailors nowadays (particularly
unskilled).
Maritime organization research suggests
that participation in decision making is extremely important factor of satisfaction at
work. If not compliant with the requirements
of the crew, frustration is very likely to
happen which would affect oversight during
labor and endanger the safety of navigation.10 Likewise, the dispersion of decision
making prevents the arbitrariness of the
company, the captain and/or officers in
deciding which often causes maritime
accidents due to passive acceptance of
decisions understood as incorrect.11
In addition to its positive impact, negative
effects of technology on operations that
lead to injuries have been widespread.

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Although maritime accidents have been

less numerous than before, they are still
quite frequent, while the data show that
most common cause are individual actions
or errors in communication, organizational
procedures and routines (over 50%).12 Studies of the English, Danish and German
seafarers, conducted in 1980s and 1990s,
represent that seafarers more often die due
to accidents than to natural causes, while
the number of accidents among them is
11.5 times higher than among workers on
land.13
The negative effects of technology may be
indirect while the most common one is
expressed through fatigue due to overwork,
with shorter vacations than prescribed.
Technological development of ship contributes to reducing the crew to excessive
measures, while seafarers work more than
required. International Transport Workers
Federation data show that more than 25%
of seafarers work over 80 hours a week.
This is favored by short voyages with numerous landing, often in late night and
early morning hours, frequent inspections,
etc. The fatigue caused by stress, monotonous and excessive work, lack and poor
quality of sleep due to noise and vibration
lead to reduced memory performance, assessment, decision making and response,
including loss of physical power. 14 Mentioned factors are associated with the depression occurrence and reduced tolerance
towards the crew, as well as unhealthy
living habits such as excessive consumption of alcohol and narcotics and unbalanced eating (overeating), which increase
the risk of accidents and occupational injuries.15
There are various measures to prevent fatigue, which implementation is affected by
company, ship's captain and crew. The
company should take care of the health of
their employees and should not overload
them with work, while the captain must
respect the norms encouraging crew members in expressing the necessity for rest if
they feel that fatigue impairs the quality of
their work. Finally, seafarers should align
the routine of their leisure (playing cards,
surfing the Internet, watching movies, etc.)

not disturbing the concentration, work capacity and efficiency.

The immediate technological impact on the
distortion of workflow stems from inadequate or improper relationships of the crew
towards technology. In the first case, the
extensive and vague instructions for usage
of the machines can confuse and lead to
errors. Likewise, there are frequent oversight errors due to unfavorable audible and
visual signal devices. Lots of manufacturers do not depart from the beneficiary
needs and ship equipment with inappropriate usable design has been installed,
which leads to mistake.16 In the latter case,
error occurs due to excessive reliance on
technological capabilities. The machine development has always been leading to the
reduction of manual labor, which sometimes unjustifiably implies a mental component. Machine possess certain features
superior to people, such as short-term memorizing, precise action repetition, making
simple decisions (yes/no), data processing
and transmitting information, but the man is
a dominant to machine in relation to longterm memorization of high-capacity, space
observation, prediction, complex decision
judgments and estimation, including improvisation and flexibility, i.e. changes of
action with the aim of adaption to the environment.17 Under conditions of dynamic
work environment, being the case with
maritime industry (the current unpredictability of environment, weather conditions,
technological and human resources, etc.),
the person who operates the machines
should have priority without any other way
around.
Technology should be utilized conscientiously, regardless of the hierarchical position
of the employee. It makes the necessity for
new knowledge and dispersion of decision
making for an effective response to market
demands. It is recommended to select the
appropriate crew, which is aggravated by
the dispersal of seafarers (particularly those highly educated) in other sectors due to
dissatisfaction with life at sea encouraged
by technological capabilities. Therefore, the
organizational culture of crew should be
dialogue process which optimizes the operating activities and leisure of seafarers.

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3. POSSIBILITIES OF SEAFARER
LEISURE DURING MODERN
NAVIGATION
Maritime affairs have always been determined by the marginality. That is shown
through numerous examples such as slaves who constituted the crew of Antiquity
and the Middle Ages, fishermen all day
dedicated to the sea, dockworkers and
sailors without option of other financial
existence, fishing villages significantly
distant from the achievements of the
(post)industrialization, etc. Although maritime has been specialized since the last
century, requiring formal education while
ensuring higher income and social prestige,
life of the seafarer is quite different from the
situation on land. This is proven by limited
interaction, activities and supplies. In addition to the work organization, these factors
create crews dissatisfaction, damage the
cooperation and contribute to disease
(mental, cardiovascular, coronary, etc.),
reducing the safety of navigation and contributing to abandonment of a large number
of seafarers, which represents difficulty for
shipping companies (in addition to growth
of fleet from Asian countries) due to the
current quality of their training and a high
level of ability.
While it cannot completely eliminate the inconveniences of life on board, technology
significantly contributes to their mitigation.
Its effects depend again on the synergistic
action of the shipping company, the captain, officers and the rest of crew.
Examples of such practice, which are being
clarified, include relationship with partners
and family, leisure activities and crews
nutrition. In addition to establishing the
matrix structure, improved living conditions
on board are encouraged with the maintenance of workshops of critical thinking
that contribute to cooperation in detecting
and solving organizational difficulties/obstacles.18
Marginality of life at sea is recognized through the distance of the partner and family.
Seafarers often do not recognize their
children when they return home and complain that they cannot take them to school,

shows, sporting events, etc. They miss life

periods within their family, which can be
very distressing. Return to the land may
further undermine relations with beloved
ones. Partners are not accustomed to their
presence in the house, they have more
household obligations that contribute to
fatigue and irritability, while relationships
can be deteriorated with unfulfilled expectations on the upbringing of children who do
not accept the authority of a parent not
involved in their lives most of the time. In
such circumstances, seafarer actually
awaits a return on ship, got used to such
specific routine.19 However, many succeed
to maintain a stable relationship with family
on the basis of understanding and common
conversation. Furthermore, shipping company support may be valuable in developing a climate of trust, allowing spouses to
navigate in certain circumstances or providing services to family members in case of
necessity. Certainly, importance of information technology is undisputed due to
cheap and frequent communication. Seafarers are more involved in family activities
now, at least virtually, with spatiotemporal
distance.20
Leisure on board has been encouraged
organizationally due to the improvement of
crews cooperation, maintenance of capabilities and struggle against boredom,
loneliness and harmful appearances (use
of opiates and narcotics, gambling, etc.)
that contribute to numerous accidents
being widespread among seafarers. This
probably stems from dissatisfaction at
work, wherein difficulties in developing
friendships should be highlighted due to
constant change of ships during seafarer's
career and the presence of international
crew with very different values, norms and
customs. Seafarers drink more in the ports,
especially when they go out with several
colleagues for entertainment and to reduce
the fear of danger and the unknown. 21 However, it should be emphasized that leisure
should not jeopardize the efficiency of the
work process. The preoccupation with
activities that are not related to work is
often the case, such as using a cell phone
or computers, surfing the Internet, communication via Skype, etc.), which impair the

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ability to reasoning, along with the possibility of making quality decisions.22

When numerous aspects of life on board
are unfavorable, it is also the case with the
nutrition. There is no standardization of the
seafarer nutrition. Furthermore, the fact
that an increasing number of seafarers
have excess body weight shows negligence of company for the crew due to
unhealthy food increases the possibility of
developing diseases.23 A better nutrition is
also facilitated by marine technology through advanced possibilities of food storage
and multiple opportunities of the food supply in port and during the voyage. As in
the preceding examples, the denial at the
expense of the crew on an economic basis
harms even the company due to higher risk
of navigation. So, it is necessary to consider the crew circumstances in formulating
business policies. Long-term success is based on interaction among satisfaction and
the crews abilities at which it is often not
given enough importance.

2.

2. Carotenuto, A. et al, Psychological

stress in seafarers: a review, International Maritime Health, Vol. 63, No. 4
(2012), pp. 189-191.

3.

3. Oldenburg, M. et al, Occupational

Risks and Challenges of Seafaring,
Journal of Occupational Health, Vol.
52, No. 2 (2010), pp. 252-253.

4.

4. Leggate, H. et al, The future shortage of seafarers. Will it become a

reality?, Routledge, (New York, London, 2005), pp. 74-79.

5.

Bilii, M., Sociologija organizacije,

Sveuilite u Rijeci: Pomorski fakultet,
(Rijeka, 1993), pp. 108-109.

6.

Bieli, T., Utjecaj ergonomskih imbenika na upravljanje brodom, Nae

more, Vol. 51, No. 5-6 (2004), pp. 172175.

7.

Domijan-Arneri, I., Globalizacija i morsko ribarstvo, Nae more, Vol. 53, No.
1-2 (2006), pp. 13-16.

8.

Bilii, M., Psihosociologija rada u brodarstvu, Sveuilite u Rijeci: Odjel za

pomorstvo, (Rijeka, 2001), pp. 74-75.

9.

Russo, A. et al, The Issues of Consciousness and Conscience in the

High Tech Maritime World, Nae
More, Vol. 60, No. 5-6 (2013), pp. 9798.

4. CONCLUSIONS
Current technology makes similar the life
features of seafarers with land routine. That
is obvious due to the growing necessity for
crew education in changing conditions of
life and work, development of more flexible
organization, a larger range of leisure activities, use of information technology, etc.
As a social construct, the technology has
ascribed meaning and therefore requires
conscious use. Unlike human beings, it
cannot make decision. Therefore, it is not
appropriate to denounce technology for
operating errors. Such an error may be
considered in the case of not utilizing its
capabilities that enhance whole seafaring
through an individual well-being of the crew
during the voyage.

REFERENCES
1.

1. Bilii, M., Psihosociologija rada u

brodarstvu, Sveuilite u Rijeci: Odjel
za pomorstvo, (Rijeka, 2001), pp. 149.

10. Carotenuto, A. et al, Psychological

stress in seafarers: a review, International Maritime Health, Vol. 63, No.
4 (2012), pp. 188-189.
11. Bieli, T., Pojam Complacency kao
utjecajni element pri nastanku pomorskih nezgoda, Nae more, Vol. 51,
No. 3-4 (2004), pp. 91-92.
12. undrica, J. et al, Utjecaj sustava
upravljanja kvalitetom i sigurnou na
oneienje mora i gubitke u pomorstvu, Nae more, Vol. 57, No. 3-4
(2010), pp. 115-117.
13. Oldenburg, M. et al, Occupational
Risks and Challenges of Seafaring,
Journal of Occupational Health, Vol.
52, No. 2 (2010), pp. 249-250.

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14. Koma, A., Vanost prepoznavanja

umora i njegov utjecaj na lanove
posade u pomorskoj i rijenoj plovidbi
te poboljanje preventivnih mjera poradi smanjivanja umora, Nae more,
Vol. 58, No. 3-4(2011), pp. 104-105.
15. Carotenuto, A. et al, Psychological
stress in seafarers: a review,
International Maritime Health, Vol. 63,
No. 4 (2012), pp. 190-191.
16. Bieli, T., Utjecaj ergonomskih imbenika na upravljanje brodom, Nae
more, Vol. 51, No. 5-6 (2004), pp. 175176.
17. Bilii, M., Psihosociologija rada u brodarstvu, Sveuilite u Rijeci: Odjel za
pomorstvo, (Rijeka, 2001), pp. 23-24.
18. urko, B., Nova rjeenja za profesionalne izazove pomoraca antistres
programi i razvijanje kritikog miljenja, Metodiki ogledi, Vol. 17, No.
1-2, pp. 92-93.
19. Maurizio, E., The Social World of
Seafarers. A Sociological Research in
Central Italy, Advances in Applied
Sociology, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 202-203.
20. Thomas, M. et al, Companies, Finding
a balance. Companies, seafarers and
family life, Routledge, (New York,
London, 2005), pp. 98-100.
21. Maurizio, E., The Social World of
Seafarers. A Sociological Research in
Central Italy, Advances in Applied
Sociology, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 203-204.
22. Russo, A. et al, The Issues of Consciousness and Conscience in the
High Tech Maritime World, Nae
More, Vol. 60, No. 5-6 (2013), pp. 9798.
23. Oldenburg, M. et al, Overview and
prospect: food and nutrition of seafarers on merchant ships, International
Maritme Health, Vol. 64, No. 4, pp.
191-192.

BIOGRAPHIE

Andrea Russo is assistant professor at the

Faculty of Maritime Studies in Split and
president of the NGO Healthy City. Her
academic interests include occupational medicine, organizational behavior
and maritime psychosociology. She
has been publishing extensively in
books and journals. She is president of
the International Congress Age of New
Economy and New Jobs, which is
organized by the Healthy City.
Toni Popovi is project coordinator in the
NGO Healthy City and secretary of the
Zadvarje Volunteer Fire Department.
His academic interests include organizational behavior, sociology of work,
rural sociology, maritime psychosociology and socio-ethnography. He has
published several scientific papers and
essays.
Vicko Tomi is project coordinator in the
NGO Healthy City and PhD candidate
at the Joint Doctorate in Sociology of
regional and Local Development, at
the University of Zadar, Croatia and
Teramo, Italy. His academic interests
include sociology of local and regional
development, socio-ethnography, political sociology, organizational sociology
and maritime psychosociology. He has
published several scientific papers and
essays.