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GMAT RC 117Passages GMAT New 63Passages Passage 1 (1/63)

(This passage was written in 1978.) Recent years have brought minority-owned businesses in the United tates unprecedented opportunities!as we"" as new and signi#icant ris$s. %ivi" rights activists have "ong argued that one o# the principa" reasons why &"ac$s' (ispanics' and other minority groups have di##icu"ty estab"ishing themse"ves in business is that they "ac$ access to the si)ab"e orders and subcontracts that are generated by "arge companies. *ow %ongress' in apparent agreement' has re+uired by "aw that businesses awarded #edera" contracts o# more than ,-..'... do their best to #ind minority subcontractors and record their e##orts to do so on #orms #i"ed with the government. /ndeed' some #edera" and "oca" agencies have gone so #ar as to set speci#ic percentage goa"s #or apportioning parts o# pub"ic wor$s contracts to minority enterprises. %orporate response appears to have been substantia". 0ccording to #igures co""ected in 1977' the tota" o# corporate contracts with minority businesses rose #rom ,77 mi""ion in 1971 to ,1.1 bi""ion in 1977. The pro2ected tota" o# corporate contracts with minority businesses #or the ear"y 198.3s is estimated to be over -4 bi""ion per year with no "etup anticipated in the ne5t decade. 6romising as it is #or minority businesses' this increased patronage poses dangers #or them' too. 7irst' minority #irms ris$ e5panding too #ast and overe5tending themse"ves #inancia""y' since most are sma"" concerns and' un"i$e "arge businesses' they o#ten need to ma$e substantia" investments in new p"ants' sta##' e+uipment' and the "i$e in order to per#orm wor$ subcontracted to them. /#' therea#ter' their subcontracts are #or some reason reduced' such #irms can #ace potentia""y cripp"ing #i5ed e5penses. The wor"d o# corporate purchasing can be #rustrating #or sma"" entrepreneurs who get re+uests #or e"aborate #orma" estimates and bids. &oth consume va"uab"e time and resources' and a sma"" company3s e##orts must soon resu"t in orders' or both the mora"e and the #inancia" hea"th o# the business wi"" su##er. 0 second ris$ is that 8hite-owned companies may see$ to cash in on the increasing apportionments through #ormation o# 2oint ventures with minority-owned concerns. 9# course' in many instances there are "egitimate reasons #or 2oint ventures: c"ear"y' 8hite and minority enterprises can team up to ac+uire business that neither cou"d ac+uire a"one. &ut civi" rights groups and minority business owners have comp"ained to %ongress about minorities being set up as ;#ronts< with 8hite bac$ing' rather than being accepted as #u"" partners in "egitimate 2oint ventures. Third' a minority enterprise that secures the business o# one "arge corporate customer o#ten runs the danger o# becoming!and remaining!dependent. =ven in the best o# circumstances' #ierce competition #rom "arger' more estab"ished companies ma$es it di##icu"t #or sma"" concerns to broaden their customer bases> when such #irms have near"y guaranteed orders #rom a sing"e corporate bene#actor' they may tru"y have to strugg"e against

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comp"acency arising #rom their current success.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) present a commonplace idea and its inaccuracies (B) describe a situation and its potential drawbacks (C) propose a temporary solution to a problem ( ) analy!e a fre"uent source of disagreement (#) e$plore the implications of a finding

2.

The passage supplies information that would answer which of the following "uestions% (A) &hat federal agencies ha'e set percentage goals for the use of minority( owned businesses in public works contracts% (B) To which go'ernment agencies must businesses awarded federal contracts report their efforts to find minority subcontractors% (C) )ow widespread is the use of minority(owned concerns as *fronts+ by &hite backers seeking to obtain subcontracts% ( ) )ow many more minority(owned businesses were there in 1,-- than in 1,-2% (#) &hat is one set of conditions under which a small business might find itself financially o'ere$tended%

..

According to the passage/ ci'il rights acti'ists maintain that one disad'antage under which minority(owned businesses ha'e traditionally had to labor is that they ha'e (A) been especially 'ulnerable to go'ernmental mismanagement of the economy (B) been denied bank loans at rates comparable to those afforded larger competitors (C) not had sufficient opportunity to secure business created by large corporations ( ) not been able to ad'ertise in those media that reach large numbers of potential customers (#) not had ade"uate representation in the centers of go'ernment power

0.

The passage suggests that the failure of a large business to ha'e its bids for subcontracts result "uickly in orders might cause it to (A) e$perience frustration but not serious financial harm (B) face potentially crippling fi$ed e$penses (C) ha'e to record its efforts on forms filed with the go'ernment ( ) increase its spending with minority subcontractors (#) re'ise its procedure for making bids for federal contracts and subcontracts

1.

The author implies that a minority(owned concern that does the greater part of its

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business with one large corporate customer should (A) a'oid competition with larger/ more established concerns by not e$panding (B) concentrate on securing e'en more business from that corporation (C) try to e$pand its customer base to a'oid becoming dependent on the corporation ( ) pass on some of the work to be done for the corporation to other minority( owned concerns (#) use its influence with the corporation to promote subcontracting with other minority concerns 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ compared with the re"uirements of law/ the percentage goals set by *some federal and local agencies+ (lines 10(11) are (A) more popular with large corporations (B) more specific (C) less contro'ersial ( ) less e$pensi'e to enforce (#) easier to comply with -. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s assertion that/ in the 1,-54s/ corporate response to federal re"uirements (lines 16(1,) was substantial (A) Corporate contracts with minority(owned businesses totaled 72 billion in 1,-,. (B) Between 1,-5 and 1,-2/ corporate contracts with minority(owned businesses declined by 21 percent. (C) The figures collected in 1,-- underrepresented the e$tent of corporate contracts with minority(owned businesses. ( ) The estimate of corporate spending with minority(owned businesses in 1,65 is appro$imately 715 million too high. (#) The 71.1 billion represented the same percentage of total corporate spending in 1,-- as did 7-- million in 1,-2. 6. The author would most likely agree with which of the following statements about corporate response to working with minority subcontractors% (A) Annoyed by the proliferation of *front+ organi!ations/ corporations are likely to reduce their efforts to work with minority(owned subcontractors in the near future. (B) Although corporations showed considerable interest in working with minority businesses in the 1,-54s/ their a'ersion to go'ernment paperwork made them reluctant to pursue many go'ernment contracts. (C) The significant response of corporations in the 1,-54s is likely to be sustained

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and concei'ably be increased throughout the 1,654s. ( ) Although corporations are eager to cooperate with minority(owned businesses/ a shortage of capital in the 1,-54s made substantial response impossible. (#) The enormous corporate response has all but eliminated the dangers of o'er( e$pansion that used to plague small minority(owned businesses. Passage 2 (2/63)
8oodrow 8i"son was re#erring to the "ibera" idea o# the economic mar$et when he said that the #ree enterprise system is the most e##icient economic system. ?a5imum #reedom means ma5imum productiveness: our ;openness< is to be the measure o# our stabi"ity. 7ascination with this idea" has made 0mericans de#y the ;9"d 8or"d< categories o# sett"ed possessiveness versus unsett"ing deprivation' the cupidity o# retention versus the cupidity o# sei)ure' a ;status +uo< de#ended or attac$ed. The United tates' it was be"ieved' had no status quo ante. 9ur on"y ;station< was the turning o# a stationary whee"' spinning #aster and #aster. 8e did not base our system on property but opportunity!which meant we based it not on stabi"ity but on mobi"ity. The more things changed' that is' the more rapid"y the whee" turned' the steadier we wou"d be. The conventiona" picture o# c"ass po"itics is composed o# the (aves' who want a stabi"ity to $eep what they have' and the (ave-*ots' who want a touch o# instabi"ity and change in which to scramb"e #or the things they have not. &ut 0mericans imagined a condition in which specu"ators' se"#-ma$ers' runners are a"ways using the new opportunities given by our "and. These economic "eaders (#ront-runners) wou"d thus be main"y agents o# change. The nonstarters were considered the ones who wanted stabi"ity' a strong re#eree to give them some position in the race' a regu"ative hand to ca"m manic specu"ation: an authority that can ca"" things to a ha"t' begin things again #rom compensatori"y staggered ;starting "ines.< ;Re#orm< in 0merica has been steri"e because it can imagine no change e5cept through the e5tension o# this metaphor o# a race' wider inc"usion o# competitors' ;a piece o# the action'< as it were' #or the disen#ranchised. There is no attempt to ca"" o## the race. ince our on"y stabi"ity is change' 0merica seems not to honor the +uiet wor$ that achieves socia" interdependence and stabi"ity. There is' in our "egends' no heroism o# the o##ice c"er$' no stab"e industria" wor$ #orce o# the peop"e who actua""y ma$e the system wor$. There is no pride in being an emp"oyee (8i"son as$ed #or a return to the time when everyone was an emp"oyer). There has been no boasting about our socia" wor$ers!they are mere"y signs o# the system3s #ai"ure' o# opportunity denied or not ta$en' o# things to be e"iminated. 8e have no pride in our growing interdependence' in the #act that our system can serve others' that we are ab"e to he"p those in need: empty boasts #rom the past ma$e us ashamed o# our present achievements' ma$e us try to #orget or deny them' move away #rom them. There is no honor but in the 8onder"and race we must a"" run' a"" trying to win' none winning in the end (#or there is no end).

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to

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(A) critici!e the infle$ibility of American economic mythology (B) contrast *8ld &orld+ and *9ew &orld+ economic ideologies (C) challenge the integrity of traditional political leaders ( ) champion those Americans whom the author deems to be neglected (#) suggest a substitute for the traditional metaphor of a race 2. According to the passage/ *8ld &orld+ 'alues were based on (A) ability (B) property (C) family connections ( ) guild hierarchies (#) education .. 3n the conte$t of the author4s discussion of regulating change/ which of the following could be most probably regarded as a *strong referee+ (line .5) in the :nited ;tates% (A) A school principal (B) A political theorist (C) A federal court <udge ( ) A social worker (#) A go'ernment inspector 0. The author sets off the word *=eform+ (line .1) with "uotation marks in order to (A) emphasi!e its departure from the concept of settled possessi'eness (B) show his support for a systematic program of change (C) underscore the fle$ibility and e'en amorphousness of :nited ;tates society ( ) indicate that the term was one of &ilson4s fa'orites (#) assert that reform in the :nited ;tates has not been fundamental 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably thinks that gi'ing the disenfranchised *a piece of the action+ (line .6) is (A) a compassionate/ if misdirected/ legislati'e measure (B) an e$ample of Americans4 resistance to profound social change (C) an inno'ati'e program for genuine social reform ( ) a monument to the efforts of industrial reformers (#) a surprisingly *8ld &orld+ remedy for social ills 2. &hich of the following metaphors could the author most appropriately use to summari!e his own assessment of the American economic system (lines .1(25)% (A) A windmill (B) A waterfall

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(C) A treadmill ( ) A gyroscope (#) A bellows -. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &oodrow &ilson4s ideas about the economic market (A) encouraged those who *make the system work+ (lines 01(02) (B) perpetuated traditional legends about America (C) re'ealed the pre<udices of a man born wealthy ( ) foreshadowed the stock market crash of 1,2, (#) began a tradition of presidential proclamations on economics 6. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following "uestions% 3. 33. &hat techni"ues ha'e industrialists used to manipulate a free market% 3n what ways are *9ew &orld+ and *8ld &orld+ economic policies similar%

333. )as economic policy in the :nited ;tates tended to reward independent action% (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 33 only (#) 33 and 333 only ,. &hich of the following best e$presses the author4s main point% (A) Americans4 pride in their <obs continues to gi'e them stamina today. (B) The absence of a status quo ante has undermined :nited ;tates economic structure. (C) The free enterprise system has been only a useless concept in the :nited ;tates. ( ) The myth of the American free enterprise system is seriously flawed. (#) >ascination with the ideal of *openness+ has made Americans a progressi'e people. Passage 3 (3/63)
*o very satis#actory account o# the mechanism that caused the #ormation o# the ocean basins has yet been given. The traditiona" view supposes that the upper mant"e o# the earth behaves as a "i+uid when it is sub2ected to sma"" #orces #or "ong periods and that di##erences in temperature under oceans and continents are su##icient to produce convection in the mant"e o# the earth with rising convection currents under the mid-ocean ridges and sin$ing currents

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under the continents. Theoretica""y' this convection wou"d carry the continenta" p"ates a"ong as though they were on a conveyor be"t and wou"d provide the #orces needed to produce the sp"it that occurs a"ong the ridge. This view may be correct> it has the advantage that the currents are driven by temperature di##erences that themse"ves depend on the position o# the continents. uch a bac$-coup"ing' in which the position o# the moving p"ate has an impact on the #orces that move it' cou"d produce comp"icated and varying motions. 9n the other hand' the theory is imp"ausib"e because convection does not norma""y occur a"ong "ines' and it certain"y does not occur a"ong "ines bro$en by #re+uent o##sets or changes in direction' as the ridge is. 0"so it is di##icu"t to see how the theory app"ies to the p"ate between the ?id-0t"antic Ridge and the ridge in the /ndian 9cean. This p"ate is growing on both sides' and since there is no intermediate trench' the two ridges must be moving apart. /t wou"d be odd i# the rising convection currents $ept e5act pace with them. 0n a"ternative theory is that the sin$ing part o# the p"ate' which is denser than the hotter surrounding mant"e' pu""s the rest o# the p"ate a#ter it. 0gain it is di##icu"t to see how this app"ies to the ridge in the outh 0t"antic' where neither the 0#rican nor the 0merican p"ate has a sin$ing part. 0nother possibi"ity is that the sin$ing p"ate coo"s the neighboring mant"e and produces convection currents that move the p"ates. This "ast theory is attractive because it gives some hope o# e5p"aining the enc"osed seas' such as the ea o# @apan. These seas have a typica" oceanic #"oor' e5cept that the #"oor is over"aid by severa" $i"ometers o# sediment. Their #"oors have probab"y been sin$ing #or "ong periods. /t seems possib"e that a sin$ing current o# coo"ed mant"e materia" on the upper side o# the p"ate might be the cause o# such deep basins. The enc"osed seas are an important #eature o# the earth3s sur#ace' and serious"y re+uire e5p"anation because' in addition to the enc"osed seas that are deve"oping at present behind is"and arcs' there are a number o# o"der ones o# possib"y simi"ar origin' such as the Au"# o# ?e5ico' the &"ac$ ea' and perhaps the *orth ea.

1.

According to the traditional 'iew of the origin of the ocean basins/ which of the following is sufficient to mo'e the continental plates% (A) 3ncreases in sedimentation on ocean floors (B) ;preading of ocean trenches (C) ?o'ement of mid(ocean ridges ( ) ;inking of ocean basins (#) ifferences in temperature under oceans and continents

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that/ of the following/ the deepest sediments would be found in the (A) 3ndian 8cean (B) Black ;ea (C) ?id(Atlantic ( ) ;outh Atlantic (#) @acific

..

The author refers to a *con'eyor belt+ in line 1. in order to

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(A) illustrate the effects of con'ection in the mantle (B) show how temperature differences depend on the positions of the continents (C) demonstrate the linear nature of the ?id(Atlantic =idge ( ) describe the complicated motions made possible by back(coupling (#) account for the rising currents under certain mid(ocean ridges .. The author regards the traditional 'iew of the origin of the oceans with (A) slight apprehension (B) absolute indifference (C) indignant anger ( ) complete disbelief (#) guarded skepticism 0. According to the passage/ which of the following are separated by a plate that is growing on both sides% (A) The @acific 8cean and the ;ea of Aapan (B) The ;outh Atlantic =idge and the 9orth ;ea =idge (C) The Bulf of ?e$ico and the ;outh Atlantic =idge ( ) The ?id(Atlantic =idge and the 3ndian 8cean =idge (#) The Black ;ea and the ;ea of Aapan 1. &hich of the following/ if it could be demonstrated/ would most support the traditional 'iew of ocean formation% (A) Con'ection usually occurs along lines. (B) The upper mantle beha'es as a dense solid. (C) ;edimentation occurs at a constant rate. ( ) ;inking plates cool the mantle. (#) 3sland arcs surround enclosed seas. 2. According to the passage/ the floor of the Black ;ea can best be compared to a (A) rapidly mo'ing con'eyor belt (B) slowly settling foundation (C) rapidly e$panding balloon ( ) 'iolently erupting 'olcano (#) slowly eroding mountain -. &hich of the following titles would best describe the content of the passage% (A) A escription of the 8ceans of the &orld (B) ;e'eral Theories of 8cean Basin >ormation (C) The Traditional Ciew of the 8ceans

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( ) Con'ection and 8cean Currents (#) Temperature ifferences among the 8ceans of the &orld Passage 4 (4/63)
The #ossi" remains o# the #irst #"ying vertebrates' the pterosaurs' have intrigued pa"eonto"ogists #or more than two centuries. (ow such "arge creatures' which weighed in some cases as much as a pi"oted hang-g"ider and had wingspans #rom 8 to 11 meters' so"ved the prob"ems o# powered #"ight' and e5act"y what these creatures were!repti"es or birds!are among the +uestions scientists have pu))"ed over. 6erhaps the "east controversia" assertion about the pterosaurs is that they were repti"es. Their s$u""s' pe"vises' and hind #eet are repti"ian. The anatomy o# their wings suggests that they did not evo"ve into the c"ass o# birds. /n pterosaurs a great"y e"ongated #ourth #inger o# each #ore"imb supported a wing-"i$e membrane. The other #ingers were short and repti"ian' with sharp c"aws. /n birds the second #inger is the principa" strut o# the wing' which consists primari"y o# #eathers. /# the pterosaurs wa"$ed on a"" #ours' the three short #ingers may have been emp"oyed #or grasping. 8hen a pterosaur wa"$ed or remained stationary' the #ourth #inger' and with it the wing' cou"d on"y turn upward in an e5tended inverted B-shape a"ong each side o# the anima"3s body. The pterosaurs resemb"ed both birds and bats in their overa"" structure and proportions. This is not surprising because the design o# any #"ying vertebrate is sub2ect to aerodynamic constraints. &oth the pterosaurs and the birds have ho""ow bones' a #eature that represents a savings in weight. /n the birds' however' these bones are rein#orced more massive"y by interna" struts. 0"though sca"es typica""y cover repti"es' the pterosaurs probab"y had hairy coats. T. (. (u5"ey reasoned that #"ying vertebrates must have been warm-b"ooded because #"ying imp"ies a high rate o# metabo"ism' which in turn imp"ies a high interna" temperature. (u5"ey specu"ated that a coat o# hair wou"d insu"ate against "oss o# body heat and might stream"ine the body to reduce drag in #"ight. The recent discovery o# a pterosaur specimen covered in "ong' dense' and re"ative"y thic$ hair"i$e #ossi" materia" was the #irst c"ear evidence that his reasoning was correct. =##orts to e5p"ain how the pterosaurs became airborne have "ed to suggestions that they "aunched themse"ves by 2umping #rom c"i##s' by dropping #rom trees' or even by rising into "ight winds #rom the crests o# waves. =ach hypothesis has its di##icu"ties. The #irst wrong"y assumes that the pterosaurs3 hind #eet resemb"ed a bat3s and cou"d serve as hoo$s by which the anima" cou"d hang in preparation #or #"ight. The second hypothesis seems un"i$e"y because "arge pterosaurs cou"d not have "anded in trees without damaging their wings. The third ca""s #or high waves to channe" updra#ts. The wind that made such waves however' might have been too strong #or the pterosaurs to contro" their #"ight once airborne.

1.

3t can be inferred from the passage that scientists now generally agree that the (A) enormous wingspan of the pterosaurs enabled them to fly great distances (B) structure of the skeleton of the pterosaurs suggests a close e'olutionary

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relationship to bats (C) fossil remains of the pterosaurs re'eal how they sol'ed the problem of powered flight ( ) pterosaurs were reptiles (#) pterosaurs walked on all fours 2. The author 'iews the idea that the pterosaurs became airborne by rising into light winds created by wa'es as (A) re'olutionary (B) unlikely (C) unassailable ( ) probable (#) outdated .. According to the passage/ the skeleton of a pterosaur can be distinguished from that of a bird by the (A) si!e of its wingspan (B) presence of hollow spaces in its bones (C) anatomic origin of its wing strut ( ) presence of hooklike pro<ections on its hind feet (#) location of the shoulder <oint <oining the wing to its body 0. The ideas attributed to T. ). )u$ley in the passage suggest that he would most likely agree with which of the following statements% (A) An animal4s brain si!e has little bearing on its ability to master comple$ beha'iors. (B) An animal4s appearance is often influenced by en'ironmental re"uirements and physical capabilities. (C) Animals within a gi'en family group are unlikely to change their appearance dramatically o'er a period of time. ( ) The origin of flight in 'ertebrates was an accidental de'elopment rather than the outcome of speciali!ation or adaptation. (#) The pterosaurs should be classified as birds/ not reptiles. 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is characteristic of the pterosaurs% (A) They were unable to fold their wings when not in use. (B) They hung upside down from branches as bats do before flight. (C) They flew in order to capture prey. ( ) They were an early stage in the e'olution of the birds. (#) They li'ed primarily in a forest(like habitat.

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11

2.

&hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph of the passage% (A) 9ew e'idence is introduced to support a traditional point of 'iew. (B) Three e$planations for a phenomenon are presented/ and each is disputed by means of specific information. (C) Three hypotheses are outlined/ and e'idence supporting each is gi'en. ( ) =ecent disco'eries are described/ and their implications for future study are pro<ected. (#) A summary of the material in the preceding paragraphs is presented/ and conclusions are drawn.

-.

3t can be inferred from the passage that some scientists belie'e that pterosaurs (A) li'ed near large bodies of water (B) had sharp teeth for tearing food (C) were attacked and eaten by larger reptiles ( ) had longer tails than many birds (#) consumed twice their weight daily to maintain their body temperature Passage 5 (5/63)
(ow many rea""y su##er as a resu"t o# "abor mar$et prob"emsC This is one o# the most

critica" yet contentious socia" po"icy +uestions. /n many ways' our socia" statistics e5aggerate the degree o# hardship. Unemp"oyment does not have the same dire conse+uences today as it did in the 194.3s when most o# the unemp"oyed were primary breadwinners' when income and earnings were usua""y much c"oser to the margin o# subsistence' and when there were no countervai"ing socia" programs #or those #ai"ing in the "abor mar$et. /ncreasing a##"uence' the rise o# #ami"ies with more than one wage earner' the growing predominance o# secondary earners among the unemp"oyed' and improved socia" we"#are protection have un+uestionab"y mitigated the conse+uences o# 2ob"essness. =arnings and income data a"so overstate the dimensions o# hardship. 0mong the mi""ions with hour"y earnings at or be"ow the minimum wage "eve"' the overwhe"ming ma2ority are #rom mu"tip"e-earner' re"ative"y a##"uent #ami"ies. ?ost o# those counted by the poverty statistics are e"der"y or handicapped or have #ami"y responsibi"ities which $eep them out o# the "abor #orce' so the poverty statistics are by no means an accurate indicator o# "abor mar$et patho"ogies. Det there are a"so many ways our socia" statistics underestimate the degree o# "abormar$et-re"ated hardship. The unemp"oyment counts e5c"ude the mi""ions o# #u""y emp"oyed wor$ers whose wages are so "ow that their #ami"ies remain in poverty. Eow wages and repeated or pro"onged unemp"oyment #re+uent"y interact to undermine the capacity #or se"#support. ince the number e5periencing 2ob"essness at some time during the year is severa" times the number unemp"oyed in any month' those who su##er as a resu"t o# #orced id"eness can e+ua" or e5ceed average annua" unemp"oyment' even though on"y a minority o# the 2ob"ess in any month rea""y su##er. 7or every person counted in the month"y unemp"oyment

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ta""ies' there is another wor$ing part-time because o# the inabi"ity to #ind #u""-time wor$' or e"se outside the "abor #orce but wanting a 2ob. 7ina""y' income trans#ers in our country have a"ways #ocused on the e"der"y' disab"ed' and dependent' neg"ecting the needs o# the wor$ing poor' so that the dramatic e5pansion o# cash and in-$ind trans#ers does not necessari"y mean that those #ai"ing in the "abor mar$et are ade+uate"y protected. 0s a resu"t o# such contradictory evidence' it is uncertain whether those su##ering serious"y as a resu"t o# "abor mar$et prob"ems number in the hundreds o# thousands or the tens o# mi""ions' and' hence' whether high "eve"s o# 2ob"essness can be to"erated or must be countered by 2ob creation and economic stimu"us. There is on"y one area o# agreement in this debate!that the e5isting poverty' emp"oyment' and earnings statistics are inade+uate #or one their primary app"ications' measuring the conse+uences o# "abor mar$et prob"ems.

1.

&hich of the following is the principal topic of the passage% (A) &hat causes labor market pathologies that result in suffering (B) &hy income measures are imprecise in measuring degrees of po'erty (C) &hich of the currently used statistical procedures are the best for estimating the incidence of hardship that is due to unemployment ( ) &here the areas of agreement are among po'erty/ employment/ and earnings figures (#) )ow social statistics gi'e an unclear picture of the degree of hardship caused by low wages and insufficient employment opportunities

2.

The author uses *labor market problems+ in lines 1(2 to refer to which of the following% (A) The o'erall causes of po'erty (B) eficiencies in the training of the work force (C) Trade relationships among producers of goods ( ) ;hortages of <obs pro'iding ade"uate income (#) ;trikes and inade"uate supplies of labor

..

The author contrasts the 1,.54s with the present in order to show that (A) more people were unemployed in the 1,.54s (B) unemployment now has less se'ere effects (C) social programs are more needed now ( ) there now is a greater proportion of elderly and handicapped people among those in po'erty (#) po'erty has increased since the 1,.54s

0.

&hich of the following proposals best responds to the issues raised by the author% (A) 3nno'ati'e programs using multiple approaches should be set up to reduce the le'el of unemployment. (B) A compromise should be found between the positions of those who 'iew

GMAT

1.

<oblessness as an e'il greater than economic control and those who hold the opposite 'iew. (C) 9ew statistical indices should be de'eloped to measure the degree to which unemployment and inade"uately paid employment cause suffering. ( ) Consideration should be gi'en to the ways in which statistics can act as partial causes of the phenomena that they purport to measure. (#) The labor force should be restructured so that it corresponds to the range of <ob 'acancies. 1. The author4s purpose in citing those who are repeatedly unemployed during a twel'e(month period is most probably to show that (A) there are se'eral factors that cause the payment of low wages to some members of the labor force (B) unemployment statistics can underestimate the hardship resulting from <oblessness (C) recurrent inade"uacies in the labor market can e$ist and can cause hardships for indi'idual workers ( ) a ma<ority of those who are <obless at any one time to not suffer se'ere hardship (#) there are fewer indi'iduals who are without <obs at some time during a year than would be e$pected on the basis of monthly unemployment figures 2. The author states that the mitigating effect of social programs in'ol'ing income transfers on the income le'el of low(income people is often not felt by (A) the employed poor (B) dependent children in single(earner families (C) workers who become disabled ( ) retired workers (#) full(time workers who become unemployed -. According to the passage/ one factor that causes unemployment and earnings figures to o'erpredict the amount of economic hardship is the (A) recurrence of periods of unemployment for a group of low(wage workers (B) possibility that earnings may be recei'ed from more than one <ob per worker (C) fact that unemployment counts do not include those who work for low wages and remain poor ( ) establishment of a system of record(keeping that makes it possible to compile po'erty statistics (#) pre'alence/ among low(wage workers and the unemployed/ of members of families in which others are employed 6. The conclusion stated in lines ..(., about the number of people who suffer as a

10

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

result of forced idleness depends primarily on the point that (A) in times of high unemployment/ there are some people who do not remain unemployed for long (B) the capacity for self(support depends on recei'ing moderate(to(high wages (C) those in forced idleness include/ besides the unemployed/ both underemployed part(time workers and those not acti'ely seeking work ( ) at different times during the year/ different people are unemployed (#) many of those who are affected by unemployment are dependents of unemployed workers ,. &hich of the following/ if true/ is the best criticism of the author4s argument concerning why po'erty statistics cannot properly be used to show the effects of problems in the labor market% (A) A short(term increase in the number of those in po'erty can indicate a shortage of <obs because the basic number of those unable to accept employment remains appro$imately constant. (B) >or those who are in po'erty as a result of <oblessness/ there are social programs a'ailable that pro'ide a minimum standard of li'ing. (C) @o'erty statistics do not consistently agree with earnings statistics/ when each is taken as a measure of hardship resulting from unemployment. ( ) The elderly and handicapped categories include many who pre'iously were employed in the labor market. (#) ;ince the labor market is global in nature/ poor workers in one country are competing with poor workers in another with respect to the le'el of wages and the e$istence of <obs. Passage 6 (6/63)
/n the eighteenth century' @apan3s #euda" over"ords' #rom the shogun to the humb"est samurai' #ound themse"ves under #inancia" stress. /n part' this stress can be attributed to the over"ords3 #ai"ure to ad2ust to a rapid"y e5panding economy' but the stress was a"so due to #actors beyond the over"ords3 contro". %oncentration o# the samurai in cast"e-towns had acted as a stimu"us to trade. %ommercia" e##iciency' in turn' had put temptations in the way o# buyers. ince most samurai had been reduced to id"eness by years o# peace' encouraged to engage in scho"arship and martia" e5ercises or to per#orm administrative tas$s that too$ "itt"e time' it is not surprising that their tastes and habits grew e5pensive. 9ver"ords3 income' despite the increase in rice production among their tenant #armers' #ai"ed to $eep pace with their e5penses. 0"though short#a""s in over"ords3 income resu"ted a"most as much #rom "a5ity among their ta5 co""ectors (the near"y inevitab"e outcome o# hereditary o##ice-ho"ding) as #rom their higher standards o# "iving' a mis#ortune "i$e a #ire or #"ood' bringing an increase in e5penses or a drop in revenue' cou"d put a domain in debt to the city rice-bro$ers who hand"ed its #inances. 9nce in debt' neither the individua" samurai nor the shogun himse"#

GMAT
#ound it easy to recover. /t was di##icu"t #or individua" samurai over"ords to increase their income because the amount o# rice that #armers cou"d be made to pay in ta5es was not un"imited' and since the

11

income o# @apan3s centra" government consisted in part o# ta5es co""ected by the shogun #rom his huge domain' the government too was constrained. There#ore' the To$ugawa shoguns began to "oo$ to other sources #or revenue. %ash pro#its #rom government-owned mines were a"ready on the dec"ine because the most easi"y wor$ed deposits o# si"ver and go"d had been e5hausted' a"though debasement o# the coinage had compensated #or the "oss. 9pening up new #arm"and was a possibi"ity' but most o# what was suitab"e had a"ready been e5p"oited and #urther rec"amation was technica""y un#easib"e. Firect ta5ation o# the samurai themse"ves wou"d be po"itica""y dangerous. This "e#t the shoguns on"y commerce as a potentia" source o# government income. ?ost o# the country3s wea"th' or so it seemed' was #inding its way into the hands o# city merchants. /t appeared reasonab"e that they shou"d contribute part o# that revenue to ease the shogun3s burden o# #inancing the state. 0 means o# obtaining such revenue was soon #ound by "evying #orced "oans' $nown as goyo-kin: a"though these were not ta5es in the strict sense' since they were irregu"ar in timing and arbitrary in amount' they were high in yie"d. Un#ortunate"y' they pushed up prices. Thus' regrettab"y' the To$ugawa shoguns3 search #or so"vency #or the government made it increasing"y di##icu"t #or individua" @apanese who "ived on #i5ed stipends to ma$e ends meet.

1.

The passage is most probably an e$cerpt from (A) an economic history of Aapan (B) the memoirs of a samurai warrior (C) a modern no'el about eighteenth(century Aapan ( ) an essay contrasting Aapanese feudalism with its &estern counterpart (#) an introduction to a collection of Aapanese folktales

2.

&hich of the following financial situations is most analogous to the financial situation in which Aapan4s Tokugawa shoguns found themsel'es in the eighteenth century% (A) A small business borrows hea'ily to in'est in new e"uipment/ but is able to pay off its debt early when it is awarded a lucrati'e go'ernment contract. (B) >ire destroys a small business/ but insurance co'ers the cost of rebuilding. (C) A small business is turned down for a loan at a local bank because the owners ha'e no credit history. ( ) A small business has to struggle to meet operating e$penses when its profits decrease. (#) A small business is able to cut back sharply on spending through greater commercial efficiency and thereby compensate for a loss of re'enue.

..

&hich of the following best describes the attitude of the author toward the samurai discussed in lines 11(12%

12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) &armly appro'ing (B) ?ildly sympathetic (C) Bitterly disappointed ( ) )arshly disdainful (#) @rofoundly shocked 0. According to the passage/ the ma<or reason for the financial problems e$perienced by Aapan4s feudal o'erlords in the eighteenth century was that (A) spending had outdistanced income (B) trade had fallen off (C) profits from mining had declined ( ) the coinage had been sharply debased (#) the samurai had concentrated in castle(towns 1. The passage implies that indi'idual samurai did not find it easy to reco'er from debt for which of the following reasons% (A) Agricultural production had increased. (B) Ta$es were irregular in timing and arbitrary in amount. (C) The Aapanese go'ernment had failed to ad<ust to the needs of a changing economy. ( ) The domains of samurai o'erlords were becoming smaller and poorer as go'ernment re'enues increased. (#) There was a limit to the amount in ta$es that farmers could be made to pay. 2. The passage suggests that/ in eighteenth(century Aapan/ the office of ta$ collector (A) was a source of personal profit to the officeholder (B) was regarded with derision by many Aapanese (C) remained within families ( ) e$isted only in castle(towns (#) took up most of the officeholder4s time -. &hich of the following could best be substituted for the word *This+ in line 0without changing the meaning of the passage% (A) The search of Aapan4s Tokugawa shoguns for sol'ency (B) The importance of commerce in feudal Aapan (C) The unfairness of the ta$ structure in eighteenth century Aapan ( ) The difficulty of increasing go'ernment income by other means (#) The difficulty e$perienced by both indi'idual samurai and the shogun himself in e$tricating themsel'es from debt 6. The passage implies that which of the following was the primary reason why the

GMAT

1-

Tokugawa shoguns turned to city merchants for help in financing the state% (A) A series of costly wars had depleted the national treasury. (B) ?ost of the country4s wealth appeared to be in city merchants4 hands. (C) Aapan had suffered a series of economic re'ersals due to natural disasters such as floods. ( ) The merchants were already hea'ily indebted to the shoguns. (#) >urther reclamation of land would not ha'e been economically ad'antageous. ,. According to the passage/ the actions of the Tokugawa shoguns in their search for sol'ency for the go'ernment were regrettable because those actions (A) raised the cost of li'ing by pushing up prices (B) resulted in the e$haustion of the most easily worked deposits of sil'er and gold (C) were far lower in yield than had originally been anticipated ( ) did not succeed in reducing go'ernment spending (#) acted as a deterrent to trade Passage 7 (7/63)
&etween the eighth and e"eventh centuries 0. F.' the &y)antine =mpire staged an a"most unpara""e"ed economic and cu"tura" reviva"' a recovery that is a"" the more stri$ing because it #o""owed a "ong period o# severe interna" dec"ine. &y the ear"y eighth century' the empire had "ost rough"y two-thirds o# the territory it had possessed in the year G..' and its remaining area was being raided by 0rabs and &u"garians' who at times threatened to ta$e %onstantinop"e and e5tinguish the empire a"together. The wea"th o# the state and its sub2ects was great"y diminished' and artistic and "iterary production had virtua""y ceased. &y the ear"y e"eventh century' however' the empire had regained a"most ha"# o# its "ost possessions' its new #rontiers were secure' and its in#"uence e5tended #ar beyond its borders. The economy had recovered' the treasury was #u""' and art and scho"arship had advanced. To consider the &y)antine mi"itary' cu"tura"' and economic advances as di##erentiated aspects o# a sing"e phenomenon is reasonab"e. 0#ter a""' these three #orms o# progress have gone together in a number o# states and civi"i)ations. Rome under 0ugustus and #i#th-century 0thens provide the most obvious e5amp"es in anti+uity. ?oreover' an e5amination o# the apparent se+uentia" connections among mi"itary' economic' and cu"tura" #orms o# progress might he"p e5p"ain the dynamics o# historica" change. The common e5p"anation o# these apparent connections in the case o# &y)antium wou"d run "i$e this> when the empire had turned bac$ enemy raids on its own territory and had begun to raid and con+uer enemy territory' &y)antine resources natura""y e5panded and more money became avai"ab"e to patroni)e art and "iterature. There#ore' &y)antine mi"itary achievements "ed to economic advances' which in turn "ed to cu"tura" reviva". *o doubt this hypothetica" pattern did app"y at times during the course o# the recovery. Det it is not c"ear that mi"itary advances invariab"y came #irst' economic advances second' and

16

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

inte""ectua" advances third. /n the 8G.3s the &y)antine =mpire began to recover #rom 0rab incursions so that by 871 the mi"itary ba"ance with the 0bbasid %a"iphate had been permanent"y a"tered in the empire3s #avor. The beginning o# the empire3s economic reviva"' however' can be p"aced between 81. and 84.. 7ina""y' the &y)antine reviva" o# "earning appears to have begun even ear"ier. 0 number o# notab"e scho"ars and writers appeared by 788 and' by the "ast decade o# the eighth century' a cu"tura" reviva" was in #u"" b"oom' a reviva" that "asted unti" the #a"" o# %onstantinop"e in 1H-4. Thus the common"y e5pected order o# mi"itary reviva" #o""owed by economic and then by cu"tura" recovery was reversed in &y)antium. /n #act' the reviva" o# &y)antine "earning may itse"# have in#"uenced the subse+uent economic and mi"itary e5pansion.

1.

&hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage% (A) The By!antine #mpire was a uni"ue case in which the usual order of military and economic re'i'al preceding cultural re'i'al was re'ersed. (B) The economic/ cultural/ and military re'i'al in the By!antine #mpire between the eighth and ele'enth centuries was similar in its order to the se"uence of re'i'als in Augustan =ome and fifth century Athens. (C) After 615 By!antine economic reco'ery spurred a military and/ later/ cultural e$pansion that lasted until 101.. ( ) The eighth(century re'i'al of By!antine learning is an ine$plicable phenomenon/ and its economic and military precursors ha'e yet to be disco'ered. (#) The re'i'al of the By!antine #mpire between the eighth and ele'enth centuries shows cultural rebirth preceding economic and military re'i'al/ the re'erse of the commonly accepted order of progress.

2.

The primary purpose of the second paragraph is which of the following% (A) To establish the uni"ueness of the By!antine re'i'al (B) To show that Augustan =ome and fifth(century Athens are e$amples of cultural/ economic/ and military e$pansion against which all subse"uent cases must be measured (C) To suggest that cultural/ economic/ and military ad'ances ha'e tended to be closely interrelated in different societies ( ) To argue that/ while the re'i'als of Augustan =ome and fifth(century Athens were similar/ they are unrelated to other historical e$amples (#) To indicate that/ where'er possible/ historians should seek to make comparisons with the earliest chronological e$amples of re'i'al

..

3t can be inferred from the passage that by the ele'enth century the By!antine military forces (A) had reached their peak and begun to decline (B) had eliminated the Bulgarian army

GMAT

1,

(C) were comparable in si!e to the army of =ome under Augustus ( ) were strong enough to withstand the Abbasid Caliphate4s military forces (#) had achie'ed control of By!antine go'ernmental structures 0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the By!antine #mpire sustained significant territorial losses (A) in 255 (B) during the se'enth century (C) a century after the cultural achie'ements of the By!antine #mpire had been lost ( ) soon after the re'i'al of By!antine learning (#) in the century after 6-. 1. 3n the third paragraph/ the author most probably pro'ides an e$planation of the apparent connections among economic/ military/ and cultural de'elopment in order to (A) suggest that the process of re'i'al in By!antium accords with this model (B) set up an order of e'ents that is then shown to be not generally applicable to the case of By!antium (C) cast aspersions on traditional historical scholarship about By!antium ( ) suggest that By!antium represents a case for which no historical precedent e$ists (#) argue that military con"uest is the paramount element in the growth of empires 2. &hich of the following does the author mention as crucial e'idence concerning the manner in which the By!antine re'i'al began% (A) The By!antine military re'i'al of the 6254s led to economic and cultural ad'ances. (B) The By!antine cultural re'i'al lasted until 101.. (C) The By!antine economic reco'ery began in the ,554s. ( ) The re'i'al of By!antine learning began toward the end of the eighth century. (#) By the early ele'enth century the By!antine #mpire had regained much of its lost territory. -. According to the author/ *The common e$planation+ (line 26) of connections between economic/ military/ and cultural de'elopment is (A) re'olutionary and too new to ha'e been applied to the history of the By!antine #mpire (B) reasonable/ but an anti"uated theory of the nature of progress (C) not applicable to the By!antine re'i'al as a whole/ but does perhaps accurately describe limited periods during the re'i'al

25

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) e"ually applicable to the By!antine case as a whole and to the history of military/ economic/ and cultural ad'ances in ancient Breece and =ome (#) essentially not helpful/ because military/ economic/ and cultural ad'ances are part of a single phenomenon Passage 8 (8/63)
Birtua""y everything astronomers $nown about ob2ects outside the so"ar system is based on the detection o# photons!+uanta o# e"ectromagnetic radiation. Det there is another #orm o# radiation that permeates the universe> neutrinos. 8ith (as its name imp"ies) no e"ectric charge' and neg"igib"e mass' the neutrino interacts with other partic"es so rare"y that a neutrino can cross the entire universe' even traversing substantia" aggregations o# matter' without being absorbed or even de#"ected. *eutrinos can thus escape #rom regions o# space where "ight and other $inds o# e"ectromagnetic radiation are b"oc$ed by matter. 7urthermore' neutrinos carry with them in#ormation about the site and circumstances o# their production> there#ore' the detection o# cosmic neutrinos cou"d provide new in#ormation about a wide variety o# cosmic phenomena and about the history o# the universe. &ut how can scientists detect a partic"e that interacts so in#re+uent"y with other matterC Twenty-#ive years passed between 6au"i3s hypothesis that the neutrino e5isted and its actua" detection> since then virtua""y a"" research with neutrinos has been with neutrinos created arti#icia""y in "arge partic"e acce"erators and studied under neutrino microscopes. &ut a neutrino te"escope' capab"e o# detecting cosmic neutrinos' is di##icu"t to construct. *o apparatus can detect neutrinos un"ess it is e5treme"y massive' because great mass is synonymous with huge numbers o# nuc"eons (neutrons and protons)' and the more massive the detector' the greater the probabi"ity o# one o# its nuc"eon3s reacting with a neutrino. /n addition' the apparatus must be su##icient"y shie"ded #rom the inter#ering e##ects o# other partic"es. 7ortunate"y' a group o# astrophysicists has proposed a means o# detecting cosmic neutrinos by harnessing the mass o# the ocean. *amed FU?0*F' #or Feep Underwater ?uon and *eutrino Fetector' the pro2ect ca""s #or p"acing an array o# "ight sensors at a depth o# #ive $i"ometers under the ocean sur#ace. The detecting medium is the seawater itse"#> when a neutrino interacts with a partic"e in an atom o# seawater' the resu"t is a cascade o# e"ectrica""y charged partic"es and a #"ash o# "ight that can be detected by the sensors. The #ive $i"ometers o# seawater above the sensors wi"" shie"d them #rom the inter#ering e##ects o# other high-energy partic"es raining down through the atmosphere. The strongest motivation #or the FU?0*F pro2ect is that it wi"" e5p"oit an important source o# in#ormation about the universe. The e5tension o# astronomy #rom visib"e "ight to radio waves to 5-rays and gamma rays never #ai"ed to "ead to the discovery o# unusua" ob2ects such as radio ga"a5ies' +uasars' and pu"sars. =ach o# these discoveries came as a surprise. *eutrino astronomy wi"" doubt"ess bring its own share o# surprises.

1.

&hich of the following titles best summari!es the passage as a whole% (A) At the Threshold of 9eutrino Astronomy

GMAT

21

(B) 9eutrinos and the )istory of the :ni'erse (C) The Creation and ;tudy of 9eutrinos ( ) The :?A9 ;ystem and )ow 3t &orks (#) The @roperties of the 9eutrino 2. &ith which of the following statements regarding neutrino astronomy would the author be most likely to agree% (A) 9eutrino astronomy will supersede all present forms of astronomy. (B) 9eutrino astronomy will be abandoned if the :?A9 pro<ect fails. (C) 9eutrino astronomy can be e$pected to lead to ma<or breakthroughs in astronomy. ( ) 9eutrino astronomy will disclose phenomena that will be more surprising than past disco'eries. (#) 9eutrino astronomy will always be characteri!ed by a large time lag between hypothesis and e$perimental confirmation. .. 3n the last paragraph/ the author describes the de'elopment of astronomy in order to (A) suggest that the potential findings of neutrino astronomy can be seen as part of a series of astronomical successes (B) illustrate the role of surprise in scientific disco'ery (C) demonstrate the effecti'eness of the :?A9 apparatus in detecting neutrinos ( ) name some cosmic phenomena that neutrino astronomy will illuminate (#) contrast the moti'ation of earlier astronomers with that of the astrophysicists working on the :?A9 pro<ect 0. According to the passage/ one ad'antage that neutrinos ha'e for studies in astronomy is that they (A) ha'e been detected for the last twenty(fi'e years (B) possess a 'ariable electric charge (C) are usually e$tremely massi'e ( ) carry information about their history with them (#) are 'ery similar to other electromagnetic particles 1. According to the passage/ the primary use of the apparatus mentioned in lines 20( .2 would be to (A) increase the mass of a neutrino (B) interpret the information neutrinos carry with them (C) study the internal structure of a neutrino ( ) see neutrinos in distant regions of space

22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) detect the presence of cosmic neutrinos 2. The passage states that interactions between neutrinos and other matter are (A) rare (B) artificial (C) undetectable ( ) unpredictable (#) ha!ardous -. The passage mentions which of the following as a reason that neutrinos are hard to detect% (A) Their per'asi'eness in the uni'erse (B) Their ability to escape from different regions of space (C) Their inability to penetrate dense matter ( ) The similarity of their structure to that of nucleons (#) The infre"uency of their interaction with other matter 6. According to the passage/ the interaction of a neutrino with other matter can produce (A) particles that are neutral and massi'e (B) a form of radiation that permeates the uni'erse (C) inaccurate information about the site and circumstances of the neutrino4s production ( ) charged particles and light (#) a situation in which light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation are blocked ,. According to the passage/ one of the methods used to establish the properties of neutrinos was (A) detection of photons (B) obser'ation of the interaction of neutrinos with gamma rays (C) obser'ation of neutrinos that were artificially created ( ) measurement of neutrinos that interacted with particles of seawater (#) e$periments with electromagnetic radiation Passage 9 (9/63)
?ost economists in the United tates seem captivated by the spe"" o# the #ree mar$et. %onse+uent"y' nothing seems good or norma" that does not accord with the re+uirements o# the #ree mar$et. 0 price that is determined by the se""er or' #or that matter' estab"ished by anyone other than the aggregate o# consumers seems pernicious. 0ccording"y' it re+uires a ma2or act o# wi"" to thin$ o# price-#i5ing (the determination o# prices by the se""er) as both

GMAT
;norma"< and having a va"uab"e economic #unction. /n #act' price-#i5ing is norma" in a"" industria"i)ed societies because the industria" system itse"# provides' as an e##ort"ess conse+uence o# its own deve"opment' the price-#i5ing that it re+uires. ?odern industria"

2.

p"anning re+uires and rewards great si)e. (ence' a comparative"y sma"" number o# "arge #irms wi"" be competing #or the same group o# consumers. That each "arge #irm wi"" act with consideration o# its own needs and thus avoid se""ing its products #or more than its competitors charge is common"y recogni)ed by advocates o# #ree-mar$et economic theories. &ut each "arge #irm wi"" a"so act with #u"" consideration o# the needs that it has in common with the other "arge #irms competing #or the same customers. =ach "arge #irm wi"" thus avoid signi#icant price-cutting' because price-cutting wou"d be pre2udicia" to the common interest in a stab"e demand #or products. ?ost economists do not see price-#i5ing when it occurs because they e5pect it to be brought about by a number o# e5p"icit agreements among "arge #irms: it is not. ?oreover' those economists who argue that a""owing the #ree mar$et to operate without inter#erence is the most e##icient method o# estab"ishing prices have not considered the economies o# non-socia"ist countries other than the United states. These economies emp"oy intentiona" price-#i5ing' usua""y in an overt #ashion. 7orma" price-#i5ing by carte" and in#orma" price-#i5ing by agreements covering the members o# an industry are commonp"ace. 8ere there something pecu"iar"y e##icient about the #ree mar$et and ine##icient about price-#i5ing' the countries that have avoided the #irst and used the second wou"d have su##ered drastica""y in their economic deve"opment. There is no indication that they have. ocia"ist industry a"so wor$s within a #ramewor$ o# contro""ed prices. /n the ear"y 197.3s' the oviet Union began to give #irms and industries some o# the #"e5ibi"ity in ad2usting prices that a more in#orma" evo"ution has accorded the capita"ist system. =conomists in the United tates have hai"ed the change as a return to the #ree mar$et. &ut oviet #irms are no more sub2ect to prices estab"ished by a #ree mar$et over which they e5ercise "itt"e in#"uence than are capita"ist #irms: rather' oviet #irms have been given the power to #i5 prices.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) refute the theory that the free market plays a useful role in the de'elopment of industriali!ed societies (B) suggest methods by which economists and members of the go'ernment of the :nited ;tates can recogni!e and combat price(fi$ing by large firms (C) show that in industriali!ed societies price(fi$ing and the operation of the free market are not only compatible but also mutually beneficial ( ) e$plain the 'arious ways in which industriali!ed societies can fi$ prices in order to stabili!e the free market (#) argue that price(fi$ing/ in one form or another/ is an ine'itable part of and benefit to the economy of any industriali!ed society

2.

The passage pro'ides information that would answer which of the following "uestions about price(fi$ing% 3. &hat are some of the ways in which prices can be fi$ed%

20

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

33.

>or what products is price(fi$ing likely to be more profitable that the operation of the free market%

333. 3s price(fi$ing more common in socialist industriali!ed societies or in non( socialist industriali!ed societies% (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 .. The author4s attitude toward *?ost economists in the :nited ;tates+(line 1) can best be described as (A) spiteful and en'ious (B) scornful and denunciatory (C) critical and condescending ( ) ambi'alent but deferential (#) uncertain but interested 0. 3t can be inferred from the author4s argument that a price fi$ed by the seller *seems pernicious+ (line -) because (A) people do not ha'e confidence in large firms (B) people do not e$pect the go'ernment to regulate prices (C) most economists belie'e that consumers as a group should determine prices ( ) most economists associate fi$ed prices with communist and socialist economies (#) most economists belie'e that no one group should determine prices 1. The suggestion in the passage that price(fi$ing in industriali!ed societies is normal arises from the author4s statement that price(fi$ing is (A) a profitable result of economic de'elopment (B) an ine'itable result of the industrial system (C) the result of a number of carefully organi!ed decisions ( ) a phenomenon common to industriali!ed and non(industriali!ed societies (#) a phenomenon best achie'ed cooperati'ely by go'ernment and industry 2. According to the author/ price(fi$ing in non(socialist countries is often (A) accidental but producti'e (B) illegal but useful (C) legal and inno'ati'e ( ) traditional and rigid

GMAT

21

(#) intentional and widespread -. According to the author/ what is the result of the ;o'iet :nion4s change in economic policy in the 1,-54s% (A) ;o'iet firms show greater profit. (B) ;o'iet firms ha'e less control o'er the free market. (C) ;o'iet firms are able to ad<ust to technological ad'ances. ( ) ;o'iet firms ha'e some authority to fi$ prices. (#) ;o'iet firms are more responsi'e to the free market. 6. &ith which of the following statements regarding the beha'ior of large firms in industriali!ed societies would the author be most likely to agree% (A) The directors of large firms will continue to anticipate the demand for products. (B) The directors of large firms are less interested in achie'ing a predictable le'el of profit than in achie'ing a large profit. (C) The directors of large firms will stri'e to reduce the costs of their products. ( ) ?any directors of large firms belie'e that the go'ernment should establish the prices that will be charged for products. (#) ?any directors of large firms belie'e that the price charged for products is likely to increase annually. ,. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) predicting the conse"uences of a practice (B) critici!ing a point of 'iew (C) calling attention to recent disco'eries ( ) proposing a topic for research (#) summari!ing conflicting opinions Passage 10 (10/63)
%a##eine' the stimu"ant in co##ee' has been ca""ed ;the most wide"y used psychoactive substance on =arth.< nyder' Fa"y and &runs have recent"y proposed that ca##eine a##ect behavior by countering the activity in the human brain o# a natura""y occurring chemica" ca""ed adenosine. 0denosine norma""y depresses neuron #iring in many areas o# the brain. /t apparent"y does this by inhibiting the re"ease o# neurotransmitters' chemica"s that carry nerve impu"ses #rom one neuron to the ne5t. Ei$e many other agents that a##ect neuron #iring' adenosine must #irst bind to speci#ic receptors on neurona" membranes. There are at "east two c"asses o# these receptors' which have been designated 01 and 01. nyder et a" propose that ca##eine' which is structura""y simi"ar to adenosine' is ab"e to bind to both types o# receptors' which prevents adenosine #rom attaching there and a""ows the neurons to #ire more readi"y than they otherwise wou"d.

22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

7or many years' ca##eine3s e##ects have been attributed to its inhibition o# the production

o# phosphodiesterase' an en)yme that brea$s down the chemica" ca""ed cyc"ic 0?6. 0 number o# neurotransmitters e5ert their e##ects by #irst increasing cyc"ic 0?6 concentrations in target neurons. There#ore' pro"onged periods at the e"evated concentrations' as might be brought about by a phosphodiesterase inhibitor' cou"d "ead to a greater amount o# neuron #iring and' conse+uent"y' to behaviora" stimu"ation. &ut nyder et a" point out that the ca##eine concentrations needed to inhibit the production o# phosphodiesterase in the brain are much higher than those that produce stimu"ation. ?oreover' other compounds that b"oc$ phosphodiesterase3s activity are not stimu"ants. To buttress their case that ca##eine acts instead by preventing adenosine binding' nyder et a" compared the stimu"atory e##ects o# a series o# ca##eine derivatives with their abi"ity to dis"odge adenosine #rom its receptors in the brains o# mice. ;/n genera"'< they reported' ;the abi"ity o# the compounds to compete at the receptors corre"ates with their abi"ity to stimu"ate "ocomotion in the mouse: i.e.' the higher their capacity to bind at the receptors' the higher their abi"ity to stimu"ate "ocomotion.< Theophy""ine' a c"ose structura" re"ative o# ca##eine and the ma2or stimu"ant in tea' was one o# the most e##ective compounds in both regards. There were some apparent e5ceptions to the genera" corre"ation observed between adenosine-receptor binding and stimu"ation. 9ne o# these was a compound ca""ed 4-isobuty"1-methy"5anthine (/&?I)' which bound very we"" but actua""y depressed mouse "ocomotion. nyder et a" suggests that this is not a ma2or stumb"ing b"oc$ to their hypothesis. The prob"em is that the compound has mi5ed e##ects in the brain' a not unusua" occurrence with psychoactive drugs. =ven ca##eine' which is genera""y $nown on"y #or its stimu"atory e##ects' disp"ays this property' depressing mouse "ocomotion at very "ow concentrations and stimu"ating it at higher ones.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) discuss a plan for in'estigation of a phenomenon that is not yet fully understood (B) present two e$planations of a phenomenon and reconcile the differences between them (C) summari!e two theories and suggest a third theory that o'ercomes the problems encountered in the first two ( ) describe an alternati'e hypothesis and pro'ide e'idence and arguments that support it (#) challenge the 'alidity of a theory by e$posing the inconsistencies and contradictions in it

2.

&hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the theory proposed by ;nyder et al% (A) At 'ery low concentrations in the human brain/ both caffeine and theophylline tend to ha'e depressi'e rather than stimulatory effects on human beha'ior. (B) The ability of caffeine deri'ati'es at 'ery low concentrations to dislodge

GMAT

2-

adenosine from its receptors in mouse brains correlates well with their ability to stimulate mouse locomotion at these low concentrations. (C) The concentration of cyclic A?@ in target neurons in the human brain that leads to increased neuron firing can be produced by se'eral different phosphodiesterase inhibitors in addition to caffeine. ( ) The concentration of caffeine re"uired to dislodge adenosine from its receptors in the human brain is much greater than the concentration that produces beha'ioral stimulation in humans. (#) The concentration of 3B?D re"uired to dislodge adenosine from its receptors in mouse brains is much smaller than the concentration that stimulates locomotion in the mouse. .. According so ;nyder et al/ caffeine differs from adenosine in that caffeine (A) stimulates beha'ior in the mouse and in humans/ whereas adenosine stimulates beha'ior in humans only (B) has mi$ed effects in the brain/ whereas adenosine has only a stimulatory effect (C) increases cyclic A?@ concentrations in target neurons/ whereas adenosine decreases such concentrations ( ) permits release of neurotransmitters when it is bound to adenosine receptors/ whereas adenosine inhibits such release (#) inhibits both neuron firing and the production of phosphodiesterase when there is a sufficient concentration in the brain/ whereas adenosine inhibits only neuron firing 0. 3n response to e$perimental results concerning 3B?D/ ;nyder et al contended that it is not uncommon for psychoacti'e drugs to ha'e (A) mi$ed effects in the brain (B) inhibitory effects on en!ymes in the brain (C) close structural relationships with caffeine ( ) depressi'e effects on mouse locomotion (#) the ability to dislodge caffeine from receptors in the brain 1. The passage suggests that ;nyder et al belie'e that if the older theory concerning caffeine4s effects were correct/ which of the following would ha'e to be the case% 3. 33. All neurotransmitters would increase the short(term concentration of cyclic A?@ in target neurons. ;ubstances other than caffeine that inhibit the production of phosphodiesterase would be stimulants.

333. All concentration le'els of caffeine that are high enough to produce stimulation would also inhibit the production of phosphodiesterase. (A) 3 only

26

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) 3 and 33 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 2. According to ;nyder et al/ all of the following compounds can bind to specific receptors in the brain #DC#@T (A) 3B?D (B) caffeine (C) adenosine ( ) theophylline (#) phosphodiesterase -. ;nyder et al suggest that caffeine4s ability to bind to A1 and A2 receptors can be at least partially attributed to which of the following% (A) The chemical relationship between caffeine and phosphodiesterase (B) The structural relationship between caffeine and adenosine (C) The structural similarity between caffeine and neurotransmitters ( ) The ability of caffeine to stimulate beha'ior (#) The natural occurrence of caffeine and adenosine in the brain 6. The author "uotes ;nyder et al in lines .6(0. most probably in order to (A) re'eal some of the assumptions underlying their theory (B) summari!e a ma<or finding of their e$periments (C) point out that their e$periments were limited to the mouse ( ) indicate that their e$periments resulted only in general correlations (#) refute the ob<ections made by supporters of the older theory ,. The last paragraph of the passage performs which of the following functions% (A) escribes a disconfirming e$perimental result and reports the e$planation gi'en by ;nyder et al in an attempt to reconcile this result with their theory. (B) ;pecifies the basis for the correlation obser'ed by ;nyder et al and presents an e$planation in an attempt to make the correlation consistent with the operation of psychoacti'e drugs other than caffeine. (C) #laborates the description of the correlation obser'ed by ;nyder et al and suggests an additional e$planation in an attempt to make the correlation consistent with the older theory. ( ) =eports inconsistent e$perimental data and describes the method ;nyder et al will use to reanaly!e this data. (#) @ro'ides an e$ample of the hypothesis proposed by ;nyder et al and relates this e$ample to caffeine4s properties.

GMAT

2,

Passage 11 (11/63)
0rchaeo"ogy as a pro#ession #aces two ma2or prob"ems. 7irst' it is the poorest o# the poor. 9n"y pa"try sums are avai"ab"e #or e5cavating and even "ess is avai"ab"e #or pub"ishing the resu"ts and preserving the sites once e5cavated. Det archaeo"ogists dea" with price"ess ob2ects every day. econd' there is the prob"em o# i""ega" e5cavation' resu"ting in museum+ua"ity pieces being so"d to the highest bidder. / wou"d "i$e to ma$e an outrageous suggestion that wou"d at one stro$e provide #unds #or archaeo"ogy and reduce the amount o# i""ega" digging. / wou"d propose that scienti#ic archeo"ogica" e5peditions and governmenta" authorities se"" e5cavated arti#acts on the open mar$et. uch sa"es wou"d provide substantia" #unds #or the e5cavation and preservation o# archaeo"ogica" sites and the pub"ication o# resu"ts. 0t the same time' they wou"d brea$ the i""ega" e5cavator3s grip on the mar$et' thereby decreasing the inducement to engage in i""ega" activities. Dou might ob2ect that pro#essiona"s e5cavate to ac+uire $now"edge' not money. ?oreover' ancient arti#acts are part o# our g"oba" cu"tura" heritage' which shou"d be avai"ab"e #or a"" to appreciate' not so"d to the highest bidder. / agree. e"" nothing that has uni+ue artistic merit or scienti#ic va"ue. &ut' you might rep"y everything that comes out o# the ground has scienti#ic va"ue. (ere we part company. Theoretica""y' you may be correct in c"aiming that every arti#act has potentia" scienti#ic va"ue. 6ractica""y' you are wrong. / re#er to the thousands o# pottery vesse"s and ancient "amps that are essentia""y dup"icates o# one another. /n one sma"" e5cavation in %yprus' archaeo"ogists recent"y uncovered 1'... virtua""y indistinguishab"e sma"" 2ugs in a sing"e courtyard' =ven precious roya" sea" impressions $nown as lmelekh hand"es have been #ound in abundance!more than H'... e5amp"es so #ar. The basements o# museums are simp"y not "arge enough to store the arti#acts that are "i$e"y to be discovered in the #uture. There is not enough money even to cata"ogue the #inds: as a resu"t' they cannot be #ound again and become as inaccessib"e as i# they had never been discovered. /ndeed' with the he"p o# a computer' so"d arti#acts cou"d be more accessib"e than are the pieces stored in bu"ging museum basements. 6rior to sa"e' each cou"d be photographed and the "ist o# the purchasers cou"d be maintained on the computer. 0 purchaser cou"d even be re+uired to agree to return the piece i# it shou"d become needed #or scienti#ic purposes. /t wou"d be unrea"istic to suggest that i""ega" digging wou"d stop i# arti#acts were so"d on the open mar$et. &ut the demand #or the c"andestine product wou"d be substantia""y reduced. 8ho wou"d want an unmar$ed pot when another was avai"ab"e whose provenance was $nown' and that was dated stratigraphica""y by the pro#essiona" archaeo"ogist who e5cavated itC

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to propose (A) an alternati'e to museum display of artifacts (B) a way to curb illegal digging while benefiting the archaeological profession

.5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) a way to distinguish artifacts with scientific 'alue from those that ha'e no such 'alue ( ) the go'ernmental regulation of archaeological sites (#) a new system for cataloguing duplicate artifacts 2. The author implies that all of the following statements about duplicate artifacts are true #DC#@TE (A) A market for such artifacts already e$ists. (B) ;uch artifacts seldom ha'e scientific 'alue. (C) There is likely to be a continuing supply of such artifacts. ( ) ?useums are well supplied with e$amples of such artifacts. (#) ;uch artifacts fre"uently e$ceed in "uality those already catalogued in museum collections. .. &hich of the following is mentioned in the passage as a disad'antage of storing artifacts in museum basements% (A) ?useum officials rarely allow scholars access to such artifacts. (B) ;pace that could be better used for display is taken up for storage. (C) Artifacts disco'ered in one e$ca'ation often become separated from each other. ( ) ;uch artifacts are often damaged by 'ariations in temperature and humidity. (#) ;uch artifacts4 often remain uncatalogued and thus cannot be located once they are put in storage. 0. The author mentions the e$ca'ation in Cyprus (lines .1(.0) to emphasi!e which of the following points% (A) Ancient lamps and pottery 'essels are less 'aluable/ although more rare/ than royal seal impressions. (B) Artifacts that are 'ery similar to each other present cataloguing difficulties to archaeologists. (C) Artifacts that are not uni"uely 'aluable/ and therefore could be sold/ are a'ailable in large "uantities. ( ) Cyprus is the most important location for unearthing large "uantities of salable artifacts. (#) 3llegal sales of duplicate artifacts are wide(spread/ particularly on the island of Cyprus. 1. The author4s argument concerning the effect of the official sale of duplicate artifacts on illegal e$ca'ation is based on which of the following assumptions% (A) @rospecti'e purchasers would prefer to buy authenticated artifacts. (B) The price of illegally e$ca'ated artifacts would rise. (C) Computers could be used to trace sold artifacts.

GMAT

.1

( ) 3llegal e$ca'ators would be forced to sell only duplicate artifacts. (#) ?oney gained from selling authenticated artifacts could be used to in'estigate and prosecute illegal e$ca'ators. 2. The author anticipates which of the following initial ob<ections to the adoption of his proposal% (A) ?useum officials will become unwilling to store artifacts. (B) An o'ersupply of salable artifacts will result and the demand for them will fall. (C) Artifacts that would ha'e been displayed in public places will be sold to pri'ate collectors. ( ) 3llegal e$ca'ators will ha'e an e'en larger supply of artifacts for resale. (#) Counterfeiting of artifacts will become more commonplace. -. The author implies that which of the following would occur if duplicate artifacts were sold on the open market% 3. 33. 3llegal e$ca'ation would e'entually cease completely. Cyprus would become the primary source of marketable duplicate artifacts.

333. Archaeologists would be able to publish the results of their e$ca'ations more fre"uently than they currently do. (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 Passage 12 (12/63)
(This passage is e5cerpted #rom materia" pub"ished in 198..) 7edera" e##orts to aid minority businesses began in the 19G.3s when the ma"" &usiness 0dministration ( &0) began ma$ing #edera""y guaranteed "oans and government-sponsored management and technica" assistance avai"ab"e to minority business enterprises. 8hi"e this program enab"ed many minority entrepreneurs to #orm new businesses' the resu"ts were disappointing' since manageria" ine5perience' un#avorab"e "ocations' and capita" shortages "ed to high #ai"ure rates. =ven years a#ter the program was imp"emented' minority business receipts were not +uite two percent o# the nationa" economy3s tota" receipts. Recent"y #edera" po"icyma$ers have adopted an approach intended to acce"erate deve"opment o# the minority business sector by moving away #rom direct"y aiding sma"" minority enterprises and toward supporting "arger' growth-oriented minority #irms through intermediary companies. /n this approach' "arge corporations participate in the deve"opment o# success#u" and stab"e minority businesses by ma$ing use o# government-sponsored venture capita". The capita" is used by a participating company to estab"ish a ?inority

.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

=nterprise ma"" &usiness /nvestment %ompany or ?= &/%. The ?= &/% then provides capita" and guidance to minority businesses that have potentia" to become #uture supp"iers or customers o# the sponsoring company. ?= &/%3s are the resu"t o# the be"ie# that providing estab"ished #irms with easier access to re"evant management techni+ues and more 2ob-speci#ic e5perience' as we"" as substantia" amounts o# capita"' gives those #irms a greater opportunity to deve"op sound business #oundations than does simp"y ma$ing genera" management e5perience and sma"" amounts o# capita" avai"ab"e. 7urther' since potentia" mar$ets #or the minority businesses a"ready e5ist through the sponsoring companies' the minority businesses #ace considerab"y "ess ris$ in terms o# "ocation and mar$et #"uctuation. 7o""owing ear"y #inancia" and operating prob"ems' sponsoring corporations began to capita"i)e ?= &/%3s #ar above the "ega" minimum o# ,-..'... in order to generate su##icient income and to sustain the +ua"ity o# management needed. ?= &/%3s are now emerging as increasing"y important #inancing sources #or minority enterprises. /ronica""y' ?= &/% sta##s' which usua""y consist o# (ispanic and &"ac$ pro#essiona"s' tend to approach investments in minority #irms more pragmatica""y than do many ?= &/% directors' who are usua""y senior managers #rom sponsoring corporations. The "atter o#ten sti"" thin$ main"y in terms o# the ;socia" responsibi"ity approach< and thus seem to pre#er dea"s that are ris$ier and "ess attractive than norma" investment criteria wou"d warrant. uch di##erences in viewpoint have produced uneasiness among many minority sta## members' who #ee" that minority entrepreneurs and businesses shou"d be 2udged by estab"ished business considerations. These sta## members be"ieve their point o# view is c"oser to the origina" phi"osophy o# ?= &/%3s and they are concerned that' un"ess a more prudent course is #o""owed' ?= &/% directors may revert to po"icies "i$e"y to re-create the disappointing resu"ts o# the origina" &0 approach.

1.

&hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage% (A) The use of ?#;B3C4s for aiding minority entrepreneurs seems to ha'e greater potential for success than does the original ;BA approach. (B) There is a crucial difference in point of 'iew between the staff and directors of some ?#;B3C4s. (C) After initial problems with management and marketing/ minority businesses ha'e begun to e$pand at a steady rate. ( ) ?inority entrepreneurs wishing to form new businesses now ha'e se'eral e"ually successful federal programs on which to rely. (#) >or the first time since 1,25/ large corporations are making significant contributions to the de'elopment of minority businesses.

2.

According to the passage/ the ?#;B3C approach differs from the ;BA approach in that ?#;B3C4s (A) seek federal contracts to pro'ide markets for minority businesses (B) encourage minority businesses to pro'ide markets for other minority businesses

GMAT

..

(C) attempt to maintain a specified rate of growth in the minority business sector ( ) rely on the participation of large corporations to finance minority businesses (#) select minority businesses on the basis of their location .. &hich of the following does the author cite to support the conclusion that the results of the ;BA program were disappointing% (A) The small number of new minority enterprises formed as a result of the program (B) The small number of minority enterprises that took ad'antage of the management and technical assistance offered under the program (C) The small percentage of the nation4s business receipts earned by minority enterprises following the programs/ implementation ( ) The small percentage of recipient minority enterprises that were able to repay federally guaranteed loans made under the program (#) The small number of minority enterprises that chose to participate in the program 0. &hich of the following statements about the ;BA program can be inferred from the passage% (A) The ma$imum term for loans made to recipient businesses was 11 years. (B) Business loans were considered to be more useful to recipient businesses than was management and technical assistance. (C) The anticipated failure rate for recipient businesses was significantly lower than the rate that actually resulted. ( ) =ecipient businesses were encouraged to relocate to areas more fa'orable for business de'elopment. (#) The capitali!ation needs of recipient businesses were assessed and then pro'ided for ade"uately. 1. Based on information in the passage/ which of the following would be indicati'e of the pragmatism of ?#;B3C staff members% 3. 33. A reluctance to in'est in minority businesses that show marginal e$pectations of return on the in'estments A desire to in'est in minority businesses that produce goods and ser'ices likely to be of use to the sponsoring company

333. A belief that the minority business sector is best ser'ed by in'esting primarily in newly established businesses (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only

.0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) 3/ 33 and 333 2. The author refers to the *financial and operating problems+ (line .6) encountered by ?#;B3C4s primarily in order to (A) broaden the scope of the discussion to include the legal considerations of funding ?#;B3C4; through sponsoring companies (B) call attention to the fact that ?#;B3C4s must recei'e ade"uate funding in order to function effecti'ely (C) show that sponsoring companies were willing to in'est only 7155/555 of go'ernment(sponsored 'enture capital in the original ?#;B3C4s ( ) compare ;BA and ?#;B3C limits on minimum funding (#) refute suggestions that ?#;B3C4s ha'e been only marginally successful -. The author4s primary ob<ecti'e in the passage is to (A) dispro'e the 'iew that federal efforts to aid minority businesses ha'e been ineffecti'e (B) e$plain how federal efforts to aid minority businesses ha'e changed since the 1,254s (C) establish a direct link between the federal efforts to aid minority businesses made before the 1,254s and those made in the 1,654s ( ) analy!e the basis for the belief that <ob(specific e$perience is more useful to minority businesses than is general management e$perience (#) argue that the *social responsibility approach+ to aiding minority businesses is superior to any other approach 6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the attitude of some ?#;B3C staff members toward the in'estments preferred by some ?#;B3C directors can best be described as (A) defensi'e (B) resigned (C) indifferent ( ) shocked (#) disappro'ing ,. The passage pro'ides information that would answer which of the following "uestions% (A) &hat was the a'erage annual amount/ in dollars/ of minority business receipts before the ;BA strategy was implemented% (B) &hat locations are considered to be unfa'orable for minority businesses% (C) &hat is the current success rate for minority businesses that are capitali!ed by ?#;B3C4s% ( ) )ow has the use of federal funding for minority businesses changed since the

GMAT

.1

1,254s% (#) )ow do minority businesses apply to participate in a ?#;B3C program% Passage 13 (13/63)
The ma2ority o# success#u" senior managers do not c"ose"y #o""ow the c"assica" rationa" mode" o# #irst c"ari#ying goa"s' assessing the prob"em' #ormu"ating options' estimating "i$e"ihoods o# success' ma$ing a decision' and on"y then ta$ing action to imp"ement the decision. Rather' in their day-by-day tactica" maneuvers' these senior e5ecutives re"y on what is vague"y termed ;intuition< to manage a networ$ o# interre"ated prob"ems that re+uire them to dea" with ambiguity' inconsistency' nove"ty' and surprise: and to integrate action into the process o# thin$ing. Aenerations o# writers on management have recogni)ed that some practicing managers re"y heavi"y on intuition. /n genera"' however' such writers disp"ay a poor grasp o# what intuition is. ome see it as the opposite o# rationa"ity: others view it as an e5cuse #or capriciousness. /senberg3s recent research on the cognitive processes o# senior managers revea"s that managers3 intuition is neither o# these. Rather' senior managers use intuition in at "east #ive distinct ways. 7irst' they intuitive"y sense when a prob"em e5ists. econd' managers re"y on intuition to per#orm we""-"earned behavior patterns rapid"y. This intuition is not arbitrary or irrationa"' but is based on years o# painsta$ing practice and hands-on e5perience that bui"d s$i""s. 0 third #unction o# intuition is to synthesi)e iso"ated bits o# data and practice into an integrated picture' o#ten in an ;0haJ< e5perience. 7ourth' some managers use intuition as a chec$ on the resu"ts o# more rationa" ana"ysis. ?ost senior e5ecutives are #ami"iar with the #orma" decision ana"ysis mode"s and too"s' and those who use such systematic methods #or reaching decisions are occasiona""y "eery o# so"utions suggested by these methods which run counter to their sense o# the correct course o# action. 7ina""y' managers can use intuition to bypass in-depth ana"ysis and move rapid"y to engender a p"ausib"e so"ution. Used in this way' intuition is an a"most instantaneous cognitive process in which a manager recogni)es #ami"iar patterns. 9ne o# the imp"ications o# the intuitive sty"e o# e5ecutive management is that ;thin$ing< is inseparab"e #rom acting. ince managers o#ten ;$now< what is right be#ore they can ana"y)e and e5p"ain it' they #re+uent"y act #irst and e5p"ain "ater. 0na"ysis is ine5tricab"y tied to action in thin$ingKacting cyc"es' in which managers deve"op thoughts about their companies and organi)ations not by ana"y)ing a prob"ematic situation and then acting' but by acting and ana"y)ing in c"ose concert. Aiven the great uncertainty o# many o# the management issues that they #ace' senior managers o#ten instigate a course o# action simp"y to "earn more about an issue. They then use the resu"ts o# the action to deve"op a more comp"ete understanding o# the issue. 9ne imp"ication o# thin$ingKacting cyc"es is that action is o#ten part o# de#ining the prob"em' not 2ust o# imp"ementing the so"ution.

1.

According to the passage/ senior managers use intuition in all of the following ways #DC#@T to

.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) speed up of the creation of a solution to a problem (B) identify a problem (C) bring together disparate facts ( ) stipulate clear goals (#) e'aluate possible solutions to a problem 2. The passage suggests which of the following about the *writers on management+ mentioned in line 12% (A) They ha'e critici!ed managers for not following the classical rational model of decision analysis. (B) They ha'e not based their analyses on a sufficiently large sample of actual managers. (C) They ha'e relied in drawing their conclusions on what managers say rather than on what managers do. ( ) They ha'e misunderstood how managers use intuition in making business decisions. (#) They ha'e not acknowledged the role of intuition in managerial practice. .. &hich of the following best e$emplifies *an FAhaG4 e$perience+ (line 26) as it is presented in the passage% (A) A manager risks taking an action whose outcome is unpredictable to disco'er whether the action changes the problem at hand. (B) A manager performs well(learned and familiar beha'ior patterns in creati'e and uncharacteristic ways to sol'e a problem. (C) A manager suddenly connects seemingly unrelated facts and e$periences to create a pattern rele'ant to the problem at hand. ( ) A manager rapidly identifies the methodology used to compile data yielded by systematic analysis. (#) A manager swiftly decides which of se'eral sets of tactics to implement in order to deal with the contingencies suggested by a problem. 0. According to the passage/ the classical model of decision analysis includes all of the following #DC#@T (A) e'aluation of a problem (B) creation of possible solutions to a problem (C) establishment of clear goals to be reached by the decision ( ) action undertaken in order to disco'er more information about a problem (#) comparison of the probable effects of different solutions to a problem 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would most probably be one ma<or difference in beha'ior between ?anager D/ who uses intuition to reach decisions/ and ?anager H/ who uses only formal decision

GMAT

.-

analysis% (A) ?anager D analy!es first and then actsI ?anager H does not. (B) ?anager D checks possible solutions to a problem by systematic analysisI ?anager H does not. (C) ?anager D takes action in order to arri'e at the solution to a problemI ?anager H does not. ( ) ?anager H draws on years of hands(on e$perience in creating a solution to a problemI ?anager D does not. (#) ?anger H depends on day(to(day tactical maneu'eringI manager D does not. 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *thinkingJacting cycles+ (line 01) in managerial practice would be likely to result in which of the following% 3. 33. A manager analy!es a network of problems and then acts on the basis of that analysis. A manager gathers data by acting and obser'ing the effects of action.

333. A manager takes action without being able to articulate reasons for that particular action. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 -. The passage pro'ides support for which of the following statements% (A) ?anagers who rely on intuition are more successful than those who rely on formal decision analysis. (B) ?anagers cannot <ustify their intuiti'e decisions. (C) ?anagers4 intuition works contrary to their rational and analytical skills. ( ) Kogical analysis of a problem increases the number of possible solutions. (#) 3ntuition enables managers to employ their practical e$perience more efficiently. 6. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph of the passage% (A) An assertion is made and a specific supporting e$ample is gi'en. (B) A con'entional model is dismissed and an alternati'e introduced. (C) The results of recent research are introduced and summari!ed. ( ) Two opposing points of 'iew are presented and e'aluated. (#) A widely accepted definition is presented and "ualified.

.6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

Passage 14 (14/63)
*ear"y a century ago' bio"ogists #ound that i# they separated an invertebrate anima" embryo into two parts at an ear"y stage o# its "i#e' it wou"d survive and deve"op as two norma" embryos. This "ed them to be"ieve that the ce""s in the ear"y embryo are undetermined in the sense that each ce"" has the potentia" to deve"op in a variety o# di##erent ways. Eater bio"ogists #ound that the situation was not so simp"e. /t matters in which p"ane the embryo is cut. /# it is cut in a p"ane di##erent #rom the one used by the ear"y investigators' it wi"" not #orm two who"e embryos. 0 debate arose over what e5act"y was happening. 8hich embryo ce""s are determined' 2ust when do they become irreversib"y committed to their #ates' and what are the ;morphogenetic determinants< that te"" a ce"" what to becomeC &ut the debate cou"d not be reso"ved because no one was ab"e to as$ the crucia" +uestions in a #orm in which they cou"d be pursued productive"y. Recent discoveries in mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy' however' have opened up prospects #or a reso"ution o# the debate. *ow investigators thin$ they $now at "east some o# the mo"ecu"es that act as morphogenetic determinants in ear"y deve"opment. They have been ab"e to show that' in a sense' ce"" determination begins even be#ore an egg is #erti"i)ed. tudying sea urchins' bio"ogist 6au" Aross #ound that an un#erti"i)ed egg contains substances that #unction as morphogenetic determinants. They are "ocated in the cytop"asm o# the egg ce"": i.e.' in that part o# the ce""3s protop"asm that "ies outside o# the nuc"eus. /n the un#erti"i)ed egg' the substances are inactive and are not distributed homogeneous"y. 8hen the egg is #erti"i)ed' the substances become active and' presumab"y' govern the behavior o# the genes they interact with. ince the substances are uneven"y distributed in the egg' when the #erti"i)ed egg divides' the resu"ting ce""s are di##erent #rom the start and so can be +ua"itative"y di##erent in their own gene activity. The substances that Aross studied are materna" messenger R*03s!products o# certain o# the materna" genes. (e and other bio"ogists studying a wide variety o# organisms have #ound that these particu"ar R*03s direct' in "arge part' the synthesis o# histones' a c"ass o# proteins that bind to F*0. 9nce synthesi)ed' the histones move into the ce"" nuc"eus' where section o# F*0 wrap around them to #orm a structure that resemb"es beads' or $nots' on a string. The beads are F*0 segments wrapped around the histones: the string is the intervening F*0. 0nd it is the structure o# these beaded F*0 strings that guide the #ate o# the ce""s in which they are "ocated.

1.

The passage is most probably directed at which kind of audience% (A) ;tate legislators deciding about funding le'els for a state(funded biological laboratory (B) ;cientists speciali!ing in molecular genetics (C) =eaders of an alumni newsletter published by the college that @aul Bross attended ( ) ?arine biologists studying the processes that gi'e rise to new species (#) :ndergraduate biology ma<ors in a molecular biology course

GMAT

.,

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that the morphogenetic determinants present in the early embryo are (A) located in the nucleus of the embryo cells (B) e'enly distributed unless the embryo is not de'eloping normally (C) inacti'e until the embryo cells become irre'ersibly committed to their final function ( ) identical to those that were already present in the unfertili!ed egg (#) present in larger "uantities than is necessary for the de'elopment of a single indi'idual

..

The main topic of the passage is (A) the early de'elopment of embryos of lower marine organisms (B) the main contribution of modern embryology to molecular biology (C) the role of molecular biology in dispro'ing older theories of embryonic de'elopment ( ) cell determination as an issue in the study of embryonic de'elopment (#) scientific dogma as a factor in the recent debate o'er the 'alue of molecular biology

0.

According to the passage/ when biologists belie'ed that the cells in the early embryo were undetermined/ they made which of the following mistakes% (A) They did not attempt to replicate the original e$periment of separating an embryo into two parts. (B) They did not reali!e that there was a connection between the issue of cell determination and the outcome of the separation e$periment. (C) They assumed that the results of e$periments on embryos did not depend on the particular animal species used for such e$periments. ( ) They assumed that it was crucial to perform the separation e$periment at an early stage in the embryo4s life. (#) They assumed that different ways of separating an embryo into two parts would be e"ui'alent as far as the fate of the two parts was concerned.

1.

3t can be inferred from the passage that the initial production of histones after an egg is fertili!ed takes place (A) in the cytoplasm (B) in the maternal genes (C) throughout the protoplasm ( ) in the beaded portions of the 9A strings (#) in certain sections of the cell nucleus

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is dependent on the fertili!ation of an egg%

05

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) Copying of maternal genes to produce maternal messenger =9A4s (B) ;ynthesis of proteins called histones (C) i'ision of a cell into its nucleus and the cytoplasm ( ) etermination of the egg cell4s potential for di'ision (#) Beneration of all of a cell4s morphogenetic determinants -. According to the passage/ the morphogenetic determinants present in the unfertili!ed egg cell are which of the following% (A) @roteins bound to the nucleus (B) )istones (C) ?aternal messenger =9A4s ( ) Cytoplasm (#) 9onbeaded inter'ening 9A 6. The passage suggests that which of the following plays a role in determining whether an embryo separated into two parts will de'elop as two normal embryos% 3. 33. The stage in the embryo4s life at which the separation occurs The instrument with which the separations is accomplished

333. The plane in which the cut is made that separates the embryo (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 ,. &hich of the following circumstances is most comparable to the impasse biologists encountered in trying to resol'e the debate about cell determination (lines 12(16)% (A) The problems faced by a literary scholar who wishes to use original source materials that are written in an unfamiliar foreign language (B) The situation of a mathematician who in preparing a proof of a theorem for publication detects a reasoning error in the proof (C) The difficulties of a space engineer who has to design e"uipment to function in an en'ironment in which it cannot first be tested ( ) The predicament of a linguist trying to de'elop a theory of language ac"uisition when knowledge of the structure of language itself is rudimentary at best (#) The dilemma confronting a foundation when the funds a'ailable to it are sufficient to support one of two e"ually deser'ing scientific pro<ects but not both

GMAT

01

Passage 15 (15/63)
/n the two decades between 191. and 194.' over ten percent o# the &"ac$ popu"ation o# the United tates "e#t the outh' where the preponderance o# the &"ac$ popu"ation had been "ocated' and migrated to northern states' with the "argest number moving' it is c"aimed' between 191G and 1918. /t has been #re+uent"y assumed' but not proved' that the ma2ority o# the migrants in what has come to be ca""ed the Areat ?igration came #rom rura" areas and were motivated by two concurrent #actors> the co""apse o# the cotton industry #o""owing the bo"" weevi" in#estation' which began in 1898' and increased demand in the *orth #or "abor #o""owing the cessation o# =uropean immigration caused by the outbrea$ o# the 7irst 8or"d 8ar in 191H. This assumption has "ed to the conc"usion that the migrants3 subse+uent "ac$ o# economic mobi"ity in the *orth is tied to rura" bac$ground' a bac$ground that imp"ies un#ami"iarity with urban "iving and a "ac$ o# industria" s$i""s. &ut the +uestion o# who actua""y "e#t the outh has never been rigorous"y investigated. 0"though numerous investigations document an e5odus #rom rura" southern areas to southern cities prior to the Areat ?igration' no one has considered whether the same migrants then moved on to northern cities. /n 191. over G..'... &"ac$ wor$ers' or ten percent o# the &"ac$ wor$ #orce' reported themse"ves to be engaged in ;manu#acturing and mechanica" pursuits'< the #edera" census category rough"y encompassing the entire industria" sector. The Areat ?igration cou"d easi"y have been made up entire"y o# this group and their #ami"ies. /t is perhaps surprising to argue that an emp"oyed popu"ation cou"d be enticed to move' but an e5p"anation "ies in the "abor conditions then preva"ent in the outh. 0bout thirty-#ive percent o# the urban &"ac$ popu"ation in the outh was engaged in s$i""ed trades. ome were #rom the o"d artisan c"ass o# s"avery!b"ac$smiths' masons' carpenters!which had had a monopo"y o# certain trades' but they were gradua""y being pushed out by competition' mechani)ation' and obso"escence. The remaining si5ty-#ive percent' more recent"y urbani)ed' wor$ed in new"y deve"oped industries!tobacco' "umber' coa" and iron manu#acture' and rai"roads. 8ages in the outh' however' were "ow' and &"ac$ wor$ers were aware' through "abor recruiters and the &"ac$ press' that they cou"d earn more even as uns$i""ed wor$ers in the *orth than they cou"d as artisans in the outh. 0#ter the bo"" weevi" in#estation' urban &"ac$ wor$ers #aced competition #rom the continuing in#"u5 o# both &"ac$ and 8hite rura" wor$ers' who were driven to undercut the wages #ormer"y paid #or industria" 2obs. Thus' a move north wou"d be seen as advantageous to a group that was a"ready urbani)ed and steadi"y emp"oyed' and the easy conc"usion tying their subse+uent economic prob"ems in the *orth to their rura" bac$ground comes into +uestion.

1.

The author indicates e$plicitly that which of the following records has been a source of information in her in'estigation% (A) :nited ;tates 3mmigration ;er'ice reports from 1,10 to 1,.5 (B) @ayrolls of southern manufacturing firms between 1,15 and 1,.5 (C) The 'olume of cotton e$ports between 16,6 and 1,15 ( ) The federal census of 1,15

02

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) Ad'ertisements of labor recruiters appearing in southern newspapers after 1,15 2. 3n the passage/ the author anticipates which of the following as a possible ob<ection to her argument% (A) 3t is uncertain how many people actually migrated during the Breat ?igration. (B) The e'entual economic status of the Breat ?igration migrants has not been ade"uately traced. (C) 3t is not likely that people with steady <obs would ha'e reason to mo'e to another area of the country. ( ) 3t is not true that the term *manufacturing and mechanical pursuits+ actually encompasses the entire industrial sector. (#) 8f the Black workers li'ing in southern cities/ only those in a small number of trades were threatened by obsolescence. .. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of wages in southern cities in 1,15% (A) They were being pushed lower as a result of increased competition. (B) They had begun t to rise so that southern industry could attract rural workers. (C) They had increased for skilled workers but decreased for unskilled workers. ( ) They had increased in large southern cities but decreased in small southern cities. (#) They had increased in newly de'eloped industries but decreased in the older trades. 0. The author cites each of the following as possible influences in a Black worker4s decision to migrate north in the Breat ?igration #DC#@T (A) wage le'els in northern cities (B) labor recruiters (C) competition from rural workers ( ) 'oting rights in northern states (#) the Black press 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *easy conclusion+ mentioned in line 1. is based on which of the following assumptions% (A) @eople who migrate from rural areas to large cities usually do so for economic reasons. (B) ?ost people who lea'e rural areas to take <obs in cities return to rural areas as soon as it is financially possible for them to do so. (C) @eople with rural backgrounds are less likely to succeed economically in cities than are those with urban backgrounds.

GMAT

0.

( ) ?ost people who were once skilled workers are not willing to work as unskilled workers. (#) @eople who migrate from their birthplaces to other regions of country seldom undertake a second migration. 2. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) support an alternati'e to an accepted methodology (B) present e'idence that resol'es a contradiction (C) introduce a recently disco'ered source of information ( ) challenge a widely accepted e$planation (#) argue that a discarded theory deser'es new attention -. According to information in the passage/ which of the following is a correct se"uence of groups of workers/ from highest paid to lowest paid/ in the period between 1,15 and 1,.5% (A) Artisans in the 9orthI artisans in the ;outhI unskilled workers in the 9orthI unskilled workers in the ;outh (B) Artisans in the 9orth and ;outhI unskilled workers in the 9orthI unskilled workers in the ;outh (C) Artisans in the 9orthI unskilled workers in the 9orthI artisans in the ;outh ( ) Artisans in the 9orth and ;outhI unskilled urban workers in the 9orthI unskilled rural workers in the ;outh (#) Artisans in the 9orth and ;outh/ unskilled rural workers in the 9orth and ;outhI unskilled urban workers in the 9orth and ;outh 6. The material in the passage would be most rele'ant to a long discussion of which of the following topics% (A) The reasons for the subse"uent economic difficulties of those who participated in the Breat ?igration (B) The effect of migration on the regional economies of the :nited ;tates following the >irst &orld &ar (C) The transition from a rural to an urban e$istence for those who migrated in the Breat ?igration ( ) The transformation of the agricultural ;outh following the boll wee'il infestation (#) The disappearance of the artisan class in the :nited ;tates as a conse"uence of mechani!ation in the early twentieth century Passage 16 (16/63)
/n 189G a Aeorgia coup"e suing #or damages in the accidenta" death o# their two year o"d was to"d that since the chi"d had made no rea" economic contribution to the #ami"y' there was

00

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

no "iabi"ity #or damages. /n contrast' "ess than a century "ater' in 1979' the parents o# a threeyear-o"d sued in *ew Dor$ #or accidenta"-death damages and won an award o# ,7-.'.... The trans#ormation in socia" va"ues imp"icit in 2u5taposing these two incidents is the sub2ect o# Biviana Le"i)er3s e5ce""ent boo$' Pricing the Priceless Child. Furing the nineteenth century' she argues' the concept o# the ;use#u"< chi"d who contributed to the #ami"y economy gave way gradua""y to the present-day notion o# the ;use"ess< chi"d who' though producing no income #or' and indeed e5treme"y cost"y to' its parents' is yet considered emotiona""y ;price"ess.< 8e"" estab"ished among segments o# the midd"e and upper c"asses by the mid18..3s' this new view o# chi"dhood spread throughout society in the "ate-nineteenth and ear"ytwentieth centuries as re#ormers introduced chi"d-"abor regu"ations and compu"sory education "aws predicated in part on the assumption that a chi"d3s emotiona" va"ue made chi"d "abor taboo. 7or Le"i)er the origins o# this trans#ormation were many and comp"e5. The gradua" erosion o# chi"dren3s productive va"ue in a maturing industria" economy' the dec"ine in birth and death rates' especia""y in chi"d morta"ity' and the deve"opment o# the companionate #ami"y (a #ami"y in which members were united by e5p"icit bonds o# "ove rather than duty) were a"" #actors critica" in changing the assessment o# chi"dren3s worth. Det ;e5pu"sion o# chi"dren #rom the Mcash ne5us'3 a"though c"ear"y shaped by pro#ound changes in the economic' occupationa"' and #ami"y structures'< Le"i)er maintains' ;was a"so part o# a cu"tura" process Mo# sacre"i)ation3 o# chi"dren3s "ives.< 6rotecting chi"dren #rom the crass business wor"d became enormous"y important #or "ate-nineteenth-century midd"e-c"ass 0mericans' she suggests: this sacra"i)ation was a way o# resisting what they perceived as the re"ent"ess corruption o# human va"ues by the mar$etp"ace. /n stressing the cu"tura" determinants o# a chi"d3s worth' Le"i)er ta$es issue with practitioners o# the new ;socio"ogica" economics'< who have ana"y)ed such traditiona""y socio"ogica" topics as crime' marriage' education' and hea"th so"e"y in terms o# their economic determinants. 0""owing on"y a sma"" ro"e #or cu"tura" #orces in the #orm o# individua" ;pre#erences'< these socio"ogists tend to view a"" human behaviors as directed primari"y by the princip"e o# ma5imi)ing economic gain. Le"i)er is high"y critica" o# this approach' and emphasi)es instead the opposite phenomenon> the power o# socia" va"ues to trans#orm price. 0s chi"dren became more va"uab"e in emotiona" terms' she argues' their ;e5change< or ;surrender< va"ue on the mar$et' that is' the conversion o# their intangib"e worth into cash terms' became much greater.

1.

3t can be inferred from the passage that accidental(death damage awards in America during the nineteenth century tended to be based principally on the (A) earnings of the person at time of death (B) wealth of the party causing the death (C) degree of culpability of the party causing the death ( ) amount of money that had been spent on the person killed (#) amount of suffering endured by the family of the person killed

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that in the early 16554s children were

GMAT

01

generally regarded by their families as indi'iduals who (A) needed enormous amounts of security and affection (B) re"uired constant super'ision while working (C) were important to the economic well(being of a family ( ) were unsuited to spending long hours in school (#) were financial burdens assumed for the good of society .. &hich of the following alternati'e e$planations of the change in the cash 'alue of children would be most likely to be put forward by sociological economists as they are described in the passage% (A) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because parents began to increase their emotional in'estment in the upbringing of their children. (B) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because their e$pected earnings o'er the course of a lifetime increased greatly. (C) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because the spread of humanitarian ideals resulted in a wholesale reappraisal of the worth of an indi'idual. ( ) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because compulsory education laws reduced the supply/ and thus raised the costs/ of a'ailable child labor. (#) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because of changes in the way negligence law assessed damages in accidental death cases. 0. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) re'iew the literature in a new academic sub(field (B) present the central thesis of a recent book (C) contrast two approaches to analy!ing historical change ( ) refute a traditional e$planation of a social phenomenon (#) encourage further work on a neglected historical topic 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following statements was true of American families o'er the course of the nineteenth century% (A) The a'erage si!e of families grew considerably. (B) The percentage of families in'ol'ed in industrial work declined dramatically. (C) >amily members became more emotionally bonded to one another. ( ) >amily members spent an increasing amount of time working with each other. (#) >amily members became more economically dependent on each other. 2. Leli!er refers to all of the following as important influences in changing the assessment of children4s worth #DC#@T changes in

02

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) the mortality rate (B) the nature of industry (C) the nature of the family ( ) attitudes toward reform mo'ements (#) attitudes toward the marketplace -. &hich of the following would be most consistent with the practices of sociological economics as these practices are described in the passage% (A) Arguing that most health(care professionals enter the field because they belie'e it to be the most socially useful of any occupation (B) Arguing that most college students choose ma<ors that they belie'e will lead to the most highly paid <obs a'ailable to them (C) Arguing that most decisions about marriage and di'orce are based on rational assessments of the likelihood that each partner will remain committed to the relationship ( ) Analy!ing changes in the number of people enrolled in colleges and uni'ersities as a function of changes in the economic health of these institutions (#) Analy!ing changes in the ages at which people get married as a function of a change in the a'erage number of years that young people ha'e li'ed away from their parents Passage 17 (17/63)
6rior to 197-' union e##orts to organi)e pub"ic-sector c"erica" wor$ers' most o# whom are women' were somewhat "imited. The #actors #avoring unioni)ation drives seem to have been either the presence o# "arge numbers o# wor$ers' as in *ew Dor$ %ity' to ma$e it worth the e##ort' or the concentration o# sma"" numbers in one or two "ocations' such as a hospita"' to ma$e it re"ative"y easy. Receptivity to unioni)ation on the wor$ers3 part was a"so a consideration' but when there were "arge numbers invo"ved or the c"erica" wor$ers were the on"y unorgani)ed group in a 2urisdiction' the mu"ti-occupationa" unions wou"d o#ten try to organi)e them regard"ess o# the wor$ers3 initia" receptivity. The strategic reasoning was based' #irst' on the concern that po"iticians and administrators might p"ay o## unioni)ed against non-unioni)ed wor$ers' and' second' on the conviction that a #u""y unioni)ed pub"ic wor$ #orce meant power' both at the bargaining tab"e and in the "egis"ature. /n "oca"ities where c"erica" wor$ers were #ew in number' were scattered in severa" wor$p"aces' and e5pressed no interest in being organi)ed' unions more o#ten than not ignored them in the pre-197- period. &ut since the mid-197.3s' a di##erent strategy has emerged. /n 1977' 4H percent o# government c"erica" wor$ers were represented by a "abor organi)ation' compared with HG percent o# government pro#essiona"s' HH percent o# government b"ue-co""ar wor$ers' and H1 percent o# government service wor$ers. ince then' however' the biggest increases in pub"icsector unioni)ation have been among c"erica" wor$ers. &etween 1977 and 198.' the number

GMAT

0-

o# unioni)ed government wor$ers in b"ue-co""ar and service occupations increased on"y about 1.- percent' whi"e in the white-co""ar occupations the increase was 1. percent and among c"erica" wor$ers in particu"ar' the increase was 11 percent. 8hat accounts #or this upsurge in unioni)ation among c"erica" wor$ersC 7irst' more women have entered the wor$ #orce in the past #ew years' and more o# them p"an to remain wor$ing unti" retirement age. %onse+uent"y' they are probab"y more concerned than their predecessors were about 2ob security and economic bene#its. 0"so' the women3s movement has succeeded in "egitimi)ing the economic and po"itica" activism o# women on their own beha"#' thereby producing a more positive attitude toward unions. The absence o# any comparab"e increase in unioni)ation among private-sector c"erica" wor$ers' however' identi#ies the primary cata"yst!the structura" change in the mu"ti-occupationa" pub"ic-sector unions themse"ves. 9ver the past twenty years' the occupationa" distribution in these unions has been steadi"y shi#ting #rom predominant"y b"ue-co""ar to predominant"y white-co""ar. &ecause there are #ar more women in white-co""ar 2obs' an increase in the proportion o# #ema"e members has accompanied the occupationa" shi#t and has a"tered union po"icy-ma$ing in #avor o# organi)ing women and addressing women3s issues.

1.

According to the passage/ the public(sector workers who were most likely to belong to unions in 1,-- were (A) professionals (B) managers (C) clerical workers ( ) ser'ice workers (#) blue(collar workers

2.

The author cites union efforts to achie'e a fully unioni!ed work force (line 1.(1,) in order to account for why (A) politicians might try to oppose public(sector union organi!ing (B) public(sector unions ha'e recently focused on organi!ing women (C) early organi!ing efforts often focused on areas where there were large numbers of workers ( ) union efforts with regard to public(sector clerical workers increased dramatically after 1,-1 (#) unions sometimes tried to organi!e workers regardless of the workers4 initial interest in unioni!ation

..

The author4s claim that/ since the mid(1,-54s/ a new strategy has emerged in the unioni!ation of public(sector clerical workers (line 2.) would be strengthened if the author (A) described more fully the attitudes of clerical workers toward labor unions (B) compared the organi!ing strategies employed by pri'ate(sector unions with those of public(sector unions

06

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) e$plained why politicians and administrators sometimes oppose unioni!ation of clerical workers ( ) indicated that the number of unioni!ed public(sector clerical workers was increasing e'en before the mid(1,-54s (#) showed that the factors that fa'ored unioni!ation dri'es among these workers prior to 1,-1 ha'e decreased in importance 0. According to the passage/ in the period prior to 1,-1/ each of the following considerations helped determine whether a union would attempt to organi!e a certain group of clerical workers #DC#@T (A) the number of clerical workers in that group (B) the number of women among the clerical workers in that group (C) whether the clerical workers in that area were concentrated in one workplace or scattered o'er se'eral workplaces ( ) the degree to which the clerical workers in that group were interested in unioni!ation (#) whether all the other workers in the same <urisdiction as that group of clerical workers were unioni!ed 1. The author states that which of the following is a conse"uence of the women4s mo'ement of recent years% (A) An increase in the number of women entering the work force (B) A structural change in multi(occupational public(sector unions (C) A more positi'e attitude on the part of women toward unions ( ) An increase in the proportion of clerical workers that are women (#) An increase in the number of women in administrati'e positions 2. The main concern of the passage is to (A) ad'ocate particular strategies for future efforts to organi!e certain workers into labor unions (B) e$plain differences in the unioni!ed proportions of 'arious groups of public( sector workers (C) e'aluate the effecti'eness of certain kinds of labor unions that represent public(sector workers ( ) analy!ed and e$plain an increase in unioni!ation among a certain category of workers (#) describe and distinguish strategies appropriate to organi!ing different categories of workers -. The author implies that if the increase in the number of women in the work force and the impact of the women4s mo'ement were the main causes of the rise in unioni!ation of public(sector clerical workers/ then

GMAT

0,

(A) more women would hold administrati'e positions in unions (B) more women who hold political offices would ha'e positi'e attitudes toward labor unions (C) there would be an e"ui'alent rise in unioni!ation of pri'ate(sector clerical workers ( ) unions would ha'e shown more interest than they ha'e in organi!ing women (#) the increase in the number of unioni!ed public(sector clerical workers would ha'e been greater than it has been 6. The author suggests that it would be disad'antageous to a union if (A) many workers in the locality were not unioni!ed (B) the union contributed to political campaigns (C) the union included only public(sector workers ( ) the union included workers from se'eral <urisdictions (#) the union included members from only a few occupations ,. The author implies that/ in comparison with working women today/ women working in the years prior to the mid(1,-54s showed a greater tendency to (A) prefer smaller workplaces (B) e$press a positi'e attitude toward labor unions (C) ma$imi!e <ob security and economic benefits ( ) side with administrators in labor disputes (#) "uit working prior of retirement age Passage 18 (18/63)
?i"an$ovitch proposed in the ear"y twentieth century that the ice ages were caused by variations in the =arth3s orbit around the un. 7or sometime this theory was considered untestab"e' "arge"y because there was no su##icient"y precise chrono"ogy o# the ice ages with which the orbita" variations cou"d be matched. To estab"ish such a chrono"ogy it is necessary to determine the re"ative amounts o# "and ice that e5isted at various times in the =arth3s past. 0 recent discovery ma$es such a determination possib"e> re"ative "and-ice vo"ume #or a given period can be deduced #rom the ratio o# two o5ygen isotopes' 1G and 18' #ound in ocean sediments. 0"most a"" the o5ygen in water is o5ygen 1G' but a #ew mo"ecu"es out o# every thousand incorporate the heavier isotope 18. 8hen an ice age begins' the continenta" ice sheets grow' steadi"y reducing the amount o# water evaporated #rom the ocean that wi"" eventua""y return to it. &ecause heavier isotopes tend to be "e#t behind when water evaporates #rom the ocean sur#aces' the remaining ocean water becomes progressive"y enriched in o5ygen 18. The degree o# enrichment can be determined by ana"y)ing ocean sediments o# the period' because these sediments are composed o# ca"cium carbonate she""s o# marine organisms' she""s that were constructed with o5ygen atoms drawn #rom the surrounding ocean. The higher the ratio o#

15

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

o5ygen 18 to o5ygen 1G in a sedimentary specimen' the more "and ice there was when the sediment was "aid down. 0s an indicator o# shi#ts in the =arth3s c"imate' the isotope record has two advantages. 7irst' it is a g"oba" record> there is remar$ab"y "itt"e variation in isotope ratios in sedimentary specimens ta$en #rom di##erent continenta" "ocations. econd' it is a more continuous record than that ta$en #rom roc$s on "and. &ecause o# these advantages' sedimentary evidence can be dated with su##icient accuracy by radiometric methods to estab"ish a precise chrono"ogy o# the ice ages. The dated isotope record shows that the #"uctuations in g"oba" ice vo"ume over the past severa" hundred thousand years have a pattern> an ice age occurs rough"y once every 1..'... years. These data have estab"ished a strong connection between variations in the =arth3s orbit and the periodicity o# the ice ages. (owever' it is important to note that other #actors' such as vo"canic particu"ates or variations in the amount o# sun"ight received by the =arth' cou"d potentia""y have a##ected the c"imate. The advantage o# the ?i"an$ovitch theory is that it is testab"e> changes in the =arth3s orbit can be ca"cu"ated and dated by app"ying *ewton3s "aws o# gravity to progressive"y ear"ier con#igurations o# the bodies in the so"ar system. Det the "ac$ o# in#ormation about other possib"e #actors a##ecting g"oba" c"imate does not ma$e them unimportant.

1.

3n the passage/ the author is primarily interested in (A) suggesting an alternati'e to an outdated research method (B) introducing a new research method that calls an accepted theory into "uestion (C) emphasi!ing the instability of data gathered from the application of a new scientific method ( ) presenting a theory and describing a new method to test that theory (#) initiating a debate about a widely accepted theory

2.

The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about the ?ilanko'itch theory% (A) 3t is the only possible e$planation for the ice ages. (B) 3t is too limited to pro'ide a plausible e$planation for the ice ages/ despite recent research findings. (C) 3t cannot be tested and confirmed until further research on 'olcanic acti'ity is done. ( ) 3t is one plausible e$planation/ though not the only one/ for the ice ages. (#) 3t is not a plausible e$planation for the ice ages/ although it has opened up promising possibilities for future research.

..

3t can be inferred from the passage that the isotope record taken from ocean sediments would be less useful to researchers if which of the following were true% (A) 3t indicated that lighter isotopes of o$ygen predominated at certain times. (B) 3t had far more gaps in its se"uence than the record taken from rocks on land. (C) 3t indicated that climate shifts did not occur e'ery 155/555 years.

GMAT

11

( ) 3t indicated that the ratios of o$ygen 12 and o$ygen 16 in ocean water were not consistent with those found in fresh water. (#) 3t stretched back for only a million years. 0. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the ratios of o$ygen isotopes in ocean sediments% (A) They indicate that sediments found during an ice age contain more calcium carbonate than sediments formed at other times. (B) They are less reliable than the e'idence from rocks on land in determining the 'olume of land ice. (C) They can be used to deduce the relati'e 'olume of land ice that was present when the sediment was laid down. ( ) They are more unpredictable during an ice age than in other climatic conditions. (#) They can be used to determine atmospheric conditions at 'arious times in the past. 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that precipitation formed from e'aporated ocean water has (A) the same isotopic ratio as ocean water (B) less o$ygen 16 than does ocean water (C) less o$ygen 16 than has the ice contained in continental ice sheets ( ) a different isotopic composition than has precipitation formed from water on land (#) more o$ygen 12 than has precipitation formed from fresh water 2. According to the passage/ which of the following is (are) true of the ice ages% 3. 33. The last ice age occurred about 21/555 years ago. 3ce ages ha'e lasted about 15/555 years for at least the last se'eral hundred thousand years.

333. 3ce ages ha'e occurred about e'ery 155/555 years for at least the last se'eral hundred thousand years. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and only (#) 3/ 33 and 333 -. 3t can be inferred from the passage that calcium carbonate shells (A) are not as susceptible to deterioration as rocks (B) are less common in sediments formed during an ice age

12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) are found only in areas that were once co'ered by land ice ( ) contain radioacti'e material that can be used to determine a sediment4s isotopic composition (#) reflect the isotopic composition of the water at the time the shells were formed 6. The purpose of the last paragraph of the passage is to (A) offer a note of caution (B) introduce new e'idence (C) present two recent disco'eries ( ) summari!e material in the preceding paragraphs (#) offer two e$planations for a phenomenon ,. According to the passage/ one ad'antage of studying the isotope record of ocean sediments is that it (A) corresponds with the record of ice 'olume taken from rocks on land (B) shows little 'ariation in isotope ratios when samples are taken from different continental locations (C) corresponds with predictions already made by climatologists and e$perts in other fields ( ) confirms the record of ice 'olume initially established by analy!ing 'ariations in 'olcanic emissions (#) pro'ides data that can be used to substantiate records concerning 'ariations in the amount of sunlight recei'ed by the #arth Passage 19 (19/63)
/n contrast to traditiona" ana"yses o# minority business' the socio"ogica" ana"ysis contends that minority business ownership is a group-"eve" phenomenon' in that it is "arge"y dependent upon socia"-group resources #or its deve"opment. peci#ica""y' this ana"ysis indicates that support networ$s p"ay a critica" ro"e in starting and maintaining minority business enterprises by providing owners with a range o# assistance' #rom the in#orma" encouragement o# #ami"y members and #riends to dependab"e sources o# "abor and c"iente"e #rom the owner3s ethnic group. uch se"#-he"p networ$s' which encourage and support ethnic minority entrepreneurs' consist o# ;primary< institutions' those c"osest to the individua" in shaping his or her behavior and be"ie#s. They are characteri)ed by the #ace-to-#ace association and cooperation o# persons united by ties o# mutua" concern. They #orm an intermediate socia" "eve" between the individua" and "arger ;secondary< institutions based on impersona" re"ationships. 6rimary institutions comprising the support networ$ inc"ude $inship' peer' and neighborhood or community subgroups. 0 ma2or #unction o# se"#-he"p networ$s is #inancia" support. ?ost scho"ars agree that minority business owners have depended primari"y on #ami"y #unds and ethnic community

GMAT
resources #or investment capita". 6ersona" savings have been accumu"ated' o#ten through #ruga" "iving habits that re+uire sacri#ices by the entire #ami"y and are thus a product o# "ongterm #ami"y #inancia" behavior. 0dditiona" "oans and gi#ts #rom re"atives' #orthcoming because o# group ob"igation rather than narrow investment ca"cu"ation' have supp"emented persona" savings. /ndividua" entrepreneurs do not necessari"y re"y on their $in because they cannot

1.

obtain #inancia" bac$ing #rom commercia" resources. They may actua""y avoid ban$s because they assume that commercia" institutions either cannot comprehend the specia" needs o# minority enterprise or charge unreasonab"y high interest rates. 8ithin the "arger ethnic community' rotating credit associations have been used to raise capita". These associations are in#orma" c"ubs o# #riends and other trusted members o# the ethnic group who ma$e regu"ar contributions to a #und that is given to each contributor in rotation. 9ne author estimates that H. percent o# *ew Dor$ %hinatown #irms estab"ished during 19..-19-. uti"i)ed such associations as their initia" source o# capita". (owever' recent immigrants and third or #ourth generations o# o"der groups now emp"oy rotating credit associations on"y occasiona""y to raise investment #unds. ome groups' "i$e &"ac$ 0mericans' #ound other means o# #inancia" support #or their entrepreneuria" e##orts. The #irst &"ac$operated ban$s were created in the "ate nineteenth century as depositories #or dues co""ected #rom #raterna" or "odge groups' which themse"ves had sprung #rom &"ac$ churches. &"ac$ ban$s made "imited investments in other &"ac$ enterprises. /rish immigrants in 0merican cities organi)ed many bui"ding and "oan associations to provide capita" #or home construction and purchase. They' in turn' provided wor$ #or many /rish home-bui"ding contractor #irms. 9ther ethnic and minority groups #o""owed simi"ar practices in #ounding ethnic-directed #inancia" institutions.

1.

Based on the information in the passage/ it would be K#A;T likely for which of the following persons to be part of a self(help network% (A) The entrepreneur4s childhood friend (B) The entrepreneur4s aunt (C) The entrepreneur4s religious leader ( ) The entrepreneur4s neighbor (#) The entrepreneur4s banker

2.

&hich of the following illustrates the working of a self(help support network/ as such networks are described in the passage% (A) A public high school offers courses in book(keeping and accounting as part of its open(enrollment adult education program. (B) The local go'ernment in a small city sets up a program that helps teen(agers find summer <obs. (C) A ma<or commercial bank offers low(interest loans to e$perienced indi'iduals who hope to establish their own businesses. ( ) A neighborhood(based fraternal organi!ation de'elops a program of on(the( <ob training for its members and their friends.

10

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) A community college offers country residents training programs that can lead to certification in a 'ariety of technical trades. .. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about rotating credit associations% (A) They were de'eloped e$clusi'ely by Chinese immigrants. (B) They accounted for a significant portion of the in'estment capital used by Chinese immigrants in 9ew Hork in the early twentieth century. (C) Third(generation members of an immigrant group who started businesses in the 1,254s would ha'e been unlikely to rely on them. ( ) They were fre"uently <oint endea'ors by members of two or three different ethnic groups. (#) =ecent immigrants still fre"uently turn to rotating credit associations instead of banks for in'estment capital. 0. The passage best supports which of the following statements% (A) A minority entrepreneur who had no assistance from family members would not be able to start a business. (B) ;elf(help networks ha'e been effecti'e in helping entrepreneurs primarily in the last 15 years. (C) ?inority groups ha'e de'eloped a range of alternati'es to standard financing of business 'entures. ( ) The financial institutions founded by 'arious ethnic groups owe their success to their uni"ue formal organi!ation. (#) ;uccessful minority(owned businesses succeed primarily because of the personal strengths of their founders. 1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph% (A) An argument is delineated/ followed by a counter(argument. (B) An assertion is made and se'eral e$amples are pro'ided to illustrate it. (C) A situation is described and its historical background is then outlined. ( ) An e$ample of a phenomenon is gi'en and is then used as a basis for general conclusions. (#) A group of parallel incidents is described and the distinctions among the incidents are then clarified. 2. According to the passage/ once a minority(owned business is established/ self( help networks contribute which of the following to that business% (A) 3nformation regarding possible e$pansion of the business into nearby communities (B) #ncouragement of a business climate that is nearly free of direct competition (C) 8pportunities for the business owner to rein'est profits in other minority(

GMAT

11

owned businesses ( ) Contact with people who are likely to be customers of the new business (#) Contact with minority entrepreneurs who are members of other ethnic groups -. 3t can be inferred from the passage that traditional analyses of minority business would be K#A;T likely to do which of the following% (A) #$amine businesses primarily in their social conte$ts (B) >ocus on current/ rather than historical/ e$amples of business enterprises (C) ;tress common e$periences of indi'idual entrepreneurs in starting businesses ( ) >ocus on the maintenance of businesses/ rather than means of starting them (#) >ocus on the role of indi'idual entrepreneurs in starting a business 6. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the 3rish building and loan associations mentioned in the last paragraph% (A) They were started by third( or fourth(generation immigrants. (B) They originated as offshoots of church(related groups. (C) They fre"uently helped 3rish entrepreneurs to finance business not connected with construction. ( ) They contributed to the employment of many 3rish construction workers. (#) They pro'ided assistance for construction businesses owned by members of other ethnic groups. Passage 20 (20/63)
pecies interdependence in nature con#ers many bene#its on the species invo"ved' but it can a"so become a point o# wea$ness when one species invo"ved in the re"ationship is a##ected by a catastrophe. Thus' #"owering p"ant species dependent on insect po""ination' as opposed to se"#-po""ination or wind po""ination' cou"d be endangered when the popu"ation o# insect-po""inators is dep"eted by the use o# pesticides. /n the #orests o# *ew &runswic$' #or e5amp"e' various pesticides have been sprayed in the past 1- years in e##orts to contro" the spruce budworm' an economica""y signi#icant pest. cientists have now investigated the e##ects o# the spraying o# ?ataci"' one o# the antibudworm agents that is "east to5ic to insect-po""inators. They studied ?ataci"3s e##ects on insect morta"ity in a wide variety o# wi"d insect species and on p"ant #ecundity' e5pressed as the percentage o# the tota" #"owers on an individua" p"ant that actua""y deve"oped #ruit and bore seeds. They #ound that the most pronounced morta"ity a#ter the spraying o# ?ataci" occurred among the sma""er bees and one #ami"y o# #"ies' insects that were a"" important po""inators o# numerous species o# p"ants growing beneath the tree canopy o# #orests. The #ecundity o# p"ants in one common indigenous species' the red-osier dogwood' was signi#icant"y reduced in the sprayed areas as compared to that o# p"ants in contro" p"ots where ?ataci" was not sprayed. This species is high"y dependent on the insect-po""inators most vu"nerab"e to ?ataci". The creeping dogwood' a species simi"ar to the red-osier dogwood' but which is po""inated by

12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

"arge bees' such as bumb"ebees' showed no signi#icant dec"ine in #ecundity. ince "arge bees are not a##ected by the spraying o# ?ataci"' these resu"ts add weight to the argument that spraying where the po""inators are sensitive to the pesticide used decreases p"ant #ecundity. The +uestion o# whether the decrease in p"ant #ecundity caused by the spraying o# pesticides actua""y causes a dec"ine in the overa"" popu"ation o# #"owering p"ant species sti"" remains unanswered. 6"ant species dependent so"e"y on seeds #or surviva" or dispersa" are obvious"y more vu"nerab"e to any decrease in p"ant #ecundity that occurs' whatever its cause. /#' on the other hand' vegetative growth and dispersa" (by means o# shoots or runners) are avai"ab"e as a"ternative reproductive strategies #or a species' then decreases in p"ant #ecundity may be o# "itt"e conse+uence. The #ecundity e##ects described here are "i$e"y to have the most pro#ound impact on p"ant species with a"" #our o# the #o""owing characteristics> a short "i#e span' a narrow geographic range' an incapacity #or vegetative propagation' and a dependence on a sma"" number o# insect-po""inator species. 6erhaps we shou"d give specia" attention to the conservation o# such p"ant species since they "ac$ $ey #actors in their de#enses against the environmenta" disruption caused by pesticide use.

1.

&hich of the following best summari!es the main point of the passage% (A) ;pecies interdependence is a point of weakness for some plants/ but is generally beneficial to insects in'ol'ed in pollination. (B) #fforts to control the spruce budworm ha'e had deleterious effects on the red( osier dogwood. (C) The used of pesticides may be endangering certain plant species dependent on insects for pollination. ( ) The spraying of pesticides can reduce the fecundity of a plant species/ but probably does not affect its o'erall population stability. (#) @lant species lacking key factors in their defenses against human en'ironmental disruption will probably become e$tinct.

2.

According to the author/ a flowering plant species whose fecundity has declined due to pesticide spraying may not e$perience an o'erall population decline if the plant species can do which of the following% (A) =eproduce itself by means of shoots and runners. (B) ;ur'i'e to the end of the growing season. (C) ;ur'i'e in harsh climates. ( ) =espond to the fecundity decline by producing more flowers. (#) Attract large insects as pollinators.

..

The passage suggests that the lack of an obser'ed decline in the fecundity of the creeping dogwood strengthens the researchers conclusions regarding pesticide use because the (A) creeping dogwood is a species that does not resemble other forest plants (B) creeping dogwood is a species pollinated by a broader range of insect species

GMAT

1-

than are most dogwood species (C) creeping dogwood grows primarily in regions that were not sprayed with pesticide/ and so ser'ed as a control for the e$periment ( ) creeping dogwood is similar to the red(osier dogwood/ but its insect pollinators are known to be insensiti'e to the pesticide used in the study (#) geographical range of the creeping dogwood is similar to that of the red(osier dogwood/ but the latter species relies less on seeds for reproduction 0. The passage suggests that which of the following is true of the forest regions in 9ew Brunswick sprayed with most anti(budworm pesticides other than ?atacil% (A) The fecundity of some flowering plants in those regions may ha'e decreased to an e'en greater degree than in the regions where ?atacil is used. (B) 3nsect mortality in those regions occurs mostly among the larger species of insects/ such as bumblebees. (C) The number of seeds produced by common plant species in those regions is probably comparable to the number produced where ?atacil is sprayed. ( ) ?any more plant species ha'e become e$tinct in those regions than in the regions where ?atacil is used. (#) The spruce budworm is under better control in those regions than in the regions where ?atacil is sprayed. 1. 3t can be inferred that which of the following is true of plant fecundity as it is defined in the passage% (A) A plant4s fecundity decreases as the percentage of unpollinated flowers on the plant increases. (B) A plant4s fecundity decreases as the number of flowers produced by the plant decreases. (C) A plant4s fecundity increases as the number of flowers produced by the plant increases. ( ) A plant4s fecundity is usually low if the plant relies on a small number of insect species for pollination. (#) A plant4s fecundity is high if the plant can reproduce "uickly by means of 'egetati'e growth as well as by the production of seeds. 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following plant species would be K#A;T likely to e$perience a decrease in fecundity as a result of the spraying of a pesticide not directly to$ic to plants% (A) A flowering tree pollinated by only a few insect species (B) A kind of insect(pollinated 'ine producing few flowers (C) A wind(pollinated flowering tree that is short(li'ed ( ) A flowering shrub pollinated by a large number of insect species

16

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) A type of wildflower typically pollinated by larger insects -. &hich of the following assumptions most probably underlies the author4s tentati'e recommendation in lines 11(10% (A) )uman acti'ities that result in en'ironmental disruption should be abandoned. (B) The use of pesticides is likely to continue into the future. (C) 3t is economically beneficial to preser'e endangered plant species. ( ) @re'enting the endangerment of a species is less costly than trying to sa'e an already endangered one. (#) Conser'ation efforts aimed at preser'ing a few well(chosen species are more cost(effecti'e than are broader(based efforts to impro'e the en'ironment. Passage 21 (21/63)
&ernard &ai"yn has recent"y reinterpreted the ear"y history o# the United tates by app"ying new socia" research #indings on the e5periences o# =uropean migrants. /n his reinterpretation' migration becomes the organi)ing princip"e #or rewriting the history o# preindustria" *orth 0merica. (is approach rests on #our separate propositions. The #irst o# these asserts that residents o# ear"y modern =ng"and moved regu"ar"y about their countryside: migrating to the *ew 8or"d was simp"y a ;natura" spi""over.< 0"though at #irst the co"onies he"d "itt"e positive attraction #or the =ng"ish!they wou"d rather have stayed home !by the eighteenth century peop"e increasing"y migrated to 0merica because they regarded it as the "and o# opportunity. econd"y' &ai"yn ho"ds that' contrary to the notion that used to #"ourish in 0merica history te5tboo$s' there was never a typica" *ew 8or"d community. 7or e5amp"e' the economic and demographic character o# ear"y *ew =ng"and towns varied considerab"y. &ai"yn3s third proposition suggests two genera" patterns prevai"ing among the many thousands o# migrants> one group came as indentured servants' another came to ac+uire "and. urprising"y' &ai"yn suggests that those who recruited indentured servants were the driving #orces o# transat"antic migration. These co"onia" entrepreneurs he"ped determine the socia" character o# peop"e who came to preindustria" *orth 0merica. 0t #irst' thousands o# uns$i""ed "aborers were recruited: by the 174.3s' however' 0merican emp"oyers demanded s$i""ed artisans. 7ina""y' &ai"yn argues that the co"onies were a ha"#-civi"i)ed hinter"and o# the =uropean cu"ture system. (e is undoubted"y correct to insist that the co"onies were part o# an 0ng"o0merican empire. &ut to divide the empire into =ng"ish core and co"onia" periphery' as &ai"yn does' deva"ues the achievements o# co"onia" cu"ture. /t is true' as &ai"yn c"aims' that high cu"ture in the co"onies never matched that in =ng"and. &ut what o# seventeenth-century *ew =ng"and' where the sett"ers created e##ective "aws' bui"t a distinguished university' and pub"ished boo$sC &ai"yn might respond that *ew =ng"and was e5ceptiona". (owever' the ideas and institutions deve"oped by *ew =ng"and 6uritans had power#u" e##ects on *orth 0merican cu"ture.

GMAT

1,

0"though &ai"yn goes on to app"y his approach to some thousands o# indentured servants who migrated 2ust prior to the revo"ution' he #ai"s to "in$ their e5perience with the po"itica" deve"opment o# the United tates. =vidence presented in his wor$ suggests how we might ma$e such a connection. These indentured servants were treated as s"aves #or the period during which they had so"d their time to 0merican emp"oyers. /t is not surprising that as soon as they served their time they passed up good wages in the cities and headed west to ensure their persona" independence by ac+uiring "and. Thus' it is in the west that a pecu"iar"y 0merican po"itica" cu"ture began' among co"onists who were suspicious o# authority and intense"y anti-aristocratic.

1.

&hich of the following statements about migrants to colonial 9orth America is supported by information in the passage% (A) A larger percentage of migrants to colonial 9orth America came as indentured ser'ants than as free agents interested in ac"uiring land. (B) ?igrants who came to the colonies as indentured ser'ants were more successful at making a li'elihood than were farmers and artisans. (C) ?igrants to colonial 9orth America were more successful at ac"uiring their own land during the eighteenth century than during the se'en(tenth century. ( ) By the 1-.54s/ migrants already skilled in a trade were in more demand by American employers than were unskilled laborers. (#) A significant percentage of migrants who came to the colonies to ac"uire land were forced to work as field hands for prosperous American farmers.

2.

The author of the passage states that Bailyn failed to (A) gi'e sufficient emphasis to the cultural and political interdependence of the colonies and #ngland (B) describe carefully how migrants of different ethnic backgrounds preser'ed their culture in the united ;tates (C) take ad'antage of social research on the e$periences of colonists who migrated to colonial 9orth America specifically to ac"uire land ( ) relate the e$perience of the migrants to the political 'alues that e'entually shaped the character of the :nited ;tates (#) in'estigate the li'es of #uropeans before they came to colonial 9orth America to determine more ade"uately their moti'ations for migrating

..

&hich of the following best summari!es the author4s e'aluation of Bailyn4s fourth proposition% (A) 3t is totally implausible. (B) 3t is partially correct. (C) 3t is highly admirable. ( ) 3t is contro'ersial though persuasi'e. (#) 3t is intriguing though unsubstantiated.

25

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

0.

According to the passage/ Bailyn and the author agree on which of the following statements about the culture of colonial 9ew #ngland% (A) )igh culture in 9ew #ngland ne'er e"ualed the high culture of #ngland. (B) The cultural achie'ements of colonial 9ew #ngland ha'e generally been unrecogni!ed by historians. (C) The colonists imitated the high culture of #ngland/ and did not de'elop a culture that was uni"uely their own. ( ) The southern colonies were greatly influenced by the high culture of 9ew #ngland. (#) 9ew #ngland communities were able to create laws and build a uni'ersity/ but unable to create anything inno'ati'e in the arts.

1.

According to the passage/ which of the following is true of #nglish migrants to the colonies during the eighteenth century% (A) ?ost of them were farmers rather than trades people or artisans. (B) ?ost of them came because they were unable to find work in #ngland. (C) They differed from other #nglish people in that they were willing to tra'el. ( ) They e$pected that the colonies would offer them increased opportunity. (#) They were generally not as educated as the people who remained in #ngland.

2.

The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) comparing se'eral current interpretations of early American history (B) suggesting that new social research on migration should lead to re'isions in current interpretations of early American history (C) pro'iding the theoretical framework that is used by most historians in understanding early American history ( ) refuting an argument about early American history that has been proposed by social historians (#) discussing a reinterpretation of early American history that is based on new social research on migration

-.

3t can be inferred from the passage that American history te$tbooks used to assert that (A) many migrants to colonial 9orth America were not successful financially (B) more migrants came to America out of religious or political con'iction that came in the hope of ac"uiring land (C) 9ew #ngland communities were much alike in terms of their economics and demographics ( ) many migrants to colonial 9orth America failed to maintain ties with their #uropean relations (#) the le'el of literacy in 9ew #ngland communities was 'ery high

GMAT

21

6.

The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about Bailyn4s work% (A) Bailyn underestimates the effects of @uritan thought on 9orth American culture. (B) Bailyn o'eremphasi!es the economic dependence of the colonies on Breat Britain. (C) Bailyn4s description of the colonies as part of an Anglo(American empire is misleading and incorrect. ( ) Bailyn failed to test his propositions on a specific group of migrants to colonial 9orth America. (#) Bailyn o'eremphasi!es the e$periences of migrants to the 9ew #ngland colonies/ and neglects the southern and the western parts of the 9ew &orld. Passage 22 (22/63)
?any United tates companies have' un#ortunate"y' made the search #or "ega" protection

#rom import competition into a ma2or "ine o# wor$. ince 198. the United tates /nternationa" Trade %ommission (/T%) has received about 18. comp"aints a""eging damage #rom imports that bene#it #rom subsidies by #oreign governments. 0nother 4H. charge that #oreign companies ;dumped< their products in the United tates at ;"ess than #air va"ue.< =ven when no un#air practices are a""eged' the simp"e c"aim that an industry has been in2ured by imports is su##icient grounds to see$ re"ie#. %ontrary to the genera" impression' this +uest #or import re"ie# has hurt more companies than it has he"ped. 0s corporations begin to #unction g"oba""y' they deve"op an intricate web o# mar$eting' production' and research re"ationships. The comp"e5ity o# these re"ationships ma$es it un"i$e"y that a system o# import re"ie# "aws wi"" meet the strategic needs o# a"" the units under the same parent company. /nternationa"i)ation increases the danger that #oreign companies wi"" use import re"ie# "aws against the very companies the "aws were designed to protect. uppose a United tatesowned company estab"ishes an overseas p"ant to manu#acture a product whi"e its competitor ma$es the same product in the United tates. /# the competitor can prove in2ury #rom the imports!and that the United tates company received a subsidy #rom a #oreign government to bui"d its p"ant abroad!the United tates company3s products wi"" be uncompetitive in the United tates' since they wou"d be sub2ect to duties. 6erhaps the most bra)en case occurred when the /T% investigated a""egations that %anadian companies were in2uring the United tates sa"t industry by dumping roc$ sa"t' used to de-ice roads. The bi)arre aspect o# the comp"aint was that a #oreign cong"omerate with United tates operations was crying #or he"p against a United tates company with #oreign operations. The ;United tates< company c"aiming in2ury was a subsidiary o# a Futch cong"omerate' whi"e the ;%anadian< companies inc"uded a subsidiary o# a %hicago #irm that was the second-"argest domestic producer o# roc$ sa"t.

1.

The passage is chiefly concerned with

22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) arguing against the increased internationali!ation of :nited ;tates corporations (B) warning that the application of laws affecting trade fre"uently has unintended conse"uences (C) demonstrating that foreign(based firms recei'e more subsidies from their go'ernments than :nited ;tates firms recei'e from the :nited ;tates go'ernment ( ) ad'ocating the use of trade restrictions for *dumped+ products but not for other imports (#) recommending a uniform method for handling claims of unfair trade practices 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the minimal basis for a complaint to the 3nternational Trade Commission is which of the following% (A) A foreign competitor has recei'ed a subsidy from a foreign go'ernment. (B) A foreign competitor has substantially increased the 'olume of products shipped to the :nited ;tates. (C) A foreign competitor is selling products in the :nited ;tates at less than fair market 'alue. ( ) The company re"uesting import relief has been in<ured by the sale of imports in the :nited ;tates. (#) The company re"uesting import relief has been barred from e$porting products to the country of its foreign competitor. .. The last paragraph performs which of the following functions in the passage% (A) 3t summari!es the discussion thus far and suggests additional areas of research. (B) 3t presents a recommendation based on the e'idence presented earlier. (C) 3t discusses an e$ceptional case in which the results e$pected by the author of the passage were not obtained. ( ) 3t introduces an additional area of concern not mentioned earlier. (#) 3t cites a specific case that illustrates a problem presented more generally in the pre'ious paragraph. 0. The passage warns of which of the following dangers% (A) Companies in the :nited ;tates may recei'e no protection from imports unless they acti'ely seek protection from import competition. (B) Companies that seek legal protection from import competition may incur legal costs that far e$ceed any possible gain. (C) Companies that are :nited ;tates(owned but operate internationally may not be eligible for protection from import competition under the laws of the countries in which their plants operate.

GMAT

2.

( ) Companies that are not :nited ;tates(owned may seek legal protection from import competition under :nited ;tates import relief laws. (#) Companies in the :nited ;tates that import raw materials may ha'e to pay duties on those materials. 1. The passage suggests that which of the following is most likely to be true of :nited ;tates trade laws% (A) They will eliminate the practice of *dumping+ products in the :nited ;tates. (B) They will enable manufacturers in the :nited ;tates to compete more profitably outside the :nited ;tates. (C) They will affect :nited ;tates trade with Canada more negati'ely than trade with other nations. ( ) Those that help one unit within a parent company will not necessarily help other units in the company. (#) Those that are applied to international companies will accomplish their intended result. 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following about the complaint mentioned in the last paragraph% (A) The 3TC acted unfairly toward the complainant in its in'estigation. (B) The complaint 'iolated the intent of import relief laws. (C) The response of the 3TC to the complaint pro'ided suitable relief from unfair trade practices to the complainant. ( ) The 3TC did not ha'e access to appropriate information concerning the case. (#) #ach of the companies in'ol'ed in the complaint acted in its own best interest. -. According to the passage/ companies ha'e the general impression that 3nternational Trade Commission import relief practices ha'e (A) caused unpredictable fluctuations in 'olumes of imports and e$ports (B) achie'ed their desired effect only under unusual circumstances (C) actually helped companies that ha'e re"uested import relief ( ) been opposed by the business community (#) had less impact on international companies than the business community e$pected 6. According to the passage/ the 3nternational Trade Commission is in'ol'ed in which of the following% (A) 3n'estigating allegations of unfair import competition (B) Branting subsidies to companies in the :nited ;tates that ha'e been in<ured by import competition (C) =ecommending legislation to ensure fair

20

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) 3dentifying international corporations that wish to build plants in the :nited ;tates (#) Assisting corporations in the :nited ;tates that wish to compete globally Passage 23 (23/63)
0t the end o# the nineteenth century' a rising interest in *ative 0merican customs and an increasing desire to understand *ative 0merican cu"ture prompted ethno"ogists to begin recording the "i#e stories o# *ative 0merican. =thno"ogists had a distinct reason #or wanting to hear the stories> they were a#ter "inguistic or anthropo"ogica" data that wou"d supp"ement their own #ie"d observations' and they be"ieved that the persona" stories' even o# a sing"e individua"' cou"d increase their understanding o# the cu"tures that they had been observing #rom without. /n addition many ethno"ogists at the turn o# the century be"ieved that *ative 0merican manners and customs were rapid"y disappearing' and that it was important to preserve #or posterity as much in#ormation as cou"d be ade+uate"y recorded be#ore the cu"tures disappeared #orever. There were' however' arguments against this method as a way o# ac+uiring accurate and comp"ete in#ormation. 7ran) &oas' #or e5amp"e' described autobiographies as being ;o# "imited va"ue' and use#u" chie#"y #or the study o# the perversion o# truth by memory'< whi"e 6au" Radin contended that investigators rare"y spent enough time with the tribes they were observing' and inevitab"y derived resu"ts too tinged by the investigator3s own emotiona" tone to be re"iab"e. =ven more important"y' as these "i#e stories moved #rom the traditiona" ora" mode to recorded written #orm' much was inevitab"y "ost. =ditors o#ten decided what e"ements were signi#icant to the #ie"d research on a given tribe. *ative 0mericans recogni)ed that the essence o# their "ives cou"d not be communicated in =ng"ish and that events that they thought signi#icant were o#ten deemed unimportant by their interviewers. /ndeed' the very act o# te""ing their stories cou"d #orce *ative 0merican narrators to distort their cu"tures' as taboos had to be bro$en to spea$ the names o# dead re"atives crucia" to their #ami"y stories. Fespite a"" o# this' autobiography remains a use#u" too" #or ethno"ogica" research> such persona" reminiscences and impressions' incomp"ete as they may be' are "i$e"y to throw more "ight on the wor$ing o# the mind and emotions than any amount o# specu"ation #rom an ethno"ogist or ethno"ogica" theorist #rom another cu"ture.

1.

&hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) The historical backgrounds of two currently used research methods are chronicled. (B) The 'alidity of the data collected by using two different research methods is compared. (C) The usefulness of a research method is "uestioned and then a new method is proposed. ( ) The use of a research method is described and the limitations of the results obtained are discussed.

GMAT

21

(#) A research method is e'aluated and the changes necessary for its adaptation to other sub<ect areas are discussed. 2. &hich of the following is most similar to the actions of nineteenth(century ethnologists in their editing of the life stories of 9ati'e Americans% (A) A witness in a <ury trial in'okes the >ifth Amendment in order to a'oid relating personally incriminating e'idence. (B) A stockbroker refuses to di'ulge the source of her information on the possible future increase in a stock4s 'alue. (C) A sports announcer describes the action in a team sport with which he is unfamiliar. ( ) A chef purposely e$cludes the special ingredient from the recipe of his pri!ewinning dessert. (#) A politician fails to mention in a campaign speech the similarities in the positions held by her opponent for political office and by herself. .. According to the passage/ collecting life stories can be a useful methodology because (A) life stories pro'ide deeper insights into a culture than the hypothesi!ing of academics who are not members of that culture (B) life stories can be collected easily and they are not sub<ect to in'alid interpretations (C) ethnologists ha'e a limited number of research methods from which to choose ( ) life stories make it easy to distinguish between the important and unimportant features of a culture (#) the collection of life stories does not re"uire a culturally knowledgeable in'estigator 0. 3nformation in the passage suggests that which of the following may be a possible way to eliminate bias in the editing of life stories% (A) Basing all inferences made about the culture on an ethnological theory (B) #liminating all of the emotion(laden information reported by the informant (C) Translating the informant4s words into the researcher4s language ( ) =educing the number of "uestions and carefully specifying the content of the "uestions that the in'estigator can ask the informant (#) =eporting all of the information that the informant pro'ides regardless of the in'estigator4s personal opinion about its intrinsic 'alue 1. The primary purpose of the passage as a whole is to (A) "uestion an e$planation (B) correct a misconception (C) criti"ue a methodology

22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) discredit an idea (#) clarify an ambiguity 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a characteristic of the ethnological research on 9ati'e Americans conducted during the nineteenth century was the use of which of the following% (A) 3n'estigators familiar with the culture under study (B) A language other than the informant4s for recording life stories (C) Kife stories as the ethnologist4s primary source of information ( ) Complete transcriptions of informants4 descriptions of tribal beliefs (#) ;tringent guidelines for the preser'ation of cultural data -. The passage mentions which of the following as a factor that can affect the accuracy of ethnologists4 transcriptions of life stories% (A) The informants4 social standing within the culture (B) The inclusi'eness of the theory that pro'ided the basis for the research (C) The length of time the researchers spent in the culture under study ( ) The number of life stories collected by the researchers (#) The 'erifiability of the information pro'ided by the research informants 6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about the usefulness of life stories as a source of ethnographic information% (A) They can be a source of information about how people in a culture 'iew the world. (B) They are most useful as a source of linguistic information. (C) They re"uire editing and interpretation before they can be useful. ( ) They are most useful as a source of information about ancestry. (#) They pro'ide incidental information rather than significant insights into a way of life. Passage 24 (24/63)
0"" o# the ce""s in a particu"ar p"ant start out with the same comp"ement o# genes. (ow then can these ce""s di##erentiate and #orm structures as di##erent as roots' stems' "eaves' and #ruitsC The answer is that on"y a sma"" subset o# the genes in a particu"ar $ind o# ce"" are e5pressed' or turned on' at a given time. This is accomp"ished by a comp"e5 system o# chemica" messengers that in p"ants inc"ude hormones and other regu"atory mo"ecu"es. 7ive ma2or hormones have been identi#ied> au5in' abscisic acid' cyto$inin' ethy"ene' and gibbere""in. tudies o# p"ants have now identi#ied a new c"ass o# regu"atory mo"ecu"es ca""ed o"igosaccharins. Un"i$e the o"igosaccharins' the #ive we""-$nown p"ant hormones are p"eiotropic rather than

GMAT

2-

speci#ic: that is' each has more than one e##ect on the growth and deve"opment o# p"ants. The #ive has so many simu"taneous e##ects that they are not very use#u" in arti#icia""y contro""ing the growth o# crops. 0u5in' #or instance' stimu"ates the rate o# ce"" e"ongation' causes shoots to grow up and roots to grow down' and inhibits the growth o# "atera" shoots. 0u5in a"so causes the p"ant to deve"op a vascu"ar system' to #orm "atera" roots' and to produce ethy"ene. The p"eiotropy o# the #ive we""-studied p"ant hormones is somewhat ana"ogous to that o# certain hormones in anima". 7or e5amp"e' hormones #rom the hypotha"amus in the brain stimu"ate the anterior "obe o# the pituitary g"and to synthesi)e and re"ease many di##erent hormones' one o# which stimu"ates the re"ease o# hormones #rom the adrena" corte5. These hormones have speci#ic e##ects on target organs a"" over the body. 9ne hormone stimu"ates the thyroid g"and' #or e5amp"e' another the ovarian #o""ic"e ce""s' and so #orth. /n other words' there is a hierarchy o# hormones. uch a hierarchy may a"so e5ist in p"ants. 9"igosaccharins are #ragments o# the ce"" wa"" re"eased by en)ymes> di##erent en)ymes re"ease di##erent o"igosaccharins. There are indications that p"eiotropic p"ant hormones may actua""y #unction by activating the en)ymes that re"ease these other' more speci#ic chemica" messengers #rom the ce"" wa"".

1.

According to the passage/ the fi'e well(known plant hormones are not useful in controlling the growth of crops because (A) it is not known e$actly what functions the hormones perform (B) each hormone has 'arious effects on plants (C) none of the hormones can function without the others ( ) each hormone has different effects on different kinds of plants (#) each hormone works on only a small subset of a cell4s genes at any particular time

2.

The passage suggests that the place of hypothalamic hormones in the hormonal hierarchies of animals is similar to the place of which of the following in plants% (A) @lant cell walls (B) The complement of genes in each plant cell (C) A subset of a plant cell4s gene complement ( ) The fi'e ma<or hormones (#) The oligosaccharins

..

The passage suggests that which of the following is a function likely to be performed by an oligosaccharin% (A) To stimulate a particular plant cell to become part of a plant4s root system (B) To stimulate the walls of a particular cell to produce other oligosaccharins (C) To acti'ate en!ymes that release specific chemical messengers from plant cell walls ( ) To duplicate the gene complement in a particular plant cell (#) To produce multiple effects on a particular subsystem of plant cells

26

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

0.

The author mentions specific effects that au$in has on plant de'elopment in order to illustrate the (A) point that some of the effects of plant hormones can be harmful (B) way in which hormones are produced by plants (C) hierarchical nature of the functioning of plant hormones ( ) differences among the best(known plant hormones (#) concept of pleiotropy as it is e$hibited by plant hormones

1.

According to the passage/ which of the following best describes a function performed by oligosaccharins% (A) =egulating the daily functioning of a plant4s cells (B) 3nteracting with one another to produce different chemicals (C) =eleasing specific chemical messengers from a plant4s cell walls ( ) @roducing the hormones that cause plant cells to differentiate to perform different functions (#) 3nfluencing the de'elopment of a plant4s cells by controlling the e$pression of the cells4 genes

2.

The passage suggests that/ unlike the pleiotropic hormones/ oligosaccharins could be used effecti'ely to (A) trace the passage of chemicals through the walls of cells (B) pinpoint functions of other plant hormones (C) artificially control specific aspects of the de'elopment of crops ( ) alter the complement of genes in the cells of plants (#) alter the effects of the fi'e ma<or hormones on plant de'elopment

-.

The author discusses animal hormones primarily in order to (A) introduce the idea of a hierarchy of hormones (B) e$plain the effects that au$in has on plant cells (C) contrast the functioning of plant hormones and animals hormones ( ) illustrate the way in which particular hormones affect animals (#) e$plain the distinction between hormones and regulatory molecules Passage 25 (25/63)
/n 1977 the prestigious =wha 8omen3s University in eou"' Norea' announced the

opening o# the #irst women3s studies program in 0sia. 7ew academic programs have ever received such pub"ic attention. /n broadcast debates' critics dismissed the program as a betraya" o# nationa" identity' an imitation o# 8estern ideas' and a distraction #rom the rea" tas$ o# nationa" uni#ication and economic deve"opment. =ven supporters underestimated the program: they thought it wou"d be mere"y another o# the many 8estern ideas that had a"ready

GMAT

2,

proved use#u" in 0sian cu"ture' a$in to air"ines' e"ectricity' and the assemb"y "ine. The #ounders o# the program' however' rea"i)ed that neither view was correct. They had some reservations about the app"icabi"ity o# 8estern #eminist theories to the ro"e o# women in 0sia and #e"t that such theories shou"d be c"ose"y e5amined. Their approach has thus #ar yie"ded important criti+ues o# 8estern theory' in#ormed by the specia" e5perience o# 0sian women. 7or instance' "i$e the 8estern #eminist criti+ue o# the 7reudian mode" o# the human psyche' the Norean criti+ue #inds 7reudian theory cu"ture-bound' but in ways di##erent #rom those cited by 8estern theorists. The Norean theorists c"aim that 7reudian theory assumes the universa"ity o# the 8estern nuc"ear' ma"e-headed #ami"y and #ocuses on the persona"ity #ormation o# the individua"' independent o# society. 0n ana"ysis based on such assumptions cou"d be va"id #or a high"y competitive' individua"istic society. /n the 7reudian #ami"y drama' #ami"y members are assumed to be engaged in a Farwinian strugg"e against each other! #ather against son and sib"ing against sib"ing. uch a concept pro2ects the competitive mode" o# 8estern society onto human persona"ities. &ut in the 0sian concept o# persona"ity there is no idea" attached to individua"ism or to the independent se"#. The 8estern mode" o# persona"ity deve"opment does not e5p"ain ma2or characteristics o# the Norean persona"ity' which is socia" and group-centered. The ;se"#< is a socia" being de#ined by and acting in a group' and the we""-being o# both men and women is determined by the e+ui"ibrium o# the group' not by individua" se"#-assertion. The idea" is one o# interdependency. /n such a conte5t' what is recogni)ed as ;dependency< in 8estern psychiatric terms is not' in Norean terms' an admission o# wea$ness or #ai"ure. 0"" this bears direct"y on the 0sian perception o# men3s and women3s psycho"ogy because men are a"so ;dependent.< /n Norean cu"ture' men cry and otherwise easi"y show their emotions' something that might be considered a betraya" o# mascu"inity in 8estern cu"ture. /n the $inship-based society o# Norea' #our generations may "ive in the same house' which means that peop"e can be sons and daughters a"" their "ives' whereas in 8estern cu"ture' the ro"es o# husband and son' wi#e and daughter' are o#ten incompatib"e.

1.

&hich of the following best summari!es the content of the passage% (A) A criti"ue of a particular women4s studies program (B) A report of work in social theory done by a particular women4s studies program (C) An assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of a particular women4s studies program ( ) An analysis of the philosophy underlying women4s studies programs (#) An abbre'iated history of Morean women4s studies programs

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that Morean scholars in the field of women4s studies undertook an analysis of >reudian theory as a response to which of the following% (A) Attacks by critics of the #wha women4s studies program (B) The superficiality of earlier criti"ues of >reudian theory

-5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) The popularity of >reud in Morean psychiatric circles ( ) Their desire to encourage Morean scholars to adopt the >reudian model (#) Their assessment of the rele'ance and limitations of &estern feminist theory with respect to Morean culture .. &hich of the following conclusions about the introduction of &estern ideas to Morean society can be supported by information contained in the passage% (A) #$cept for technological inno'ations/ few &estern ideas ha'e been successfully transplanted into Morean society. (B) The introduction of &estern ideas to Morean society is 'iewed by some Moreans as a challenge to Morean identity. (C) The de'elopment of the Morean economy depends hea'ily on the de'elopment of new academic programs modeled after &estern programs. ( ) The e$tent to which &estern ideas must be adapted for acceptance by Morean society is minimal. (#) The introduction of &estern ideas to Morean society accelerated after 1,--. 0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the broadcast media in Morea considered the establishment of the #wha women4s studies program (A) praiseworthy (B) insignificant (C) newsworthy ( ) imitati'e (#) incomprehensible 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the position taken by some of the supporters of the #wha women4s studies program was problematic to the founders of the program because those supporters (A) assumed that the program would be based on the uncritical adoption of &estern theory (B) failed to show concern for the issues of national unification and economic de'elopment (C) were unfamiliar with &estern feminist theory ( ) were not themsel'es scholars in the field of women4s studies (#) accepted the uni'ersality of >reudian theory 2. &hich of the following statements is most consistent with the 'iew of personality de'elopment held by the #wha women4s studies group% (A) @ersonality de'elopment occurs in identifiable stages/ beginning with dependency in childhood and ending with independence in adulthood. (B) Any theory of personality de'elopment/ in order to be 'alid/ must be uni'ersal.

GMAT

-1

(C) @ersonality de'elopment is influenced by the characteristics of the society in which a person li'es. ( ) @ersonality de'elopment is hindered if a person is not permitted to be independent. (#) 9o theory of personality de'elopment can account for the differences between Morean and &estern culture. -. &hich of the following statements about the &estern feminist criti"ue of >reudian theory can be supported by information contained in the passage% (A) 3t recogni!es the influence of &estern culture on >reudian theory. (B) 3t was written after 1,--. (C) 3t acknowledges the uni'ersality of the nuclear/ male(headed family. ( ) 3t challenges >reud4s analysis of the role of daughters in &estern society. (#) 3t fails to address the issue of competiti'eness in &estern society. 6. According to the passage/ critics of the #wha women4s studies program cited the program as a threat to which of the following% 3. 33. 9ational identity 9ational unification

333. #conomic de'elopment 3C. >amily integrity (A) 3 only (B) 3 and 33 only (C) 3/ 33/ and 333 only ( ) 33/ 333/ and 3C only (#) 3/ 33/ 333/ and 3C Passage 26 (26/63)
/n choosing a method #or determining c"imatic conditions that e5isted in the past' pa"eoc"imato"ogists invo$e #our principa" criteria. 7irst' the materia"!roc$s' "a$es' vegetation' etc.!on which the method re"ies must be widespread enough to provide p"enty o# in#ormation' since ana"ysis o# materia" that is rare"y encountered wi"" not permit corre"ation with other regions or with other periods o# geo"ogica" history. econd' in the process o# #ormation' the materia" must have received an environmenta" signa" that re#"ects a change in c"imate and that can be deciphered by modern physica" or chemica" means. Third' at "east some o# the materia" must have retained the signa" una##ected by subse+uent changes in the environment. 7ourth' it must be possib"e to determine the time at which the in#erred c"imatic conditions he"d. This "ast criterion is more easi"y met in dating marine sediments' because dating o# on"y a sma"" number o# "ayers in a marine se+uence a""ows the age o# other "ayers to be estimated #air"y re"iab"y by e5trapo"ation and interpo"ation. &y contrast' because sedimentation is much "ess continuous in continenta" regions' estimating the age o# a

-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

continenta" bed #rom the $nown ages o# beds above and be"ow is more ris$y. 9ne very o"d method used in the investigation o# past c"imatic conditions invo"ves the measurement o# water "eve"s in ancient "a$es. /n temperate regions' there are enough "a$es #or corre"ations between them to give us a re"iab"e picture. /n arid and semiarid regions' on the other hand' the sma"" number o# "a$es and the great distances between them reduce the possibi"ities #or corre"ation. ?oreover' since "a$e "eve"s are contro""ed by rates o# evaporation as we"" as by precipitation' the interpretation o# such "eve"s is ambiguous. 7or instance' the #act that "a$e "eve"s in the semiarid southwestern United tates appear to have been higher during the "ast ice age than they are now was at one time attributed to increased precipitation. 9n the basis o# snow-"ine e"evations' however' it has been conc"uded that the c"imate then was not necessari"y wetter than it is now' but rather that both summers and winters were coo"er' resu"ting in reduced evaporation. 0nother prob"ematic method is to reconstruct #ormer c"imates on the basis o# po""en pro#i"es. The type o# vegetation in a speci#ic region is determined by identi#ying and counting the various po""en grains #ound there. 0"though the re"ationship between vegetation and c"imate is not as direct as the re"ationship between c"imate and "a$e "eve"s' the method o#ten wor$s we"" in the temperate )ones. /n arid and semiarid regions in which there is not much vegetation' however' sma"" changes in one or a #ew p"ant types can change the picture dramatica""y' ma$ing accurate corre"ations between neighboring areas di##icu"t to obtain.

1.

&hich of the following statements about the difference between marine and continental sedimentation is supported by information in the passage% (A) ata pro'ided by dating marine sedimentation is more consistent with researchers4 findings in other disciplines than is data pro'ided by dating continental sedimentation. (B) 3t is easier to estimate the age of a layer in a se"uence of continental sedimentation than it is to estimate the age of a layer in a se"uence of marine sedimentation. (C) ?arine sedimentation is much less widespread than continental sedimentation. ( ) =esearchers are more often forced to rely on e$trapolation when dating a layer of marine sedimentation than when dating a layer of continental sedimentation. (#) ?arine sedimentation is much more continuous than is continental sedimentation.

2.

&hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of the passage as a whole% (A) The author describes a method for determining past climatic conditions and then offers specific e$amples of situations in which it has been used. (B) The author discusses the method of dating marine and continental se"uences and then e$plains how dating is more difficult with lake le'els than with pollen profiles.

GMAT

-.

(C) The author describes the common re"uirements of methods for determining past climatic conditions and then discusses e$amples of such methods. ( ) The author describes 'arious ways of choosing a material for determining past climatic conditions and then discusses how two such methods ha'e yielded contradictory data. (#) The author describes how methods for determining past climatic conditions were first de'eloped and then describes two of the earliest known methods. .. 3t can be inferred from the passage that paleoclimatologists ha'e concluded which of the following on the basis of their study of snow(line ele'ations in the southwestern :nited ;tates% (A) There is usually more precipitation during an ice age because of increased amounts of e'aporation. (B) There was less precipitation during the last ice age than there is today. (C) Kake le'els in the semiarid southwestern :nited ;tates were lower during the last ice age than they are today. ( ) uring the last ice age/ cooler weather led to lower lake le'els than paleoclimatologists had pre'iously assumed. (#) The high lake le'els during the last ice age may ha'e been a result of less e'aporation rather than more precipitation. 0. &hich of the following would be the most likely topic for a paragraph that logically continues the passage% (A) The kinds of plants normally found in arid regions (B) The effect of 'ariation in lake le'els on pollen distribution (C) The material best suited to preser'ing signals of climatic changes ( ) 8ther criteria in'oked by paleoclimatologists when choosing a method to determine past climatic conditions (#) A third method for in'estigating past climatic conditions 1. The author discusses lake le'els in the southwestern :nited ;tates in order to (A) illustrate the mechanics of the relationship between lake le'el/ e'aporation/ and precipitation (B) pro'ide an e$ample of the uncertainty in'ol'ed in interpreting lake le'els (C) pro'e that there are not enough ancient lakes with which to make accurate correlations ( ) e$plain the effects of increased rates of e'aporation on le'els of precipitation (#) suggest that snow(line ele'ations are in'ariably more accurate than lake le'els in determining rates of precipitation at 'arious points in the past 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that an en'ironmental signal found in geological material would not be useful to paleoclimatologists if it

-0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) had to be interpreted by modern chemical means (B) reflected a change in climate rather than a long(term climatic condition (C) was incorporated into a material as the material was forming ( ) also reflected subse"uent en'ironmental changes (#) was contained in a continental rather than a marine se"uence -. According to the passage/ the material used to determine past climatic conditions must be widespread for which of the following reasons% 3. 33. @aleoclimatologists need to make comparisons between periods of geological history. @aleoclimatologists need to compare materials that ha'e supported a wide 'ariety of 'egetation.

333. @aleoclimatologists need to make comparisons with data collected in other regions. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 33 and 333 only 6. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the study of past climates in arid and semiarid regions% (A) 3t is sometimes more difficult to determine past climatic conditions in arid and semiarid regions than in temperate regions. (B) Although in the past more research has been done on temperate regions/ paleoclimatologists ha'e recently turned their attention to arid and semiarid regions. (C) Although more information about past climates can be gathered in arid and semiarid than in temperate regions/ dating this information is more difficult. ( ) 3t is difficult to study the climatic history of arid and semiarid regions because their climates ha'e tended to 'ary more than those of temperate regions. (#) The study of past climates in arid and semiarid regions has been neglected because temperate regions support a greater 'ariety of plant and animal life. Passage 27 (27/63)
ince the "ate 197.3s' in the #ace o# a severe "oss o# mar$et share in do)ens o# industries' manu#acturers in the United tates have been trying to improve productivity!and there#ore enhance their internationa" competitiveness!through cost-cutting programs. (%ost-cutting here is de#ined as raising "abor output whi"e ho"ding the amount o# "abor constant.) (owever'

GMAT
#rom 1978 through 1981' productivity!the va"ue o# goods manu#actured divided by the amount o# "abor input!did not improve: and whi"e the resu"ts were better in the business

-1

upturn o# the three years #o""owing' they ran 1- percent "ower than productivity improvements during ear"ier' post-19H- upturns. 0t the same time' it became c"ear that the harder manu#actures wor$ed to imp"ement cost-cutting' the more they "ost their competitive edge. 8ith this parado5 in mind' / recent"y visited 1- companies: it became c"ear to me that the cost-cutting approach to increasing productivity is #undamenta""y #"awed. ?anu#acturing regu"ar"y observes a ;H.' H.' 1.< ru"e. Rough"y H. percent o# any manu#acturing-based competitive advantage derives #rom "ong-term changes in manu#acturing structure (decisions about the number' si)e' "ocation' and capacity o# #aci"ities) and in approaches to materia"s. 0nother H. percent comes #rom ma2or changes in e+uipment and process techno"ogy. The #ina" 1. percent rests on imp"ementing conventiona" cost-cutting. This ru"e does not imp"y that cost-cutting shou"d not be tried. The we""-$nown too"s o# this approach!inc"uding simp"i#ying 2obs and retraining emp"oyees to wor$ smarter' not harder!do produce resu"ts. &ut the too"s +uic$"y reach the "imits o# what they can contribute. 0nother prob"em is that the cost-cutting approach hinders innovation and discourages creative peop"e. 0s 0bernathy3s study o# automobi"e manu#acturers has shown' an industry can easi"y become prisoner o# its own investments in cost-cutting techni+ues' reducing its abi"ity to deve"op new products. 0nd managers under pressure to ma5imi)e cost-cutting wi"" resist innovation because they $now that more #undamenta" changes in processes or systems wi"" wrea$ havoc with the resu"ts on which they are measured. 6roduction managers have a"ways seen their 2ob as one o# minimi)ing costs and ma5imi)ing output. This dimension o# per#ormance has unti" recent"y su##iced as a basis o# eva"uation' but it has created a pennypinching' mechanistic cu"ture in most #actories that has $ept away creative managers. =very company / $now that has #reed itse"# #rom the parado5 has done so' in part' by deve"oping and imp"ementing a manu#acturing strategy. uch a strategy #ocuses on the manu#acturing structure and on e+uipment and process techno"ogy. /n one company a manu#acturing strategy that a""owed di##erent areas o# the #actory to specia"i)e in di##erent mar$ets rep"aced the conventiona" cost-cutting approach: within three years the company regained its competitive advantage. Together with such strategies' success#u" companies are a"so encouraging managers to #ocus on a wider set o# ob2ectives besides cutting costs. There is hope #or manu#acturing' but it c"ear"y rests on a di##erent way o# managing.

1.

The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) summari!ing a thesis (B) recommending a different approach (C) comparing points of 'iew ( ) making a series of predictions (#) describing a number of parado$es

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that the manufacturers mentioned in line 2 e$pected that the measures they implemented would (A) encourage inno'ation

-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) keep labor output constant (C) increase their competiti'e ad'antage ( ) permit business upturns to be more easily predicted (#) cause managers to focus on a wider set of ob<ecti'es .. The primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is to (A) outline in brief the author4s argument (B) anticipate challenges to the prescriptions that follow (C) clarify some disputed definitions of economic terms ( ) summari!e a number of long(accepted e$planations (#) present a historical conte$t for the author4s obser'ations 0. The author refers to Abernathy4s study (line .2) most probably in order to (A) "ualify an obser'ation about one rule go'erning manufacturing (B) address possible ob<ections to a recommendation about impro'ing manufacturing competiti'eness (C) support an earlier assertion about one method of increasing producti'ity ( ) suggest the centrality in the :nited ;tates economy of a particular manufacturing industry (#) gi'en an e$ample of research that has "uestioned the wisdom of re'ising a manufacturing strategy 1. The author4s attitude toward the culture in most factories is best described as (A) cautious (B) critical (C) disinterested ( ) respectful (#) adulatory 2. 3n the passage/ the author includes all of the following #DC#@T (A) personal obser'ation (B) a business principle (C) a definition of producti'ity ( ) an e$ample of a successful company (#) an illustration of a process technology -. The author suggests that implementing con'entional cost(cutting as a way of increasing manufacturing competiti'eness is a strategy that is (A) flawed and ruinous (B) shortsighted and difficult to sustain (C) popular and easily accomplished

GMAT

--

( ) useful but inade"uate (#) misunderstood but promising Passage 28 (28/63)

The sett"ement o# the United tates has occupied traditiona" historians since 1894 when 7rederic$ @ac$son Turner deve"oped his Frontier Thesis' a thesis that e5p"ained 0merican deve"opment in terms o# westward e5pansion. 7rom the perspective o# women3s history' Turner3s e5c"usive"y mascu"ine assumptions constitute a ma2or drawbac$> his de#enders and critics a"i$e have reconstructed men3s' not women3s' "ives on the #rontier. (owever' precise"y because o# this mascu"ine orientation' revising the Frontier Thesis by #ocusing on women3s e5perience introduces new themes into women3s history!woman as "awma$er and entrepreneur!and' conse+uent"y' new interpretations o# women3s re"ationship to capita"' "abor' and statute. Turner c"aimed that the #rontier produced the individua"ism that is the ha""mar$ o# 0merican cu"ture' and that this individua"ism in turn promoted democratic institutions and economic e+ua"ity. (e argued #or the #rontier as an agent o# socia" change. ?ost nove"ists and historians writing in the ear"y to midtwentieth century who considered women in the 8est' when they considered women at a""' #e"" under Turner3s spe"". /n their wor$s these authors tended to g"ori#y women3s contributions to #rontier "i#e. 8estern women' in Turnerian tradition' were a #ierce"y independent' capab"e' and durab"e "ot' #ree #rom the constraints binding their eastern sisters. This interpretation imp"ied that the 8est provided a congenia" environment where women cou"d aspire to their own goa"s' #ree #rom constrictive stereotypes and se5ist attitudes. /n Turnerian termino"ogy' the #rontier had #urnished ;a gate o# escape #rom the bondage o# the past.< &y the midd"e o# the twentieth century' the Frontier Thesis #e"" into dis#avor among historians. Eater' Reactionist writers too$ the view that #rontier women were "one"y' disp"aced persons in a hosti"e mi"ieu that intensi#ied the worst aspects o# gender re"ations. The renaissance o# the #eminist movement during the 197.3s "ed to the tasist schoo"' which sidestepped the good bad dichotomy and argued that #rontier women "ived "ives simi"ar to the "ive o# women in the =ast. /n one now-standard te5t' 7aragher demonstrated the persistence o# the ;cu"t o# true womanhood< and the i""usionary +ua"ity o# change on the westward 2ourney. Recent"y the tasist position has been revised but not entire"y discounted by new research.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) pro'ide a framework within which the history of women in nineteenth( century America can be organi!ed (B) discuss di'ergent interpretations of women4s e$perience on the western frontier (C) introduce a new hypothesis about women4s e$perience in nineteenth(century America ( ) ad'ocate an empirical approach to women4s e$perience on the western frontier

-6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) resol'e ambiguities in se'eral theories about women4s e$perience on the western frontier 2. &hich of the following can be inferred about the no'elists and historians mentioned in lines 1,(25% (A) They misunderstood the powerful influence of constricti'e stereotypes on women in the #ast. (B) They assumed that the frontier had offered more opportunities to women than had the #ast. (C) They included accurate information about women4s e$periences on the frontier. ( ) They underestimated the endurance and fortitude of frontier women. (#) They agreed with some of Turner4s assumptions about frontier women/ but disagreed with other assumptions that he made. .. &hich of the following/ if true/ would pro'ide additional e'idence for the ;tasists4 argument as it is described in the passage% (A) >rontier women relied on smaller support groups of relati'es and friends in the &est than they had in the #ast. (B) The urban frontier in the &est offered more occupational opportunity than the agricultural frontier offered. (C) &omen participated more fully in the economic decisions of the family group in the &est than they had in the #ast. ( ) &estern women recei'ed financial compensation for labor that was comparable to what women recei'ed in the #ast. (#) &estern women did not ha'e an effect on di'orce laws/ but lawmakers in the &est were more responsi'e to women4s concerns than lawmakers in the #ast were. 0. According to the passage/ Turner makes which of the following connections in his >rontier Thesis% 3. 33. A connection between American indi'idualism and economic e"uality A connection between geographical e$pansion and social change

333. A connection between social change and financial prosperity (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 33 only (#) 3/ 33 and 333 1. 3t can be inferred that which of the following statements is consistent with the =eactionist position as it is described in the passage%

GMAT

-,

(A) Continuity/ not change/ marked women4s li'es as they mo'ed from #ast to &est. (B) &omen4s e$perience on the 9orth American frontier has not recei'ed enough attention from modern historians. (C) espite its rigors/ the frontier offered women opportunities that had not been a'ailable in the #ast. ( ) Bender relations were more difficult for women in the &est than they were in the #ast. (#) &omen on the 9orth American frontier adopted new roles while at the same time reaffirming traditional roles. 2. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A current interpretation of a phenomenon is described and then ways in which it was de'eloped are discussed. (B) Three theories are presented and then a new hypothesis that discounts those theories is described. (C) An important theory and its effects are discussed and then ways in which it has been re'ised are described. ( ) A contro'ersial theory is discussed and then 'iewpoints both for and against it are described. (#) A phenomenon is described and then theories concerning its correctness are discussed. -. &hich of the following is true of the ;tasist ;chool as it is described in the passage% (A) 3t pro'ides new interpretations of women4s relationship to work and the law. (B) 3t resol'es some of the ambiguities inherent in Turnerian and =eactionist thought. (C) 3t has recently been discounted by new research gathered on women4s e$perience. ( ) 3t a'oids e$treme positions taken by other writers on women4s history. (#) 3t was the first school of thought to suggest substantial re'isions to the Frontier Thesis. Passage 29 (29/63)
tudies o# the 8edde"" sea" in the "aboratory have described the physio"ogica" mechanisms that a""ow the sea" to cope with the e5treme o5ygen deprivation that occurs during its "ongest dives' which can e5tend -.. meters be"ow the ocean3s sur#ace and "ast #or over 7. minutes. Recent #ie"d studies' however' suggest that during more typica" dives in the wi"d' this sea"3s physio"ogica" behavior is di##erent. /n the "aboratory' when the sea" dives be"ow the sur#ace o# the water and stops breathing'

65

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

its heart beats more s"ow"y' re+uiring "ess o5ygen' and its arteries become constricted' ensuring that the sea"3s b"ood remains concentrated near those organs most crucia" to its abi"ity to navigate underwater. The sea" essentia""y shuts o## the #"ow o# b"ood to other organs' which either stop #unctioning unti" the sea" sur#aces or switch to an anaerobic (o5ygenindependent) metabo"ism. The "atter resu"ts in the production o# "arge amounts o# "actic acid which can adverse"y a##ect the p( o# the sea"3s b"ood' but since the anaerobic metabo"ism occurs on"y in those tissues which have been iso"ated #rom the sea"3s b"ood supp"y' the "actic acid is re"eased into the sea"3s b"ood on"y a#ter the sea" sur#aces' when the "ungs' "iver' and other organs +uic$"y c"ear the acid #rom the sea"3s b"oodstream. Recent #ie"d studies' however' revea" that on dives in the wi"d' the sea" usua""y heads direct"y #or its prey and returns to the sur#ace in "ess than twenty minutes. The absence o# high "eve"s o# "actic acid in the sea"3s b"ood a#ter such dives suggests that during them' the sea"3s organs do not resort to the anaerobic metabo"ism observed in the "aboratory' but are supp"ied with o5ygen #rom the b"ood. The sea"3s "onger e5cursions underwater' during which it appears to be either e5p"oring distant routes or evading a predator' do evo$e the diving response seen in the "aboratory. &ut why do the sea"3s "aboratory dives a"ways evo$e this response' regard"ess o# their "ength or depthC ome bio"ogists specu"ate that because in "aboratory dives the sea" is #orcib"y submerged' it does not $now how "ong it wi"" remain underwater and so prepares #or the worst.

1.

The passage pro'ides information to support which of the following generali!ations% (A) 8bser'ations of animals4 physiological beha'ior in the wild are not reliable unless 'erified by laboratory studies. (B) 3t is generally less difficult to obser'e the physiological beha'ior of an animal in the wild than in the laboratory. (C) The le'el of lactic acid in an animal4s blood is likely to be higher when it is searching for prey than when it is e'ading predators. ( ) The le'el of lactic acid in an animal4s blood is likely to be lowest during those periods in which it e$periences o$ygen depri'ation. (#) The physiological beha'ior of animals in a laboratory setting is not always consistent with their physiological beha'ior in the wild.

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that by describing the &eddell seal as preparing *for the worst+ (line 01)/ biologists mean that it (A) prepares to remain underwater for no longer than twenty minutes (B) e$hibits physiological beha'ior similar to that which characteri!es di'es in which it heads directly for its prey (C) e$hibits physiological beha'ior similar to that which characteri!es its longest di'es in the wild ( ) begins to e$hibit predatory beha'ior (#) clears the lactic acid from its blood before attempting to di'e

GMAT

61

..

The passage suggests that during laboratory di'es/ the p) of the &eddell seal4s blood is not ad'ersely affected by the production of lactic acid because (A) only those organs that are essential to the seal4s ability to na'igate underwater re'ert to an anaerobic mechanism (B) the seal typically re'erts to an anaerobic metabolism only at the 'ery end of the di'e (C) organs that re'ert to an anaerobic metabolism are temporarily isolated from the seal4s bloodstream ( ) o$ygen continues to be supplied to organs that clear lactic acid from the seal4s bloodstream (#) the seal remains submerged for only short periods of time

0.

&hich of the following best summari!es the main point of the passage% (A) =ecent field studies ha'e indicated that descriptions of the physiological beha'ior of the &eddell seal during laboratory di'es are not applicable to its most typical di'es in the wild. (B) The &eddell seal has de'eloped a number of uni"ue mechanisms that enable it to remain submerged at depths of up to 155 meters for up to -5 minutes. (C) The results of recent field studies ha'e made it necessary for biologists to re'ise pre'ious perceptions of how the &eddell seal beha'es physiologically during its longest di'es in the wild. ( ) Biologists speculate that laboratory studies of the physiological beha'ior of seals during di'es lasting more than twenty minutes would be more accurate if the seals were not forcibly submerged. (#) )ow the &eddell seal responds to o$ygen depri'ation during its longest di'es appears to depend on whether the seal is searching for prey or a'oiding predators during such di'es.

1.

According to the author/ which of the following is true of the laboratory studies mentioned in line 1% (A) They fail to e$plain how the seal is able to tolerate the increased production of lactic acid by organs that re'ert to an anaerobic metabolism during its longest di'es in the wild. (B) They present an o'ersimplified account of mechanisms that the &eddell seal relies on during its longest di'es in the wild. (C) They pro'ide e'idence that undermines the 'iew that the &eddell seal relies on an anaerobic metabolism during its most typical di'es in the wild. ( ) They are based on the assumption that &eddell seals rarely spend more than twenty minutes underwater on a typical di'e in the wild. (#) They pro'ide an accurate account of the physiological beha'ior of &eddell seals during those di'es in the wild in which they are either e'ading predators or e$ploring distant routes.

62

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

2.

The author cites which of the following as characteristic of the &eddell seal4s physiological beha'ior during di'es obser'ed in the laboratory% 3. 33. A decrease in the rate at which the seal4s heart beats A constriction of the seal4s arteries

333. A decrease in the le'els of lactic acid in the seal4s blood 3C. A temporary halt in the functioning of certain organs (A) 3 and 333 only (B) 33 and 3C only (C) 33 and 333 only ( ) 3/ 33/ and 3C only (#) 3/ 333/ and 3C only -. The passage suggests that because &eddell seals are forcibly submerged during laboratory di'es/ they do which of the following% (A) #$hibit the physiological responses that are characteristic of di'es in the wild that last less than twenty minutes. (B) #$hibit the physiological responses that are characteristic of the longer di'es they undertake in the wild. (C) Cope with o$ygen depri'ation less effecti'ely than they do on typical di'es in the wild. ( ) @roduce smaller amounts of lactic acid than they do on typical di'es in the wild. (#) 9a'igate less effecti'ely than they do on typical di'es in the wild. Passage 30 (30/63)
ince the ear"y 197.3s' historians have begun to devote serious attention to the wor$ing c"ass in the United tates. Det whi"e we now have studies o# wor$ing-c"ass communities and cu"ture' we $now remar$ab"y "itt"e o# wor$"essness. 8hen historians have paid any attention at a"" to unemp"oyment' they have #ocused on the Areat Fepression o# the 194.3s. The narrowness o# this perspective ignores the pervasive recessions and 2ob"essness o# the previous decades' as 0"e5ander Neyssar shows in his recent boo$. =5amining the period 187.-191.' Neyssar concentrates on ?assachusetts' where the historica" materia"s are particu"ar"y rich' and the #indings app"icab"e to other industria" areas. The unemp"oyment rates that Neyssar ca"cu"ates appear to be re"ative"y modest' at "east by Areat Fepression standards> during the worst years' in the 187.3s and 189.3s' unemp"oyment was around 1- percent. Det Neyssar right"y understands that a better way to measure the impact o# unemp"oyment is to ca"cu"ate unemp"oyment #re+uencies!measuring the percentage o# wor$ers who e5perience any unemp"oyment in the course o# a year. Aiven this perspective' 2ob"essness "ooms much "arger. Neyssar a"so scrutini)es unemp"oyment patterns according to s$i"" "eve"' ethnicity' race'

GMAT

6.

age' c"ass' and gender. (e #inds that rates o# 2ob"essness di##ered primari"y according to c"ass> those in midd"e-c"ass and white-co""ar occupations were #ar "ess "i$e"y to be unemp"oyed. Det the impact o# unemp"oyment on a speci#ic c"ass was not a"ways the same. =ven when dependent on the same trade' ad2oining communities cou"d have dramatica""y di##erent unemp"oyment rates. Neyssar uses these di##erentia" rates to he"p e5p"ain a phenomenon that has pu))"ed historians!the start"ing"y high rate o# geographica" mobi"ity in the nineteenthcentury United tates. &ut mobi"ity was not the dominant wor$ing-c"ass strategy #or coping with unemp"oyment' nor was assistance #rom private charities or state agencies. e"#-he"p and the he"p o# $in got most wor$ers through 2ob"ess spe""s. 8hi"e Neyssar might have spent more time deve"oping the imp"ications o# his #indings on 2ob"essness #or contemporary pub"ic po"icy' his study' in its thorough research and creative use o# +uantitative and +ua"itative evidence' is a mode" o# historica" ana"ysis.

1.

The passage is primarily concerned with (A) recommending a new course of in'estigation (B) summari!ing and assessing a study (C) making distinctions among categories ( ) critici!ing the current state of a field (#) comparing and contrasting two methods for calculating data

2.

The passage suggests that before the early 1,-54s/ which of the following was true of the study by historians of the working class in the :nited ;tates% (A) The study was infre"uent or superficial/ or both. (B) The study was repeatedly critici!ed for its allegedly narrow focus. (C) The study relied more on "ualitati'e than "uantitati'e e'idence. ( ) The study focused more on the working(class community than on working( class culture. (#) The study ignored working(class <oblessness during the Breat epression.

..

According to the passage/ which of the following is true of Meyssar4s findings concerning unemployment in ?assachusetts% (A) They tend to contradict earlier findings about such unemployment. (B) They are possible because ?assachusetts has the most easily accessible historical records. (C) They are the first to mention the e$istence of high rates of geographical mobility in the nineteenth century. ( ) They are rele'ant to a historical understanding of the nature of unemployment in other states. (#) They ha'e caused historians to reconsider the role of the working class during the Breat epression.

0.

According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the unemployment

60

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

rates mentioned in line 11% (A) They ho'ered/ on a'erage/ around 11 percent during the period 16-5(1,25. (B) They gi'e less than a full sense of the impact of unemployment on working( class people. (C) They o'erestimate the importance of middle class and white(collar unemployment. ( ) They ha'e been considered by many historians to underestimate the e$tent of working(class unemployment. (#) They are more open to "uestion when calculated for years other than those of peak recession. 1. &hich of the following statements about the unemployment rate during the Breat epression can be inferred from the passage% (A) 3t was sometimes higher than 11 percent. (B) 3t has been analy!ed seriously only since the early 1,-54s. (C) 3t can be calculated more easily than can unemployment fre"uency. ( ) 3t was ne'er as high as the rate during the 16-54s. (#) 3t has been shown by Meyssar to be lower than pre'iously thought. 2. According to the passage/ Meyssar considers which of the following to be among the important predictors of the likelihood that a particular person would be unemployed in late nineteenth(century ?assachusetts% 3. 33. The person4s class &here the person li'ed or worked

333. The person4s age (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 -. The author 'iews Meyssar4s study with (A) impatient disappro'al (B) wary concern (C) polite skepticism ( ) scrupulous neutrality (#) "ualified admiration 6. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strongly support Meyssar4s findings as they are described by the author% (A) Boston/ ?assachusetts/ and Nuincy/ ?assachusetts/ ad<oining communities/

GMAT

61

had a higher rate of unemployment for working(class people in 16-5 than in 16,5. (B) &hite(collar professionals such as attorneys had as much trouble as day laborers in maintaining a steady le'el of employment throughout the period 16-5(1,25. (C) &orking(class women li'ing in Cambridge/ ?assachusetts/ were more likely than working(class men li'ing in Cambridge to be unemployed for some period of time during the year 16-.. ( ) 3n the 16,54s/ shoe(factory workers mo'ed away in large numbers from Chelmsford/ ?assachusetts/ where shoe factories were being replaced by other industries/ to ad<oining &est Chelmsford/ where the shoe industry flourished. (#) 3n the late nineteenth century/ workers of all classes in ?assachusetts were more likely than workers of all classes in other states to mo'e their place of residence from one location to another within the state. Passage 31 (31/63)
The number o# women directors appointed to corporate boards in the United tates has increased dramatica""y' but the ratio o# #ema"e to ma"e directors remains "ow. 0"though pressure to recruit women directors' un"i$e that to emp"oy women in the genera" wor$ #orce' does not derive #rom "egis"ation' it is neverthe"ess rea". 0"though sma"" companies were the #irst to have women directors' "arge corporations current"y have a higher percentage o# women on their boards. 8hen the chairs o# these "arge corporations began recruiting women to serve on boards' they initia""y sought women who were chie# e5ecutive o##icers (%=93s) o# "arge corporations. (owever' such women %=93s are sti"" rare. /n addition' the idea" o# si5 %=93s (#ema"e or ma"e) serving on the board o# each o# the "argest corporations is rea"i)ab"e on"y i# every %=9 serves on si5 boards. This raises the specter o# director over-commitment and the resu"tant di"ution o# contribution. %onse+uent"y' the chairs ne5t sought women in business who had the e+uiva"ent o# %=9 e5perience. (owever' since it is on"y recent"y that "arge numbers o# women have begun to rise in management' the chairs began to recruit women o# high achievement outside the business wor"d. ?any such women are we"" $nown #or their contributions in government' education' and the nonpro#it sector. The #act that the women #rom these sectors who were appointed were o#ten ac+uaintances o# the boards3 chairs seems +uite reasonab"e> chairs have a"ways considered it important #or directors to interact com#ortab"y in the boardroom. 0"though many success#u" women #rom outside the business wor"d are un$nown to corporate "eaders' these women are particu"ar"y +ua"i#ied to serve on boards because o# the changing nature o# corporations. Today a company3s abi"ity to be responsive to the concerns o# the community and the environment can in#"uence that company3s growth and surviva". 8omen are uni+ue"y positioned to be responsive to some o# these concerns. 0"though conditions have changed' it shou"d be remembered that most directors o# both se5es are over

62

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

#i#ty years o"d. 8omen o# that generation were o#ten encouraged to direct their attention toward e##orts to improve the community. This #act is re#"ected in the career deve"opment o# most o# the outstanding"y success#u" women o# the generation now in their #i#ties' who current"y serve on corporate boards> 1- percent are in education and 11 percent are in government' "aw' and the nonpro#it sector. 9ne organi)ation o# women directors is he"ping business become more responsive to the changing needs o# society by raising the "eve" o# corporate awareness about socia" issues' such as prob"ems with the economy' government regu"ation' the aging popu"ation' and the environment. This organi)ation a"so serves as a resource center o# in#ormation on accomp"ished women who are potentia" candidates #or corporate boards.

1.

The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about achie'ement of the *ideal+ mentioned in line 10% (A) 3t has only recently become a possibility. (B) 3t would be easier to meet if more C#84s were women. (C) 3t is 'ery close to being a reality for most corporate boards. ( ) 3t might affect the "uality of directors4 ser'ice to corporations. (#) 3t would be more reali!able if C#84s had a more e$tensi'e range of business e$perience.

2.

According to the passage/ the pressure to appoint women to corporate boards differs from the pressure to employ women in the work force in which of the following ways% (A) Corporate boards are under less pressure because they ha'e such a small number of openings. (B) Corporate boards ha'e recei'ed less pressure from stockholders/ consumers/ and workers within companies to include women on their boards. (C) Corporate boards ha'e recei'ed less pressure from the media and the public to include women on their boards. ( ) Corporations ha'e only recently been pressured to include women on their boards. (#) Corporations are not sub<ect to statutory penalty for failing to include women on their boards.

..

All of the following are e$amples of issues that the organi!ation described in the last paragraph would be likely to ad'ise corporations on #DC#@T (A) long(term inflation (B) health and safety regulations (C) retirement and pension programs ( ) the energy shortage (#) how to de'elop new markets

GMAT

6-

0.

3t can be inferred from the passage that/ when seeking to appoint new members to a corporation4s board/ the chair traditionally looked for candidates who (A) had legal and go'ernmental e$perience (B) had e$perience dealing with community affairs (C) could work easily with other members of the board ( ) were already in'ol'ed in establishing policy for that corporation (#) had influential connections outside the business world

1.

According to the passage/ which of the following is true about women outside the business world who are currently ser'ing on corporate boards% (A) ?ost do not ser'e on more than one board. (B) A large percentage will e'entually work on the staff of corporations. (C) ?ost were already known to the chairs of the board to which they were appointed. ( ) A larger percentage are from go'ernment and law than are from the nonprofit sector. (#) ?ost are less than fifty years old.

2.

The passage suggests that corporations of the past differ from modern corporations in which of the following ways% (A) Corporations had greater input on go'ernment policies affecting the business community. (B) Corporations were less responsi'e to the financial needs of their employees. (C) The ability of a corporation to keep up with changing markets was not a crucial factor in its success. ( ) A corporation4s effecti'eness in coping with community needs was less likely to affect its growth and prosperity. (#) Corporations were sub<ect to more stringent go'ernment regulations.

-.

&hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A problem is described/ and then reasons why 'arious proposed solutions succeeded or failed are discussed. (B) A problem is described/ and then an ad'antage of resol'ing it is offered. (C) A problem is described/ and then reasons for its continuing e$istence are summari!ed. ( ) The historical origins of a problem are described/ and then 'arious measures that ha'e successfully resol'ed it are discussed. (#) The causes of a problem are described/ and then its effects are discussed.

6.

3t can be inferred from the passage that factors making women uni"uely 'aluable members of modern corporate boards would include which of the following%

66

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

3. 33.

The nature of modern corporations The increased number of women C#84s

333. The careers pursued by women currently a'ailable to ser'e on corporate boards (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 Passage 32 (32/63)
/ncreasing"y' historians are b"aming diseases imported #rom the 9"d 8or"d #or the staggering disparity between the indigenous popu"ation o# 0merica in 1H91!new estimates o# which soar as high as 1.. mi""ion' or appro5imate"y one-si5th o# the human race at that time! and the #ew mi""ion #u""-b"ooded *ative 0mericans a"ive at the end o# the nineteenth century. There is no doubt that chronic disease was an important #actor in the precipitous dec"ine' and it is high"y probab"e that the greatest $i""er was epidemic disease' especia""y as mani#ested in virgin-soi" epidemics. Birgin-soi" epidemics are those in which the popu"ations at ris$ have had no previous contact with the diseases that stri$e them and are there#ore immuno"ogica""y a"most de#ense"ess. That virgin-soi" epidemics were important in 0merican history is strong"y indicated by evidence that a number o# dangerous ma"adies!sma""po5' meas"es' ma"aria' ye""ow #ever' and undoubted"y severa" more!were un$nown in the pre-%o"umbian *ew 8or"d. The e##ects o# their sudden introduction are demonstrated in the ear"y chronic"es o# 0merica' which contain reports o# horrendous epidemics and steep popu"ation dec"ines' con#irmed in many cases by recent +uantitative ana"yses o# panish tribute records and other sources. The evidence provided by the documents o# &ritish and 7rench co"onies is not as de#initive because the con+uerors o# those areas did not estab"ish permanent sett"ements and begin to $eep continuous records unti" the seventeenth century' by which time the worst epidemics had probab"y a"ready ta$en p"ace. 7urthermore' the &ritish tended to drive the native popu"ations away' rather than ens"aving them as the paniards did' so that the epidemics o# &ritish 0merica occurred beyond the range o# co"onists3 direct observation. =ven so' the surviving records o# *orth 0merica do contain re#erences to dead"y epidemics among the indigenous popu"ation. /n 1G1G-1G19 an epidemic' possib"y o# bubonic or pneumonic p"ague' swept coasta" *ew =ng"and' $i""ing as many as nine out o# ten. Furing the 1G4.3s sma""po5' the disease most #ata" to the *ative 0merican peop"e' e"iminated ha"# the popu"ation o# the (uron and /ro+uois con#ederations. /n the 181.3s #ever devastated the peop"e o# the %o"umbia River area' $i""ing eight out o# ten o# them. Un#ortunate"y' the documentation o# these and other epidemics is s"ight and #re+uent"y unre"iab"e' and it is necessary to supp"ement what "itt"e we do $now with evidence #rom recent epidemics among *ative 0mericans. 7or e5amp"e' in 19-1 an outbrea$ o# meas"es among the

GMAT
*ative 0merican inhabitants o# Ungava &ay' Ouebec' a##ected 99 percent o# the popu"ation and $i""ed 7 percent' even though some had the bene#it o# modern medicine. %ases such as this demonstrate that even diseases that are not norma""y #ata" can have devastating conse+uences when they stri$e an immuno"ogica""y de#ense"ess community.

6,

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) refute a common misconception (B) pro'ide support for a hypothesis (C) analy!e an argument ( ) suggest a solution to a dilemma (#) reconcile opposing 'iewpoints

2.

According to the passage/ 'irgin(soil epidemics can be distinguished from other catastrophic outbreaks of disease in that 'irgin(soil epidemics (A) recur more fre"uently than other chronic diseases (B) affect a minimum of one(half of a gi'en population (C) in'ol'e populations with no prior e$posure to a disease ( ) usually in'ol'e a number of interacting diseases (#) are less responsi'e to medical treatment than are other diseases

..

According to the passage/ the British colonists were unlike the ;panish colonists in that the British colonists (A) collected tribute from the nati'e population (B) kept records from a 'ery early date (C) dro'e 9ati'e Americans off the land ( ) were unable to pro'ide medical care against epidemic disease (#) ensla'ed the nati'e populations in America

0.

&hich of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning ;panish tribute records% (A) They mention only epidemics of smallpo$. (B) They were instituted in 10,2. (C) They were being kept prior to the se'enteenth century. ( ) They pro'ide "uantitati'e and "ualitati'e e'idence about 9ati'e American populations. (#) They pro'e that certain diseases were unknown in the pre(Columbian 9ew &orld.

1.

The author implies which of the following about measles% (A) 3t is not usually a fatal disease. (B) 3t ceased to be a problem by the se'enteenth century.

,5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) 3t is the disease most commonly in'ol'ed in 'irgin(soil epidemics. ( ) 3t was not a significant problem in ;panish colonies. (#) 3t affects only those who are immunologically defenseless against it. 2. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the 9ati'e American inhabitants of :nga'a Bay% (A) They were almost all killed by the 1,12 epidemic. (B) They were immunologically defenseless against measles. (C) They were the last nati'e people to be struck by a 'irgin(soil epidemic. ( ) They did not come into fre"uent contact with white Americans until the twentieth century. (#) They had been inoculated against measles. -. The author mentions the 1,12 measles outbreak most probably in order to (A) demonstrate the impact of modern medicine on epidemic disease (B) corroborate the documentary e'idence of epidemic disease in colonial America (C) refute allegations of unreliability made against the historical record of colonial America ( ) ad'ocate new research into the continuing problem of epidemic disease (#) challenge assumptions about how the statistical e'idence of epidemics should be interpreted 6. &hich of the following/ if newly disco'ered/ would most seriously weaken the author4s argument concerning the importance of 'irgin(soil epidemics in the depopulation of 9ati'e Americans% (A) #'idence setting the pre(Columbian population of the 9ew &orld at only 65 million (B) ;panish tribute records showing periodic population fluctuations (C) ocuments detailing sophisticated 9ati'e American medical procedures ( ) >ossils indicating 9ati'e American contact with smallpo$ prior to 10,2 (#) =emains of >rench settlements dating back to the si$teenth century Passage 33 (33/63)
Unti" recent"y most astronomers be"ieved that the space between the ga"a5ies in our universe was a near-per#ect vacuum. This orthodo5 view o# the universe is now being cha""enged by astronomers who be"ieve that a heavy ;rain< o# gas is #a""ing into many ga"a5ies #rom the supposed"y empty space around them. The gas apparent"y condenses into a co""ection o# sma"" stars' each a "itt"e "arger than the p"anet @upiter. These stars vast"y outnumber the other stars in a given ga"a5y. The amount o# ;interga"actic rain#a""< into some o# these ga"a5ies has been enough to doub"e their mass in the time since they #ormed.

GMAT

,1

cientists have begun to suspect that this interga"actic gas is probab"y a mi5ture o# gases "e#t over #rom the ;big bang< when the ga"a5ies were #ormed and gas was #orced out o# ga"a5ies by supernova e5p"osions. /t is we"" $nown that when gas is coo"ed at a constant pressure its vo"ume decreases. Thus' the physicist 7abian reasoned that as interga"actic gas coo"s' the coo"er gas shrin$s inward toward the center o# the ga"a5y. ?eanwhi"e its p"ace is ta$en by hotter interga"actic gas #rom #arther out on the edge o# the ga"a5y' which coo"s as it is compressed and #"ows into the ga"a5y. The net resu"t is a continuous #"ow o# gas' starting as hot gases in interga"actic space and ending as a dri))"e o# coo" gas ca""ed a ;coo"ing #"ow'< #a""ing into the centra" ga"a5y. 0 #air"y heretica" idea in the 197.3s' the coo"ing-#"ow theory gained support when 7abian observed a c"uster o# ga"a5ies in the conste""ation 6erseus and #ound the centra" ga"a5y' *A% 117-' to be a strange-"oo$ing ob2ect with irregu"ar' thin strands o# gas radiating #rom it. 0ccording to previous specu"ation' these strands were gases that had been b"own out by an e5p"osion in the ga"a5y. 7abian' however' disagreed. &ecause the strands o# gas radiating #rom *A% 117- are visib"e in optica" photographs' 7abian suggested that such strands consisted not o# gas b"own out o# the ga"a5y but o# coo"ing #"ows o# gas streaming inward. (e noted that the wave"engths o# the radiation emitted by a gas wou"d changes as the gas coo"ed' so that as the gas #"owed into the ga"a5y and became coo"er' it wou"d emit not 5-rays' but visib"e "ight' "i$e that which was captured in the photographs. 7abian3s hypothesis was supported by %ani)ares3 determination in 1981 that most o# the gas in the 6erseus c"uster was at a temperature o# 8. mi""ion degrees Ne"vin' whereas the gas immediate"y surrounding *A% 117- (the sub2ect o# the photographs) was at one-tenth this temperature.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) illustrate a hypothesis about the origin of gala$ies (B) pro'ide e'idence to dispute an accepted theory about the e'olution of gala$ies (C) summari!e the state of and prospects for research in intergalactic astronomy ( ) report new data on the origins of intergalactic gas (#) reconcile opposing 'iews on the formation of intergalactic gas

2.

The author uses the phrase *orthodo$ 'iew of the uni'erse+ (line .) to refer to the belief that (A) the space between the gala$ies is de'oid of matter (B) the space between gala$ies is occupied by stars that cannot be detected by optical photographs (C) gala$ies ha'e decreased in mass by half since their formation ( ) gala$ies contain stars/ each the si!e of Aupiter/ which form clusters (#) gala$ies are being penetrated by gas forced out of other gala$ies by superno'a e$plosions

..

3t can be inferred from the passage that/ if >abian is correct/ gas in the peripheral regions of a gala$y cluster

,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) streams outward into intergalactic space (B) is hotter than gas in the central regions of the gala$y (C) is composed primarily of gas left o'er from the big bang ( ) results in the creation of unusually large stars (#) e$pands to increase the si!e of the gala$y 0. The author of the passage probably mentions Cani!ares4 determination in order to (A) clarify an ambiguity in >abian4s research findings (B) illustrate a generali!ation about the temperature of gas in a gala$y cluster (C) introduce a new argument in support of the orthodo$ 'iew of gala$ies ( ) pro'ide support for >abian4s assertions about the @erseus gala$ies (#) pro'ide an alternate point of 'iew concerning the mo'ement of gas within a gala$y cluster 1. According to the passage/ >abian belie'es that gas flowing into a central gala$y has which of the following characteristics% (A) 3t is one(tenth hotter than it was in the outer regions of the gala$y cluster. (B) 3t emits radiation with wa'elengths that change as the gas mo'es toward the center of the gala$y. (C) The total amount of radiation emitted diminishes as the gas cools. ( ) 3t loses ,5 percent of its energy as it mo'es to the center of the gala$y. (#) 3t condenses at a rate much slower than the rate of decrease in temperature as the gas flows inward. 2. According to the passage/ >abian4s theory makes use of which of the following principles% (A) Bas emanating from an e$plosion will be hotter the more distant it is from the origin. (B) The wa'elength of radiation emitted by a gas as it cools remains constant. (C) 3f pressure remains constant/ the 'olume of a gas will decrease as it is cooled. ( ) The 'olume of a gas will increase as the pressure increases. (#) As gas cools/ its density decreases. -. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of >abian4s theory% (A) 3t did not recei'e appro'al until Cani!ares4 work was published. (B) 3t was not widely accepted in the 1,-54s. (C) 3t did not recei'e support initially because technology was not a'ailable to confirm its tenets. ( ) 3t supports earlier speculation that intergalactic gas was largely the result of e$plosions outside the gala$y.

GMAT

,.

(#) 3t was widely challenged until $(ray e'idence of gas temperatures in 9BC 12-1 had been presented. Passage 34 (34/63)
Na)u$o *a$ane3s history o# the ear"y @apanese immigrants to centra" %a"i#ornia3s 6a2aro Ba""ey #ocuses on the deve"opment o# #arming communities there #rom 189. to 19H.. The /ssei (#irst-generation immigrants) were brought into the 6a2aro Ba""ey to raise sugar beets. Ei$e /ssei "aborers in 0merican cities' @apanese men in rura" areas sought emp"oyment via the ;boss< system. The system comprised three e"ements> immigrant wage "aborers: /ssei boardinghouses where "aborers stayed: and "abor contractors' who gathered wor$ers #or a particu"ar 2ob and then negotiated a contract between wor$ers and emp"oyer. This same system was origina""y uti"i)ed by the %hinese "aborers who had preceded the @apanese. 0 re"ated institution was the ;"abor c"ub'< which provided 2ob in#ormation and negotiated emp"oyment contracts and other "ega" matters' such as the renta" o# "and' #or /ssei who chose to be"ong and paid an annua" #ee to the cooperative #or membership. 8hen the "oca" sugar beet industry co""apsed in 19.1' the /ssei began to "ease "and #rom the va""ey3s strawberry #armers. The @apanese provided the "abor and the crop was divided between "aborers and "andowners. The /ssei thus moved +uic$"y #rom wage-"abor emp"oyment to sharecropping agreements. 0 "imited amount o# economic progress was made as some /ssei were ab"e to rent or buy #arm"and direct"y' whi"e others 2oined together to #orm #arming corporations. 0s the /ssei began to operate #arms' they began to marry and start #ami"ies' #orming an estab"ished @apanese 0merican community. Un#ortunate"y' the /ssei3s e##orts to attain agricu"tura" independence were hampered by government restrictions' such as the 0"ien Eand Eaw o# 1914. &ut immigrants cou"d circumvent such e5c"usionary "aws by "easing or purchasing "and in their 0merican-born chi"dren3s names. *a$ane3s case study o# one rura" @apanese 0merican community provides va"uab"e in#ormation about the "ives and e5periences o# the /ssei. /t is' however' too particu"aristic. This "imitation derives #rom *a$ane3s methodo"ogy!that o# ora" history!which cannot substitute #or a broader theoretica" or comparative perspective. 7uture research might we"" consider two issues raised by her study> were the /ssei o# the 6a2aro Ba""ey simi"ar to or di##erent #rom /ssei in urban settings' and what variations e5isted between rura" @apanese 0merican communitiesC

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) defend a contro'ersial hypothesis presented in a history of early Aapanese immigrants to California (B) dismiss a history of an early Aapanese settlement in California as narrow and ill constructed (C) summari!e and criti"ue a history of an early Aapanese settlement in California ( ) compare a history of one Aapanese American community with studies of Aapanese settlements throughout California (#) e$amine the differences between Aapanese and Chinese immigrants to central

,0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

California in the 16,54s 2. &hich of the following best describes a *labor club/+ as defined in the passage% (A) An organi!ation to which 3ssei were compelled to belong if they sought employment in the @a<aro Calley (B) An association whose members included labor contractors and landowning *bosses+ (C) A type of farming corporation set up by 3ssei who had resided in the @a<aro Calley for some time ( ) A cooperati'e association whose members were dues(paying Aapanese laborers (#) A social organi!ation to which Aapanese laborers and their families belonged .. Based on information in the passage/ which of the following statements concerning the Alien Kand Kaw of 1,1. is most accurate% (A) 3t e$cluded American(born citi!ens of Aapanese ancestry from landownership. (B) 3t sought to restrict the number of foreign immigrants to California. (C) 3t successfully pre'ented 3ssei from e'er purchasing farmland. ( ) 3t was applicable to first(generation immigrants but not to their American( born children. (#) 3t was passed under pressure from the @a<aro Calley4s strawberry farmers. 0. ;e'eral 3ssei families <oin together to purchase a strawberry field and the necessary farming e"uipment. ;uch a situation best e$emplifies which of the following/ as it is described in the passage% (A) A typical sharecropping agreement (B) A farming corporation (C) A *labor club+ ( ) The *boss+ system (#) Circum'ention of the Alien Kand Kaw 1. The passage suggests that which of the following was an indirect conse"uence of the collapse of the sugar beet industry in the @a<aro Calley% (A) The 3ssei formed a permanent/ family(based community. (B) Boardinghouses were built to accommodate the 3ssei. (C) The 3ssei began to lease land in their children4s names. ( ) The 3ssei adopted a labor contract system similar to that used by Chinese immigrants. (#) The 3ssei suffered a massi'e dislocation caused by unemployment. 2. The author of the passage would most likely agree that which of the following/ if it had been included in 9akane4s study/ would best remedy the particularistic

GMAT

,1

nature of that study% (A) A statistical table comparing per capita income of 3ssei wage laborers and sharecroppers in the @a<aro Calley (B) A statistical table showing per capita income of 3ssei in the @a<aro Calley from 16,5 to 1,05 (C) A statistical table showing rates of farm ownership by Aapanese Americans in four central California counties from 16,5 to 1,05 ( ) A discussion of original company documents dealing with the @a<aro Calley sugar beet industry at the turn of the century (#) Transcripts of inter'iews conducted with members of the @a<aro Calley Aapanese American community who were born in the 1,254s and 1,.54s -. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ when the 3ssei began to lease land from the Calley4s strawberry farmers/ the 3ssei most probably did which of the following% (A) They used profits made from selling the strawberry crop to hire other 3ssei. (B) They negotiated such agricultural contracts using the *boss+ system. (C) They paid for the use of the land with a share of the strawberry crop. ( ) They earned higher wages than when they raised sugar beets. (#) They 'iolated the Alien Kand Kaw. Passage 35 (35/63)
/t can be argued that much consumer dissatis#action with mar$eting strategies arises #rom an inabi"ity to aim advertising at on"y the "i$e"y buyers o# a given product. There are three groups o# consumers who are a##ected by the mar$eting process. 7irst' there is the mar$et segment!peop"e who need the commodity in +uestion. econd' there is the program target!peop"e in the mar$et segment with the ;best #it< characteristics #or a speci#ic product. Eots o# peop"e may need trousers' but on"y a #ew +ua"i#y as "i$e"y buyers o# very e5pensive designer trousers. 7ina""y' there is the program audiencePa"" peop"e who are actua""y e5posed to the mar$eting program without regard to whether they need or want the product. These three groups are rare"y identica". 0n e5ception occurs occasiona""y in cases where customers #or a particu"ar industria" product may be #ew and easi"y identi#iab"e. uch customers' a"" sharing a particu"ar need' are "i$e"y to #orm a meaning#u" target' #or e5amp"e' a"" companies with a particu"ar app"ication o# the product in +uestion' such as high-speed #i""ers o# bott"es at breweries. /n such circumstances' direct se""ing (mar$eting that reaches on"y the program target) is "i$e"y to be economica""y 2usti#ied' and high"y specia"i)ed trade media e5ist to e5pose members o# the program target!and on"y members o# the program target!to the mar$eting program. ?ost consumer-goods mar$ets are signi#icant"y di##erent. Typica""y' there are many rather than #ew potentia" customers. =ach represents a re"ative"y sma"" percentage o# potentia"

,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

sa"es. Rare"y do members o# a particu"ar mar$et segment group themse"ves neat"y into a meaning#u" program target. There are substantia" di##erences among consumers with simi"ar demographic characteristics. =ven with a"" the past decade3s advances in in#ormation techno"ogy' direct se""ing o# consumer goods is rare' and mass mar$eting!a mar$eting approach that aims at a wide audience!remains the on"y economica""y #easib"e mode. Un#ortunate"y' there are #ew media that a""ow the mar$eter to direct a mar$eting program e5c"usive"y to the program target. /nevitab"y' peop"e get e5posed to a great dea" o# mar$eting #or products in which they have no interest and so they become annoyed.

1.

The passage suggests which of the following about highly speciali!ed trade media% (A) They should be used only when direct selling is not economically feasible. (B) They can be used to e$clude from the program audience people who are not part of the program target. (C) They are used only for 'ery e$pensi'e products. ( ) They are rarely used in the implementation of marketing programs for industrial products. (#) They are used only when direct selling has not reached the appropriate market segment.

2.

According to the passage/ most consumer(goods markets share which of the following characteristics% 3. 33. Customers who differ significantly from each other Karge numbers of potential customers

333. Customers who each represent a small percentage of potential sales (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 .. The passage suggests which of the following about direct selling% (A) 3t is used in the marketing of most industrial products. (B) 3t is often used in cases where there is a large program target. (C) 3t is not economically feasible for most marketing programs. ( ) 3t is used only for products for which there are many potential customers. (#) 3t is less successful at directing a marketing program to the target audience than are other marketing approaches. 0. The author mentions *trousers+ (lines , and 11) most likely in order to (A) make a comparison between the program target and the program audience (B) emphasi!e the similarities between the market segment and the program

GMAT

,-

target (C) pro'ide an e$ample of the way three groups of consumers are affected by a marketing program ( ) clarify the distinction between the market segment and the program target (#) introduce the concept of the program audience 1. &hich of the following best e$emplifies the situation described in the last two sentences of the passage% (A) A product suitable for women age 21(.5 is marketed at meetings attended only by potential customers. (B) A company de'elops a new product and must de'elop an ad'ertising campaign to create a market for it. (C) An idea for a speciali!ed product remains une$plored because media e$posure of the product to its few potential customers would be too e$pensi'e. ( ) A new product is de'eloped and marketers collect demographic data on potential consumers before de'eloping a specific ad'ertising campaign. (#) A product suitable for men age 25 and o'er is ad'ertised in a maga!ine read by adults of all ages. 2. The passage suggests that which of the following is true about the marketing of industrial products like those discussed in the third paragraph% (A) The market segment and program target are identical. (B) ?ass marketing is the only feasible way of ad'ertising such products. (C) The marketing program cannot be directed specifically to the program target. ( ) ?ore customers would be needed to <ustify the e$pense of direct selling. (#) The program audience would necessarily be made up of potential customers/ regardless of the marketing approach that was used. -. The passage supports which of the following statements about demographic characteristics and marketing% (A) emographic research is of no use in determining how successful a product will be with a particular group of consumers. (B) A program audience is usually composed of people with similar demographic characteristics. (C) @sychological factors are more important than demographic factors in defining a market segments. ( ) Consumers with similar demographic characteristics do not necessarily form a meaningful program target. (#) Collecting demographic data is the first step that marketers take in designing a marketing program.

,6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

6.

3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true for most consumer(goods markets% (A) The program audience is smaller than the market segment. (B) The program audience and the market segment are usually identical. (C) The market segment and the program target are usually identical. ( ) The program target is larger than the market segment. (#) The program target and the program audience are not usually identical. Passage 36 (36/63)
6rotein synthesis begins when the gene encoding a protein is activated. The gene3s

se+uence o# nuc"eotides is transcribed into a mo"ecu"e o# messenger R*0 (mR*0)' which reproduces the in#ormation contained in that se+uence. Transported outside the nuc"eus to the cytop"asm' the mR*0 is trans"ated into the protein it encodes by an organe""e $nown as a ribosome' which strings together amino acids in the order speci#ied by the se+uence o# e"ements in the mR*0 mo"ecu"e. ince the amount o# mR*0 in a ce"" determines the amount o# the corresponding protein' #actors a##ecting the abundance o# mR*03s p"ay a ma2or part in the norma" #unctioning o# a ce"" by appropriate"y regu"ating protein synthesis. 7or e5amp"e' an e5cess o# certain proteins can cause ce""s to pro"i#erate abnorma""y and become cancerous: a "ac$ o# the protein insu"in resu"ts in diabetes. &io"ogists once assumed that the variab"e rates at which ce""s synthesi)e di##erent mR*03s determine the +uantities o# mR*03s and their corresponding proteins in a ce"". (owever' recent investigations have shown that the concentrations o# most mR*03s corre"ate best' not with their synthesis rate' but rather with the e+ua""y variab"e rates at which ce""s degrade the di##erent mR*03s in their cytop"asm. /# a ce"" degrades both a rapid"y and a s"ow"y synthesi)ed mR*0 s"ow"y' both mR*03s wi"" accumu"ate to high "eve"s. 0n important e5amp"e o# this phenomenon is the deve"opment o# red b"ood ce""s #rom their unspecia"i)ed parent ce""s in bone marrow. 7or red b"ood ce""s to accumu"ate su##icient concentrations o# hemog"obin (which transports o5ygen) to carry out their main #unction' the ce""s3 parent ce""s must simu"taneous"y produce more o# the constituent proteins o# hemog"obin and "ess o# most other proteins. To do this' the parent ce""s ha"t synthesis o# nonhemog"obin mR*03s in the nuc"eus and rapid"y degrade copies o# the non-hemog"obin mR*03s remaining in the cytop"asm. (a"ting synthesis o# mR*0 a"one wou"d not a##ect the +uantities o# proteins synthesi)ed by the mR*03s sti"" e5isting in the cytop"asm. &io"ogists now be"ieve that most ce""s can regu"ate protein production most e##icient"y by varying both mR*0 synthesis and degradation' as deve"oping red ce""s do' rather than by 2ust varying one or the other.

1.

The passage is primarily concerned with discussing the (A) influence of m=9A concentrations on the de'elopment of red blood cells (B) role of the synthesis and degradation of m=9A in cell functioning (C) mechanism by which genes are transcribed into m=9A

GMAT

,,

( ) differences in m=9A concentrations in cell nuclei and in the cytoplasm (#) way in which m=9A synthesis contributes to the onset of diabetes 2. The passage suggests that a biologist who held the 'iew described in the first sentence of the second paragraph would most probably also ha'e belie'ed which of the following% (A) The rate of degradation of specific m=9A4s has little effect on protein concentrations. (B) The rate of degradation of specific m=9A4s should be studied intensi'ely. (C) The rates of synthesis and degradation for any gi'en m=9A are normally e"ual. ( ) ifferent m=9A4s undergo degradation at widely 'arying rates. (#) ?ost m=9A4s degrade 'ery rapidly. .. &hich of the following best describes the relationship between the second and third paragraphs of the passage% (A) The second paragraph presents arguments in support of a new theory and the third paragraph presents arguments against that same theory. (B) The second paragraph describes a traditional 'iew and the third paragraph describes the 'iew that has replaced it on the basis of recent in'estigations. (C) The third paragraph describes a specific case of a phenomenon that is described generally in the second paragraph. ( ) The third paragraph describes an in'estigation that was undertaken to resol'e problems raised by phenomena described in the second paragraph. (#) Both paragraphs describe in detail specific e$amples of the phenomenon that is introduced in the first paragraph. 0. The accumulation of concentrations of hemoglobin in red blood cells is mentioned in the passage as an e$ample of which of the following% (A) The effecti'eness of simultaneous 'ariation of the rates of synthesis and degradation of m=9A (B) The role of the ribosome in enabling a parent cell to de'elop properly into a more speciali!ed form (C) The importance of acti'ating the genes for particular proteins at the correct moment ( ) The abnormal proliferation of a protein that threatens to make the cell cancerous (#) The kind of e'idence that biologists relied on for support of a 'iew of m=9A synthesis that is now considered obsolete 1. To begin to control a disease caused by a protein deficiency/ the passage suggests that a promising e$perimental treatment would be to administer a drug that would

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reduce (A) only the degradation rate for the m=9A of the protein in'ol'ed (B) only the synthesis rate for the m=9A of the protein in'ol'ed (C) both the synthesis and degradation rates for the m=9A of the protein in'ol'ed ( ) the incidence of errors in the transcription of m=9A4s from genetic nucleotide se"uences (#) the rate of acti'ity of ribosomes in the cytoplasm of most cells 2. According to the passage/ which of the following best describes the current 'iew on the relationship between the synthesis and the degradation of m=9A in regulating protein synthesis% (A) Biologists ha'e recently become con'inced that the ribosome controls the rates of synthesis and degradation of m=9A. (B) There is no consensus among biologists as to the significance of m=9A degradation in regulating protein synthesis. (C) The concept of m=9A degradation is so new that most biologists still belie'e that the 'ital role in protein regulation belongs to m=9A synthesis. ( ) egradation of m=9A is now considered to be the key process and m=9A synthesis is no longer belie'ed to play a significant role. (#) egradation of m=9A is now considered to be as important as m=9A synthesis has been/ and still is/ belie'ed to be. -. According to the passage/ which of the following can happen when protein synthesis is not appropriately regulated% (A) iabetes can result from errors that occur when the ribosomes translate m=9A into protein. (B) Cancer can result from an e$cess of certain proteins and diabetes can result from an insulin deficiency. (C) A deficiency of red blood cells can occur if bone marrow cells produce too much hemoglobin. ( ) Cancer can be caused by e$cessi'ely rapid degradation of certain amino acids in the cytoplasm of cells. (#) #$cessi'e synthesis of one protein can trigger increased degradation of m=9A4s for other proteins and create se'ere protein imbalances. 6. The passage suggests that a biologist who detected high le'els of two proteins in a certain type of cell would be likely to consider which of the following as a possible e$planation% (A) The rate of m=9A degradation for one of the proteins increases as this type of cell de'elops a more speciali!ed function. (B) The two proteins are most likely constituents of a comple$ substance

GMAT

151

supporting the cells4 speciali!ed function. (C) The cells are likely to proliferate abnormally and possibly become cancerous due to the le'els of these proteins. ( ) The m=9A4s for both proteins are being degraded at a low rate in that type of cell. (#) The m=9A4s for the two proteins are being synthesi!ed at identical rates in that type of cell. Passage 37 (37/63)
(This passage was e5cerpted #rom materia" written in 199..) 0s the economic ro"e o# mu"tinationa"' g"oba" corporations e5pands' the internationa" economic environment wi"" be shaped increasing"y not by governments or internationa" institutions' but by the interaction between governments and g"oba" corporations' especia""y in the United tates' =urope' and @apan. 0 signi#icant #actor in this shi#ting wor"d economy is the trend toward regiona" trading b"ocs o# nations' which has a potentia""y "arge e##ect on the evo"ution o# the wor"d trading system. Two e5amp"es o# this trend are the United tates%anada 7ree Trade 0greement (7T0) and =urope 1991' the move by the =uropean %ommunity (=%) to dismant"e impediments to the #ree #"ow o# goods' services' capita"' and "abor among member states by the end o# 1991. (owever' a"though numerous po"itica" and economic #actors were operative in "aunching the move to integrate the =%3s mar$ets' concern about protectionism within the =% does not appear to have been a ma2or consideration. This is in sharp contrast to the 7T0: the overwhe"ming reason #or that bi"atera" initiative was #ear o# increasing United tates protectionism. *onethe"ess' a"though mar$ed"y di##erent in origin and nature' both regiona" deve"opments are high"y signi#icant in that they wi"" #oster integration in the two "argest and richest mar$ets o# the wor"d' as we"" as provo$e +uestions about the #uture direction o# the wor"d trading system.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage as a whole is to (A) describe an initiati'e and propose its continuance (B) chronicle a de'elopment and illustrate its inconsistencies (C) identify a trend and suggest its importance ( ) summari!e a process and "uestion its significance (#) report a phenomenon and outline its probable future

2.

According to the passage/ all of the following are elements of the shifting world economy #DC#@T (A) an alteration in the role played by go'ernments (B) an increase in interaction between national go'ernments and international regulatory institutions (C) an increase in the formation of multinational trading alliances ( ) an increase in integration in the two richest markets of the world

152

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(#) a fear of increasing :nited ;tates protectionism .. The passage suggests which of the following about global corporations% (A) Their continued growth depends on the e$istence of a fully integrated international market. (B) Their potential effect on the world market is a matter of ongoing concern to international institutions. (C) They will ha'e to assume "uasi(go'ernmental functions if current economic trends continue. ( ) They ha'e pro'ided a model of economic success for regional trading blocs. (#) Their influence on world economics will continue to increase. 0. According to the passage/ one similarity between the >TA and #urope 1,,2 is that they both (A) o'ercame concerns about the role of politics in the shifting world economy (B) originated out of concern o'er unfair trade practices by other nations (C) e$emplify a trend toward regionali!ation of commercial markets ( ) place the economic needs of the trading bloc ahead of those of the member nations (#) help to ensure the continued economic 'iability of the world community 1. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the #uropean Community prior to the adoption of the #urope 1,,2 program% (A) There were restrictions on commerce between the member nations. (B) The economic policies of the member nations focused on global trading issues. (C) There were few impediments to trade between the member nations and the :nited ;tates. ( ) The flow of goods between the member nations and Canada was insignificant. (#) =elations between multinational corporations and the go'ernments of the member nations were strained. 2. The author discusses the >TA and #urope 1,,2 most likely in order to (A) point out the similarities between two seemingly disparate trading alliances (B) illustrate how different economic moti'ations produce different types of trading blocs (C) pro'ide contrasting e$amples of a trend that is influencing the world economy ( ) identify the most important characteristics of successful economic integration (#) trace the history of regional trading blocs -. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%

GMAT

15.

(A) An argument is put forth and e'idence for and against it gi'en. (B) An assertion is made and opposing e'idence presented. (C) Two hypotheses are described and shown to inconsistent with one another. ( ) A phenomenon is identified and illustrations of this phenomenon offered. (#) A specific case of a phenomenon is discussed a generali!ation drawn. Passage 38 (38/63)
/n Forces of Production' Favid *ob"e e5amines the trans#ormation o# the machine-too" industry as the industry moved #rom re"iance on s$i""ed artisans to automation. *ob"e writes #rom a ?ar5ist perspective' and his centra" argument is that management' in its decisions to automate' conspired against "abor> the power that the s$i""ed machinists wie"ded in the industry was into"erab"e to management. *ob"e #ai"s to substantiate this c"aim' a"though his argument is impressive when he app"ies the ?ar5ist concept o# ;de-s$i""ing<!the use o# techno"ogy to rep"ace s$i""ed "abor!to the automation o# the machine-too" industry. /n automating' the industry moved to computer-based' digiti)ed ;numerica"-contro"< (*K%) techno"ogy' rather than to artisan-generated ;record-p"aybac$< (RK6) techno"ogy. 0"though both systems reduced re"iance on s$i""ed "abor' *ob"e c"ear"y pre#ers RK6' with its inherent ac$now"edgment o# wor$ers3 s$i""s> un"i$e *K%' its programs were produced not by engineers at their computers' but by s$i""ed machinists' who recorded their own movements to ;teach< machines to dup"icate those movements. (owever' *ob"e3s on"y evidence o# conspiracy is that' a"though the two approaches were rough"y e+ua" in technica" merit' management chose *K%. 7rom this he conc"udes that automation is underta$en not because e##iciency demands it or scienti#ic advances a""ow it' but because it is a too" in the cease"ess war o# capita"ists against "abor.

1.

The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) ree$amining a political position and defending its 'alidity (B) e$amining a management decision and defending its necessity (C) analy!ing a scholarly study and pointing out a central weakness ( ) e$plaining a trend in automation and warning about its dangers (#) chronicling the history of an industry and critici!ing its de'elopment

2.

According to information in the passage/ the term *de(skilling+ refers to the (A) loss of skills to industry when skilled workers are replaced by unskilled laborers (B) substitution of mechani!ed processes for labor formerly performed by skilled workers (C) labor theory that automation is technologically comparable to skilled labor ( ) process by which skilled machinists *teach+ machines to perform certain tasks (#) e$clusion of skilled workers from participation in the de'elopment of

150

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automated technology .. &hich of the following best characteri!es the function of the second paragraph of the passage% (A) 3t de'elops a topic introduced in the first paragraph. (B) 3t pro'ides e'idence to refute a claim presented in the first paragraph. (C) 3t gi'es e$amples of a phenomenon mentioned in the first paragraph. ( ) 3t presents a generali!ation about e$amples gi'en in the first paragraph. (#) 3t suggests two possible solutions to a problem presented in the first paragraph. 0. The passage suggests which of the following about 9JC automation in the machine(tool industry% (A) 3t displaced fewer skilled workers than =J@ automation did. (B) 3t could ha'e been implemented either by e$perienced machinists or by computer engineers. (C) 3t was designed without the acti'e in'ol'ement skilled machinists. ( ) 3t was more difficult to design than =J@ automation was. (#) 3t was technically superior to =J@ automation. 1. &hich of the following phrases most clearly re'eals the attitude of the author of the passage toward 9oble4s central argument% (A) *conspired against+ (line 2) (B) *intolerable to management+ (line -) (C) *impressi'e when he applies the ?ar$ist concept+ (line ,) ( ) *clearly prefers+ (line 12) (#) *only e'idence of conspiracy+ (line 21) 2. The author of the passage commends 9oble4s book for which of the following% (A) Concentrating on skilled as opposed to unskilled workers in its discussion of the machine(tool industry (B) 8ffering a generali!ation about the moti'es behind the machine(tool industry4s decision to automate (C) ?aking an essential distinction between two kinds of technology employed in the machine(tool industry ( ) Calling into "uestion the notion that managers conspired against labor in the automation of the machine(tool industry (#) Applying the concept of de(skilling to the machine tool industry -. &hich of the following best characteri!es >orces of @roduction as it is described in the passage% (A) A comparison of two interpretations of how a particular industry e'ol'ed

GMAT

151

(B) An e$amination of the origin of a particular concept in industrial economics (C) A study that points out the weakness of a particular interpretation of an industrial phenomenon ( ) A history of a particular industry from an ideological point of 'iew (#) An attempt to relate an industrial phenomenon in one industry to a similar phenomenon in another industry Passage 39 (39/63)
The sensation o# pain cannot accurate"y be described as ;"ocated< at the point o# an in2ury' or' #or that matter' in any one p"ace in the nerves or brain. Rather' pain signa"s!and pain re"ie#!are de"ivered through a high"y comp"e5 interacting circuitry. 8hen a ce"" is in2ured' a rush o# prostag"andins sensiti)es nerve endings at the in2ury. 6rostag"andins are chemica"s produced in and re"eased #rom virtua""y a"" mamma"ian ce""s when they are in2ured> these are the on"y pain signa"s that do not originate in the nervous system. 0spirin and other simi"ar drugs (such as indomethacin and ibupro#en) $eep prostag"andins #rom being made by inter#ering with an en)yme $nown as prostag"andin synthetase' or cyc"oo5ygenase. The drugs3 e##ectiveness against pain is proportiona" to their success in b"oc$ing this en)yme at the site o# in2ury. 7rom nerve endings at the in2ury' pain signa"s move to nerves #eeding into the spina" cord. The "ong' tubu"ar membranes o# nerve ce""s carry e"ectrica" impu"ses. 8hen e"ectrica" impu"ses get to the spina" cord' a pain-signa"ing chemica" $nown as substance 6 is re"eased there. ubstance 6 then e5cites nearby neurons to send impu"ses to the brain. Eoca" anesthetics such as novocaine and 5y"ocaine wor$ by b"oc$ing the e"ectrica" transmission a"ong nerves in a particu"ar area. They inhibit the #"ow o# sodium ions through the membranes' ma$ing the nerves e"ectrica""y +uiescent: thus no pain signa"s are sent to the spina" cord or to the brain. Recent discoveries in the study o# pain have invo"ved the brain itse"#!the supervising organ that notices pain signa"s and that sends messages down to the spina" cord to regu"ate incoming pain tra##ic. =ndorphins!the brain3s own morphine!are a c"ass o# sma"" peptides that he"p to b"oc$ pain signa"s within the brain itse"#. The presence o# endorphins may a"so he"p to e5p"ain di##erences in response to pain signa"s' since individua"s seem to di##er in their abi"ity to produce endorphins. /t now appears that a number o# techni+ues #or b"oc$ing chronic pain!such as acupuncture and e"ectrica" stimu"ation o# the centra" brain stem!invo"ve the re"ease o# endorphins in the brain and spina" cord.

1.

The passage is primarily concerned with (A) analy!ing ways that en!ymes and other chemicals influence how the body feels pain (B) describing the presence of endorphins in the brain and discussing ways the body blocks pain within the brain itself (C) describing how pain signals are con'eyed in the body and discussing ways in

152

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which the pain signals can be blocked ( ) demonstrating that pain can be influenced by acupuncture and electrical stimulation of the central brain stem (#) differentiating the kinds of pain that occur at different points in the body4s ner'ous system 2. According to the passage/ which of the following is one of the first things to occur when cells are in<ured% (A) The flow of electrical impulses through ner'e cells at the site of the in<ury is broken. (B) The production of substance @ tra'eling through ner'e cells to the brain increases. (C) #ndorphins begin to speed up the response of ner'e cells at the site of the in<ury. ( ) A flood of prostaglandins sensiti!es ner'e endings at the site of the in<ury. (#) 9er'e cells connected to the spinal cord become electrically "uiescent. .. 8f the following/ which is most likely attributable to the effect of endorphins as described in the passage% (A) After an in<ection of no'ocaine/ a patient has no feeling in the area where the in<ection was gi'en. (B) After taking ibuprofen/ a person with a headache gets "uick relief. (C) After recei'ing a local anesthetic/ an in<ured person reports relief in the anestheti!ed area. ( ) After being gi'en aspirin/ a child with a badly scraped elbow feels better. (#) After acupuncture/ a patient with chronic back pain reports that the pain is much less se'ere. 0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if the prostaglandin synthetase is only partially blocked/ which of the following is likely to be true% (A) ;ome endorphins will be produced/ and some pain signals will be intensified. (B) ;ome substance @ is likely to be produced/ so some pain signals will reach the brain. (C) ;ome sodium ions will be blocked/ so some pain signals will not reach the brain. ( ) ;ome prostaglandins will be produced/ but production of substance @ will be pre'ented. (#) ;ome peptides in the brain will recei'e pain signals and begin to regulate incoming pain traffic. Passage 40 (40/63)

GMAT

15-

@apanese #irms have achieved the highest "eve"s o# manu#acturing e##iciency in the wor"d automobi"e industry. ome observers o# @apan have assumed that @apanese #irms use the same manu#acturing e+uipment and techni+ues as United tates #irms but have bene#ited #rom the uni+ue characteristics o# @apanese emp"oyees and the @apanese cu"ture. (owever' i# this were true' then one wou"d e5pect @apanese auto p"ants in the United tates to per#orm no better than #actories run by United tates companies. This is not the case: @apanese-run automobi"e p"ants "ocated in the United tates and sta##ed by "oca" wor$ers have demonstrated higher "eve"s o# productivity when compared with #actories owned by United tates companies. 9ther observers "in$ high @apanese productivity to higher "eve"s o# capita" investment per wor$er. &ut a historica" perspective "eads to a di##erent conc"usion. 8hen the two top @apanese automobi"e ma$ers matched and then doub"ed United tates productivity "eve"s in the mid-si5ties' capita" investment per emp"oyee was comparab"e to that o# United tates #irms. 7urthermore' by the "ate seventies' the amount o# #i5ed assets re+uired to produce one vehic"e was rough"y e+uiva"ent in @apan and in the United tates. ince capita" investment was not higher in @apan' it had to be other #actors that "ed to higher productivity. 0 more #ruit#u" e5p"anation may "ie with @apanese production techni+ues. @apanese automobi"e producers did not simp"y imp"ement conventiona" processes more e##ective"y> they made critica" changes in United tates procedures. 7or instance' the massproduction phi"osophy o# United tates automa$ers encouraged the production o# huge "ots o# cars in order to uti"i)e #u""y e5pensive' component-speci#ic e+uipment and to occupy #u""y wor$ers who have been trained to e5ecute one operation e##icient"y. @apanese automa$ers chose to ma$e sma""-"ot production #easib"e by introducing severa" departures #rom United tates practices' inc"uding the use o# #"e5ib"e e+uipment that cou"d be a"tered easi"y to do severa" di##erent production tas$s and the training o# wor$ers in mu"tip"e 2obs. 0utoma$ers cou"d schedu"e the production o# di##erent components or mode"s on sing"e machines' thereby e"iminating the need to store the bu##er stoc$s o# e5tra components that resu"t when specia"i)ed e+uipment and wor$ers are $ept constant"y active.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) present the ma<or steps of a process (B) clarify an ambiguity (C) chronicle a dispute ( ) correct misconceptions (#) defend an accepted approach

2.

The author suggests that if the obser'ers of Aapan mentioned in line . were correct/ which of the following would be the case% (A) The e"uipment used in Aapanese automobile plants would be different from the e"uipment used in :nited ;tates plants. (B) Aapanese workers would be trained to do se'eral different production <obs. (C) Culture would not ha'e an influence on the producti'ity le'els of workers.

156

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( ) The workers in Aapanese(run plants would ha'e higher producti'ity le'els regardless of where they were located. (#) The production le'els of Aapanese(run plants located in the :nited ;tates would be e"ual to those of plants run by :nited ;tates companies. .. &hich of the following statements concerning the producti'ity le'els of automakers can be inferred from the passage% (A) @rior to the 1,254s/ the producti'ity le'els of the top Aapanese automakers were e$ceeded by those of :nited ;tates automakers. (B) The culture of a country has a large effect on the producti'ity le'els of its automakers. (C) uring the late 1,-54s and early 1,654s/ producti'ity le'els were comparable in Aapan and the :nited ;tates. ( ) The greater the number of cars that are produced in a single lot/ the higher a plant4s producti'ity le'el. (#) The amount of capital in'estment made by automobile manufacturers in their factories determines the le'el of producti'ity. 0. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of Aapanese automobile workers% (A) Their producti'ity le'els did not e"ual those of :nited ;tates automobile workers until the late se'enties. (B) Their high efficiency le'els are a direct result of cultural influences. (C) They operate component(specific machinery. ( ) They are trained to do more than one <ob. (#) They produce larger lots of cars than do workers in :nited ;tates factories. 1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph% (A) A thesis is presented and supporting e$amples are pro'ided. (B) 8pposing 'iews are presented/ classified/ and then reconciled. (C) A fact is stated/ and an e$planation is ad'anced and then refuted. ( ) A theory is proposed/ considered/ and then amended. (#) An opinion is presented/ "ualified/ and then reaffirmed. 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one problem associated with the production of huge lots of cars is which of the following% (A) The need to manufacture fle$ible machinery and e"uipment (B) The need to store e$tra components not re"uired for immediate use (C) The need for e$pensi'e training programs for workers/ which emphasi!e the de'elopment of facility in se'eral production <obs ( ) The need to alter con'entional mass(production processes

GMAT

15,

(#) The need to increase the in'estment per 'ehicle in order to achie'e high producti'ity le'els -. &hich of the following statements is supported by information stated in the passage% (A) Aapanese and :nited ;tates automakers differ in their approach to production processes. (B) Aapanese automakers ha'e perfected the use of single(function e"uipment. (C) Aapanese automakers in'est more capital per employee than do :nited ;tates automakers. ( ) :nited ;tates(owned factories abroad ha'e higher production le'els than do Aapanese owned plants in the :nited ;tates. (#) Aapanese automakers ha'e benefited from the cultural heritage of their workers. 6. &ith which of the following predicti'e statement regarding Aapanese automakers would the author most likely agree% (A) The efficiency le'els of the Aapanese automakers will decline if they become less fle$ible in their approach to production. (B) Aapanese automakers producti'ity le'els double during the late 1,,54s. (C) :nited ;tates automakers will originate new production processes before Aapanese automakers do. ( ) Aapanese automakers will hire fewer workers than will :nited ;tates automakers because each worker is re"uired to perform se'eral <obs. (#) Aapanese automakers will spend less on e"uipment repairs than will :nited ;tates automakers because Aapanese e"uipment can be easily altered. Passage 41 (41/63)
/t was once be"ieved that the brain was independent o# metabo"ic processes occurring e"sewhere in the body. /n recent studies' however' we have discovered that the production and re"ease in brain neurons o# the neurotransmitter serotonin (neurotransmitters are compounds that neurons use to transmit signa"s to other ce""s) depend direct"y on the #ood that the body processes. 9ur #irst studies sought to determine whether the increase in serotonin observed in rats given a "arge in2ection o# the amino acid tryptophan might a"so occur a#ter rats ate mea"s that change tryptophan "eve"s in the b"ood. 8e #ound that' immediate"y a#ter the rats began to eat' para""e" e"evations occurred in b"ood tryptophan' brain tryptophan' and brain serotonin "eve"s. These #indings suggested that the production and re"ease o# serotonin in brain neurons were norma""y coup"ed with b"ood-tryptophan increases. /n "ater studies we #ound that in2ecting insu"in into a rat3s b"oodstream a"so caused para""e" e"evations in b"ood and brain tryptophan "eve"s and in serotonin "eve"s. 8e then decided to see whether the secretion o# the anima"3s own insu"in simi"ar"y a##ected serotonin production. 8e gave the rats a carbohydrate-

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containing mea" that we $new wou"d e"icit insu"in secretion. 0s we had hypothesi)ed' the b"ood tryptophan "eve" and the concentrations o# tryptophan serotonin in the brain increased a#ter the mea". urprising"y' however' when we added a "arge amount o# protein to the mea"' brain tryptophan and serotonin "eve"s #e"". ince protein contains tryptophan' why shou"d it depress brain tryptophan "eve"sC The answer "ies in the mechanism that provides b"ood tryptophan to the brain ce""s. This same mechanism a"so provides the brain ce""s with other amino acids #ound in protein' such as tyrosine and Eeucine. The consumption o# protein increases b"ood concentration o# the other amino acids much more' proportionate"y' than it does that o# tryptophan. The more protein in the mea"' the "ower is the ratio o# the resu"ting b"oodtryptophan concentration to the concentration o# competing amino acids' and the more s"ow"y is tryptophan provided to the brain. Thus the more protein in a mea"' the "ess serotonin subse+uent"y produced and re"eased.

1.

&hich of the following titles best summari!es the contents of the passage% (A) 9eurotransmittersE Their Crucial >unction in Cellular Communication (B) iet and ;ur'i'alE An 8ld =elationship =ee$amined (C) The Blood ;upply and the BrainE A =eciprocal ependence ( ) Amino Acids and 9eurotransmittersE The Connection Between ;erotonin Ke'els and Tyrosine (#) The #ffects of >ood 3ntake on the @roduction and =elease of ;erotoninE ;ome =ecent >indings

2.

According to the passage/ the speed with which tryptophan is pro'ided to the brain cells of a rat 'aries with the (A) amount of protein present in a meal (B) concentration of serotonin in the brain before a meal (C) concentration of leucine in the blood rather than on the concentration of tyrosine in the blood after a meal ( ) concentration of tryptophan in the brain before a meal (#) number of serotonin(containing neurons present in the brain before a meal

..

According to the passage/ when the authors began their first studies/ they were aware that (A) they would e'entually need to design e$periments that in'ol'ed feeding rats high concentrations of protein (B) tryptophan le'els in the blood were difficult to monitor with accuracy (C) serotonin le'els increased after rats were fed meals rich in tryptophan ( ) there were many neurotransmitters whose production was dependent on metabolic processes elsewhere in the body (#) serotonin le'els increased after rats were in<ected with a large amount of tryptophan

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111

0.

According to the passage/ one reason that the authors ga'e rats carbohydrates was to (A) depress the rats4 tryptophan le'els (B) pre'ent the rats from contracting diseases (C) cause the rats to produce insulin ( ) demonstrate that insulin is the most important substance secreted by the body (#) compare the effect of carbohydrates with the effect of proteins

1.

According to the passage/ the more protein a rat consumes/ the lower will be the (A) ratio of the rat4s blood(tryptophan concentration to the amount of serotonin produced and released in the rat4s brain (B) ratio of the rat4s blood(tryptophan concentration to the concentration in its blood of the other amino acids contained in the protein (C) ratio of the rat4s blood(tyrosine concentration to its blood(leucine concentration ( ) number of neurotransmitters of any kind that the rat will produce and release (#) number of amino acids the rat4s blood will contain

2.

The authors4 discussion of the *mechanism that pro'ides blood tryptophan to the brain cells+ (lines .1(.2) is meant to (A) stimulate further research studies (B) summari!e an area of scientific in'estigation (C) help e$plain why a particular research finding was obtained ( ) pro'ide supporting e'idence for a contro'ersial scientific theory (#) refute the conclusions of a pre'iously mentioned research study

-.

According to the passage/ an in<ection of insulin was most similar in its effect on rats to an in<ection of (A) tyrosine (B) leucine (C) blood ( ) tryptophan (#) protein

6.

3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would be K#A;T likely to be a potential source of aid to a patient who was not ade"uately producing and releasing serotonin% (A) ?eals consisting almost e$clusi'ely of protein (B) ?eals consisting almost e$clusi'ely of carbohydrates (C) ?eals that would elicit insulin secretion ( ) ?eals that had 'ery low concentrations of tyrosine

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(#) ?eals that had 'ery low concentrations of leucine ,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the authors initially held which of the following hypotheses about what would happen when they fed large amounts of protein to rats% (A) The rats4 brain serotonin le'els would not decrease. (B) The rats4 brain tryptophan le'els would decrease. (C) The rats4 tyrosine le'els would increase less "uickly than would their leucine le'els. ( ) The rats would produce more insulin. (#) The rats would produce neurotransmitters other than serotonin. Passage 42 (42/63)

(istorians sometimes #orget that history is continua""y being made and e5perienced be#ore it is studied' interpreted' and read. These "atter activities have their own history' o# course' which may impinge in une5pected ways on pub"ic events. /t is di##icu"t to predict when ;new pasts< wi"" overturn estab"ished historica" interpretations and change the course o# history. /n the #a"" o# 19-H' #or e5amp"e' %. Bann 8oodward de"ivered a "ecture series at the University o# Birginia which cha""enged the prevai"ing dogma concerning the history' continuity' and uni#ormity o# racia" segregation in the outh. (e argued that the @im %row "aws o# the "ate nineteenth and ear"y twentieth centuries not on"y codi#ied traditiona" practice but a"so were a determined e##ort to erase the considerab"e progress made by &"ac$ peop"e during and a#ter Reconstruction in the 187.3s. This revisionist view o# @im %row "egis"ation grew in part #rom the research that 8oodward had done #or the *00%6 "ega" campaign during its preparation #or Brown v. Board of Education. The upreme %ourt had issued its ru"ing in this epocha" desegregation case a #ew months be#ore 8oodward3s "ectures. The "ectures were soon pub"ished as a boo$' The trange Career of !im Crow. Ten years "ater' in a pre#ace to the second revised edition' 8oodward con#essed with ironic modesty that the #irst edition ;had begun to su##er under some o# the handicaps that might be e5pected in a history o# the 0merican Revo"ution pub"ished in 177G.< That was a bit "i$e hearing Thomas 6aine apo"ogi)e #or the timing o# his pamph"et Common ense' which had a comparab"e impact. 0"though Common ense a"so had a mass readership' 6aine had intended to reach and inspire> he was not a historian' and thus not concerned with accuracy or the dangers o# historica" anachronism. Det' "i$e 6aine' 8oodward had an unerring sense o# the revo"utionary moment' and o# how historica" evidence cou"d undermine the mytho"ogica" tradition that was crushing the dreams o# new socia" possibi"ities. ?artin Euther Ning' @r.' testi#ied to the pro#ound e##ect o# The trange Career of !im Crow on the civi" rights movement by praising the boo$ and +uoting it #re+uent"y.

1.

The *new pasts+ mentioned in line 2 can best be described as the

GMAT

11.

(A) occurrence of e'ents e$tremely similar to past e'ents (B) history of the acti'ities of studying/ interpreting/ and reading new historical writing (C) change in people4s understanding of the past due to more recent historical writing ( ) o'erturning of established historical interpretations by politically moti'ated politicians (#) difficulty of predicting when a gi'en historical interpretation will be o'erturned 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *pre'ailing dogma+ (line 15) held that (A) Aim Crow laws were passed to gi'e legal status to well(established discriminatory practices in the ;outh (B) Aim Crow laws were passed to establish order and uniformity in the discriminatory practices of different southern states (C) Aim Crow laws were passed to erase the social gains that Black people had achie'ed since =econstruction ( ) the continuity of racial segregation in the ;outh was disrupted by passage of Aim Crow laws (#) the Aim Crow laws of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were passed to re'erse the effect of earlier Aim Crow laws .. &hich of the following is the best e$ample of writing that is likely to be sub<ect to the kinds of *handicaps+ referred to in line 2-% (A) A history of an auto manufacturing plant written by an employee during an auto(buying boom (B) A criti"ue of a statewide school(desegregation plan written by an elementary school teacher in that state (C) A newspaper article assessing the historical importance of a :nited ;tates @resident written shortly after the @resident has taken office ( ) A scientific paper describing the benefits of a certain surgical techni"ue written by the surgeon who de'eloped the techni"ue (#) iary entries narrating the e'ents of a battle written by a soldier who participated in the battle 0. The passage suggests that C. Cann &oodward and Thomas @aine were similar in all of the following ways #DC#@TE (A) Both had works published in the midst of important historical e'ents. (B) Both wrote works that en<oyed widespread popularity. (C) Both e$hibited an understanding of the rele'ance of historical e'idence to contemporary issues.

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( ) The works of both had a significant effect on e'ents following their publication. (#) Both were able to set aside worries about historical anachronism in order to reach and inspire. 1. The attitude of the author of the passage toward the work of C. Cann &oodward is best described as one of (A) respectful regard (B) "ualified approbation (C) implied skepticism ( ) pointed criticism (#) fer'ent ad'ocacy 2. &hich of the following best describes the new idea e$pressed by C. Cann &oodward in his :ni'ersity of Cirginia lectures in 1,10% (A) ;outhern racial segregation was continuous and uniform. (B) Black people made considerable progress only after =econstruction. (C) Aim Crow legislation was con'entional in nature. ( ) Aim Crow laws did not go as far in codifying traditional practice as they might ha'e. (#) Aim Crow laws did much more than merely reinforce a tradition of segregation. Passage 43 (43/63)
@oseph A"atthaar3s Forged in Battle is not the #irst e5ce""ent study o# &"ac$ so"diers and their 8hite o##icers in the %ivi" 8ar' but it uses more so"diers3 "etters and diaries!inc"uding rare materia" #rom &"ac$ so"diers!and concentrates more intense"y on &"ac$-8hite re"ations in &"ac$ regiments than do any o# its predecessors. A"atthaar3s tit"e e5presses his thesis> "oya"ty' #riendship' and respect among 8hite o##icers and &"ac$ so"diers were #ostered by the mutua" dangers they #aced in combat. A"atthaar accurate"y describes the government3s discriminatory treatment o# &"ac$ so"diers in pay' promotion' medica" care' and 2ob assignments' appropriate"y emphasi)ing the campaign by &"ac$ so"diers and their o##icers to get the opportunity to #ight. That chance remained "imited throughout the war by army po"icies that $ept most &"ac$ units serving in rear-eche"on assignments and wor$ing in "abor batta"ions. Thus' whi"e their combat death rate was on"y one-third that o# 8hite units' their morta"ity rate #rom disease' a ma2or $i""er in his war' was twice as great. Fespite these obstac"es' the courage and e##ectiveness o# severa" &"ac$ units in combat won increasing respect #rom initia""y s$eptica" or hosti"e 8hite so"diers. 0s one 8hite o##icer put it' ;they have #ought their way into the respect o# a"" the army.< /n trying to demonstrate the magnitude o# this attitudina" change' however' A"atthaar seems to e5aggerate the prewar racism o# the 8hite men who became o##icers in &"ac$

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111

regiments. ;6rior to the war'< he writes o# these men' ;virtua""y a"" o# them he"d power#u" racia" pre2udices.< 8hi"e perhaps true o# those o##icers who 2oined &"ac$ units #or promotion or other se"#-serving motives' this statement misrepresents the attitudes o# the many abo"itionists who became o##icers in &"ac$ regiments. (aving spent years #ighting against the race pre2udice endemic in 0merican society' they participated eager"y in this mi"itary e5periment' which they hoped wou"d he"p 0#rican 0mericans achieve #reedom and postwar civi" e+ua"ity. &y current standards o# racia" ega"itarianism' these men3s paterna"ism toward 0#rican 0mericans was racist. &ut to ca"" their #ee"ings ;power#u" racia" pre2udices< is to indu"ge in generationa" chauvinism!to 2udge past eras by present standards.

1.

The passage as a whole can best be characteri!ed as which of the following% (A) An e'aluation of a scholarly study (B) A description of an attitudinal change (C) A discussion of an analytical defect ( ) An analysis of the causes of a phenomenon (#) An argument in fa'or of re'ising a 'iew

2.

According to the author/ which of the following is true of Blatthaar4s >orged in Battle compared with pre'ious studies on the same topic% (A) 3t is more reliable and presents a more complete picture of the historical e'ents on which it concentrates than do pre'ious studies. (B) 3t uses more of a particular kind of source material and focuses more closely on a particular aspect of the topic than do pre'ious studies. (C) 3t contains some unsupported generali!ations/ but it rightly emphasi!es a theme ignored by most pre'ious studies. ( ) 3t surpasses pre'ious studies on the same topic in that it accurately describes conditions often neglected by those studies. (#) 3t makes skillful use of supporting e'idence to illustrate a subtle trend that pre'ious studies ha'e failed to detect.

..

The author implies that the title of Blatthaar4s book refers specifically to which of the following% (A) The sense of pride and accomplishment that Black soldiers increasingly felt as a result of their Ci'il &ar e$periences (B) The ci'il e"uality that African Americans achie'ed after the Ci'il &ar/ partly as a result of their use of organi!ational skills honed by combat (C) The changes in discriminatory army policies that were made as a direct result of the performance of Black combat units during the Ci'il &ar ( ) The impro'ed interracial relations that were formed by the races4 facing of common dangers and their waging of a common fight during the Ci'il &ar (#) The standards of racial egalitarianism that came to be adopted as a result of &hite Ci'il &ar 'eterans4 repudiation of the pre'ious racism

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0.

The passage mentions which of the following as an important theme that recei'es special emphasis in Blatthaar4s book% (A) The attitudes of abolitionist officers in Black units (B) The struggle of Black units to get combat assignments (C) The conse"uences of the poor medical care recei'ed by Black soldiers ( ) The moti'es of officers ser'ing in Black units (#) The discrimination that Black soldiers faced when trying for promotions

1.

The passage suggests that which of the following was true of Black units4 disease mortality rates in the Ci'il &ar% (A) They were almost as high as the combat mortality rates of &hite units. (B) They resulted in part from the relati'e ine$perience of these units when in combat. (C) They were especially high because of the nature of these units4 usual duty assignments. ( ) They resulted in e$tremely high o'erall casualty rates in Black combat units. (#) They e$acerbated the morale problems that were caused by the army4s discriminatory policies.

2.

The author of the passage "uotes the &hite officer in lines 2.(20 primarily in order to pro'ide e'idence to support the contention that (A) 'irtually all &hite officers initially had hostile attitudes toward Black soldiers (B) Black soldiers were often forced to defend themsel'es from physical attacks initiated by soldiers from &hite units (C) the combat performance of Black units changed the attitudes of &hite soldiers toward Black soldiers ( ) &hite units paid especially careful attention to the performance of Black units in battle (#) respect in the army as a whole was accorded only to those units/ whether Black or &hite/ that performed well in battle

-.

&hich of the following best describes the kind of error attributed to Blatthaar in lines 21(26% (A) 3nsisting on an unwarranted distinction between two groups of indi'iduals in order to render an argument concerning them internally consistent (B) ;upporting an argument in fa'or of a gi'en interpretation of a situation with e'idence that is not particularly rele'ant to the situation (C) @resenting a distorted 'iew of the moti'es of certain indi'iduals in order to pro'ide grounds for a negati'e e'aluation of their actions ( ) escribing the conditions pre'ailing before a gi'en e'ent in such a way that the contrast with those pre'ailing after the e'ent appears more striking than

GMAT

11-

it actually is (#) Asserting that a gi'en e'ent is caused by another e'ent merely because the other e'ent occurred before the gi'en e'ent occurred 6. &hich of the following actions can best be described as indulging in *generational chau'inism+ (lines 05(01) as that practice is defined in the passage% (A) Condemning a present(day monarch merely because many monarchs ha'e been tyrannical in the past. (B) Clinging to the formal standards of politeness common in one4s youth to such a degree that any rela$ation of those standards is intolerable. (C) Nuestioning the accuracy of a report written by an employee merely because of the employee4s gender. ( ) eriding the superstitions accepted as *science+ in past eras without acknowledging the pre'alence of irrational beliefs today. (#) Kabeling a nineteenth(century politician as *corrupt+ for engaging in once( acceptable practices considered intolerable today. Passage 44 (44/63)
/t was once assumed that a"" "iving things cou"d be divided into two #undamenta" and e5haustive categories. ?u"tice""u"ar p"ants and anima"s' as we"" as many unice""u"ar organisms' are eu$aryotic!their "arge' comp"e5 ce""s have a we""-#ormed nuc"eus and many organe""es. 9n the other hand' the true bacteria are pro$aryotic ce""' which are simp"e and "ac$ a nuc"eus. The distinction between eu$aryotes and bacteria' initia""y de#ined in terms o# subce""u"ar structures visib"e with a microscope' was u"timate"y carried to the mo"ecu"ar "eve". (ere pro$aryotic and eu$aryotic ce""s have many #eatures in common. 7or instance' they trans"ate genetic in#ormation into proteins according to the same type o# genetic coding. &ut even where the mo"ecu"ar processes are the same' the detai"s in the two #orms are di##erent and characteristic o# the respective #orms. 7or e5amp"e' the amino acid se+uences o# various en)ymes tend to be typica""y pro$aryotic or eu$aryotic. The di##erences between the groups and the simi"arities within each group made it seem certain to most bio"ogists that the tree o# "i#e had on"y two stems. ?oreover' arguments pointing out the e5tent o# both structura" and #unctiona" di##erences between eu$aryotes and true bacteria convinced many bio"ogists that the precursors o# the eu$aryotes must have diverged #rom the common ancestor be#ore the bacteria arose. 0"though much o# this picture has been sustained by more recent research' it seems #undamenta""y wrong in one respect. 0mong the bacteria' there are organisms that are signi#icant"y di##erent both #rom the ce""s o# eu$aryotes and #rom the true bacteria' and it now appears that there are three stems in the tree o# "i#e. *ew techni+ues #or determining the mo"ecu"ar se+uence o# the R*0 o# organisms have produced evo"utionary in#ormation about the degree to which organisms are re"ated' the time since they diverged #rom a common ancestor' and the reconstruction o# ancestra" versions o# genes. These techni+ues have strong"y suggested that a"though the true bacteria indeed #orm a "arge coherent group' certain

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other bacteria' the archaebacteria' which are a"so pro$aryotes and which resemb"e true bacteria' represent a distinct evo"utionary branch that #ar antedates the common ancestor o# a"" true bacteria.

1.

The passage is primarily concerned with (A) detailing the e'idence that has led most biologists to replace the trichotomous picture of li'ing organisms with a dichotomous one (B) outlining the factors that ha'e contributed to the current hypothesis concerning the number of basic categories of li'ing organisms (C) e'aluating e$periments that ha'e resulted in proof that the prokaryotes are more ancient than had been e$pected ( ) summari!ing the differences in structure and function found among true bacteria/ archaebacteria/ and eukaryotes (#) formulating a hypothesis about the mechanisms of e'olution that resulted in the ancestors of the prokaryotes

2.

According to the passage/ in'estigations of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells at the molecular le'el supported the conclusion that (A) most eukaryotic organisms are unicellular (B) comple$ cells ha'e well(formed nuclei (C) prokaryotes and eukaryotes form two fundamental categories ( ) subcellular structures are 'isible with a microscope (#) prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells ha'e similar en!ymes

..

According to the passage/ which of the following statements about the two( category hypothesis is likely to be true% (A) 3t is promising because it e$plains the presence of true bacteria(like organisms such as organelles in eukaryotic cells. (B) 3t is promising because it e$plains why eukaryotic cells/ unlike prokaryotic cells/ tend to form multicellular organisms. (C) 3t is flawed because it fails to account for the great 'ariety among eukaryotic organisms. ( ) 3t is flawed because it fails to account for the similarity between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. (#) 3t is flawed because it fails to recogni!e an important distinction among prokaryotes.

0.

3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following ha'e recently been compared in order to clarify the fundamental classifications of li'ing things% (A) The genetic coding in true bacteria and that in other prokaryotes (B) The organelle structures of archaebacteria/ true bacteria/ and eukaryotes (C) The cellular structures of multicellular organisms and unicellular organisms

GMAT

11,

( ) The molecular se"uences in eukaryotic =9A/ true bacterial =9A/ and archaebacterial =9A (#) The amino acid se"uences in en!ymes of 'arious eukaryotic species and those of en!ymes in archaebacterial species 1. 3f the *new techni"ues+ mentioned in line .1 were applied in studies of biological classifications other than bacteria/ which of the following is most likely% (A) ;ome of those classifications will ha'e to be ree'aluated. (B) ?any species of bacteria will be reclassified. (C) 3t will be determined that there are four main categories of li'ing things rather than three. ( ) 3t will be found that true bacteria are much older than eukaryotes. (#) 3t will be found that there is a common ancestor of the eukaryotes/ archaebacteria/ and true bacteria. 2. According to the passage/ researchers working under the two(category hypothesis were correct in thinking that (A) prokaryotes form a coherent group (B) the common ancestor of all li'ing things had comple$ properties (C) eukaryotes are fundamentally different from true bacteria ( ) true bacteria are <ust as comple$ as eukaryotes (#) ancestral 'ersions of eukaryotic genes functioned differently from their modern counterparts -. All of the following statements are supported by the passage #DC#@TE (A) True bacteria form a distinct e'olutionary group. (B) Archaebacteria are prokaryotes that resemble true bacteria. (C) True bacteria and eukaryotes employ similar types of genetic coding. ( ) True bacteria and eukaryotes are distinguishable at the subcellular le'el. (#) Amino acid se"uences of en!ymes are uniform for eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. 6. The author4s attitude toward the 'iew that li'ing things are di'ided into three categories is best described as one of (A) tentati'e acceptance (B) mild skepticism (C) limited denial ( ) studious criticism (#) whole hearted endorsement Passage 45 (45/63)

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=5cess inventory' a massive prob"em #or many businesses' has severa" causes' some o#

which are unavoidab"e. 9verstoc$s may accumu"ate through production overruns or errors. %ertain sty"es and co"ors prove unpopu"ar. 8ith some products!computers and so#tware' toys' and boo$s!"ast year3s mode"s are di##icu"t to move even at huge discounts. 9ccasiona""y the competition introduces a better product. &ut in many cases the pub"ic3s buying tastes simp"y change' "eaving a manu#acturer or distributor with thousands (or mi""ions) o# items that the #ic$"e pub"ic no "onger wants. 9ne common way to dispose o# this merchandise is to se"" it to a "i+uidator' who buys as cheap"y as possib"e and then rese""s the merchandise through cata"ogs' discount stores' and other out"ets. (owever' "i+uidators may pay "ess #or the merchandise than it cost to ma$e it. 0nother way to dispose o# e5cess inventory is to dump it. The corporation ta$es a straight cost write-o## on its ta5es and hau"s the merchandise to a "and#i"". 0"though it is hard to be"ieve' there is a sort o# convo"uted "ogic to this approach. /t is per#ect"y "ega"' re+uires "itt"e time or preparation on the company3s part' and so"ves the prob"em +uic$"y. The drawbac$ is the remote possibi"ity o# getting caught by the news media. Fumping per#ect"y use#u" products can turn into a pub"ic re"ations nightmare. %hi"dren "iving in poverty are #ree)ing and IDL %ompany has 2ust sent -.. new snowsuits to the "oca" dump. 6arents o# young chi"dren are bare"y getting by and OR %ompany dumps 1'... cases o# disposab"e diapers because they have s"ight imper#ections. The managers o# these companies are not de"iberate"y waste#u": they are simp"y unaware o# a"" their a"ternatives. /n 197G the /nterna" Revenue ervice provided a tangib"e incentive #or businesses to contribute their products to charity. The new ta5 "aw a""owed corporations to deduct the cost o# the product donated p"us ha"# the di##erence between cost and #air mar$et se""ing price' with the proviso that deductions cannot e5ceed twice cost. Thus' the #edera" government sanctions!indeed' encourages!an above-cost #edera" ta5 deduction #or companies that donate inventory to charity.

1.

The author mentions each of the following as a cause of e$cess in'entory #DC#@T (A) production of too much merchandise (B) inaccurate forecasting of buyers4 preferences (C) unrealistic pricing policies ( ) products4 rapid obsolescence (#) a'ailability of a better product

2.

The passage suggests that which of the following is a kind of product that a li"uidator who sells to discount stores would be unlikely to wish to ac"uire% (A) >urniture (B) Computers (C) Mitchen e"uipment ( ) Baby(care products (#) Children4s clothing

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121

..

The passage pro'ides information that supports which of the following statements% (A) #$cess in'entory results most often from insufficient market analysis by the manufacturer. (B) @roducts with slight manufacturing defects may contribute to e$cess in'entory. (C) >ew manufacturers ha'e taken ad'antage of the changes in the federal ta$ laws. ( ) ?anufacturers who dump their e$cess in'entory are often caught and e$posed by the news media. (#) ?ost products a'ailable in discount stores ha'e come from manufacturers4 e$cess(in'entory stock.

0.

The author cites the e$amples in lines 21(2, most probably in order to illustrate (A) the fiscal irresponsibility of dumping as a policy for dealing with e$cess in'entory (B) the waste(management problems that dumping new products creates (C) the ad'antages to the manufacturer of dumping as a policy ( ) alternati'es to dumping e$plored by different companies (#) how the news media could portray dumping to the detriment of the manufacturer4s reputation

1.

By asserting that manufacturers *are simply unaware+ (line .1)/ the author suggests which of the following% (A) ?anufacturers might donate e$cess in'entory to charity rather than dump it if they knew about the pro'ision in the federal ta$ code. (B) The federal go'ernment has failed to pro'ide sufficient encouragement to manufacturers to make use of ad'antageous ta$ policies. (C) ?anufacturers who choose to dump e$cess in'entory are not aware of the possible effects on their reputation of media co'erage of such dumping. ( ) The manufacturers of products disposed of by dumping are unaware of the needs of those people who would find the products useful. (#) The manufacturers who dump their e$cess in'entory are not familiar with the employment of li"uidators to dispose of o'erstock.

2.

The information in the passage suggests that which of the following/ if true/ would make donating e$cess in'entory to charity less attracti'e to manufacturers than dumping% (A) The costs of getting the in'entory to the charitable destination are greater than the abo'e(cost ta$ deduction. (B) The news media gi'e manufacturers4 charitable contributions the same amount of co'erage that they gi'e dumping.

122

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(C) 9o straight(cost ta$ benefit can be claimed for items that are dumped. ( ) The fair(market 'alue of an item in e$cess in'entory is 1 times its cost. (#) 3tems end up as e$cess in'entory because of a change in the public4s preferences. -. 3nformation in the passage suggests that one reason manufacturers might take ad'antage of the ta$ pro'ision mentioned in the last paragraph is that (A) there are many kinds of products that cannot be legally dumped in a landfill (B) li"uidators often refuse to handle products with slight imperfections (C) the law allows a deduction in e$cess of the cost of manufacturing the product ( ) media co'erage of contributions of e$cess(in'entory products to charity is widespread and fa'orable (#) no ta$ deduction is a'ailable for products dumped or sold to a li"uidator Passage 46 (46/63)
Traditiona""y' the #irst #irm to commercia"i)e a new techno"ogy has bene#ited #rom the uni+ue opportunity to shape product de#initions' #orcing #o""owers to adapt to a standard or invest in an unproven a"ternative. Today' however' the "argest payo##s may go to companies that "ead in deve"oping integrated approaches #or success#u" mass production and distribution. 6roducers o# the &eta #ormat #or videocassette recorders (B%R3s)' #or e5amp"e' were #irst to deve"op the B%R commercia""y in 197-' but producers o# the riva" B( (Bideo (ome ystem) #ormat proved to be more success#u" at #orming strategic a""iances with other producers and distributors to manu#acture and mar$et their B%R #ormat. ee$ing to maintain e5c"usive contro" over B%R distribution' &eta producers were re"uctant to #orm such a""iances and eventua""y "ost ground to B( in the competition #or the g"oba" B%R mar$et. Fespite &eta3s substantia" techno"ogica" head start and the #act that B( was neither technica""y better nor cheaper than &eta' deve"opers o# B( +uic$"y turned a s"ight ear"y "ead in sa"es into a dominant position. trategic a"ignments with producers o# prerecorded tapes rein#orced the B( advantage. The perception among consumers that prerecorded tapes were more avai"ab"e in B( #ormat #urther e5panded B( 3s share o# the mar$et. &y the end o# the 198.3s' &eta was no "onger in production.

1.

The passage is primarily concerned with which of the following% (A) #'aluating two competing technologies (B) Tracing the impact of a new technology by narrating a se"uence of e'ents (C) =einterpreting an e'ent from contemporary business history ( ) 3llustrating a business strategy by means of a case history (#) @roposing an inno'ati'e approach to business planning

2.

According to the passage/ today4s successful firms/ unlike successful firms in the

GMAT

12.

past/ may earn the greatest profits by (A) in'esting in research to produce cheaper 'ersions of e$isting technology (B) being the first to market a competing technology (C) adapting rapidly to a technological standard pre'iously set by a competing firm ( ) establishing technological leadership in order to shape product definitions in ad'ance of competing firms (#) emphasi!ing the de'elopment of methods for the mass production and distribution of a new technology .. According to the passage/ consumers began to de'elop a preference for CC=4s in the C); format because they belie'ed which of the following% (A) CC=4s in the C); format were technically better than competing(format CC=4s. (B) CC=4s in the C); format were less e$pensi'e than competing(format CC=4s. (C) C); was the first standard format for CC=4s. ( ) C); prerecorded 'ideotapes were more a'ailable than Beta(format tapes. (#) CC=4s in the Beta format would soon cease to be produced. 0. The author implies that one way that C); producers won control o'er the CC= market was by (A) carefully restricting access to CC= technology (B) gi'ing up a slight early lead in CC= sales in order to impro'e long(term prospects (C) retaining a strict monopoly on the production of prerecorded 'ideotapes ( ) sharing control of the marketing of C);(format CC=4s (#) sacrificing technological superiority o'er Beta(format CC=4s in order to remain competiti'e in price 1. The alignment of producers of C);(format CC=4s with producers of prerecorded 'ideotapes is most similar to which of the following% (A) The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with another automobile manufacturer to adopt a standard design for automobile engines. (B) The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with an automoti'e glass company whereby the manufacturer agrees to purchase automobile windshields only from that one glass company. (C) The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with a petroleum company to ensure the widespread a'ailability of the fuel re"uired by a new type of engine de'eloped by the manufacturer. ( ) The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with its dealers to adopt a plan to impro'e automobile design.

120

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(#) The alignment of an automobile dealer with an automobile rental chain to adopt a strategy for an ad'ertising campaign to promote a new type of automobile. 2. &hich of the following best describes the relation of the first paragraph to the passage as a whole% (A) 3t makes a general obser'ation to be e$emplified. (B) 3t outlines a process to be analy!ed. (C) 3t poses a "uestion to be answered. ( ) 3t ad'ances an argument to be disputed. (#) 3t introduces conflicting arguments to be reconciled. Passage 47 (47/63)
0ustra"ian researchers have discovered e"ectroreceptors (sensory organs designed to respond to e"ectrica" #ie"ds) c"ustered at the tip o# the spiny anteater3s snout. The researchers made this discovery by e5posing sma"" areas o# the snout to e5treme"y wea$ e"ectrica" #ie"ds and recording the transmission o# resu"ting nervous activity to the brain. 8hi"e it is true that tacti"e receptors' another $ind o# sensory organ on the anteater3s snout' can a"so respond to e"ectrica" stimu"i' such receptors do so on"y in response to e"ectrica" #ie"d strengths about 1'... times greater than those $nown to e5cite e"ectroreceptors. (aving discovered the e"ectroreceptors' researchers are now investigating how anteaters uti"i)e such a sophisticated sensory system. /n one behaviora" e5periment' researchers success#u""y trained an anteater to distinguish between two troughs o# water' one with a wea$ e"ectrica" #ie"d and the other with none. uch evidence is consistent with researchers3 hypothesis that anteaters use e"ectroreceptors to detect e"ectrica" signa"s given o## by prey: however' researchers as yet have been unab"e to detect e"ectrica" signa"s emanating #rom termite mounds' where the #avorite #ood o# anteaters "ive. ti""' researchers have observed anteaters brea$ing into a nest o# ants at an ob"i+ue ang"e and +uic$"y "ocating nesting chambers. This abi"ity +uic$"y to "ocate unseen prey suggests' according to the researchers' that the anteaters were using their e"ectroreceptors to "ocate the nesting chambers.

1.

According to the passage/ which of the following is a characteristic that distinguishes electroreceptors from tactile receptors% (A) The manner in which electroreceptors respond to electrical stimuli (B) The tendency of electroreceptors to be found in clusters (C) The unusual locations in which electroreceptors are found in most species ( ) The amount of electrical stimulation re"uired to e$cite electroreceptors (#) The amount of ner'ous acti'ity transmitted to the brain by electroreceptors when they are e$cited

2.

&hich of the following can be inferred about the e$periment described in the first paragraph%

GMAT

121

(A) =esearchers had difficulty 'erifying the e$istence of electroreceptors in the anteater because electroreceptors respond to such a narrow range of electrical field strengths. (B) =esearchers found that the le'el of ner'ous acti'ity in the anteater4s brain increased dramatically as the strength of the electrical stimulus was increased. (C) =esearchers found that some areas of the anteater4s snout were not sensiti'e to a weak electrical stimulus. ( ) =esearchers found that the anteater4s tactile receptors were more easily e$cited by a strong electrical stimulus than were the electroreceptors. (#) =esearchers tested small areas of the anteater4s snout in order to ensure that only electroreceptors were responding to the stimulus. .. The author of the passage most probably discusses the function of tactile receptors (lines -(11) in order to (A) eliminate and alternati'e e$planation of anteaters4 response to electrical stimuli (B) highlight a type of sensory organ that has a function identical to that of electroreceptors (C) point out a serious complication in the research on electroreceptors in anteaters ( ) suggest that tactile receptors assist electroreceptors in the detection of electrical signals (#) introduce a factor that was not addressed in the research on electroreceptors in anteaters 0. &hich of the following can be inferred about anteaters from the beha'ioral e$periment mentioned in the second paragraph% (A) They are unable to distinguish between stimuli detected by their electroreceptors and stimuli detected by their tactile receptors. (B) They are unable to distinguish between the electrical signals emanating from termite mounds and those emanating from ant nests. (C) They can be trained to recogni!e consistently the presence of a particular stimulus. ( ) They react more readily to strong than to weak stimuli. (#) They are more efficient at detecting stimuli in a controlled en'ironment than in a natural en'ironment. 1. The passage suggests that the researchers mentioned in the second paragraph who obser'ed anteaters break into a nest of ants would most likely agree with which of the following statements% (A) The e'ent they obser'ed pro'ides conclusi'e e'idence that anteaters use their

122

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

electroreceptors to locate unseen prey. (B) The e'ent they obser'ed was atypical and may not reflect the usual hunting practices of anteaters. (C) 3t is likely that the anteaters located the ants4 nesting chambers without the assistance of electroreceptors. ( ) Anteaters possess a 'ery simple sensory system for use in locating prey. (#) The speed with which the anteaters located their prey is greater than what might be e$pected on the basis of chance alone. 2. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the hypothesis mentioned in lines 1-(1,% (A) =esearchers are able to train anteaters to break into an underground chamber that is emitting a strong electrical signal. (B) =esearchers are able to detect a weak electrical signal emanating from the nesting chamber of an ant colony. (C) Anteaters are obser'ed taking increasingly longer amounts of time to locate the nesting chambers of ants. ( ) Anteaters are obser'ed using 'arious angles to break into nests of ants. (#) Anteaters are obser'ed using the same angle used with nests of ants to break into the nests of other types of prey. Passage 48 (48/63)
8hen 0. 6hi"ip Rando"ph assumed the "eadership o# the &rotherhood o# "eeping %ar 6orters' he began a ten-year batt"e to win recognition #rom the 6u""man %ompany' the "argest private emp"oyer o# &"ac$ peop"e in the United tates and the company that contro""ed the rai"road industry3s s"eeping car and par"or service. /n 194- the &rotherhood became the #irst &"ac$ union recogni)ed by a ma2or corporation. Rando"ph3s e##orts in the batt"e he"ped trans#orm the attitude o# &"ac$ wor$ers toward unions and toward themse"ves as an identi#iab"e group: eventua""y' Rando"ph he"ped to wea$en organi)ed "abor3s antagonism toward &"ac$ wor$ers. /n the 6u""man contest Rando"ph #aced #ormidab"e obstac"es. The #irst was &"ac$ wor$ers3 understandab"e s$epticism toward unions' which had historica""y barred &"ac$ wor$ers #rom membership. 0n additiona" obstac"e was the union that 6u""man itse"# had #ormed' which wea$ened support among &"ac$ wor$ers #or an independent entity. The &rotherhood possessed a number o# advantages' however' inc"uding Rando"ph3s own tactica" abi"ities. /n 1918 he too$ the bo"d step o# threatening a stri$e against 6u""man. uch a threat' on a nationa" sca"e' under &"ac$ "eadership' he"ped rep"ace the stereotype o# the &"ac$ wor$er as servant with the image o# the &"ac$ wor$er as wage earner. /n addition' the porters3 very iso"ation aided the &rotherhood. 6orters were scattered throughout the country' s"eeping in dormitories in &"ac$ communities: their segregated "i#e protected the union3s interna" communications #rom interception. That the porters were a homogeneous

GMAT

12-

group wor$ing #or a sing"e emp"oyer with sing"e "abor po"icy' thus sharing the same grievances #rom city to city' a"so strengthened the &rotherhood and encouraged racia" identity and so"idarity as we"". &ut it was on"y in the ear"y 194.3s that #edera" "egis"ation prohibiting a company #rom maintaining its own unions with company money eventua""y a""owed the &rotherhood to become recogni)ed as the porters3 representative. *ot content with this triumph' Rando"ph brought the &rotherhood into the 0merican 7ederation o# Eabor' where it became the e+ua" o# the 7ederation3s 1.- other unions. (e reasoned that as a member union' the &rotherhood wou"d be in a better position to e5ert pressure on member unions that practiced race restrictions. uch restrictions were eventua""y #ound unconstitutiona" in 19HH.

1.

According to the passage/ by 1,.1 the skepticism of Black workers toward unions was (A) unchanged e$cept among Black employees of railroad(related industries (B) reinforced by the actions of the @ullman Company4s union (C) mitigated by the efforts of =andolph ( ) weakened by the opening up of many unions to Black workers (#) largely alle'iated because of the policies of the American >ederation of Kabor

2.

3n using the word *understandable+ (line 10)/ the author most clearly con'eys (A) sympathy with attempts by the Brotherhood between 1,21 and 1,.1 to establish an independent union (B) concern that the obstacles faced by =andolph between 1,21 and 1,.1 were indeed formidable (C) ambi'alence about the significance of unions to most Black workers in the 1,254s ( ) appreciation of the attitude of many Black workers in the 1,254s toward unions (#) regret at the historical attitude of unions toward Black workers

..

The passage suggests which of the following about the response of porters to the @ullman Company4s own union% (A) >ew porters e'er <oined this union. (B) ;ome porters supported this union before 1,.1. (C) @orters/ more than other @ullman employees/ enthusiastically supported this union. ( ) The porters4 response was most positi'e after 1,.1. (#) The porters4 response was unaffected by the general skepticism of Black workers concerning unions.

0.

The passage suggests that if the grie'ances of porters in one part of the :nited ;tates had been different from those of porters in another part of the country/

126

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

which of the following would ha'e been the case% (A) 3t would ha'e been more difficult for the @ullman Company to ha'e had a single labor policy. (B) 3t would ha'e been more difficult for the Brotherhood to control its channels of communication. (C) 3t would ha'e been more difficult for the Brotherhood to build its membership. ( ) 3t would ha'e been easier for the @ullman Company4s union to attract membership. (#) 3t would ha'e been easier for the Brotherhood to threaten strikes. 1. The passage suggests that in the 1,254s a company in the :nited ;tates was able to (A) use its own funds to set up a union (B) re"uire its employees to <oin the company4s own union (C) de'elop a single labor policy for all its employees with little employee dissent ( ) pressure its employees to contribute money to maintain the company4s own union (#) use its resources to pre'ent the passage of federal legislation that would ha'e facilitated the formation of independent unions 2. The passage supplies information concerning which of the following matters related to =andolph% (A) The steps he took to initiate the founding of the Brotherhood (B) )is moti'ation for bringing the Brotherhood into the American >ederation of Kabor (C) The influence he had on the passage of legislation o'erturning race restrictions in 1,00 ( ) The influence he had on the passage of legislation to bar companies from financing their own unions (#) The success he and the Brotherhood had in influencing the policies of the other unions in the American >ederation of Kabor Passage 49 (49/63)
(istorians o# women3s "abor in the United tates at #irst "arge"y disregarded the story o# #ema"e service wor$ers!women earning wages in occupations such as sa"esc"er$' domestic servant' and o##ice secretary. These historians #ocused instead on #actory wor$' primari"y because it seemed so di##erent #rom traditiona"' unpaid ;women3s wor$< in the home' and because the under"ying economic #orces o# industria"ism were presumed to be gender-b"ind and hence emancipatory in e##ect. Un#ortunate"y' emancipation has been "ess pro#ound than e5pected' #or not even industria" wage "abor has escaped continued se5 segregation in the

GMAT
wor$p"ace. To e5p"ain this un#inished revo"ution in the status o# women' historians have recent"y

12,

begun to emphasi)e the way a prevai"ing de#inition o# #emininity o#ten determines the $inds o# wor$ a""ocated to women' even when such a""ocation is inappropriate to new conditions. 7or instance' ear"y te5ti"e-mi"" entrepreneurs' in 2usti#ying women3s emp"oyment in wage "abor' made much o# the assumption that women were by nature s$i""#u" at detai"ed tas$s and patient in carrying out repetitive chores: the mi"" owners thus imported into the new industria" order hoary stereotypes associated with the homema$ing activities they presumed to have been the purview o# women. &ecause women accepted the more unattractive new industria" tas$s more readi"y than did men' such 2obs came to be regarded as #ema"e 2obs. 0nd emp"oyers' who assumed that women3s ;rea"< aspirations were #or marriage and #ami"y "i#e' dec"ined to pay women wages commensurate with those o# men. Thus many "ower-s$i""ed' "ower-paid' "ess secure 2obs came to be perceived as ;#ema"e.< ?ore remar$ab"e than the origin has been the persistence o# such se5 segregation in twentieth-century industry. 9nce an occupation came to be perceived as ;#ema"e.< emp"oyers showed surprising"y "itt"e interest in changing that perception' even when higher pro#its bec$oned. 0nd despite the urgent need o# the United tates during the econd 8or"d 8ar to mobi"i)e its human resources #u""y' 2ob segregation by se5 characteri)ed even the most important war industries. ?oreover' once the war ended' emp"oyers +uic$"y returned to men most o# the ;ma"e< 2obs that women had been permitted to master.

1.

According to the passage/ <ob segregation by se$ in the :nited ;tates was (A) greatly diminished by labor mobili!ation during the ;econd &orld &ar (B) perpetuated by those te$tile(mill owners who argued in fa'or of women4s employment in wage labor (C) one means by which women achie'ed greater <ob security ( ) reluctantly challenged by employers e$cept when the economic ad'antages were ob'ious (#) a constant source of labor unrest in the young te$tile industry

2.

According to the passage/ historians of women4s labor focused on factory work as a more promising area of research than ser'ice(sector work because factory work (A) in'ol'ed the payment of higher wages (B) re"uired skill in detailed tasks (C) was assumed to be less characteri!ed by se$ segregation ( ) was more readily accepted by women than by men (#) fitted the economic dynamic of industrialism better

..

3t can be inferred from the passage that early historians of women4s labor in the :nited ;tates paid little attention to women4s employment in the ser'ice sector of the economy because (A) the e$treme 'ariety of these occupations made it 'ery difficult to assemble

1.5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

meaningful statistics about them (B) fewer women found employment in the ser'ice sector than in factory work (C) the wages paid to workers in the ser'ice sector were much lower than those paid in the industrial sector ( ) women4s employment in the ser'ice sector tended to be much more short( term than in factory work (#) employment in the ser'ice sector seemed to ha'e much in common with the unpaid work associated with homemaking 0. The passage supports which of the following statements about the early mill owners mentioned in the second paragraph% (A) They hoped that by creating relati'ely unattracti'e *female+ <obs they would discourage women from losing interest in marriage and family life. (B) They sought to increase the si!e of the a'ailable labor force as a means to keep men4s wages low. (C) They argued that women were inherently suited to do well in particular kinds of factory work. ( ) They thought that factory work bettered the condition of women by emancipating them from dependence on income earned by men. (#) They felt guilty about disturbing the traditional di'ision of labor in family. 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *unfinished re'olution+ the author mentions in line 1. refers to the (A) entry of women into the industrial labor market (B) recognition that work done by women as homemakers should be compensated at rates comparable to those pre'ailing in the ser'ice sector of the economy (C) de'elopment of a new definition of femininity unrelated to the economic forces of industrialism ( ) introduction of e"ual pay for e"ual work in all professions (#) emancipation of women wage earners from gender(determined <ob allocation 2. The passage supports which of the following statements about hiring policies in the :nited ;tates% (A) After a crisis many formerly *male+ <obs are reclassified as *female+ <obs. (B) 3ndustrial employers generally prefer to hire women with pre'ious e$perience as homemakers. (C) @ost(;econd &orld &ar hiring policies caused women to lose many of their wartime gains in employment opportunity. ( ) #'en war industries during the ;econd &orld &ar were reluctant to hire women for factory work. (#) The ser'ice sector of the economy has pro'ed more nearly gender(blind in its

GMAT

1.1

hiring policies than has the manufacturing sector. -. &hich of the following words best e$presses the opinion of the author of the passage concerning the notion that women are more skillful than men in carrying out detailed tasks% (A) *patient+ (line 21) (B) *repetiti'e+ (line 21) (C) *hoary+ (line 22) ( ) *homemaking+ (line 2.) (#) *pur'iew+ (line 20) 6. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the final paragraph to the passage as a whole% (A) The central idea is reinforced by the citation of e'idence drawn from twentieth(century history. (B) The central idea is restated in such a way as to form a transition to a new topic for discussion. (C) The central idea is restated and <u$taposed with e'idence that might appear to contradict it. ( ) A partial e$ception to the generali!ations of the central idea is dismissed as unimportant. (#) =ecent history is cited to suggest that the central idea4s 'alidity is gradually diminishing. Passage 50 (50/63)
0ccording to a recent theory' 0rchean-age go"d-+uart) vein systems were #ormed over two bi""ion years ago #rom magnetic #"uids that originated #rom mo"ten granite-"i$e bodies deep beneath the sur#ace o# the =arth. This theory is contrary to the wide"y he"d view that the systems were deposited #rom metamorphic #"uids' that is' #rom #"uids that #ormed during the dehydration o# wet sedimentary roc$s. The recent"y deve"oped theory has considerab"e practica" importance. ?ost o# the go"d deposits discovered during the origina" go"d rushes were e5posed at the =arth3s sur#ace and were #ound because they had shed trai"s o# a""uvia" go"d that were easi"y traced by simp"e prospecting methods. 0"though these same methods sti"" "ead to an occasiona" discovery' most deposits not yet discovered have gone undetected because they are buried and have no sur#ace e5pression. The cha""enge in e5p"oration is there#ore to unrave" the subsur#ace geo"ogy o# an area and pinpoint the position o# buried minera"s. ?ethods wide"y used today inc"ude ana"ysis o# aeria" images that yie"d a broad geo"ogica" overview: geophysica" techni+ues that provide data on the magnetic' e"ectrica"' and minera"ogica" properties o# the roc$s being investigated: and sensitive chemica" tests that are ab"e to detect the subt"e chemica" ha"os that o#ten

1.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

enve"op minera"i)ation. (owever' none o# these high-techno"ogy methods are o# any va"ue i# the sites to which they are app"ied have never minera"i)ed' and to ma5imi)e the chances o# discovery the e5p"orer must there#ore pay particu"ar attention to se"ecting the ground #ormations most "i$e"y to be minera"i)ed. uch ground se"ection re"ies to varying degrees on conceptua" mode"s' which ta$e into account theoretica" studies o# re"evant #actors. These mode"s are constructed primari"y #rom empirica" observations o# $nown minera" deposits and #rom theories o# ore-#orming processes. The e5p"orer uses the mode"s to identi#y those geo"ogica" #eatures that are critica" to the #ormation o# the minera"i)ation being mode"ed' and then tries to se"ect areas #or e5p"oration that e5hibit as many o# the critica" #eatures as possib"e.

1.

The author is primarily concerned with (A) ad'ocating a return to an older methodology (B) e$plaining the importance of a recent theory (C) enumerating differences between two widely used methods ( ) describing e'ents leading to a disco'ery (#) challenging the assumptions on which a theory is based

2.

According to the passage/ the widely held 'iew of Archean(age gold("uart! 'ein systems is that such systems (A) were formed from metamorphic fluids (B) originated in molten granite(like bodies (C) were formed from allu'ial deposits ( ) generally ha'e surface e$pression (#) are not disco'erable through chemical tests

..

The passage implies that which of the following steps would be the first performed by e$plorers who wish to ma$imi!e their chances of disco'ering gold% (A) ;ur'eying se'eral sites known to ha'e been formed more than two billion years ago (B) Kimiting e$ploration to sites known to ha'e been formed from metamorphic fluid (C) :sing an appropriate conceptual model to select a site for further e$ploration ( ) :sing geophysical methods to analy!e rocks o'er a broad area (#) Kimiting e$ploration to sites where allu'ial gold has pre'iously been found

0.

&hich of the following statements about disco'eries of gold deposits is supported by information in the passage% (A) The number of gold disco'eries made annually has increased between the time of the original gold rushes and the present. (B) 9ew disco'eries of gold deposits are likely to be the result of e$ploration techni"ues designed to locate buried minerali!ation.

GMAT

1..

(C) 3t is unlikely that newly disco'ered gold deposits will e'er yield as much as did those deposits disco'ered during the original gold rushes. ( ) ?odern e$plorers are di'ided on the "uestion of the utility of simple prospecting methods as a source of new disco'eries of gold deposits. (#) ?odels based on the theory that gold originated from magnetic fluids ha'e already led to new disco'eries of gold deposits. 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is easiest to detect% (A) A gold("uart! 'ein system originating in magnetic fluids (B) A gold("uart! 'ein system originating in metamorphic fluids (C) A gold deposit that is mi$ed with granite ( ) A gold deposit that has shed allu'ial gold (#) A gold deposit that e$hibits chemical halos 2. The theory mentioned in line 1 relates to the conceptual models discussed in the passage in which of the following ways% (A) 3t may furnish a 'alid account of ore(forming processes/ and/ hence/ can support conceptual models that ha'e great practical significance. (B) 3t suggests that certain geological formations/ long belie'ed to be minerali!ed/ are in fact minerali!ed/ thus confirming current conceptual models. (C) 3t suggests that there may not be enough similarity across Archean(age gold( "uart! 'ein systems to warrant the formulation of conceptual models. ( ) 3t corrects e$isting theories about the chemical halos of gold deposits/ and thus pro'ides a basis for correcting current conceptual models. (#) 3t suggests that simple prospecting methods still ha'e a higher success rate in the disco'ery of gold deposits than do more modern methods. -. According to the passage/ methods of e$ploring for gold that are widely used today are based on which of the following facts% (A) ?ost of the #arth4s remaining gold deposits are still molten. (B) ?ost of the #arth4s remaining gold deposits are e$posed at the surface. (C) ?ost of the #arth4s remaining gold deposits are buried and ha'e no surface e$pression. ( ) 8nly one type of gold deposit warrants e$ploration/ since the other types of gold deposits are found in regions difficult to reach. (#) 8nly one type of gold deposit warrants e$ploration/ since the other types of gold deposits are unlikely to yield concentrated "uantities of gold. 6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the efficiency of model(based gold e$ploration depends on which of the following%

1.0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

3. 33.

The closeness of the match between the geological features identified by the model as critical and the actual geological features of a gi'en area The degree to which the model chosen relies on empirical obser'ation of known mineral deposits rather than on theories of ore(forming processes

333. The degree to which the model chosen is based on an accurate description of the e'ents leading to minerali!ation (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33 and 333 Passage 51 (51/63)
8hi"e there is no b"ueprint #or trans#orming a "arge"y government-contro""ed economy into a #ree one' the e5perience o# the United Ningdom since 1979 c"ear"y shows one approach that wor$s> privati)ation' in which state-owned industries are so"d to private companies. &y 1979' the tota" borrowings and "osses o# state-owned industries were running at about Q4 bi""ion a year. &y se""ing many o# these industries' the government has decreased these borrowings and "osses' gained over Q4H bi""ion #rom the sa"es' and now receives ta5 revenues #rom the new"y privati)ed companies. 0"ong with a dramatica""y improved overa"" economy' the government has been ab"e to repay 11.- percent o# the net nationa" debt over a two-year period. /n #act' privati)ation has not on"y rescued individua" industries and a who"e economy headed #or disaster' but has a"so raised the "eve" o# per#ormance in every area. 0t &ritish 0irways and &ritish Aas' #or e5amp"e' productivity per emp"oyee has risen by 1. percent. 0t 0ssociated &ritish 6orts' "abor disruptions common in the 197.3s and ear"y 198.3s have now virtua""y disappeared. 0t &ritish Te"ecom' there is no "onger a waiting "ist!as there a"ways was be#ore privati)ation!to have a te"ephone insta""ed. 6art o# this improved productivity has come about because the emp"oyees o# privati)ed industries were given the opportunity to buy shares in their own companies. They responded enthusiastica""y to the o##er o# shares: at &ritish 0erospace' 89 percent o# the e"igib"e wor$ #orce bought shares: at 0ssociated &ritish 6orts' 9. percent: and at &ritish Te"ecom' 91 percent. 8hen peop"e have a persona" sta$e in something' they thin$ about it' care about it' wor$ to ma$e it prosper. 0t the *ationa" 7reight %onsortium' the new emp"oyee-owners grew so concerned about their company3s pro#its that during wage negotiations they actua""y pressed their union to "ower its wage demands. ome economists have suggested that giving away #ree shares wou"d provide a needed acce"eration o# the privati)ation process. Det they miss Thomas 6aine3s point that ;what we obtain too cheap we esteem too "ight"y.< /n order #or the #ar-ranging bene#its o# individua" ownership to be achieved by owners' companies' and countries' emp"oyees and other individua"s must ma$e their own decisions to buy' and they must commit some o# their own

GMAT
resources to the choice.

1.1

1.

According to the passage/ all of the following were benefits of pri'ati!ing state( owned industries in the :nited Mingdom #DC#@TE (A) @ri'ati!ed industries paid ta$es to the go'ernment. (B) The go'ernment gained re'enue from selling state(owned industries. (C) The go'ernment repaid some of its national debt. ( ) @rofits from industries that were still state(owned increased. (#) Total borrowings and losses of state(owned industries decreased.

2.

According to the passage/ which of the following resulted in increased producti'ity in companies that ha'e been pri'ati!ed% (A) A large number of employees chose to purchase shares in their companies. (B) >ree shares were widely distributed to indi'idual shareholders. (C) The go'ernment ceased to regulate ma<or industries. ( ) :nions conducted wage negotiations for employees. (#) #mployee(owners agreed to ha'e their wages lowered.

..

3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers labor disruptions to be (A) an ine'itable problem in a weak national economy (B) a positi'e sign of employee concern about a company (C) a predictor of employee reactions to a company4s offer to sell shares to them ( ) a phenomenon found more often in state(owned industries than in pri'ate companies (#) a deterrence to high performance le'els in an industry

0.

The passage supports which of the following statements about employees buying shares in their own companies% (A) At three different companies/ appro$imately nine out of ten of the workers were eligible to buy shares in their companies. (B) Appro$imately ,5O of the eligible workers at three different companies chose o buy shares in their companies. (C) The opportunity to buy shares was discouraged by at least some labor unions. ( ) Companies that demonstrated the highest producti'ity were the first to allow their employees the opportunity to buy shares. (#) #ligibility to buy shares was contingent on employees4 agreeing to increased work loads.

1.

&hich of the following statements is most consistent with the principle described in lines .5(.2% (A) A democratic go'ernment that decides it is inappropriate to own a particular

1.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

industry has in no way abdicated its responsibilities as guardian of the public interest. (B) The ideal way for a go'ernment to protect employee interests is to force companies to maintain their share of a competiti'e market without go'ernment subsidies. (C) The failure to harness the power of self(interest is an important reason that state(owned industries perform poorly. ( ) Bo'ernments that want to implement pri'ati!ation programs must try to eliminate all resistance to the free(market system. (#) The indi'idual shareholder will reap only a minute share of the gains from whate'er sacrifices he or she makes to achie'e these gains. 2. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the pri'ati!ation process in the :nited Mingdom% (A) 3t depends to a potentially dangerous degree on indi'idual ownership of shares. (B) 3t conforms in its most general outlines to Thomas @aine4s prescription for business ownership. (C) 3t was originally concei'ed to include some gi'ing away of free shares. ( ) 3t has been successful/ e'en though pri'ati!ation has failed in other countries. (#) 3t is taking place more slowly than some economists suggest is necessary. -. The "uotation in line ., is most probably used to (A) counter a position that the author of the passage belie'es is incorrect (B) state a solution to a problem described in the pre'ious sentence (C) show how opponents of the 'iewpoint of the author of the passage ha'e supported their arguments ( ) point out a parado$ contained in a contro'ersial 'iewpoint (#) present a historical ma$im to challenge the principle introduced in the third paragraph Passage 52 (52/63)
ee$ing a competitive advantage' some pro#essiona" service #irms (#or e5amp"e' #irms providing advertising' accounting' or hea"th care services) have considered o##ering unconditiona" guarantees o# satis#action. uch guarantees speci#y what c"ients can e5pect and what the #irm wi"" do i# it #ai"s to #u"#i"" these e5pectations. 6articu"ar"y with #irst-time c"ients' an unconditiona" guarantee can be an e##ective mar$eting too" i# the c"ient is very cautious' the #irm3s #ees are high' the negative conse+uences o# bad service are grave' or business is di##icu"t to obtain through re#erra"s and word-o#-mouth. (owever' an unconditiona" guarantee can sometimes hinder mar$eting e##orts. 8ith its imp"ication that #ai"ure is possib"e' the guarantee may' parado5ica""y' cause c"ients to doubt

GMAT
the service #irm3s abi"ity to de"iver the promised "eve" o# service. /t may con#"ict with a #irm3s desire to appear sophisticated' or may even suggest that a #irm is begging #or business. /n

1.-

"ega" and hea"th care services' it may mis"ead c"ients by suggesting that "awsuits or medica" procedures wi"" have guaranteed outcomes. /ndeed' pro#essiona" service #irms with outstanding reputations and per#ormance to match have "itt"e to gain #rom o##ering unconditiona" guarantees. 0nd any #irm that imp"ements an unconditiona" guarantee without underta$ing a commensurate commitment to +ua"ity o# service is mere"y emp"oying a potentia""y cost"y mar$eting gimmic$.

1.

The primary function of the passage as a whole is to (A) account for the popularity of a practice (B) e'aluate the utility of a practice (C) demonstrate how to institute a practice ( ) weigh the ethics of using a strategy (#) e$plain the reasons for pursuing a strategy

2.

All of the following are mentioned in the passage as circumstances in which professional ser'ice firms can benefit from offering an unconditional guarantee #DC#@TE (A) The firm is ha'ing difficulty retaining its clients of long standing. (B) The firm is ha'ing difficulty getting business through client recommendations. (C) The firm charges substantial fees for its ser'ices. ( ) The ad'erse effects of poor performance by the firm are significant for the client. (#) The client is reluctant to incur risk.

..

&hich of the following is cited in the passage as a goal of some professional ser'ice firms in offering unconditional guarantees of satisfaction% (A) A limit on the firm4s liability (B) ;uccessful competition against other firms (C) Ability to <ustify fee increases ( ) Attainment of an outstanding reputation in a field (#) 3mpro'ement in the "uality of the firm4s ser'ice

0.

The passage4s description of the issue raised by unconditional guarantees for health care or legal ser'ices most clearly implies that which of the following is true% (A) The legal and medical professions ha'e standards of practice that would be 'iolated by attempts to fulfill such unconditional guarantees. (B) The result of a lawsuit of medical procedure cannot necessarily be determined in ad'ance by the professionals handling a client4s case.

1.6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) The dignity of the legal and medical professions is undermined by any attempts at marketing of professional ser'ices/ including unconditional guarantees. ( ) Clients whose lawsuits or medical procedures ha'e unsatisfactory outcomes cannot be ade"uately compensated by financial settlements alone. (#) @redicting the monetary cost of legal or health care ser'ices is more difficult than predicting the monetary cost of other types of professional ser'ices. 1. &hich of the following hypothetical situations best e$emplifies the potential problem noted in the second sentence of the second paragraph (lines 10(1-)% (A) A physician4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction encourages patients to sue for malpractice if they are unhappy with the treatment they recei'e. (B) A lawyer4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction makes clients suspect that the lawyer needs to find new clients "uickly to increase the firm4s income. (C) A business consultant4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction is undermined when the consultant fails to pro'ide all of the ser'ices that are promised. ( ) An architect4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction makes clients wonder how often the architect4s buildings fail to please clients. (#) An accountant4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction leads clients to belie'e that ta$ returns prepared by the accountant are certain to be accurate. 2. The passage most clearly implies which of the following about the professional ser'ice firms mentioned in line 22% (A) They are unlikely to ha'e offered unconditional guarantees of satisfaction in the past. (B) They are usually profitable enough to be able to compensate clients according to the terms of an unconditional guarantee. (C) They usually practice in fields in which the outcomes are predictable. ( ) Their fees are usually more affordable than those charged by other professional ser'ice firms. (#) Their clients are usually already satisfied with the "uality of ser'ice that is deli'ered. Passage 53 (53/63)
0"though genetic mutations in bacteria and viruses can "ead to epidemics' some epidemics are caused by bacteria and viruses that have undergone no signi#icant genetic change. /n ana"y)ing the "atter' scientists have discovered the importance o# socia" and eco"ogica" #actors to epidemics. 6o"iomye"itis' #or e5amp"e' emerged as an epidemic in the United tates in the twentieth century: by then' modern sanitation was ab"e to de"ay e5posure to po"io unti" ado"escence or adu"thood' at which time po"io in#ection produced para"ysis. 6revious"y' in#ection had occurred during in#ancy' when it typica""y provided "i#e"ong immunity

GMAT

1.,

without para"ysis. Thus' the hygiene that he"ped prevent typhoid epidemics indirect"y #ostered a para"ytic po"io epidemic. 0nother e5amp"e is Eyme disease' which is caused by bacteria that are transmitted by deer tic$s. /t occurred on"y sporadica""y during the "ate nineteenth century but has recent"y become preva"ent in parts o# the United tates' "arge"y due to an increase in the deer popu"ation that occurred simu"taneous"y with the growth o# the suburbs and increased outdoor recreationa" activities in the deer3s habitat. imi"ar"y' an outbrea$ o# dengue hemorrhagic #ever became an epidemic in 0sia in the 19-.3s because o# eco"ogica" changes that caused "edes aegy#ti' the mos+uito that transmits the dengue virus' to pro"i#erate. The stage is now set in the United tates #or a dengue epidemic because o# the inadvertent introduction and wide dissemination o# another mos+uito' "edes al$o#ictus.

1.

The passage suggests that a lack of modern sanitation would make which of the following most likely to occur% (A) An outbreak of Kyme disease (B) An outbreak of dengue hemorrhagic fe'er (C) An epidemic of typhoid ( ) An epidemic of paralytic polio among infants (#) An epidemic of paralytic polio among adolescents and adults

2.

According to the passage/ the outbreak of dengue hemorrhagic fe'er in the 1,154s occurred for which of the following reasons% (A) The mos"uito Aedes aegypti was newly introduced into Asia. (B) The mos"uito Aedes aegypti became more numerous. (C) The mos"uito Aedes albopictus became infected with the dengue 'irus. ( ) 3ndi'iduals who would normally ac"uire immunity to the dengue 'irus as infants were not infected until later in life. (#) ?ore people began to 'isit and inhabit areas in which mos"uitoes li'e and breed.

..

3t can be inferred from the passage that Kyme disease has become pre'alent in parts of the :nited ;tates because of which of the following% (A) The inad'ertent introduction of Kyme disease bacteria to the :nited ;tates (B) The inability of modern sanitation methods to eradicate Kyme disease bacteria (C) A genetic mutation in Kyme disease bacteria that makes them more 'irulent ( ) The spread of Kyme disease bacteria from infected humans to noninfected humans (#) An increase in the number of humans who encounter deer ticks

0.

&hich of the following can most reasonably be concluded about the mos"uito Aedes albopictus on the basis of information gi'en in the passage% (A) 3t is nati'e to the :nited ;tates. (B) 3t can proliferate only in Asia.

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(C) 3t transmits the dengue 'irus. ( ) 3t caused an epidemic of dengue hemorrhagic fe'er in the 1,154s. (#) 3t replaced Aedes aegypti in Asia when ecological changes altered Aedes aegyptis habitat. 1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A parado$ is stated/ discussed and left unresol'ed. (B) Two opposing e$planations are presented/ argued/ and reconciled. (C) A theory is proposed and is then followed by descriptions of three e$periments that support the theory. ( ) A generali!ation is stated and is then followed by three instances that support the generali!ation. (#) An argument is described and is then followed by three countere$amples that refute the argument. 2. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the author4s assertion about the cause of the Kyme disease outbreak in the :nited ;tates% (A) The deer population was smaller in the late nineteenth century than in the mid(twentieth century. (B) 3nterest in outdoor recreation began to grow in the late nineteenth century. (C) 3n recent years the suburbs ha'e stopped growing. ( ) 8utdoor recreation enthusiasts routinely take measures to protect themsel'es against Kyme disease. (#) ;cientists ha'e not yet de'eloped a 'accine that can pre'ent Kyme disease. Passage 54 (54/63)

Two modes o# argumentation have been used on beha"# o# women3s emancipation in 8estern societies. 0rguments in what cou"d be ca""ed the ;re"ationa"< #eminist tradition maintain the doctrine o# ;e+ua"ity in di##erence'< or e+uity as distinct #or e+ua"ity. They posit that bio"ogica" distinctions between the se5es resu"t in a necessary se5ua" division o# "abor in the #ami"y and throughout society and that women3s procreative "abor is current"y underva"ued by society' to the disadvantage o# women. &y contrast' the individua"ist #eminist tradition emphasi)es individua" human rights and ce"ebrates women3s +uest #or persona" autonomy' whi"e downp"aying the importance o# gender ro"es and minimi)ing discussion o# chi"dbearing and its attendant responsibi"ities. &e#ore the "ate nineteenth century' these views coe5isted within the #eminist movement' o#ten within the writings o# the same individua". &etween 189. and 191.' however' re"ationa" #eminism' which had been the dominant strain in #eminist thought' and which sti"" predominates among =uropean and non-8estern #eminists' "ost ground in =ng"and and the United tates. &ecause the concept o# individua" rights was a"ready we"" estab"ished in the

GMAT
0ng"o- a5on "ega" and po"itica" tradition' individua"ist #eminism came to predominate in =ng"ish-spea$ing countries. 0t the same time' the goa"s o# the two approaches began to seem increasing"y irreconci"ab"e. /ndividua"ist #eminists began to advocate a tota""y genderb"ind system with e+ua" rights #or a"". Re"ationa" #eminists' whi"e agreeing that e+ua"

101

educationa" and economic opportunities outside the home shou"d be avai"ab"e #or a"" women' continued to emphasi)e women3s specia" contributions to society as homema$ers and mothers: they demanded specia" treatment inc"uding protective "egis"ation #or women wor$ers' state-sponsored maternity bene#its' and paid compensation #or housewor$. Re"ationa" arguments have a ma2or pit#a""> because they under"ine women3s physio"ogica" and psycho"ogica" distinctiveness' they are o#ten appropriated by po"itica" adversaries and used to endorse ma"e privi"ege. &ut the individua"ist approach' by attac$ing gender ro"es' denying the signi#icance o# physio"ogica" di##erence' and condemning e5isting #ami"ia" institutions as hope"ess"y patriarcha"' has o#ten simp"y treated as irre"evant the #ami"y ro"es important to many women. /# the individua"ist #ramewor$' with its c"aim #or women3s autonomy' cou"d be harmoni)ed with the #ami"y-oriented concerns o# re"ationa" #eminists' a more #ruit#u" mode" #or contemporary #eminist po"itics cou"d emerge.

1.

The author of the passage alludes to the well(established nature of the concept of indi'idual rights in the Anglo(;a$on legal and political tradition in order to (A) illustrate the influence of indi'idualist feminist thought on more general intellectual trends in #nglish history (B) argue that feminism was already a part of the larger Anglo(;a$on intellectual tradition/ e'en though this has often gone unnoticed by critics of women4s emancipation (C) e$plain the decline in indi'idualist thinking among feminists in non(#nglish( speaking countries ( ) help account for an increasing shift toward indi'idualist feminism among feminists in #nglish(speaking countries (#) account for the philosophical differences between indi'idualist and relational feminists in #nglish(speaking countries

2.

The passage suggests that the author of the passage belie'es which of the following% (A) The predominance of indi'idualist feminism in #nglish(speaking countries is a historical phenomenon/ the causes of which ha'e not yet been in'estigated. (B) The indi'idualist and relational feminist 'iews are irreconcilable/ gi'en their theoretical differences concerning the foundations of society. (C) A consensus concerning the direction of future feminist politics will probably soon emerge/ gi'en the awareness among feminists of the need for cooperation among women. ( ) @olitical ad'ersaries of feminism often misuse arguments predicated on differences between the se$es to argue that the e$isting social system should

102

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be maintained. (#) =elational feminism pro'ides the best theoretical framework for contemporary feminist politics/ but indi'idualist feminism could contribute much toward refining and strengthening modern feminist thought. .. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the indi'idualist feminist tradition denies the 'alidity of which of the following causal statements% (A) A di'ision of labor in a social group can result in increased efficiency with regard to the performance of group tasks. (B) A di'ision of labor in a social group causes ine"uities in the distribution of opportunities and benefits among group members. (C) A di'ision of labor on the basis of gender in a social group is necessitated by the e$istence of se$(linked biological differences between male and female members of the group. ( ) Culturally determined distinctions based on gender in a social group foster the e$istence of differing attitudes and opinions among group members. (#) #ducational programs aimed at reducing ine"ualities based on gender among members of a social group can result in a sense of greater well(being for all members of the group. 0. According to the passage/ relational feminists and indi'idualist feminists agree that (A) indi'idual human rights take precedence o'er most other social claims (B) the gender(based di'ision of labor in society should be eliminated (C) laws guaranteeing e"ual treatment for all citi!ens regardless of gender should be passed ( ) a greater degree of social awareness concerning the importance of motherhood would be beneficial to society (#) the same educational and economic opportunities should be a'ailable to both se$es 1. According to the author/ which of the following was true of feminist thought in &estern societies before 16,5% (A) 3ndi'idualist feminist arguments were not found in the thought or writing of non(#nglish(speaking feminists. (B) 3ndi'idualist feminism was a strain in feminist thought/ but another strain/ relational feminism/ predominated. (C) =elational and indi'idualist approaches were e"ually pre'alent in feminist thought and writing. ( ) The predominant 'iew among feminists held that the welfare of women was ultimately less important than the welfare of children. (#) The predominant 'iew among feminists held that the se$es should recei'e

GMAT

10.

e"ual treatment under the law. 2. The author implies that which of the following was true of most feminist thinkers in #ngland and the :nited ;tates after 1,25% (A) They were less concerned with politics than with intellectual issues. (B) They began to reach a broader audience and their programs began to be adopted by mainstream political parties. (C) They called repeatedly for international cooperation among women4s groups to achie'e their goals. ( ) They moderated their initial criticism of the economic systems that characteri!ed their societies. (#) They did not attempt to unite the two different feminist approaches in their thought. Passage 55 (55/63)
(This passage was adapted #rom an artic"e written in 1991.) ome observers have attributed the dramatic growth in temporary emp"oyment that occurred in the United tates during the 198.3s to increased participation in the wor$#orce by certain groups' such as #irst-time or reentering wor$ers' who supposed"y pre#er such arrangements. (owever' statistica" ana"yses revea" that demographic changes in the wor$#orce did not corre"ate with variations in the tota" number o# temporary wor$ers. /nstead' these ana"yses suggest that #actors a##ecting emp"oyers account #or the rise in temporary emp"oyment. 9ne #actor is product demand> temporary emp"oyment is #avored by emp"oyers who are adapting to #"uctuating demand #or products whi"e at the same time see$ing to reduce overa"" "abor costs. 0nother #actor is "abor3s reduced bargaining strength' which a""ows emp"oyers more contro" over the terms o# emp"oyment. Aiven the ana"yses' which revea" that growth in temporary emp"oyment now #ar e5ceeds the "eve" e5p"ainab"e by recent wor$#orce entry rates o# groups said to pre#er temporary 2obs' #irms shou"d be discouraged #rom creating e5cessive numbers o# temporary positions. Aovernment po"icyma$ers shou"d consider mandating bene#it coverage #or temporary emp"oyees' promoting pay e+uity between temporary and permanent wor$ers' assisting "abor unions in organi)ing temporary wor$ers' and encouraging #irms to assign temporary 2obs primari"y to emp"oyees who e5p"icit"y indicate that pre#erence.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) present the results of statistical analyses and propose further studies. (B) e$plain a recent de'elopment and predict its e'entual conse"uences. (C) identify the reasons for a trend and recommend measures to address it. ( ) outline se'eral theories about a phenomenon and ad'ocate one of them. (#) describe the potential conse"uences of implementing a new policy and argue in fa'or of that policy.

100

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2.

According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the *factors affecting employers+ that are mentioned in lines ,(15% (A) ?ost e$perts cite them as ha'ing initiated the growth in temporary employment that occurred during the 1,654s. (B) They may account for the increase in the total number of temporary workers during the 1,654s. (C) They were less important than demographic change in accounting for the increase of temporary employment during the 1,654s. ( ) They included a sharp increase in the cost of labor during the 1,654s. (#) They are more difficult to account for than at other factors in'ol'ed in the growth of temporary employment during the 1,654s.

..

The passage suggests which of the following about the use of temporary employment by firms during the 1,654s% (A) 3t enabled firms to deal with fluctuating product demand far more efficiently than they before the 1,654s. (B) 3t increased as a result of increased participation in the workforce by certain demography groups. (C) 3t was discouraged by go'ernment(mandated policies. ( ) 3t was a response to preferences indicated by certain employees for more fle$ible working arrangements. (#) 3t increased partly as a result of workers4 reduced ability to control the terms of their employment.

0.

The passage suggests which of the following about the workers who took temporary <obs during the 1,654s% (A) Their <obs fre"uently led to permanent positions within firms. (B) They constituted a less demographically di'erse group than has been suggested. (C) They were occasionally in'ol'ed in actions organi!ed by labor unions. ( ) Their pay declined during the decade in comparison with the pay of permanent employees. (#) They did not necessarily prefer temporary employment to permanent employment.

1.

The first sentence in the passage suggests that the obser'ers mentioned in line 1 would be most likely to predict which of the following% (A) That the number of new temporary positions would decline as fewer workers who preferred temporary employment entered the workforce. (B) That the total number of temporary positions would increase as fewer workers were able to find permanent positions.

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101

(C) That employers would ha'e less control o'er the terms of workers4 employment as workers increased their bargaining strength. ( ) That more workers would be hired for temporary positions as product demand increased. (#) That the number of workers taking temporary positions would increase as more workers in any gi'en demographic group entered the workforce. 2. 3n the conte$t of the passage/ the word *e$cessi'e+ (line 21) most closely corresponds to which of the following phrases% (A) >ar more than can be <ustified by worker preferences. (B) >ar more than can be e$plained by fluctuations in product demand. (C) >ar more than can be beneficial to the success of the firms themsel'es. ( ) >ar more than can be accounted for by an e$panding national economy. (#) >ar more than can be attributed to increases in the total number of people in the workforce. -. The passage mentions each of the following as an appropriate kind of go'ernmental action #DC#@T (A) getting firms to offer temporary employment primarily to a certain group of people (B) encouraging e"uitable pay for temporary and permanent employees (C) facilitating the organi!ation of temporary workers by labor unions ( ) establishing guidelines on the proportion of temporary workers that firms should employ (#) ensuring that temporary workers obtain benefits from their employers Passage 56 (56/63)
0"though numbers o# anima"s in a given region may #"uctuate #rom year to year' the #"uctuations are o#ten temporary and' over "ong periods' trivia". cientists have advanced three theories o# popu"ation contro" to account #or this re"ative constancy. The #irst theory attributes a re"ative"y constant popu"ation to periodic c"imatic catastrophes that decimate popu"ations with such #re+uency as to prevent them #rom e5ceeding some particu"ar "imit. /n the case o# sma"" organisms with short "i#e cyc"es' c"imatic changes need not be catastrophic> norma" seasona" changes in photoperiod (dai"y amount o# sun"ight)' #or e5amp"e' can govern popu"ation growth. This theory!the density-independent view!asserts that c"imatic #actors e5ert the same regu"atory e##ect on popu"ation regard"ess o# the number o# individua"s in a region. 0 second theory argues that popu"ation growth is primari"y density-dependent!that is' the rate o# growth o# a popu"ation in a region decreases as the number o# anima"s increases. The mechanisms that manage regu"ation may vary. 7or e5amp"e' as numbers increase' the #ood supp"y wou"d probab"y diminish' which wou"d increase morta"ity. /n addition' as Eot$a and

102

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Bo"terra have shown' predators can #ind prey more easi"y in high-density popu"ations. 9ther regu"ators inc"ude physio"ogica" contro" mechanisms> #or e5amp"e' %hristian and Favis have demonstrated how the crowding that resu"ts #rom a rise in numbers may bring about hormona" changes in the pituitary and adrena" g"ands that in turn may regu"ate popu"ation by "owering se5ua" activity and inhibiting se5ua" maturation. There is evidence that these e##ects may persist #or three generations in the absence o# the origina" provocation. 9ne cha""enge #or density-dependent theorists is to deve"op mode"s that wou"d a""ow the precise prediction o# the e##ects o# crowding. 0 third theory' proposed by 8ynne-=dwards and termed ;epideictic'< argues that organisms have evo"ved a ;code< in the #orm o# socia" or epideictic behavior disp"ays' such as winter-roosting aggregations or group voca"i)ing: such codes provide organisms with in#ormation on popu"ation si)e in a region so that they can' i# necessary' e5ercise reproductive restraint. (owever' 8ynne-=dwards3 theory' "in$ing anima" socia" behavior and popu"ation contro"' has been cha""enged' with some 2usti#ication' by severa" studies.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) argue against those scientists who maintain that animal populations tend to fluctuate (B) compare and contrast the density(dependent and epideictic theories of population control (C) pro'ide e$ample of some of the ways in which animals e$ercise reproducti'e restraint to control their own numbers ( ) suggests that theories of population control that concentrate on the social beha'ior of animals are more open to debate than are theories that do not (#) summari!e a number of scientific theories that attempt to e$plain why animal populations do not e$ceed certain limits

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that proponents of the density(dependent theory of population control ha'e not yet been able to (A) use their theory to e$plain the population growth of organisms with short life cycles (B) reproduce the results of the study of Christian and a'is (C) e$plain ade"uately why the numbers of a population can increase as the population4s rate of growth decreases ( ) make sufficiently accurate predictions about the effects of crowding (#) demonstrate how predator populations are themsel'es regulated

..

&hich of the following/ if true/ would best support the density(dependent theory of population control as it is described in the passage% (A) As the number of fo$es in ?innesota decrease/ the growth rate of this population of fo$es begins to increase. (B) As the number of woodpeckers in Cermont decreases/ the growth rate of this

GMAT

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population of woodpeckers also begins to decrease. (C) As the number of prairie dogs in 8klahoma increases/ the growth rate of this population of prairie dogs also begins to increase. ( ) After the number of bea'ers in Tennessee decreases/ the number of predators of these bea'ers begins to increase. (#) After the number of eagles in ?ontana decreases/ the food supply of this population of eagles also begins to decrease. 0. According to the &ynne(#dwards theory as it is described in the passage/ epideictic beha'ior displays ser'e the function of (A) determining roosting aggregations (B) locating food (C) attracting predators ( ) regulating se$ual acti'ity (#) triggering hormonal changes 1. The challenge posed to the &ynne(#dwards(theory by se'eral studies is regarded by the author with (A) complete indifference (B) "ualified acceptance (C) skeptical amusement ( ) perple$ed astonishment (#) agitated dismay 2. &hich of the following statements would pro'ide the most of logical continuation of the final paragraph of the passage% (A) Thus &ynne(#dwards4 theory raises serious "uestions about the constancy of animal population in a region. (B) Because &ynne(#dwards4 theory is able to e$plain more kinds of animal beha'ior than is the density(dependent theory/ epideictic e$planations of population regulation are now widely accepted. (C) The results of one study/ for instance/ ha'e suggested that group 'ocali!ing is more often used to defend territory than to pro'ide information about population density. ( ) ;ome of these studies ha'e/ in fact/ worked out a systematic and comple$ code of social beha'ior that can regulate population si!e. (#) 8ne study/ for e$ample/ has demonstrated that birds are more likely to use winter(roosting aggregations than group 'ocali!ing in order to pro'ide information on population si!e. Passage 57 (57/63)

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/n recent years' teachers o# introductory courses in 0sian 0merican studies have been

#acing a di"emma none5istent a #ew decades ago' when hard"y any te5ts in that #ie"d were avai"ab"e. Today' e5ce""ent antho"ogies and other introductory te5ts e5ist' and boo$s on individua" 0sian 0merican nationa"ity groups and on genera" issues important #or 0sian 0mericans are pub"ished a"most wee$"y. =ven pro#essors who are e5perts in the #ie"d #ind it di##icu"t to decide which o# these to assign to students: none5perts who teach in re"ated areas and are "oo$ing #or writings #or and by 0sian 0merican to inc"ude in survey courses are in an even worse position. 0 comp"icating #actor has been the continuing "ac$ o# specia"i)ed one-vo"ume re#erence wor$s on 0sian 0mericans' such as biographica" dictionaries or des$top encyc"opedias. uch wor$s wou"d enab"e students ta$ing 0sian 0merican studies courses (and pro#essors in re"ated #ie"ds) to "oo$ up basic in#ormation on 0sian 0merican individua"s' institutions' history' and cu"ture without having to wade through mountains o# primary source materia". /n addition' give such wor$s' 0sian 0merican studies pro#essors might #ee" more #ree to inc"ude more cha""enging 0sian 0merican materia" in their introductory reading "ists' since good re#erence wor$s a""ow students to ac+uire on their own the bac$ground in#ormation necessary to interpret di##icu"t or un#ami"iar materia".

1.

The author of the passage is primarily concerned with doing which of the following% (A) =ecommending a methodology (B) escribing a course of study (C) iscussing a problem ( ) #'aluating a past course of action (#) =esponding to a criticism

2.

The *dilemma+ mentioned in line 2 can best be characteri!ed as being caused by the necessity to make a choice when faced with a (A) lack of acceptable alternati'es (B) lack of strict standards for e'aluating alternati'es (C) preponderance of bad alternati'es as compared to good ( ) multitude of different alternati'es (#) large number of alternati'es that are nearly identical in content

..

The passage suggests that the factor mentioned in lines 10(1- complicates professors4 attempts to construct introductory reading lists for courses in Asian American studies in which of the following ways% (A) By making it difficult for professors to identify primary source material and to obtain standard information on Asian American history and culture (B) By pre'enting professors from identifying e$cellent anthologies and introductory te$ts in the field that are both recent and understandable to students

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(C) By pre'enting professors from ade"uately e'aluating the "uality of the numerous te$ts currently being published in the field ( ) By making it more necessary for professors to select readings for their courses that are not too challenging for students unfamiliar with Asian American history and culture (#) By making it more likely that the readings professors assign to students in their courses will be drawn solely from primary sources 0. The passage implies that which of the following was true of introductory courses in Asian American studies a few decades ago% (A) The range of different te$tbooks that could be assigned for such courses was e$tremely limited. (B) The te$ts assigned as readings in such courses were often not 'ery challenging for students. (C) ;tudents often complained about the te$ts assigned to them in such courses. ( ) ;uch courses were offered only at schools whose libraries were rich in primary sources. (#) ;uch courses were the only means then a'ailable by which people in the :nited ;tates could ac"uire knowledge of the field. 1. According to the passage/ the e$istence of good one('olume reference works about Asian Americans could result in (A) increased agreement among professors of Asian American studies regarding the "uality of the sources a'ailable in their field (B) an increase in the number of students signing up for introductory courses in Asian American studies (C) increased accuracy in writings that concern Asian American history and culture ( ) the use of introductory te$ts about Asian American history and culture in courses outside the field of Asian American studies (#) the inclusion of a wider range of Asian American material in introductory reading lists in Asian American studies Passage 58 (58/63)
/n an attempt to improve the overa"" per#ormance o# c"erica" wor$ers' many companies have introduced computeri)ed per#ormance monitoring and contro" systems (%6?% ) that record and report a wor$er3s computer-driven activities. (owever' at "east one study has shown that such monitoring may not be having the desired e##ect. /n the study' researchers as$ed monitored c"erica" wor$ers and their supervisors how assessments o# productivity a##ected supervisors3 ratings o# wor$ers3 per#ormance. /n contrast to unmonitored wor$ers doing the same wor$' who without e5ception identi#ied the most important e"ement in their

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2obs as customer service' the monitored wor$ers and their supervisors a"" responded that productivity was the critica" #actor in assigning ratings. This #inding suggested that there shou"d have been a strong corre"ation between a monitored wor$er3s productivity and the overa"" rating the wor$er received. (owever' measures o# the re"ationship between overa"" rating and individua" e"ements o# per#ormance c"ear"y supported the conc"usion that supervisors gave considerab"e weight to criteria such as attendance' accuracy' and indications o# customer satis#action. /t is possib"e that productivity may be a ;hygiene #actor'< that is' i# it is too "ow' it wi"" hurt the overa"" rating. &ut the evidence suggests that beyond the point at which productivity becomes ;good enough'< higher productivity per se is un"i$e"y to improve a rating.

1.

According to the passage/ before the final results of the study were known/ which of the following seemed likely% (A) That workers with the highest producti'ity would also be the most accurate (B) That workers who initially achie'ed high producti'ity ratings would continue to do so consistently (C) That the highest performance ratings would be achie'ed by workers with the highest producti'ity ( ) That the most producti'e workers would be those whose super'isors claimed to 'alue producti'ity (#) That super'isors who claimed to 'alue producti'ity would place e"ual 'alue on customer satisfaction

2.

3t can be inferred that the author of the passage discusses *unmonitored workers+ (line 15) primarily in order to (A) compare the ratings of these workers with the ratings of monitored workers (B) pro'ide an e$ample of a case in which monitoring might be effecti'e (C) pro'ide e'idence of an inappropriate use of C@?C; ( ) emphasi!e the effect that C@?C; may ha'e on workers4 perceptions of their <obs (#) illustrate the effect that C@?C; may ha'e on workers4 ratings

..

&hich of the following/ if true/ would most clearly ha'e supported the conclusion referred to in lines 1,(21% (A) =atings of producti'ity correlated highly with ratings of both accuracy and attendance. (B) #lectronic monitoring greatly increased producti'ity. (C) ?ost super'isors based o'erall ratings of performance on measures of producti'ity alone. ( ) 8'erall ratings of performance correlated more highly with measures of producti'ity than the researchers e$pected. (#) 8'erall ratings of performance correlated more highly with measures of

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accuracy than with measures of producti'ity. 0. According to the passage/ a *hygiene factor+ (lines 222.) is an aspect of a worker4s performance that (A) has no effect on the rating of a worker4s performance (B) is so basic to performance that it is assumed to be ade"uate for all workers (C) is gi'en less importance than it deser'es in rating a worker4s performance ( ) is not likely to affect a worker4s rating unless it is <udged to be inade"uate (#) is important primarily because of the effect it has on a worker4s rating 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) e$plain the need for the introduction of an inno'ati'e strategy (B) discuss a study of the use of a particular method (C) recommend a course of action ( ) resol'ed a difference of opinion (#) suggest an alternati'e approach Passage 59 (59/63)
choo"s e5pect te5tboo$s to be a va"uab"e source o# in#ormation #or students. ?y research suggests' however' that te5tboo$s that address the p"ace o# *ative 0mericans within the history o# the United tates distort history to suit a particu"ar cu"tura" va"ue system. /n some te5tboo$s' #or e5amp"e' sett"ers are pictured as more humane' comp"e5' s$i""#u"' and wise than *ative 0merican. /n essence' te5tboo$s stereotype and deprecate the numerous *ative 0merican cu"tures whi"e rein#orcing the attitude that the =uropean con+uest o# the *ew 8or"d denotes the superiority o# =uropean cu"tures. 0"though te5tboo$s eva"uate *ative 0merican architecture' po"itica" systems' and homema$ing' / contend that they do it #rom an ethnocentric' =uropean perspective without recogni)ing that other perspectives are possib"e. 9ne argument against my contention asserts that' by nature' te5tboo$s are cu"tura""y biased and that / am simp"y underestimating chi"dren3s abi"ity to see through these biases. ome researchers even c"aim that by the time students are in high schoo"' they $now they cannot ta$e te5tboo$s "itera""y. Det substantia" evidence e5ists to the contrary. Two researchers' #or e5amp"e' have conducted studies that suggest that chi"dren3s attitudes about particu"ar cu"ture are strong"y in#"uenced by the te5tboo$s used in schoo"s. Aiven this' an ongoing' care#u" review o# how schoo" te5tboo$s depict *ative 0merican is certain"y warranted.

1.

&hich of the following would most logically be the topic of the paragraph immediately following the passage% (A) ;pecific ways to e'aluate the biases of :nited ;tates history te$tbooks (B) The centrality of the teacher4s role in :nited ;tates history courses (C) 9ontraditional methods of teaching :nited ;tates history

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( ) The contributions of #uropean immigrants to the de'elopment of the :nited ;tates (#) &ays in which parents influence children4s political attitudes 2. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) describe in detail one research study regarding the impact of history te$tbooks on children4s attitudes and beliefs about certain cultures (B) describe re'isions that should be made to :nited ;tates history te$tbooks (C) discuss the difficulty of presenting an accurate history of the :nited ;tates ( ) argue that te$tbooks used in schools stereotype 9ati'e Americans and influence children4s attitudes (#) summari!e ways in which some te$tbooks gi'e distorted pictures of the political systems de'eloped by 'arious 9ati'e American groups .. The author mentions two researchers4 studies (lines 22(21) most likely in order to (A) suggest that children4s political attitudes are formed primarily through te$tbooks (B) counter the claim that children are able to see through stereotypes in te$tbooks (C) suggest that younger children tend to interpret the messages in te$tbooks more literally than do older children ( ) demonstrate that te$tbooks carry political messages meant to influence their readers (#) pro'e that te$tbooks are not biased in terms of their political presentations 0. The author4s attitude toward the content of the history te$tbooks discussed in the passage is best described as one of (A) indifference (B) hesitance (C) neutrality ( ) amusement (#) disappro'al 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the researchers mentioned in line 1, would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements% (A) ;tudents form attitudes about cultures other than their own primarily inside the school en'ironment. (B) >or the most part/ seniors in high school know that te$tbooks can be biased. (C) Te$tbooks play a crucial role in shaping the attitudes and beliefs of students. ( ) #lementary school students are as likely to recogni!e biases in te$tbooks as are high school students.

GMAT

11.

(#) ;tudents are less likely to gi'e credence to history te$tbooks than to mathematics te$tbooks. 2. The author implies that which of the following will occur if te$tbooks are not carefully re'iewed% (A) Children will remain ignorant of the #uropean settlers4 con"uest of the 9ew &orld. (B) Children will lose their ability to recogni!e biases in te$tbooks. (C) Children will form negati'e stereotypes of 9ati'e Americans. ( ) Children will de'elop an understanding of ethnocentrism. (#) Children will stop taking te$tbooks seriously. Passage 60 (60/63)
Unti" recent"y' scientists did not $now o# a c"ose vertebrate ana"ogue to the e5treme #orm o# a"truism observed in eusocia" insects "i$e ants and bees' whereby individua"s cooperate' sometimes even sacri#icing their own opportunities to survive and reproduce' #or the good o# others. (owever' such a vertebrate society may e5ist among underground co"onies o# the high"y socia" rodent %eteroce#halus gla$er& the na$ed mo"e rat. 0 na$ed mo"e rat co"ony' "i$e a beehive' wasp3s nest' or termite mound' is ru"ed by its +ueen' or reproducing #ema"e. 9ther adu"t #ema"e mo"e rats neither ovu"ate nor breed. The +ueen is the "argest member o# the co"ony' and she maintains her breeding status through a mi5ture o# behaviora" and' presumab"y' chemica" contro". Oueens have been "ong-"ived in captivity' and when they die or are removed #rom a co"ony one sees vio"ent #ighting #or breeding status among the "arger remaining #ema"es' "eading to a ta$eover by a new +ueen. =usocia" insect societies have rigid caste systems' each insect3s ro"e being de#ined by its behavior' body shape' and physio"ogy. /n na$ed mo"e rat societies' on the other hand' di##erences in behavior are re"ated primari"y to reproductive status (reproduction being "imited to the +ueen and a #ew ma"es)' body si)e' and perhaps age. ma""er non-breeding members' both ma"e and #ema"e' seem to participate primari"y in gathering #ood' transporting nest materia"' and tunne"ing. Earger nonbreeders are active in de#ending the co"ony and perhaps in removing dirt #rom the tunne"s. @arvis3 wor$ has suggested that di##erences in growth rates may in#"uence the "ength o# time that an individua" per#orms a tas$' regard"ess o# its age. %ooperative breeding has evo"ved many times in vertebrates' but un"i$e na$ed mo"e rats' most cooperative"y breeding vertebrates (e5cept the wi"d dog' 'ycaon #ictus) are dominated by a pair o# breeders rather than by a sing"e breeding #ema"e. The division o# "abor within socia" groups is "ess pronounced among other vertebrates than among na$ed mo"e rats' co"ony si)e is much sma""er' and mating by subordinate #ema"es may not be tota""y suppressed' whereas in na$ed mo"e rat co"onies subordinate #ema"es are not se5ua""y active' and many never breed.

1.

&hich of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage% (A) 9aked mole rat colonies are the only known e$amples of cooperati'ely

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breeding 'ertebrate societies. (B) 9aked mole rat colonies e$hibit social organi!ation based on a rigid caste system. (C) Beha'ior in naked mole rat colonies may well be a close 'ertebrate analogue to beha'ior in eusocial insect societies. ( ) The mating habits of naked mole rats differ from those of any other 'ertebrate species. (#) The basis for the di'ision of labor among naked mole rats is the same as that among eusocial insects. 2. The passage suggests that Aar'is4 work has called into "uestion which of the following e$planatory 'ariables for naked mole rat beha'ior% (A) ;i!e (B) Age (C) =eproducti'e status ( ) =ate of growth (#) @re'iously e$hibited beha'ior .. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the performance of tasks in naked mole rat colonies differs from task performance in eusocial insect societies in which of the following ways% (A) 3n naked mole rat colonies/ all tasks ate performed cooperati'ely. (B) 3n naked mole rat colonies/ the performance of tasks is less rigidly determined by body shape. (C) 3n naked mole rat colonies/ breeding is limited to the largest animals. ( ) 3n eusocial insect societies/ reproduction is limited to a single female. (#) 3n eusocial insect societies/ the distribution of tasks is based on body si!e. 0. According to the passage/ which of the following is a supposition rather than a fact concerning the "ueen in a naked mole rat colony% (A) ;he is the largest member of the colony. (B) ;he e$erts chemical control o'er the colony. (C) ;he mates with more than one male. ( ) ;he attains her status through aggression. (#) ;he is the only breeding female. 1. The passage supports which of the following inferences about breeding among Kycaon pictus% (A) The largest female in the social group does not maintain reproducti'e status by means of beha'ioral control. (B) An indi'idual4s ability to breed is related primarily to its rate of growth.

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(C) Breeding is the only task performed by the breeding female. ( ) Breeding in the social group is not cooperati'e. (#) Breeding is not dominated by a single pair of dogs. 2. According to the passage/ naked mole rat colonies may differ from all other known 'ertebrate groups in which of the following ways% (A) 9aked mole rats e$hibit an e$treme form of altruism. (B) 9aked mole rats are cooperati'e breeders. (C) Among naked mole rats/ many males are permitted to breed with a single dominant female. ( ) Among naked mole rats/ different tasks are performed at different times in an indi'idual4s life. (#) Among naked mole rats/ fighting results in the selection of a breeding female. -. 8ne function of the third paragraph of the passage is to (A) state a conclusion about facts presented in an earlier paragraph (B) introduce information that is contradicted by information in the fourth paragraph (C) "ualify the e$tent to which two pre'iously mentioned groups might be similar ( ) show the chain of reasoning that led to the conclusions of a specific study (#) demonstrate that of three e$planatory factors offered/ two may be of e"ual significance Passage 61 (61/63)
%ora" ree#s are one o# the most #ragi"e' bio"ogica""y comp"e5' and diverse marine ecosystems on =arth. This ecosystem is one o# the #ascinating parado5es o# the biosphere> how do c"ear' and thus nutrient-poor' waters support such pro"i#ic and productive communitiesC 6art o# the answer "ies within the tissues o# the cora"s themse"ves. ymbiotic ce""s o# a"gae $nown as )oo5anthe""ae carry out photosynthesis using the metabo"ic wastes o# the cora" thereby producing #ood #or themse"ves' #or their cora"s' hosts' and even #or other members o# the ree# community. This symbiotic process a""ows organisms in the ree# community to use sparse nutrient resources e##icient"y. Un#ortunate"y #or cora" ree#s' however' a variety o# human activities are causing wor"dwide degradation o# sha""ow marine habitats by adding nutrients to the water. 0gricu"ture' s"ash-and-burn "and c"earing' sewage disposa" and manu#acturing that creates waste by-products a"" increase nutrient "oads in these waters. Typica" symptoms o# ree# dec"ine are destabi"i)ed herbivore popu"ations and an increasing abundance o# a"gae and #i"ter-#eeding anima"s. Fec"ines in ree# communities are consistent with observations that nutrient input is increasing in direct proportion to growing human popu"ations' thereby threatening ree# communities sensitive to subt"e changes in nutrient input to their waters.

1.

The passage is primarily concerned with

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(A) describing the effects of human acti'ities on algae in coral reefs (B) e$plaining how human acti'ities are posing a threat to coral reef communities (C) discussing the process by which coral reefs deteriorate in nutrient(poor waters ( ) e$plaining how coral reefs produce food for themsel'es (#) describing the abundance of algae and filter(feeding animals in coral reef areas 2. The passage suggests which of the following about coral reef communities% (A) Coral reef communities may actually be more likely to thri'e in waters that are relati'ely low in nutrients. (B) The nutrients on which coral reef communities thri'e are only found in shallow waters. (C) )uman population growth has led to changing ocean temperatures/ which threatens coral reef communities. ( ) The growth of coral reef communities tends to destabili!e underwater herbi'ore populations. (#) Coral reef communities are more comple$ and di'erse than most ecosystems located on dry land. .. The author refers to *filter(feeding animals+ (line 25) in order to (A) pro'ide an e$ample of a characteristic sign of reef deterioration (B) e$plain how reef communities ac"uire sustenance for sur'i'al (C) identify a factor that helps herbi'ore populations thri'e ( ) indicate a cause of decreasing nutrient input in waters that reefs inhabit (#) identify members of coral reef communities that rely on coral reefs for nutrients 0. According to the passage/ which of the following is a factor that is threatening the sur'i'al of coral reef communities% (A) The waters they inhabit contain few nutrient resources. (B) A decline in nutrient input is disrupting their symbiotic relationship with !oo$anthellae. (C) The degraded waters of their marine habitats ha'e reduced their ability to carry out photosynthesis. ( ) They are too biologically comple$ to sur'i'e in habitats with minimal nutrient input. (#) &aste by(products result in an increase in nutrient input to reef communities. 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author describes coral reef communities as parado$ical most likely for which of the following reasons% (A) They are thri'ing e'en though human acti'ities ha'e depleted the nutrients in their en'ironment.

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(B) They are able to sur'i'e in spite of an o'erabundance of algae inhabiting their waters. (C) They are able to sur'i'e in an en'ironment with limited food resources. ( ) Their metabolic wastes contribute to the degradation of the waters that they inhabit. (#) They are declining e'en when the water surrounding them remains clear. Passage 62 (62/63)
Two divergent de#initions have dominated socio"ogists3 discussions o# the nature o# ethnicity. The #irst emphasi)es the primordia" and unchanging character o# ethnicity. /n this view' peop"e have an essentia" need #or be"onging that is satis#ied by membership in groups based on shared ancestry and cu"ture. 0 di##erent conception o# ethnicity de-emphasi)es the cu"tura" component and de#ines ethnic groups as interest groups. /n this view' ethnicity serves as a way o# mobi"i)ing a certain popu"ation behind issues re"ating to its economic position. 8hi"e both o# these de#initions are use#u"' neither #u""y captures the dynamic and changing aspects o# ethnicity in the United tates. Rather' ethnicity is more satis#actori"y conceived o# as a process in which pree5isting communa" bonds and common cu"tura" attributes are adapted #or instrumenta" purposes according to changing rea"-"i#e situations. 9ne e5amp"e o# this process is the rise o# participation by *ative 0merican peop"e in the broader United tates po"itica" system since the %ivi" Rights movement o# the 19G.3s. &esides "eading *ative 0mericans to participate more active"y in po"itics (the number o# *ative 0merican "egis"ative o##iceho"ders more than doub"ed)' this movement a"so evo$ed increased interest in triba" history and traditiona" cu"ture. %u"tura" and instrumenta" components o# ethnicity are not mutua""y e5c"usive' but rather rein#orce one another. The %ivi" Rights movement a"so brought changes in the uses to which ethnicity was put by ?e5ican 0merican peop"e. /n the 19G.3s' ?e5ican 0mericans #ormed community-based po"itica" groups that emphasi)ed ancestra" heritage as a way o# mobi"i)ing constituents. uch emerging issues as immigration and voting rights gave ?e5ican 0merican advocacy groups the means by which to promote ethnic so"idarity. Ei$e =uropean ethnic groups in the nineteenth-century United tates' "ate-twentieth-century ?e5ican 0merican "eaders combined ethnic with contemporary civic symbo"s. /n 19G8 (enry %isneros' then mayor o# an 0ntonio' Te5as' cited ?e5ican "eader &enito @uare) as a mode" #or ?e5ican 0mericans in their #ight #or contemporary civi" rights. 0nd every year' ?e5ican 0mericans ce"ebrate Cinco de (ayo as #ervent"y as many /rish 0merican peop"e embrace t. 6atric$3s Fay (both are ma2or ho"idays in the countries o# origin)' with both ho"idays having been reinvented in the conte5t o# the United tates and "in$ed to idea"s' symbo"s' and heroes o# the United tates.

1.

&hich of the following best states the main idea of the passage% (A) 3n their definitions of the nature of ethnicity/ sociologists ha'e underestimated the power of the primordial human need to belong. (B) #thnicity is best defined as a dynamic process that combines cultural components with shared political and economic interests.

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(C) 3n the :nited ;tates in the twentieth century/ ethnic groups ha'e begun to organi!e in order to further their political and economic interests. ( ) #thnicity in the :nited ;tates has been significantly changed by the Ci'il =ights mo'ement. (#) The two definitions of ethnicity that ha'e dominated sociologists discussions are incompatible and should be replaced by an entirely new approach. 2. &hich of the following statements about the first two definitions of ethnicity discussed in the first paragraph is supported by the passage% (A) 8ne is supported primarily by sociologists/ and the other is fa'ored by members of ethnic groups. (B) 8ne emphasi!es the political aspects of ethnicity/ and the other focuses on the economic aspects. (C) 8ne is the result of analysis of :nited ;tates populations/ and the other is the result of analysis of #uropean populations. ( ) 8ne focuses more on the ancestral components of ethnicity than does the other. (#) 8ne focuses more on immigrant groups than does the other. .. The author of the passage refers to 9ati'e American people in the second paragraph in order to pro'ide an e$ample of (A) the ability of membership in groups based on shared ancestry and culture to satisfy an essential human need (B) how ethnic feelings ha'e both moti'ated and been strengthened by political acti'ity (C) how the Ci'il =ights mo'ement can help promote solidarity among :nited ;tates ethnic groups ( ) how participation in the political system has helped to impro'e a group4s economic situation (#) the benefits gained from renewed study of ethnic history and culture 0. The passage supports which of the following statements about the ?e$ican American community% (A) 3n the 1,254s the ?e$ican American community began to incorporate the customs of another ethnic group in the :nited ;tates into the obser'ation of its own ethnic holidays. (B) 3n the 1,254s ?e$ican American community groups promoted ethnic solidarity primarily in order to effect economic change. (C) 3n the 1,254s leader of the ?e$ican American community concentrated their efforts on promoting a renaissance of ethnic history and culture. ( ) 3n the 1,254s members of the ?e$ican American community were becoming increasingly concerned about the issue of 'oting rights.

GMAT

11,

(#) 3n the 1,254s the ?e$ican American community had greater success in mobili!ing constituents than did other ethnic groups in the :nited ;tates. 1. &hich of the following types of ethnic cultural e$pression is discussed in the passage% (A) The retelling of traditional narrati'es (B) The wearing of traditional clothing (C) The playing of traditional music ( ) The celebration of traditional holidays (#) The preparation of traditional cuisine 2. 3nformation in the passage supports which of the following statements about many #uropean ethnic groups in the nineteenth(century :nited ;tates% (A) They emphasi!ed economic interests as a way of mobili!ing constituents behind certain issues. (B) They concei'ed of their own ethnicity as being primordial in nature. (C) They created cultural traditions that fused :nited ;tates symbols with those of their countries of origin. ( ) They de(emphasi!ed the cultural components of their communities in fa'or of political interests. (#) They organi!ed formal community groups designed to promote a renaissance of ethnic history and culture. -. The passage suggests that in 1,26 )enry Cisneros most likely belie'ed that (A) many ?e$ican American would respond positi'ely to the e$ample of Benito Auare! (B) many ?e$ican American were insufficiently educated in ?e$ican history (C) the fight for ci'il fights in the :nited ;tates had many strong parallels in both ?e$ican and 3rish history ( ) the "uickest way of organi!ing community(based groups was to emulate the tactics of Benito Auare! (#) ?e$ican Americans should emulate the strategies of 9ati'e American political leaders Passage 63 (63/63)
The #act that superior service can generate a competitive advantage #or a company does not mean that every attempt at improving service wi"" create such an advantage. /nvestments in service' "i$e those in production and distribution' must be ba"anced against other types o# investments on the basis o# direct' tangib"e bene#its such as cost reduction and increased revenues. /# a company is a"ready e##ective"y on a par with its competitors because it provides service that avoids a damaging reputation and $eeps customers #rom "eaving at an

125

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unacceptab"e rate' then investment in higher service "eve"s may be wasted' since service is a deciding #actor #or customers on"y in e5treme situations. This truth was not apparent to managers o# one regiona" ban$' which #ai"ed to improve its competitive position despite its investment in reducing the time a customer had to wait #or a te""er. The ban$ managers did not recogni)e the "eve" o# customer inertia in the consumer ban$ing industry that arises #rom the inconvenience o# switching ban$s. *or did they ana"y)e their service improvement to determine whether it wou"d attract new customers by producing a new standard o# service that wou"d e5cite customers or by proving di##icu"t #or competitors to copy. The on"y merit o# the improvement was that it cou"d easi"y be described to customers.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) contrast possible outcomes of a type of business in'estment (B) suggest more careful e'aluation of a type of business in'estment (C) illustrate 'arious ways in which a type of business in'estment could fail to enhance re'enues ( ) trace the general problems of a company to a certain type of business in'estment (#) critici!e the way in which managers tend to analy!e the costs and benefits of business in'estments

2.

According to the passage/ in'estments in ser'ice are comparable to in'estments in production and distribution in terms of the (A) tangibility of the benefits that they tend to confer (B) increased re'enues that they ultimately produce (C) basis on which they need to be weighed ( ) insufficient analysis that managers de'ote to them (#) degree of competiti'e ad'antage that they are likely to pro'ide

..

The passage suggests which of the following about ser'ice pro'ided by the regional bank prior to its in'estment in enhancing that ser'ice% (A) 3t enabled the bank to retain customers at an acceptable rate. (B) 3t threatened to weaken the bank4s competiti'e position with respect to other regional banks. (C) 3t had already been impro'ed after ha'ing caused damage to the bank4s reputation in the past. ( ) 3t was slightly superior to that of the bank4s regional competitors. (#) 3t needed to be impro'ed to attain parity with the ser'ice pro'ided by competing banks.

0.

The passage suggests that bank managers failed to consider whether or not the ser'ice impro'ement mentioned in line 1, (A) was too complicated to be easily described to prospecti'e customers

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121

(B) made a measurable change in the e$periences of customers in the bank4s offices (C) could be sustained if the number of customers increased significantly ( ) was an inno'ation that competing banks could ha'e imitated (#) was ade"uate to bring the bank4s general le'el of ser'ice to a le'el that was comparable with that of its competitors 1. The discussion of the regional bank (line 1.(20) ser'es which of the following functions within the passage as a whole% (A) 3t describes an e$ceptional case in which in'estment in ser'ice actually failed to produce a competiti'e ad'antage. (B) 3t illustrates the pitfalls of choosing to in'est in ser'ice at a time when in'estment is needed more urgently in another area. (C) 3t demonstrates the kind of analysis that managers apply when they choose one kind of ser'ice in'estment o'er another. ( ) 3t supports the argument that in'estments in certain aspects of ser'ice are more ad'antageous than in'estments in other aspects of ser'ice. (#) 3t pro'ides an e$ample of the point about in'estment in ser'ice made in the first paragraph. 2. The author uses the word *only+ in line 2. most likely in order to (A) highlight the oddity of the ser'ice impro'ement (B) emphasi!e the relati'ely low 'alue of the in'estment in ser'ice impro'ement (C) distinguish the primary attribute of the ser'ice impro'ement from secondary attributes ( ) single out a certain merit of the ser'ice impro'ement from other merits (#) point out the limited duration of the actual ser'ice impro'ement GMAT 22Passages Passage 64 (1/22)
The antigen-antibody immuno"ogica" reaction used to be regarded as typica" o# immuno"ogica" responses. 0ntibodies are proteins synthesi)ed by specia"i)ed ce""s ca""ed p"asma ce""s' which are #ormed by "ymphocytes (ce""s #rom the "ymph system) when an antigen' a substance #oreign to the organism3s body' comes in contact with "ymphocytes. Two important mani#estations o# antigen-antibody immunity are "ysis' the rapid physica" rupture o# antigenic ce""s and the "iberation o# their contents into the surrounding medium' and phagocytosis' a process in which antigenic partic"es are engu"#ed by and very o#ten digested by macrophages and po"ymorphs. The process o# "ysis is e5ecuted by a comp"e5 and unstab"e b"ood constituent $nown as comp"ement' which wi"" not wor$ un"ess it is activated by a speci#ic antibody: the process o# phagocytosis is great"y #aci"itated when the partic"es to be

122

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engu"#ed are coated by a speci#ic antibody directed against them. The re"uctance to!abandon this hypothesis' however we"" it e5p"ains speci#ic processes' impeded new research' and #or many years antigens and antibodies dominated the thoughts o# immuno"ogists so comp"ete"y that those immuno"ogists over"oo$ed certain di##icu"ties. 6erhaps the primary di##icu"ty with the antigen-antibody e5p"anation is the in#ormationa" prob"em o# how an antigen is recogni)ed and how a structure e5act"y comp"ementary to it is then synthesi)ed. 8hen mo"ecu"ar bio"ogists discovered' moreover' that such in#ormation cannot #"ow #rom protein to protein' but on"y #rom nuc"eic acid to protein' the theory that an antigen itse"# provided the mo"d that directed the synthesis o# an antibody had to be serious"y +ua"i#ied. The attempts at +ua"i#ication and the in#ormation provided by research in mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy "ed scientists to rea"i)e that a second immuno"ogica" reaction is mediated through the "ymphocytes that are hosti"e to and bring about the destruction o# the antigen. This type o# immuno"ogica" response is ca""ed ce""-mediated immunity. Recent research in ce""-mediated immunity has been concerned not on"y with the deve"opment o# new and better vaccines' but a"so with the prob"em o# transp"anting tissues and organs #rom one organism to another' #or a"though circu"ating antibodies p"ay a part in the re2ection o# transp"anted tissues' the primary ro"e is p"ayed by ce""-mediated reactions. Furing ce""-mediated responses' receptor sites on speci#ic "ymphocytes and sur#ace antigens on the #oreign tissue ce""s #orm a comp"e5 that binds the "ymphocytes to the tissue. uch "ymphocytes do not give rise to antibody-producing p"asma ce""s but themse"ves bring about the death o# the #oreign-tissue ce""s' probab"y by secreting a variety o# substances' some o# which are to5ic to the tissue ce""s and some o# which stimu"ate increased phagocytic activity by white b"ood ce""s o# the macrophage type. %e""-mediated immunity a"so accounts #or the destruction o# intrace""u"ar parasites.

1.

The author is primarily concerned with (A) pro'ing that immunological reactions do not in'ol'e antibodies (B) establishing that most immunological reactions in'ol'e antigens (C) critici!ing scientists who will not change their theories regarding immunology ( ) analy!ing the importance of cells in fighting disease (#) e$plaining two different kinds of immunological reactions

2.

The author argues that the antigen(antibody e$planation of immunity *had to seriously "ualified+ (line .-) because (A) antibodies were found to acti'ate unstable components in the blood (B) antigens are not e$actly complementary to antibodies (C) lymphocytes ha'e the ability to bind to the surface of antigens ( ) antibodies are synthesi!ed from protein whereas antigens are made from nucleic acid (#) antigens ha'e no apparent mechanism to direct the formation of an antibody

..

The author most probably belie'es that the antigen(antibody theory of immunological reaction.

GMAT

12.

(A) is wrong (B) was accepted without e'idence (C) is un'erifiable ( ) is a partial e$planation (#) has been a di'isi'e issue among scientists 0. The author mentions all of the following as being in'ol'ed in antigen(antibody immunological reactions #DC#@T the (A) synthesis of a protein (B) acti'ation of complement in the bloodstream (C) destruction of antibodies ( ) entrapment of antigens by macrophages (#) formation of a substance with a structure complementary to that of an antigen 1. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following "uestions about cell(mediated immunological reactions% 3. 33. o lymphocytes form antibodies during cell(mediated immunological reactions% &hy are lymphocytes more hostile to antigens during cell(mediated immunological reactions than are other cell groups%

333. Are cell(mediated reactions more pronounced after transplants than they are after parasites ha'e in'aded the organism% (A) 3 only (B) 3 and 33 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 2. The passage suggests that scientists might not ha'e de'eloped the theory of cell( mediated immunological reactions if (A) proteins e$isted in specific group types (B) proteins could ha'e been shown to direct the synthesis of other proteins (C) antigens were always destroyed by proteins ( ) antibodies were composed only of protein (#) antibodies were the body4s primary means of resisting disease -. According to the passage/ antibody(antigen and cell(mediated immunological reactions both in'ol'e which of the following processes% 3. 33. The destruction of antigens The creation of antibodies

333. The destruction of intracellular parasites

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(A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 33 only (#) 33 and 333 only 6. The author supports the theory of cell(mediated reactions primarily by (A) pointing out a contradiction in the assumption leading to the antigen(antibody theory (B) e$plaining how cell mediation accounts for phenomena that the antigen( antibody theory cannot account for (C) re'ealing new data that scientists arguing for the antigen(antibody theory ha'e continued to ignore ( ) showing that the antigen(antibody theory fails to account for the breakup of antigens (#) demonstrating that cell mediation e$plains lysis and phagocytosis more fully than the antigen(antibody theory does Passage 65 (2/22)
The #ounders o# the Repub"ic viewed their revo"ution primari"y in po"itica" rather than economic or socia" terms. 0nd they ta"$ed about education as essentia" to the pub"ic good!a goa" that too$ precedence over $now"edge as occupationa" training or as a means to se"##u"#i""ment or se"#-improvement. 9ver and over again the Revo"utionary generation' both "ibera" and conservative in out"oo$' asserted its conviction that the we"#are o# the Repub"ic rested upon an educated citi)enry and that schoo"s' especia""y #ree pub"ic schoo"s' wou"d be the best means o# educating the citi)enry in civic va"ues and the ob"igations re+uired o# everyone in a democratic repub"ican society. 0"" agreed that the principa" ingredients o# a civic education were "iteracy and the incu"cation o# patriotic and mora" virtues' some others adding the study o# history and the study o# princip"es o# the repub"ican government itse"#. The #ounders' as was the case o# a"most a"" their successors' were "ong on e5hortation and rhetoric regarding the va"ue o# civic education' but they "e#t it to the te5tboo$ writers to disti"" the essence o# those va"ues #or schoo" chi"dren. Te5ts in 0merican history and government appeared as ear"y as the 179.s. The te5tboo$ writers turned out to be very "arge"y o# conservative persuasion' more "i$e"y 7edera"ist in out"oo$ than @e##ersonian' and a"most universa""y agreed that po"itica" virtue must rest upon mora" and re"igious precepts. ince most te5tboo$ writers were *ew =ng"ander' this meant that the te5ts were in#used with 6rotestant and' above a""' 6uritan out"oo$s. /n the #irst ha"# o# the Repub"ic' civic education in the schoo"s emphasi)ed the incu"cation o# civic va"ues and made "itt"e attempt to deve"op participatory po"itica" s$i""s. That was a tas$ "e#t to incipient po"itica" parties' town meetings' churches and the co##ee or a"e houses where men gathered #or conversation. 0dditiona""y as a reading o# certain 7edera"ist papers o# the

GMAT
period wou"d demonstrate' the press probab"y did more to disseminate rea"istic as we"" as

121

partisan $now"edge o# government than the schoo"s. The goa" o# education' however' was to achieve a higher #orm o# unum #or the new Repub"ic. /n the midd"e ha"# o# the nineteenth century' the po"itica" va"ues taught in the pub"ic and private schoo"s did not change substantia""y #rom those ce"ebrated in the #irst #i#ty years o# the Repub"ic. /n the te5tboo$s o# the day their rosy hues i# anything became go"den. To the resp"endent va"ues o# "iberty' e+ua"ity' and a benevo"ent %hristian mora"ity were now added the midd"e-c"ass virtuesespecia""y o# *ew =ng"and-o# hard wor$' honesty and integrity' the rewards o# individua" e##ort' and obedience to parents and "egitimate authority. &ut o# a"" the po"itica" va"ues taught in schoo"' patriotism was preeminent: and whenever teachers e5p"ained to schoo" chi"dren why they shou"d "ove their country above a"" e"se' the idea o# "iberty assumed pride o# p"ace.

1.

The passage deals primarily with the (A) content of early te$tbooks on American history and go'ernment (B) role of education in late eighteenth(and early to mid(nineteenth(century America (C) influence of 9ew #ngland @uritanism on early American 'alues ( ) origin and de'elopment of the @rotestant work ethic in modern America (#) establishment of uni'ersal free public education in America

2.

According to the passage/ the founders of the =epublic regarded education primarily as (A) a religious obligation (B) a pri'ate matter (C) an unnecessary lu$ury ( ) a matter of indi'idual choice (#) a political necessity

..

The author states that te$tbooks written in the middle part of the nineteenth century (A) departed radically in tone and style from earlier te$tbooks (B) mentioned for the first time the 'alue of liberty (C) treated traditional ci'ic 'irtues with e'en greater re'erence ( ) were commissioned by go'ernment agencies (#) contained no reference to conser'ati'e ideas

0.

&hich of the following would K#A;T likely ha'e been the sub<ect of an early American te$tbook% (A) basic rules of #nglish grammar (B) the American =e'olution (C) patriotism and other ci'ic 'irtues ( ) 'ocational education

122

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(#) principles of American go'ernment 1. The author4s attitude toward the educational system she discusses can best be described as (A) cynical and unpatriotic (B) realistic and analytical (C) pragmatic and frustrated ( ) disenchanted and bitter (#) idealistic and nai'e 2. The passage pro'ides information that would be helpful in answering which of the following "uestions% (A) &hy were a disproportionate share of early American te$tbooks written by 9ew #ngland authors% (B) &as the >ederalist party primarily a liberal or conser'ati'e force in early American politics% (C) )ow many years of education did the founders belie'e were sufficient to instruct young citi!ens in ci'ic 'irtue% ( ) &hat were that names of some of the @uritan authors who wrote early American te$tbooks% (#) id most citi!ens of the early =epublic agree with the founders that public education was essential to the welfare of the =epublic% -. The author implies that an early American @uritan would likely insist that (A) moral and religious 'alues are the foundation of ci'ic 'irtue (B) te$tbooks should instruct students in political issues of 'ital concern to the community (C) te$tbooks should gi'e greater emphasis to the 'alue of indi'idual liberty than to the duties of patriotism ( ) pri'ate schools with a particular religious focus are preferable to public schools with no religious instruction (#) go'ernment and religion are separate institutions and the church should not interfere in political affairs 6. According to the passage citi!ens of the early =epublic learned about practical political matters in all of the following ways #DC#@T (A) reading newspapers (B) attending town meetings (C) con'ersing about political matters ( ) reading te$tbooks (#) attending church

GMAT

12-

Passage 66 (3/22)
The hea"th-care economy is rep"ete with unusua" and even uni+ue economic re"ationships. 9ne o# the "east understood invo"ves the pecu"iar ro"es o# producer or ;provider< and purchaser or ;consumer< in the typica" doctor-patient re"ationship. /n most sectors o# the economy' it is the se""er who attempts to attract a potentia" buyer with various inducements o# price' +ua"ity' and uti"ity' and it is the buyer who ma$es the decision. 8here circumstances permit the buyer no choice because there is e##ective"y on"y one se""er and the product is re"ative"y essentia"' government usua""y asserts monopo"y and p"aces the industry under price and other regu"ations. *either o# these conditions prevai"s in most o# the hea"th-care industry. /n the hea"th-care industry' the doctor-patient re"ationship is the mirror image o# the ordinary re"ationship between producer and consumer. 9nce an individua" has chosen to see a physician!and even then there may be no rea" choice!it is the physician who usua""y ma$es a"" signi#icant purchasing decisions> whether the patient shou"d return ;ne5t 8ednesday'< whether I-rays are needed' whether drugs shou"d be prescribed' etc. /t is a rare and sophisticated patient who wi"" cha""enge such pro#essiona" decisions or raise in advance +uestions about price' especia""y when the ai"ment is regarded as serious. This is particu"ar"y signi#icant in re"ation to hospita" care. The physician must certi#y the need #or hospita"i)ation' determine what procedures wi"" be per#ormed' and announce when the patient may be discharged. The patient may be consu"ted about some o# these decisions' but in the main it is the doctor3s 2udgments that are #ina". Eitt"e wonder then that in the eyes o# the hospita" it is the physician who is the rea" ;consumer.< 0s a conse+uence' the medica" sta## represents the ;power center< in hospita" po"icy and decision-ma$ing' not the administration. 0"though usua""y there are in this situation #our identi#iab"e participants!the physician' the hospita"' the patient' and the payer (genera""y an insurance carrier or government)!the physician ma$es the essentia" decisions #or a"" o# them. The hospita" becomes an e5tension o# the physician: the payer genera""y meets most o# the bona #ide bi""s generated by the physicianKhospita": and #or the most part the patient p"ays a passive ro"e. /n routine or minor i""nesses' or 2ust p"ain worries' the patient3s options are' o# course' much greater with respect to use and price. /n i""nesses that are o# some signi#icance' however' such choices tend to evaporate' and it is #or these i""nesses that the bu"$ o# the hea"th-care do""ar is spent. 8e estimate that about 7--8. percent o# hea"th-care e5penditures are determined by physicians' not patients. 7or this reason' economy measures directed at patients or the genera" pub"ic are re"ative"y ine##ective.

1.

The author4s primary purpose is to (A) speculate about the relationship between a patient4s ability to pay and the treatment recei'ed (B) critici!e doctors for e$ercising too much control o'er patients (C) analy!e some important economic factors in health care ( ) urge hospitals to reclaim their decision(making authority (#) inform potential patients of their health(care rights

126

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2.

3t can be inferred that doctors are able to determine hospital policies because (A) it is doctors who generate income for the hospital (B) most of a patient4s bills are paid by his health insurance (C) hospital administrators lack the e$pertise to "uestion medical decisions ( ) a doctor is ultimately responsible for a patient4s health (#) some patients might refuse to accept their physician4s ad'ice

..

According to the author/ when a doctor tells a patient to *return ne$t &ednesday/+ the doctor is in effect (A) taking ad'antage of the patient4s concern for his health (B) instructing the patient to buy more medical ser'ices (C) warning the patient that a hospital stay might be necessary ( ) ad'ising the patient to seek a second opinion (#) admitting that the initial 'isit was ineffecti'e

0.

The author is most probably leading up to (A) a proposal to control medical costs (B) a discussion of a new medical treatment (C) an analysis of the causes of inflation in the :nited ;tates ( ) a study of lawsuits against doctors for malpractice (#) a comparison of hospitals and factories

1.

The tone of the passage can best be described as (A) whimsical (B) cautious (C) analytical ( ) in"uisiti'e (#) defiant

2.

&ith which of the following statements would the author be likely to agree% 3. 33. ?ost patients are reluctant to ob<ect to the course of treatment prescribed by a doctor or to "uestion the cost of the ser'ices. The more serious the illness of a patient/ the less likely it is that the patient will ob<ect to the course of treatment prescribed or to "uestion the cost of ser'ices.

333. The payer/ whether insurance carrier or the go'ernment/ is less likely to ac"uiesce to demands for payment when the illness of the patient is regarded as serious. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only

GMAT

12,

(C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 -. The author4s primary concern is to (A) define a term (B) clarify a misunderstanding (C) refute a theory ( ) discuss a problem (#) announce a new disco'ery 6. The most important feature of a *consumer+ as that term is used in line .. of the passage is that the *consumer+ is the party that (A) pays for goods or ser'ices (B) deli'ers goods or ser'ices (C) orders goods or ser'ices ( ) reimburses a third party for goods or ser'ices (#) supplies goods and ser'ices to a third party Passage 67 (4/22)
0bout twice every century' one o# the massive stars in our ga"a5y b"ows itse"# apart in a supernova e5p"osion that sends massive +uantities o# radiation and matter into space and generates shoc$ waves that sweep through the arms o# the ga"a5y. The shoc$ waves heat the interste""ar gas' evaporate sma"" c"ouds' and compress "arger ones to the point at which they co""apse under their own gravity to #orm new stars. The genera" picture that has been deve"oped #or the supernova e5p"osion and its a#termath goes something "i$e this. Throughout its evo"ution' a star is much "i$e a "ea$y ba""oon. /t $eeps its e+ui"ibrium #igure through a ba"ance o# interna" pressure against the tendency to co""apse under its own weight. The pressure is generated by nuc"ear reactions in the core o# the star which must continua""y supp"y energy to ba"ance the energy that "ea$s out in the #orm o# radiation. =ventua""y the nuc"ear #ue" is e5hausted' and the pressure drops in the core. 8ith nothing to ho"d it up' the matter in the center o# the star co""apses inward' creating higher and higher densities and temperatures' unti" the nuc"ei and e"ectrons are #used into a super-dense "ump o# matter $nown as a neutron star. 0s the over"ying "ayers rain down on the sur#ace o# the neutron star' the temperature rises' unti" with a b"inding #"ash o# radiation' the co""apse is reversed. 0 thermonuc"ear shoc$ wave runs through the now e5panding ste""ar enve"ope' #using "ighter e"ements into heavier ones and producing a bri""iant visua" outburst that can be as intense as the "ight o# 1. bi""ion suns. The she"" o# matter thrown o## by the e5p"osion p"ows through the surrounding gas' producing an e5panding bubb"e o# hot gas' with gas temperatures in the mi""ions o# degrees. This gas wi"" emit most o# its energy at I-ray wave"engths' so it is not surprising that I-ray

1-5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

observatories have provided some o# the most use#u" insights into the nature o# the supernova phenomenon. ?ore than twenty supernova remnants have now been detected in I-ray studies. Recent discoveries o# meteorites with anoma"ous concentrations o# certain isotopes indicate that a supernova might have precipitated the birth o# our so"ar system more than #our and a ha"# bi""ion years ago. 0"though the c"oud that co""apsed to #orm the un and the p"anets was composed primari"y o# hydrogen and he"ium' it a"so contained carbon' nitrogen' and o5ygen' e"ements essentia" #or "i#e as we $now it. ="ements heavier than he"ium are manu#actured deep in the interior o# stars and wou"d' #or the most part' remain there i# it were not #or the catac"ysmic supernova e5p"osions that b"ow giant stars apart. 0dditiona""y' supernovas produce c"ouds o# high-energy partic"es ca""ed cosmic rays. These high-energy partic"es continua""y bombard the =arth and are responsib"e #or many o# the genetic mutations that are the driving #orce o# the evo"ution o# species.

1.

&hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage% (A) The 8rigins and #ffects of ;uperno'as (B) The Kife and eath of ;tars (C) The 8rigins and #'olution of Kife on #arth ( ) The Aftermath of a ;uperno'a (#) Ciolent Change in the :ni'erse

2.

According to the passage/ we can e$pect a superno'a to occur in our gala$y (A) about twice each year (B) hundreds of times each century (C) about once e'ery fifty years ( ) about once e'ery other century (#) about once e'ery four to fi'e billion years

..

According to the passage all of the following are true of superno'as #DC#@T that they (A) are e$tremely bright (B) are an e$plosion of some sort (C) emit large "uantities of D(rays ( ) result in the destruction of a neutron star (#) are caused by the collision of large gala$ies

0.

The author employs which of the following to de'elop the first paragraph% (A) Analogy (B) eduction (C) Benerali!ation ( ) #$ample

GMAT

1-1

(#) =efutation 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the meteorites mentioned by the author at line ., (A) contain dangerous concentrations of radioacti'e materials (B) gi'e off large "uantities of D(rays (C) include material not created in the normal de'elopment of our solar system ( ) are larger than the meteors normally found in a solar system like ours (#) contain pieces of a superno'a that occurred se'eral billion years ago 2. The author implies that (A) it is sometimes easier to detect superno'as by obser'ation of the D(ray spectrum than by obser'ation of 'isible wa'elengths of light (B) life on #arth is endangered by its constant e$posure to radiation forces that are released by a superno'a (C) recently disco'ered meteorites indicate that the #arth and other planets of our solar system sur'i'ed the e$plosion of a superno'a se'eral billion years ago ( ) lighter elements are formed from hea'ier elements during a superno'a as the hea'ier elements are torn apart (#) the core of a neutron star is composed largely of hea'ier elements such as carbon/ nitrogen/ and o$ygen -. According to the passage what is the first e'ent in the se"uence that leads to the occurrence of a superno'a% (A) An ordinary star begins to emit tremendous "uantities of D(rays. (B) A neutron star is en'eloped by a superheated cloud of gas. (C) An imbalance between light and hea'y elements causes an ordinary star to collapse. ( ) A cloud of interstellar gas rich in carbon/ nitrogen/ and o$ygen/ collapses to form a neutron star. (#) An ordinary star e$hausts its supply of nuclear fuel and begins to collapse. 6. According to the passage a neutron star is (A) a gaseous cloud containing hea'y elements (B) an intermediate stage between an ordinary star and a superno'a (C) the residue that is left by a superno'a ( ) the core of an ordinary star that houses the thermonuclear reactions (#) one of billions of meteors that are scattered across the gala$y by a superno'a ,. The author is primarily concerned with (A) speculating about the origins of our solar system (B) presenting e'idence pro'ing the e$istence of superno'as

1-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) discussing the nuclear reaction that occurs in the core of a star ( ) describing the se"uence of scientific e'ents (#) dispro'ing a theory about the causes of superno'as Passage 68 (5/22)
The uni+ueness o# the @apanese character is the resu"t o# two seeming"y contradictory #orces> the strength o# traditions and se"ective receptivity to #oreign achievements and inventions. 0s ear"y as the 18G.s' there were counter movements to the traditiona" orientation. Du$ichi 7u$u)awa' the most e"o+uent spo$esman o# @apan3s ;=n"ightenment'< c"aimed> ;The %on#ucian civi"i)ation o# the =ast seems to me to "ac$ two things possessed by 8estern civi"i)ation> science in the materia" sphere and a sense o# independence in the spiritua" sphere.< 7u$u)awa3s great in#"uence is #ound in the #ree and individua"istic phi"osophy o# the Education Code o# 1871' but he was not ab"e to prevent the government #rom turning bac$ to the canons o# %on#ucian thought in the )m#erial *escri#t o# 189.. 0nother inter"ude o# re"ative "ibera"ism #o""owed 8or"d 8ar /' when the democratic idea"ism o# 6resident 8oodrow 8i"son had an important impact on @apanese inte""ectua"s and' especia""y students> but more important was the Eeninist ideo"ogy o# the 1917 &o"shevi$ Revo"ution. 0gain in the ear"y 194.s' nationa"ism and mi"itarism became dominant' "arge"y as a resu"t o# #ai"ing economic conditions. 7o""owing the end o# 8or"d 8ar //' substantia" changes were underta$en in @apan to "iberate the individua" #rom authoritarian restraints. The new democratic va"ue system was accepted by many teachers' students' inte""ectua"s' and o"d "ibera"s' but it was not immediate"y embraced by the society as a who"e. @apanese traditions were dominated by group va"ues' and notions o# persona" #reedom and individua" rights were un#ami"iar. Today' democratic processes are c"ear"y evident in the widespread participation o# the @apanese peop"e in socia" and po"itica" "i#e> yet' there is no universa""y accepted and stab"e va"ue system. Ba"ues are constant"y modi#ied by strong in#usions o# 8estern ideas' both democratic and ?ar5ist. choo" te5tboo$s e5pound democratic princip"es' emphasi)ing e+ua"ity over hierarchy and rationa"ism over tradition: but in practice these va"ues are o#ten misinterpreted and distorted' particu"ar"y by the youth who trans"ate the individua"istic and humanistic goa"s o# democracy into egoistic and materia"istic ones. ?ost @apanese peop"e have conscious"y re2ected %on#ucianism' but vestiges o# the o"d order remain. 0n important #eature o# re"ationships in many institutions such as po"itica" parties' "arge corporations' and university #acu"ties is the oya$un-ko$un or parent-chi"d re"ation. 0 party "eader' supervisor' or pro#essor' in return #or "oya"ty' protects those subordinate to him and ta$es genera" responsibi"ity #or their interests throughout their entire "ives' an ob"igation that sometimes even e5tends to arranging marriages. The corresponding "oya"ty o# the individua" to his patron rein#orces his a""egiance to the group to which they both be"ong. 0 wi""ingness to cooperate with other members o# the group and to support without +ua"i#ication the interests o# the group in a"" its e5terna" re"ations is sti"" a wide"y respected virtue. The oya$un-ko$un creates "adders o# mobi"ity which an individua" can ascend' rising as #ar as abi"ities permit' so "ong as he maintains success#u" persona" ties with a superior in the

GMAT

1-.

vertica" channe"' the "atter re+uirement usua""y ta$ing precedence over a need #or e5ceptiona" competence. 0s a conse+uence' there is "itt"e hori)onta" re"ationship between peop"e even within the same pro#ession.

1.

The author is mainly concerned with (A) e$plaining the influence of Confucianism on modern Aapan (B) analy!ing the reasons for Aapan4s postwar economic success (C) discussing some important determinants of Aapanese 'alues ( ) describing managerial practices in Aapanese industry (#) contrasting modern with prewar Aapanese society

2.

&hich of the following is most like the relationship of the oyabun-kobun described in the passage% (A) A political candidate and the 'oting public (B) A gifted scientist and his protPgP (C) Two brothers who are partners in a business ( ) A <udge presiding at the trial of a criminal defendant (#) A leader of a musical ensemble who is also a musician in the group

..

According to the passage/ Aapanese attitudes are influenced by which of the following% 3. 33. emocratic ideals #lements of modern &estern culture

333. =emnants of an earlier social structure (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 0. The author implies that (A) decisions about promotions are often based on personal feelings (B) students and intellectuals do not understand the basic tenets of &estern democracy (C) &estern 'alues ha'e completely o'erwhelmed traditional Aapanese attitudes ( ) respect for authority was introduced into Aapan following &orld &ar 33 (#) most Aapanese workers are members of a single political party 1. 3n de'eloping the passage/ the author does which of the following% (A) 3ntroduce an analogy (B) efine a term

1-0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) @resent statistics ( ) Cite an authority (#) 3ssue a challenge 2. 3t can be inferred that the 3mperial =escript of 16,5 (A) was a protest by liberals against the lack of indi'idual liberty in Aapan (B) marked a return in go'ernment policies to conser'ati'e 'alues (C) implemented the ideals set forth in the Education Code of 16-2 ( ) was influenced by the Keninist ideology of the Bolshe'ik =e'olution (#) prohibited the teaching of &estern ideas in Aapanese schools -. &hich of the following is the most accurate description of the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A se"uence of inferences in which the conclusion of each successi'e step becomes a premise in the ne$t argument (B) A list of generali!ations/ most of which are supported by only a single e$ample (C) A chronological analysis of historical e'ents leading up to a description of the current situation ( ) A statement of a commonly accepted theory that is then sub<ected to a critical analysis (#) An introduction of a key term that is then defined by gi'ing e$amples 6. &hich of the following best states the central thesis of the passage% (A) The 'alue system of Aapan is based upon traditional and conser'ati'e 'alues that ha'e/ in modern times/ been modified by &estern and other liberal 'alues. (B) ;tudents and radicals in Aapan ha'e Keninist ideology to distort the meaning of democratic/ &estern 'alues. (C) The notions of personal freedom and indi'idual liberty did not find immediate acceptance in Aapan because of the predominance of traditional group 'alues. ( ) ?odern Aapanese society is characteri!ed by hierarchical relationships in which a personal tie to a superior is often more important than merit. (#) The influence on Aapanese 'alues of the American ideals of personal freedom and indi'idual rights is less important than the influence of Keninist ideology. ,. The tone of the passage can best be described as (A) neutral and ob<ecti'e (B) disparaging and flippant (C) critical and demanding

GMAT

1-1

( ) enthusiastic and supporti'e (#) skeptical and "uestioning Passage 69 (6/22)

6ub"ic genera" hospita"s originated in the a"mshouse in#irmaries estab"ished as ear"y as co"onia" times by "oca" governments to care #or the poor. Eater' in the "ate eighteenth and ear"y nineteenth centuries' the in#irmary separated #rom the a"mshouse and became an independent institution supported by "oca" ta5 money. 0t the same time' private charity hospita"s began to deve"op. &oth private and pub"ic hospita"s provided main"y #ood and she"ter #or the impoverished sic$' since there was "itt"e that medicine cou"d actua""y do to cure i""ness' and the midd"e c"ass was treated at home by private physicians. Eate in the nineteenth century' the private charity hospita" began trying to attract midd"ec"ass patients. 0"though the depression o# 189. stimu"ated the growth o# charitab"e institutions and an e5panding urban popu"ation became dependent on assistance' there was a dec"ine in private contributions to these organi)ations which #orced them to "oo$ to "oca" government #or #inancia" support. ince private institutions had a"so "ost bene#actors: they began to charge patients. /n order to attract midd"e-c"ass patients' private institutions provided services and amenities that distinguished between paying and non-paying patients and made the hospita" a desirab"e p"ace #or private physicians to treat their own patients. 0s paying patients became more necessary to the surviva" o# the private hospita"' the pub"ic hospita"s s"ow"y became the on"y p"ace #or the poor to get treatment. &y the end o# the nineteenth century' cities were reimbursing private hospita"s #or their care o# indigent patients and the pub"ic hospita"s remained dependent on the ta5 do""ars. The advent o# private hospita" hea"th insurance' which provided midd"e-c"ass patients with the purchasing power to pay #or private hospita" services' guaranteed the private hospita" a regu"ar source o# income. 6rivate hospita"s restricted themse"ves to revenue-generating patients' "eaving the pub"ic hospita"s to care #or the poor. 0"though pub"ic hospita"s continued to provide services #or patients with communicab"e diseases and outpatient and emergency services' the &"ue %ross p"ans deve"oped around the needs o# the private hospita"s and the inpatients they served. Thus' reimbursement #or ambu"atory care has been minima" under most &"ue %ross p"ans' and provision o# outpatient care has not been a ma2or #unction o# the private hospita"' in part because private patients can a##ord to pay #or the services o# private physicians. 0dditiona""y' since 8or"d 8ar //' there has been a tremendous in#"u5 o# #edera" money into private medica" schoo"s and the hospita"s associated with them. 7urther' "arge private medica" centers with e5pensive research e+uipment and programs have attracted the best administrators' physicians' and researchers. 0s a resu"t o# the greater resources avai"ab"e to the private medica" centers' pub"ic hospita"s have increasing prob"ems attracting high"y +ua"i#ied research and medica" personne". 8ith the mainstream o# hea"th care #irm"y estab"ished in the private medica" sector' the pub"ic hospita" has become a ;dumping ground.<

1.

According to the passage/ the 'ery first pri'ate hospitals (A) de'eloped from almshouse infirmaries

1-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) pro'ided better care than public infirmaries (C) were established mainly to ser'ice the poor ( ) were supported by go'ernment re'enues (#) catered primarily to the middle(class patients 2. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es the differences that currently e$ist between public and pri'ate hospitals are primarily the result of (A) political considerations (B) economic factors (C) ethical concerns ( ) legislati'e re"uirements (#) technological de'elopments .. 3t can be inferred that the growth of pri'ate health insurance (A) relie'ed local go'ernments of the need to fund public hospitals (B) guaranteed that the poor would ha'e access to medical care (C) forced middle(class patients to use public hospitals ( ) prompted the closing of many charitable institutions (#) reinforced the distinction between public and pri'ate hospitals 0. &hich of the following would be the most logical topic for the author to introduce in the ne$t paragraph% (A) A plan to impro'e the "uality of public hospitals (B) An analysis of the profit structure of health insurance companies (C) A proposal to raise ta$es on the middle class ( ) A discussion of recent de'elopments in medical technology (#) A list of the sub<ects studied by students in medical school 1. The author4s primary concern is to (A) describe the financial structure of the healthcare industry (B) demonstrate the importance of go'ernment support for health(care institutions (C) critici!e wealthy institutions for refusing to pro'ide ser'ices to the poor ( ) identify the historical causes of the di'ision between pri'ate and public hospitals (#) praise public hospitals for their willingness to pro'ide health care for the poor 2. The author cites all of the following as factors contributing to the decline of public hospitals #DC#@T. (A) Bo'ernment money was used to subsidi!e pri'ate medical schools and hospitals to the detriment of public hospitals. (B) @ublic hospitals are not able to compete with pri'ate institutions for top flight

GMAT

1--

managers and doctors. (C) Karge pri'ate medical centers ha'e better research facilities and more e$tensi'e research programs than public hospitals. ( ) @ublic hospitals accepted the responsibility for treating patients with certain diseases. (#) Blue Cross insurance co'erage does not reimburse subscribers for medical e$penses incurred in a public hospital. -. The author4s attitude toward public hospitals can best be described as (A) contemptuous and pre<udiced (B) apprehensi'e and distrustful (C) concerned and understanding ( ) enthusiastic and supporti'e (#) unsympathetic and annoyed 6. The author implies that any outpatient care pro'ided by a hospital is (A) paid for by pri'ate insurance (B) pro'ided in lieu of treatment by a pri'ate physician (C) supplied primarily by pri'ate hospitals ( ) a source of re'enue for public hospitals (#) no longer pro'ided by hospitals/ public or pri'ate ,. &hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage% (A) @ublic 'ersus @ri'ate )ospitalsE A Competiti'e ?ismatch (B) )istorical and #conomic >actors in the ecline of the @ublic )ospital (C) A Comparison of the Nuality of Care @ro'ided in @ublic and @ri'ate )ospitals ( ) A @roposal for =e'amping the )ealth eli'ery ;er'ices ;ector of the #conomy (#) #conomic >actors That Contribute to the 3nability of the @oor to Bet Ade"uate Care Passage 70 (7/22)
The +ational ecurity "ct o# 19H7 created a nationa" mi"itary estab"ishment headed by a sing"e ecretary o# Fe#ense. The "egis"ation had been a year-and-a-ha"# in the ma$ing! beginning when 6resident Truman #irst recommended that the armed services be reorgani)ed into a sing"e department. Furing that period the 6resident3s concept o# a uni#ied armed service was torn apart and put bac$ together severa" times' the #ina" measure to emerge #rom %ongress being a compromise. ?ost o# the opposition to the bi"" came #rom the *avy and its numerous civi"ian spo$esmen' inc"uding ecretary o# the *avy @ames 7orresta". /n support o# uni#ication (and a separate air #orce that was part o# the uni#ication pac$age) were the 0rmy air #orces' the 0rmy' and' most important"y' the 6resident o# the United tates.

1-6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

6assage o# the bi"" did not bring an end to the bitter interservice disputes. Rather than

uni#y' the act served on"y to #ederate the mi"itary services. /t neither ha"ted the rapid demobi"i)ation o# the armed #orces that #o""owed 8or"d 8ar // nor brought to the new nationa" mi"itary estab"ishment the "oya"ties o# o##icers steeped in the traditions o# the separate services. 0t a time when the ba"ance o# power in =urope and 0sia was rapid"y shi#ting' the services "ac$ed any precise statement o# United tates #oreign po"icy #rom the *ationa" ecurity %ounci" on which to base #uture programs. The services bic$ered unceasing"y over their respective ro"es and missions' a"ready comp"icated by the oviet nuc"ear capabi"ity that #or the #irst time made the United tates sub2ect to devastating attac$. *ot even the appointment o# 7orresta" as 7irst ecretary o# Fe#ense a""ayed the suspicions o# nava" o##icers and their supporters that the ro"e o# the U. . *avy was threatened with permanent ec"ipse. &e#ore the war o# words died down' 7orresta" himse"# was driven to resignation and then suicide. &y 19H8' the United tates mi"itary estab"ishment was #orced to ma$e do with a budget appro5imate"y 1. percent o# what it had been at its wartime pea$. ?eanwhi"e' the cost o# weapons procurement was rising geometrica""y as the nation came to put more and more re"iance on the atomic bomb and its de"ivery systems. These two #actors inevitab"y made adversaries o# the *avy and the 0ir 7orce as the batt"e between advocates o# the &-4G and the supercarrier so amp"y demonstrates. Aiven severe #isca" restraints on the one hand' and on the other the nation3s increasing re"iance on strategic nuc"ear deterrence' the con#"ict between these two services over ro"es and missions was essentia""y a contest over s"ices o# an ever-diminishing pie. Det i# in the end neither service was the obvious victor' the princip"e o# civi"ian dominance over the mi"itary c"ear"y was. /# there had ever been any danger that the United tates mi"itary estab"ishment might e5p"oit' to the detriment o# civi"ian contro"' the goodwi"" it en2oyed as a resu"t o# its victories in 8or"d 8ar //' that danger disappeared in the interservice animosities engendered by the batt"e over uni#ication.

1.

The author makes all of the following points about the 9ational ;ecurity Act of 1,0- #DC#@T (A) 3t pro'ided for a single ;ecretary of efense. (B) The legislation that came out of Congress was a compromise measure. (C) The legislation was initially proposed by @resident Truman. ( ) The 9a'y opposed the bill that e'entually became law. (#) The bill was passed to help the nation4s demobili!ation effort.

2.

&hich of the following best describes the tone of the selection% (A) Analytical and confident (B) =esentful and defensi'e (C) 8b<ecti'e and speculati'e ( ) Tentati'e and skeptical (#) @ersuasi'e and cynical

GMAT

1-,

..

According to the passage/ the interser'ice strife that followed unification occurred primarily between the (A) Army and Army air forces (B) Army and 9a'y (C) Army air forces and 9a'y ( ) 9a'y and Army (#) Air >orce and 9a'y

0.

3t can be inferred from the passage that >orrestal4s appointment as ;ecretary of efense was e$pected to (A) placate members of the 9a'y (B) result in decreased le'els of defense spending (C) outrage ad'ocates of the Army air forces ( ) win Congressional appro'al of the unification plan (#) make >orrestal a @residential candidate against Truman

1.

According to the passage/ @resident Truman supported which of the following%% 3. 33. #limination of the 9a'y A unified military ser'ice

333. #stablishment of a separate air force (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 2. &ith which of the following statements about defense unification would the author most likely agree% (A) :nification ultimately undermined :nited ;tates military capability by inciting interser'ice ri'alry. (B) The unification legislation was necessitated by the drastic decline in appropriations for the military ser'ices. (C) Although the unification was not entirely successful/ it had the une$pected result of ensuring ci'ilian control of the military. ( ) 3n spite of the attempted unification/ each ser'ice was still able to pursue its own ob<ecti'es without interference from the other branches. (#) :nification was in the first place unwarranted and in the second place ineffecti'e. -. According to the selection/ the political situation following the passage of the 9ational ;ecurity Act of 1,0- was characteri!ed by all of the following #DC#@T

165

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(A) a shifting balance of power in #urope and in Asia (B) fierce interser'ice ri'alries (C) lack of strong leadership by the 9ational ;ecurity Council ( ) shrinking postwar military budgets (#) a lame(duck @resident who was unable to unify the legislature 6. The author cites the resignation and suicide of >orrestal in order to (A) underscore the bitterness of the interser'ice ri'alry surrounding the passage of the National Security Act of 1,0(B) demonstrate that the 9a'y e'entually emerged as the dominant branch of ser'ice after the passage of the National Security Act of 1,0(C) suggest that the nation would be better ser'ed by a unified armed ser'ice under a single command ( ) pro'ide an e$ample of a military leader who preferred to ser'e his country in war rather than in peace (#) persuade the reader that >orrestal was a 'ictim of political opportunists and an unscrupulous press ,. The author is primarily concerned with (A) discussing the influence of personalities on political e'ents (B) describing the administration of a powerful leader (C) critici!ing a piece of legislation ( ) analy!ing a political de'elopment (#) suggesting methods for controlling the military Passage 71 (8/22)
&ehavior is one o# two genera" responses avai"ab"e to endothermic (warm-b"ooded) species #or the regu"ation o# body temperature' the other being innate (re#"e5ive) mechanisms o# heat production and heat "oss. (uman beings re"y primari"y on the #irst to provide a hospitab"e therma" microc"imate #or themse"ves' in which the trans#er o# heat between the body and the environment is accomp"ished with minima" invo"vement o# innate mechanisms o# heat production and "oss. Thermoregu"atory behavior anticipates hyperthermia' and the organism ad2usts its behavior to avoid becoming hyperthermic> it removes "ayers o# c"othing' it goes #or a coo" swim' etc. The organism can a"so respond to changes in the temperature o# the body core' as is the case during e5ercise: but such responses resu"t #rom the direct stimu"ation o# thermoreceptors distributed wide"y within the centra" nervous system' and the abi"ity o# these mechanisms to he"p the organism ad2ust to gross changes in its environment is "imited. Unti" recent"y it was assumed that organisms respond to microwave radiation in the same way that they respond to temperature changes caused by other #orms o# radiation. 0#ter a""' the argument runs' microwaves are radiation and heat body tissues. This theory ignores the

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161

#act that the stimu"us to a behaviora" response is norma""y a temperature change that occurs at the sur#ace o# the organism. The thermoreceptors that prompt behaviora" changes are "ocated within the #irst mi""imeter o# the s$in3s sur#ace' but the energy o# a microwave #ie"d may be se"ective"y deposited in deep tissues' e##ective"y bypassing these thermoreceptors' particu"ar"y i# the #ie"d is at near-resonant #re+uencies. The resu"ting temperature pro#i"e may we"" be a $ind o# reverse therma" gradient in which the deep tissues are warmed more than those o# the sur#ace. ince the heat is not conducted outward to the sur#ace to stimu"ate the appropriate receptors' the organism does not ;appreciate< this stimu"ation in the same way that it ;appreciates< heating and coo"ing o# the s$in. /n theory' the interna" organs o# a human being or an anima" cou"d be +uite "itera""y coo$ed we""-done be#ore the anima" even rea"i)es that the ba"ance o# its thermomicroc"imate has been disturbed. Unti" a #ew years ago' microwave irradiations at e+uiva"ent p"ane-wave power densities o# about 1.. m8Kcm1 were considered une+uivoca""y to produce ;therma"< e##ects: irradiations within the range o# 1. to 1.. m8Kcm1 might or might not produce ;therma"< e##ects: whi"e e##ects observed at power densities be"ow 1. m8Kcm1 were assumed to be ;nontherma"< in nature. =5periments have shown this to be an oversimp"i#ication' and a recent report suggests that #ie"ds as wea$ as 1 m8Kcm1 can be thermogenic. 8hen the heat generated in the tissues by an imposed radio #re+uency (p"us the heat generated by metabo"ism) e5ceeds the heat"oss capabi"ities o# the organism' the thermoregu"atory system has been compromised. Det surprising"y' not "ong ago' an increase in the interna" body temperature was regarded mere"y as ;evidence< o# a therma" e##ect.

1.

The author is primarily concerned with (A) showing that beha'ior is a more effecti'e way of controlling bodily temperature than innate mechanisms (B) critici!ing researchers who will not discard their theories about the effects of microwa'e radiation on organisms (C) demonstrating that effects of microwa'e radiation are different from those of other forms of radiation ( ) analy!ing the mechanism by which an organism maintains its bodily temperature in a changing thermal en'ironment (#) discussing the importance of thermoreceptors in the control of the internal temperature of an organism

2.

The author makes which of the following points about innate mechanisms for heat production% 3. 33. They are go'erned by thermoreceptors inside the body of the organism rather than at the surface. They are a less effecti'e means of compensating for gross changes in temperature than beha'ioral strategies.

333. They are not affected by microwa'e radiation. (A) 3 only

162

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(B) 3 and 33 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 .. &hich of the following would be the most logical topic for the author to take up in the paragraph following the final paragraph of the selection% (A) A suggestion for new research to be done on the effects of microwa'es on animals and human beings (B) An analysis of the differences between microwa'e radiation (C) A proposal that the use of microwa'e radiation be prohibited because it is dangerous ( ) A sur'ey of the literature on the effects of microwa'e radiation on human beings (#) A discussion of the strategies used by 'arious species to control hyperthermia 0. The author4s strategy in lines .,(02 is to (A) introduce a hypothetical e$ample to dramati!e a point (B) propose an e$periment to test a scientific hypothesis (C) cite a case study to illustrate a general contention ( ) produce a countere$ample to dispro'e an opponent4s theory (#) speculate about the probable conse"uences of a scientific phenomenon 1. The author implies that the proponents of the theory that microwa'e radiation acts on organisms in the same way as other forms of radiation based their conclusions primarily on (A) laboratory research (B) unfounded assumption (C) control group sur'eys ( ) deducti'e reasoning (#) causal in'estigation 2. The tone of the passage can best be described as (A) genial and con'ersational (B) alarmed and disparaging (C) facetious and cynical ( ) scholarly and noncommittal (#) scholarly and concerned -. The author is primarily concerned with (A) pointing out weaknesses in a popular scientific theory

GMAT

16.

(B) de'eloping a hypothesis to e$plain a scientific phenomenon (C) reporting on new research on the effects of microwa'e radiation ( ) critici!ing the research methods of earlier in'estigators (#) clarifying ambiguities in the terminology used to describe a phenomenon Passage 72 (9/22)
ince 8ou"d 8ar // considerab"e advances have been made in the area o# hea"th-care services. These inc"ude better access to hea"th care (particu"ar"y #or the poor and minorities)' improvements in physica" p"ants' and increased numbers o# physicians and other hea"th personne". 0"" have p"ayed a part in the recent improvement in "i#e e5pectancy. &ut there is mounting criticism o# the "arge remaining gaps in access' unbrid"ed cost in#"ation' the #urther #ragmentation o# service' e5cessive indu"gence in waste#u" high-techno"ogy ;gadgeteering'< and a brea$down in doctor-patient re"ationships. /n recent years proposed panaceas and new programs' sma"" and "arge' have pro"i#erated at a #everish pace and disappointments mu"tip"y at a"most the same rate. This has "ed to an increased pessimism!;everything has been tried and nothing wor$s<!which sometimes borders on cynicism or even nihi"ism. /t is true that the automatic ;pass through< o# rapid"y spira"ing costs to government and insurance carriers' which was set in a pub"ici)ed environment o# ;the richest nation in the wor"d'< produced #or a time a sense o# un"imited resources and a""owed to deve"op a mood whereby every practitioner and institution cou"d ;do his own thing< without undue concern #or the ;?edica" %ommons.< The practice o# #u""-cost reimbursement encouraged capita" investment and now the industry is overcapita"i)ed. ?any cities have hundreds o# e5cess hospita" beds: hospita"s have pro"i#erated a superabundance o# high-techno"ogy e+uipment: and structura" ostentation and "u5ury were the order o# the day. /n any given day' one-#ourth o# a"" community beds are vacant: e5pensive e+uipment is underused or' worse' used unnecessari"y. %apita" investment brings rapid"y rising operating costs. Det' in part' this pessimism derives #rom e5pecting too much o# hea"th care. /t must be rea"i)ed that care is' #or most peop"e' a pain#u" e5perience' o#ten accompanied by #ear and unwe"come resu"ts. 0"though there is vast room #or improvement' hea"th care wi"" a"ways retain some unp"easantness and #rustration. ?oreover' the capacities o# medica" science are "imited. (umpty Fumpty cannot a"ways be put bac$ together again. Too many physicians are re"uctant to admit their "imitations to patients: too many patients and #ami"ies are unwi""ing to accept such rea"ities. *or is it true that everything has been tried and nothing wor$s' as shown by the prepaid group practice p"ans o# the Naiser 7oundation and at 6uget ound. /n the main' however' such underta$ings have been drowned by a veritab"e #"ood o# pub"ic and private moneys which have supported and encouraged the continuation o# conventiona" practices and subsidi)ed their shortcomings on a massive' a"most unrestricted sca"e. =5cept #or the most idea"istic and dedicated' there were no incentives to see$ change or to practice se"#-restraint or #ruga"ity. /n this atmosphere' it is not #air to condemn as #ai"ures a"" attempted e5periments: it may be more accurate to say many never had a #air tria".

1.

The author implies that the Maiser >oundation and @uget ;ound plans (lines 0-(

160

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06) differed from other plans by (A) encouraging capital in'estment (B) re"uiring physicians to treat the poor (C) pro'iding incenti'es for cost control ( ) employing only dedicated and idealistic doctors (#) relying primarily on public funding 2. The author mentions all of the following as conse"uences of full(cost reimbursement #DC#@T (A) rising operating costs (B) underused hospital facilities (C) o'ercapitali!ation ( ) o'erreliance on e$pensi'e e"uipment (#) lack of ser'ices for minorities .. The tone of the passage can best be described as (A) light(hearted and amused (B) ob<ecti'e but concerned (C) detached and unconcerned ( ) cautious but sincere (#) enthusiastic and enlightened 0. According to the author/ the *pessimism+ mentioned at line .1 is partly attributable to the fact that (A) there has been little real impro'ement in health(care ser'ices (B) e$pectations about health(care ser'ices are sometimes unrealistic (C) large segments of the population find it impossible to get access to health( care ser'ices ( ) ad'ances in technology ha'e made health care ser'ice unaffordable (#) doctors are now less concerned with patient care 1. The author cites the prepaid plans in lines 02(06 as (A) countere$amples to the claim that nothing has worked (B) e$amples of health(care plans that were o'er(funded (C) e'idence that health(care ser'ices are fragmented ( ) proof of the theory that no plan has been successful (#) e$periments that yielded disappointing results 2. 3t can be inferred that the sentence *)umpty umpty cannot always be put back together again+ means that (A) the cost of health(care ser'ices will not decline

GMAT

161

(B) some people should not become doctors (C) medical care is not really essential to good health ( ) illness is often unpleasant and e'en painful (#) medical science cannot cure e'ery ill -. &ith which of the following descriptions of the system for the deli'ery of health( care ser'ices would the author most likely agree% (A) 3t is biased in fa'or of doctors and against patients. (B) 3t is highly fragmented and completely ineffecti'e (C) 3t has not embraced new technology rapidly enough ( ) 3t is generally effecti'e but can be impro'ed (#) 3t discourages people from seeking medical care 6. &hich of the following best describes the logical structure of the selection% (A) The third paragraph is intended as a refutation of the first and second paragraphs. (B) The second and third paragraphs e$plain and put into perspecti'e the points made in the first paragraph. (C) The second and third paragraphs e$plain and put into perspecti'e the points made in the first paragraph. ( ) The first paragraph describes a problem/ and the second and third paragraphs present two horns of a dilemma. (#) The first paragraph describes a problem/ the second its causes/ and the third a possible solution. ,. The author4s primary concern is to (A) critici!e physicians and health(care administrators for in'esting in techno( logically ad'anced e"uipment (B) e$amine some problems affecting deli'ery of health(care ser'ices and assess their se'erity (C) defend the medical community from charges that health(care has not impro'ed since &orld &ar 33 ( ) analy!e the reasons for the health(care industry4s inability to pro'ide "uality care to all segments of the population (#) describe the peculiar economic features of the health(care industry that are the causes of spiraling medical costs Passage 73 (10/22)
Furing the Bictorian period' women writers were measured against a socia" rather than a "iterary idea". (ence' it was wide"y thought that nove"s by women shou"d be modest' re"igious' sensitive' gui"e"ess' and chaste' "i$e their authors. ?any Bictorian women writers too$

162

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e5ception to this be"ie#' however' resisting the imposition o# non"iterary restrictions on their wor$. 6ub"ishers soon discovered that the gent"est and most iddy"i$e #ema"e nove"ists were tough-minded and re"ent"ess when their pro#essiona" integrity was at sta$e. Neen"y aware o# their artistic responsibi"ities' these women writers wou"d not ma$e concessions to secure commercia" success. The &rontes' Aeorge ="iot' ="i)abeth &arrett &rowning' and their "esser-$nown contemporaries repudiated' in their pro#essiona" "ives' the courtesy that Bictorian "adies might e5act #rom Bictorian gent"emen. Fesiring rigorous and impartia" criticism' most women writers did not wish reviewers to be $ind to them i# $indness meant over"oo$ing their "iterary wea$nesses or #"attering them on their accomp"ishments simp"y because o# their se5. They had e5pected derisive reviews: instead' they #ound themse"ves con#ronted with generous criticism' which they considered condescending. ="i)abeth &arrett &rowning "abe"ed it ;the comparative respect which means... abso"ute scorn.< 7or their part' Bictorian critics were virtua""y obsessed with #inding the p"ace o# the woman writer so as to 2udge her appropriate"y. ?any b"unt"y admitted that they thought !ane Eyre a masterpiece i# written by a man' shoc$ing or disgusting i# written by a woman. ?oreover' reactionary reviewers were +uic$ to associate an independent heroine with care#u""y concea"ed revo"utionary doctrine: severa" considered !ane Eyre a radica" #eminist document' as indeed it was. To %har"otte &ronte' who had demanded dignity and independence without any revo"utionary intent and who considered herse"# po"itica""y conservative' their criticism was an a##ront. uch criticism bunched a"" women writers together rather than treating them as individua" artists. %har"otte &ronte3s e5perience served as a warning to other women writers about the pre2udices that immediate"y associated them with #eminists and others thought to be po"itica" radica"s. /rritated' and an5ious to detach themse"ves #rom a group stereotype' many e5pressed re"ative"y conservative views on the emancipation o# women (e5cept on the sub2ect o# women3s education) and stressed their own domestic accomp"ishments. (owever' in identi#ying themse"ves with women who had chosen the traditiona" career path o# marriage and motherhood' these writers encountered sti"" another threat to their creativity. Bictorian prudery rendered virtua""y a"" e5perience that was uni+ue"y #eminine unprintab"e. *o nineteenth-century woman dared to describe chi"dbirth' much "ess her se5ua" passion. ?en cou"d not write about their se5ua" e5periences either' but they cou"d write about sport' business' crime' and war!a"" activities #rom which women were barred. ma"" wonder no woman produced a nove" "i$e ,ar and Peace. 8hat is ama)ing is the sheer vo"ume o# #irstrate prose and poetry that Bictorian women did write.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) refute the contention that no Cictorian woman writer produced a no'el like War and Peace (B) trace the historical relationship between radical feminist politics and the Cictorian no'els written by women (C) show how three Cictorian women writers responded to criticism of their no'els

GMAT

16-

( ) resol'e the apparent contradiction between Cictorian women writers4 literary inno'ati'eness and their rather conser'ati'e social 'iews (#) describe the discrepancy between Cictorian society4s e$pectations of women writers and the e$pectations of the women writers themsel'es 2. According to the passage/ Cictorian women writers *would not make concessions+ (line 1.) to publishers primarily because they felt that such concessions would (A) re"uire them to limit descriptions of uni"uely feminine e$periences (B) compromise their artistic integrity (C) make them 'ulnerable to stereotyping by critics ( ) pro'ide no guarantee that their works would en<oy commercial success (#) go against the traditions of #nglish letters .. The passage suggests that Cictorian criticism of works by women writers was (A) indulgent (B) perfunctory (C) resourceful ( ) timely (#) apolitical 0. The author of the passage "uotes #li!abeth Barrett Browning (lines 26(2,) in order to demonstrate that Cictorian women writers (A) possessed both talent and literary creati'ity (B) felt that their works were misunderstood (C) refused to make artistic concessions ( ) feared derisi'e criticism (#) resented condescending criticism 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Charlotte Bronte considered the criticisms le'eled at Aane #yre by reactionary re'iewers *an affront+ (line 0.) primarily because such criticism (A) e$posed her carefully concealed re'olutionary doctrine to public scrutiny (B) assessed the literary merit of the no'el on the basis of its author4s se$ (C) assumed that her portrayal of an independent woman represented re'olutionary ideas ( ) labeled the no'el shocking and disgusting without <ust cause (#) denied that the no'el was a literary masterpiece 2. &hich of the following statements best describes the *threat+ mentioned in line 1- of the passage% (A) Critics demanded to know the se$ of the author before passing <udgment on

166

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the literary "uality of a no'el. (B) &omen writers were pre'ented from describing in print e$periences about which they had special knowledge. (C) The reading public tended to prefer historical no'els to no'els describing contemporary Kondon society. ( ) @ublishers were urging Cictorian women writers to publish under their own names rather than under pseudonyms. (#) &omen writers4 domestic responsibilities tended to take time away from their writing. -. The passage suggests that the attitude of Cictorian women writers toward being grouped together by critics was most probably one of (A) relief (B) indifference (C) amusement ( ) annoyance (#) ambi'alence 6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a Cictorian woman writer who did not consider herself a feminist would most probably ha'e appro'ed of women4s (A) entering the noncombat military (B) entering the publishing business (C) entering a uni'ersity ( ) <oining the stock e$change (#) <oining a tennis club ,. The passage suggests that the literary creati'ity of Cictorian women writers could ha'e been enhanced if (A) women had been allowed to write about a broader range of sub<ects (B) no'els of the period had been characteri!ed by greater stylistic and structural ingenuity (C) a reser'ed and decorous style had been a more highly 'alued literary ideal ( ) publishers had sponsored more new women no'elists (#) critics had been kinder in re'iewing the works of women no'elists Passage 74 (11/22)
0gricu"tura" progress provided the stimu"us necessary to set o## economic e5pansion in medieva" 7rance. 0s "ong as those who wor$ed the "and were bare"y ab"e to ensure their own subsistence and that o# their "and"ords' a"" other activities had to be minima"' but when #ood surp"uses increased' it became possib"e to re"ease more peop"e #or governmenta"'

GMAT
commercia"' re"igious and cu"tura" pursuits. (owever' not a"" the #unds #rom the agricu"tura" surp"us were actua""y avai"ab"e #or

16,

commercia" investment. ?uch o# the surp"us' in the #orm o# #ood increases' probab"y went to raise the subsistence "eve": an additiona" amount' in the #orm o# currency gained #rom the sa"e o# #ood' went into the roya" treasury to be used in waging war. 0"though Eouis B// o# 7rance "evied a "ess crushing ta5 burden on his sub2ects than did =ng"and3s (enry //' Eouis B// did spend great sums on an unsuccess#u" crusade' and his vassa"s!both "ay and ecc"esiastic! too$ over spending where their sovereign stopped. urp"us #unds were c"aimed both by the %hurch and by #euda" "andho"ders' whereupon cathedra"s and cast"es mushroomed throughout 7rance. The simu"taneous progress o# cathedra" bui"ding and' #or instance' vineyard e5pansion in &ordeau5 i""ustrates the very rea" competition #or avai"ab"e capita" between the %hurch and commercia" interests: the #ormer produced inestimab"e mora" and artistic riches' but the "atter had a stronger immediate impact upon gross nationa" product. ?oreover' though a"" wars by de#inition are de#ensive' the #re+uent crossings o# armies that "ived o## the "and and impartia""y burned a"" the huts and barns on their path consumed considerab"e resources. ince demands on the agricu"tura" surp"us wou"d have varied #rom year to year' we cannot precise"y ca"cu"ate their impact on the commercia" growth o# medieva" 7rance. &ut we must bear that impact in mind when estimating the assets that were "i$e"y to have been avai"ab"e #or investment. *o doubt cast"e and cathedra" bui"ding was not tota""y barren o# pro#it (#or the bui"ders' that is)' and it produced intangib"e dividends o# materia" and mora" satis#action #or the community. =ven wars handed bac$ a #ragment o# what they too$' at "east to a #ew. ti""' we cannot p"ace on the same p"ane a primari"y destructive activity and a constructive one' nor e5pect the same resu"ts #rom a new be"" tower as #rom a new water mi"". 0bove a""' medieva" 7rance had "itt"e room #or investment over and above the preservation o# "i#e. Aranted that war cost much "ess than it does today' that the %hurch rendered a"" sorts o# educationa" and recreationa" services that were unobtainab"e e"sewhere' and that government was #ar "ess demanding than is the modern state neverthe"ess' #or medieva" men and women' supporting commercia" deve"opment re+uired considerab"e economic sacri#ice.

1.

According to the passage/ agricultural re'enues in e$cess of the amount needed for subsistence were used by medie'al kings to (A) patroni!e the arts (B) sponsor public recreation (C) wage war ( ) build cathedrals (#) fund public education

2.

According to the passage/ which of the following was an important source of re'enue in medie'al >rance% (A) Cheese (B) &ine

1,5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) &ool ( ) 8li'e oil (#) Ceal .. The passage suggests that which of the following would ha'e reduced the assets immediately a'ailable for commercial in'estment in medie'al >rance% 3. 33. =eno'ation of a large cathedral A sharp increase in the birth rate

333. An in'asion of >rance by )enry 33 (A) 333 only (B) 3 and 33 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that more people could enter go'ernment and the Church in medie'al >rance because (A) the number of indi'idual landholdings in hea'ily agricultural areas was beginning to increase (B) an increase in the 'olume of international trade had brought an increase in the population of cities (C) a decrease in warfare had allowed the king to decrease the si!e of the army ( ) food producers could grow more food than they and their families needed to sur'i'e (#) landlords were prospering and thus were demanding a smaller percentage of tenants4 annual yields 1. The author implies that the reason we cannot e$pect the same results from a new bell tower as from a new water mill is that (A) bell towers yield an intangible di'idend (B) bell towers pro'ide material satisfaction (C) water mills cost more to build than bell towers ( ) water mills di'ert funds from commerce (#) water mills might well be destroyed by war 2. The author of the passage most probably bases his central argument on which of the following theoretical assumptions often made by economists% (A) ifferent people should be ta$ed in proportion to the benefit they can e$pect to recei'e from public acti'ity. (B) @erfect competition e$ists only in the case where no farmer/ merchant/ or laborer controls a large enough share of the total market to influence market

GMAT

1,1

price. (C) A population wealthy enough to cut back its rate of consumption can funnel the resulting sa'ings into the creation of capital. ( ) A full(employment economy must always/ to produce one good/ gi'e up producing another good. (#) There is a uni'ersal tendency for population/ unless checked by food supply/ to increase in a geometric progression. -. The author suggests that commercial e$pansion in medie'al >rance *re"uired considerable economic sacrifice+ (lines 1,(25) primarily for which of the following reasons% (A) Cathedrals cost more to build and rebuild than did castles. (B) The numerous wars fought during the period left the royal treasury bankrupt. (C) Kouis C33 le'ied a more crushing ta$ burden on his sub<ects than did )enry 33. ( ) Although much of the a'ailable surplus had been di'erted into 'ineyard e$pansion/ the 'ineyards had not yet begun to produce. (#) Although more food was being produced/ the subsistence le'el was not 'ery far abo'e the minimum re"uired to sustain life. 6. The passage implies that which of the following yielded the lowest di'idend to medie'al men and women relati'e to its cost% (A) &arfare (B) Cineyard e$pansion (C) &ater mill construction ( ) Castle building (#) Cathedral building ,. &hich of the following statements best e$presses the central idea of the passage% (A) Commercial growth in medie'al >rance may be accurately computed by calculating the number of castles and cathedrals built during the period. (B) Competition between the Church and the feudal aristocracy for funds created by agricultural surplus demonstrably slowed the economic growth of medie'al >rance. (C) espite such burdens as war and capital e$pansion by landholders/ commerce in medie'al >rance e$panded steadily as the agricultural surplus increased. ( ) >unds actually a'ailable for commerce in medie'al >rance 'aried with the demands placed on the agricultural surplus. (#) The simultaneous progress of 'ineyard e$pansion and building in medie'al >rance gi'es e'idence of a rapidly e$panding economy.

1,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

Passage 75 (12/22)
7or years scho"ars have contrasted s"avery in the United tates and in &ra)i"' stimu"ated by the #act that racia" patterns assumed such di##erent aspects in the two countries a#ter emancipation. &ra)i" never deve"oped a system o# rigid segregation o# the sort that rep"aced s"avery in the United tates' and its racia" system was #"uid because its de#inition o# race was based as much on characteristics such as economic status as on s$in co"or. Unti" recent"y' the most persuasive e5p"anation #or these di##erences was that 6ortuguese institutions especia""y the Roman %atho"ic church and Roman civi" "aw' promoted recognition o# the s"ave3s humanity. The =ng"ish co"onists' on the other hand' constructed their system o# s"avery out o# who"e c"oth. There were simp"y no precedents in =ng"ish common "aw' and separation o# church and state barred 6rotestant c"ergy #rom the ro"e that priests assumed in &ra)i". &ut the assumption that institutions a"one cou"d so power#u""y a##ect the history o# two raw and ma""eab"e #rontier countries seems' on ree5amination' untenab"e. Recent studies #ocus instead on a particu"ar set o# contrasting economic circumstances and demographic pro#i"es at signi#icant periods in the histories o# the two countries. 6ersons o# mi5ed race +uic$"y appeared in both countries. /n the United tates they were considered to be &"ac$' a socia" de#inition that was #easib"e because they were in the minority. /n &ra)i"' it was not #easib"e. Though intermarriage was i""ega" in both countries' the "aws were unen#orceab"e in &ra)i" since 8hites #ormed a sma"" minority in an overwhe"ming"y &"ac$ popu"ation. ?anumission #or persons o# mi5ed race was a"so easier in &ra)i"' particu"ar"y in the nineteenth century when in the United tates it was hedged about with di##icu"ties. 7urthermore' a shortage o# s$i""ed wor$ers in &ra)i" provided persons o# mi5ed race with the opportunity to "earn cra#ts and trades' even be#ore genera" emancipation' whereas in the United tates entry into these occupations was b"oc$ed by 8hites su##icient"y numerous to #i"" the posts. The conse+uence was the deve"opment in &ra)i" o# a "arge c"ass o# persons o# mi5ed race' pro#icient in s$i""ed trades and cra#ts' who stood waiting as a community #or #reed s"aves to 2oin. There shou"d be no i""usion that &ra)i"ian society a#ter emancipation was co"or-b"ind. Rather' the "arge popu"ation o# persons o# mi5ed race produced a racia" system that inc"uded a third status' a bridge between the &"ac$ caste and the 8hite' which cou"d be traversed by means o# economic or inte""ectua" achievement' marriage' or racia" heritage. The strict and sharp "ine between the races so characteristic o# the United tates in the years immediate"y a#ter emancipation was simp"y absent. 8ith the possib"e e5ception o# *ew 9r"eans' no specia" ;p"ace< deve"oped in the United tates #or persons o# mi5ed race. ad to say' every pressure o# society wor$ed to prevent their attaining anything appro5imating the economic and socia" position avai"ab"e to their counterparts in &ra)i".

1.

3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) contrasting the systems of sla'ery that were established in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates (B) critici!ing the arguments of those scholars who considered religion and law to be the determinants of the systems of sla'ery in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates

GMAT

1,.

(C) describing the factors currently thought to be responsible for the differences in the racial patterns that e'ol'ed in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates ( ) ad'ocating further study of the differences between the racial systems that de'eloped in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates (#) pointing out the factors that made the status of Blacks in the :nited ;tates lower than that of Blacks in Bra!il 2. According to the passage/ early scholars e$plained the differences between the racial systems that de'eloped in the :nited ;tates and in Bra!il as the result of which of the following factors% (A) 3nstitutional (B) emographic (C) #conomic ( ) Beographical (#) )istorical .. 3n the conte$t in which it is found/ the phrase *constructed their system of sla'ery out of whole cloth+ (lines 11(12) implies that the system of sla'ery established by the #nglish settlers was (A) based on fabrications and lies (B) tailored to the settlers4 particular circumstances (C) intended to ser'e the needs of a frontier economy ( ) de'eloped without direct influence from the settlers4 religion or legal system (#) e'ol'ed without gi'ing recognition to the sla'e4s humanity 0. The author implies that the e$planation proposed by early scholars for the differences between the systems of sla'ery in the :nited ;tates and in Bra!il is (A) stimulating to historians and legal scholars (B) more powerful than more recent e$planations (C) persuasi'e in spite of minor deficiencies ( ) e$cessi'ely legalistic in its approach (#) "uestionable in light of current scholarly work 1. The author mentions intermarriage/ manumission/ and the shortage of skilled workers in Bra!il primarily in order to establish which of the following% (A) The en'ironment in which Bra!il4s racial system de'eloped (B) The influence of different legal and economic conditions in Bra!il and the :nited ;tates on the life(style of persons of mi$ed race (C) The origins of Bra!il4s large class of free skilled persons of mi$ed race ( ) The differences between treatment of sla'es in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates (#) The difficulties faced by persons of mi$ed race in the :nited ;tates/ as

1,0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

compared to those in Bra!il 2. According to the passage/ Bra!ilian laws prohibiting intermarriage were ineffecti'e because Bra!il had a (A) @ortuguese Catholic heritage (B) ;mall minority of whites (C) Kiberal set of laws concerning manumission ( ) Karge number of freed sla'es (#) ;hortage of people in the skilled crafts and trades -. The use of "uotation marks around the word *place+ (line 1,) suggests that the author intended to con'ey which of the following% (A) An ambi'alent attitude toward the city of 9ew 8rleans (B) A negati'e attitude toward the role of race in determining status in the :nited ;tates (C) A critical comment about the maltreatment of persons of mi$ed race in the :nited ;tates ( ) A double meaning/ indicating both a social status and a physical location (#) An ambiguity/ referring to either the role persons of mi$ed race actually played/ or the role they were assigned by the society 6. &ith which of the following statements regarding human beha'ior would the author of the passage be most likely to agree% (A) 8nly a fool or a political candidate would sing 'ery loudly the glories of the institutions of &estern culture. (B) Contact sportsQdisplacements of our abiding impulses to killQspeak of essential human beha'ior more truthfully than all the theories of psychologists and historians. (C) >amily/ church/ political partyE these are the strong foundations of history and human beha'ior. ( ) ?oney and its pursuitE an e$ploration of that theme will chart accurately the de'elopment of ci'ili!ations and the determinants of human beha'ior. (#) The circumstances in which humans find themsel'esQmore than treasured beliefs or legal prescriptionsQmold human beha'ior. Passage 76 (13/22)
Feserti#ication' the creation o# desert-"i$e conditions where none had e5isted be#ore' is the resu"t o# the vagaries o# weather and c"imate or the mismanagement o# the "and or' in most cases' some combination o# both. uch eco"ogica" deterioration in the ahe" has been "in$ed in severa" ways to the increased si)e o# "ivestoc$ herds. Furing the #i#teen years preceding 19G8' a period o# e5treme"y #avorab"e rain#a""' the pastora"ists moved into the

GMAT

1,1

margina" regions in the north with re"ative"y "arge herds. (owever' with the onset o# a series o# dry years beginning at the end o# the rainy season in 19G7' the pastora" popu"ations #ound themse"ves overta5ing very margina" range"ands' with the resu"t that the nomads viewed themse"ves as victims o# a natura" disaster. The mista$en idea that drought is an une5pected event has o#ten been used to e5cuse the #act that "ong-range p"anning has #ai"ed to ta$e rain#a"" variabi"ity into account. 6eop"e b"ame the c"imate #or agricu"tura" #ai"ures in semiarid regions and ma$e it a scapegoat #or #au"ty popu"ation and agricu"tura" po"icies. Feterioration and u"timate"y deserti#ication in the ahe" and in other ecosystems can be combated on"y i# an eco"ogica""y rea"istic carrying capacity #or the range"ands is determined. 0"though there appears to be widespread agreement that such a determination wou"d be signi#icant' there has been "itt"e agreement on how to ma$e operationa" the concept o# carrying capacity' de#ined as the amount o# gra)ing stoc$ that the pasture can support without deterioration o# either the pasture or the stoc$. hou"d the carrying capacity be geared to the best' the average' or the poorest yearsC 8hich combination o# statistica" measures wou"d be most meaning#u" #or the p"anning o# "ong-term deve"opment o# range"andsC 9n which variab"es shou"d such an assessment be based' vegetation' rain#a""' soi"' ground and sur#ace water' or manageria" capabi"itiesC uch inconc"usiveness within the scienti#ic community' whi"e understandab"e' creates con#usion #or the "and managers' who o#ten decide to ta$e no action or who decide that a"" scienti#ic suggestions are o# e+ua" weight and' there#ore' indiscriminate"y choose any one o# those suggested. Aiven the downward spira" o# "and deterioration' it becomes essentia" that an eco"ogica""y acceptab"e carrying capacity be estab"ished and en#orced. /t wi"" a"so be crucia" that "and managers $now what statistica" and +uasi-statistica" measures actua""y mean> no sing"e number can ade+uate"y describe the c"imate regime o# an arid or semiarid region. Eand managers must supp"ement such terms as the ;mean< with more in#ormative statistica" measures to characteri)e ade+uate"y the variabi"ity o# the c"imate. The understanding o# this high degree o# variabi"ity wi"" serve to remove one o# the ma2or obstac"es to reso"ving the perennia" prob"ems o# the ahe" and o# other arid or semiarid regions.

1.

The author is primarily concerned with (A) critici!ing a social attitude (B) suggesting an approach to sol'ing a problem (C) e$plaining the mechanics of a process ( ) defending the theories of ecological scientists (#) establishing criteria for an e$periment

2.

According to the passage/ which of the following contributed to the desertification of the ;ahel% 3. 33. The si!e of the li'estock herds gra!ing on the land The "uality of the land in the ;ahel

333. The amount of rainfall after 1,2-

1,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 .. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the nomadic tribes who mo'ed into the marginal regions of the ;ahel did 98T (A) enlarge the si!e of their li'estock herds (B) conser'e water after the drought began (C) li'e in the ;ahel after 1,26 ( ) e$pect a drastic change in weather conditions (#) seek go'ernmental aid in o'ercoming drought conditions 0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the concept of the carrying capacity of land is (A) still hypothetical rather than practical (B) basically political rather than ecological (C) independent of climatic conditions ( ) relati'ely unknown among ecologists (#) generally misrepresented by ecologists 1. &hich of the following best states the author4s 'iew concerning the relationship between the ecological scientist and the land manager% (A) The scientist has not pro'ided the manager with clear guidelines that can be used in regulating the producti'ity of land. (B) The scientist has pro'ided theories that are too detailed for the manager to use successfully. (C) The scientist and the manager/ in attempting to regulate the use of semiarid land/ ha'e ignored the traditional beha'ior patterns of pastoral communities. ( ) The manager has misunderstood and hence misapplied the suggestions of the scientist. (#) The manager has chosen from among the scientist4s suggestions those that are economically rather than ecologically safe. 2. &ith which of the following statements concerning desertification would the author be most likely to agree% (A) 3t is the result of factors beyond the control of science. (B) 3t is a problem largely affecting arid regions. (C) 3t could be pre'ented if land managers understood statistics. ( ) 3t is not always the result of drastic climate changes alone.

GMAT

1,-

(#) 3t is not attributable to faulty agricultural policies. -. According to the passage/ a statistical description of the climate regime of an arid or semiarid region would probably be (A) misleading (B) impossible (C) comple$ ( ) meaningless (#) abstract 6. The tone of the passage can best be described as (A) flippant (B) ob<ecti'e (C) aggressi'e ( ) apologetic (#) unconcerned Passage 77 (14/22)
The promise o# #inding "ong-term techno"ogica" so"utions to the prob"em o# wor"d #ood shortages seems di##icu"t to #u"#i"". ?any innovations that were once heavi"y supported and pub"ici)ed' such as #ish-protein concentrate and protein #rom a"gae grown on petro"eum substrates' have since #a""en by the wayside. The proposa"s themse"ves were technica""y #easib"e' but they proved to be economica""y unviab"e and to yie"d #ood products cu"tura""y unacceptab"e to their consumers. Recent innovations such as opa+ue-1 mai)e' 0ntarctic $ri""' and the wheat-rye hybrid tritica"e seem more promising' but it is too ear"y to predict their u"timate #ate. 9ne characteristic common to unsuccess#u" #ood innovations has been that' even with e5tensive government support' they o#ten have not been techno"ogica""y adapted or cu"tura""y acceptab"e to the peop"e #or whom they had been deve"oped. 0 success#u" new techno"ogy' there#ore' must #it the entire sociocu"tura" system in which it is to #ind a p"ace. ecurity o# crop yie"d' practica"ity o# storage' pa"atabi"ity' and costs are much more signi#icant than had previous"y been rea"i)ed by the advocates o# new techno"ogies. 7or e5amp"e' the better protein +ua"ity in torti""as made #rom opa+ue-1 mai)e wi"" be o# on"y "imited bene#it to a #ami"y on the margin o# subsistence i# the new mai)e is not cu"tura""y acceptab"e or is more vu"nerab"e to insects. The adoption o# new #ood techno"ogies depends on more than these technica" and cu"tura" considerations: economic #actors and governmenta" po"icies a"so strong"y in#"uence the u"timate success o# any innovation. =conomists in the 0ng"o-0merican tradition have ta$en the "ead in investigating the economics o# techno"ogica" innovation. 0"though they e5aggerate in c"aiming that pro#itabi"ity is the $ey #actor guiding technica" change!they comp"ete"y disregard the substantia" e##ects o# cu"ture!they are correct in stressing the

1,6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

importance o# pro#its. ?ost techno"ogica" innovations in agricu"ture can be #u""y used on"y by "arge "andowners and are on"y adopted i# these pro#it-oriented business peop"e be"ieve that the innovation wi"" increase their incomes. Thus' innovations that carry high rewards #or big agribusiness groups wi"" be adopted even i# they harm segments o# the popu"ation and reduce the avai"abi"ity o# #ood in a country. 7urther' shou"d a new techno"ogy promise to a"ter substantia""y the pro#its and "osses associated with any production system' those with economic power wi"" strive to maintain and improve their own positions. ince "arge segments o# the popu"ations o# many deve"oping countries are c"ose to the subsistence margin and essentia""y power"ess' they tend to be the "osers in this system un"ess they are aided by a government po"icy that ta$es into account the needs o# a"" sectors o# the economy. There#ore' a"though technica" advances in #ood production and processing wi"" perhaps be needed to ensure #ood avai"abi"ity' meeting #ood needs wi"" depend much more on e+ua"i)ing economic power among the various segments o# the popu"ations within the deve"oping countries themse"ves.

1.

&hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph% (A) A suggestion is made and arguments in its fa'or are pro'ided. (B) A criticism is le'ied and an alternati'e proposal is suggested. (C) A generali!ation is ad'anced and supporting e'idence is pro'ided. ( ) An e$ample is analy!ed and general conclusions are deri'ed from it. (#) A position is stated and e'idence "ualifying it is pro'ided.

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that the author was unable to assess the truth of which of the following statements about opa"ue(2 mai!e% (A) 3t is a more recent inno'ation than the use of fish(protein concentrate. (B) 3t can be stored as easily as other 'arieties of mai!e. (C) 3t is more popular than the wheat(rye hybrid triticale. ( ) 3t produces tortillas of greater protein content than do other 'arieties of mai!e. (#) 3t is more susceptible to insects than are other 'arieties of mai!e.

..

The passage mentions all of the following as factors important to the success of a new food crop #DC#@T the (A) practicality of storage of the crop (B) security of the crop yield (C) "uality of the crop4s protein ( ) cultural acceptability of the crop (#) costs of production of the crop

0.

According to the passage/ the use of Antarctic krill as a food is an inno'ation whose future is (A) basically gloomy but still uncertain

GMAT

1,,

(B) somewhat promising but 'ery tentati'e (C) generally bright and 'irtually assured ( ) tied to the success of opa"ue(2 mai!e (#) endangered by certain technical problems 1. The author suggests that/ in most de'eloping countries/ e$tensi'e go'ernment inter'ention accompanying the introduction of a food inno'ation will (A) usually be sufficient to guarantee the financial success of the inno'ation (B) be necessary to ensure that the benefits of the inno'ation will be spread throughout the society (C) pro'ide the incenti'e necessary to con'ince landowners to try the inno'ation ( ) generally cost the country more than will be earned by the inno'ation (#) normally occur only when the inno'ation fa'ors large landowners 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements concerning the solution to food shortages in de'eloping countries% (A) The introduction of technological inno'ations to reap profits might alle'iate food shortages to some degree/ but any permanent solution can come only from effecti'e go'ernmental inter'ention in the socioeconomic system. (B) 3nno'ations in agricultural technology will be of little help/ and perhaps e'en harmful/ in combating food shortages/ no matter how well designed they are to suit local circumstances. (C) Kong(lasting solutions will not be found until large landowners adopt impro'ements that will make production more efficient and thus more profitable. ( ) 3n order to achie'e a meaningful solution to the problem of food shortages/ the tastes of the general population must be educated to accept the new food products of modern agricultural technology. (#) Although a short(term solution to food shortages can be achie'ed by importing food from other countries/ a long(term solution re"uires a restructuring of the countries4 socioeconomic system. -. The first paragraph of the passage best supports which of the following statements% (A) Too much publicity can harm the chances for the success of a new food inno'ation. (B) 3nno'ations that produce culturally acceptable crops will generally be successful. (C) A food(product inno'ation can be technically feasible and still not be economically 'iable. ( ) 3t is difficult to decide whether a food(product inno'ation has actually been a

255

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

success. (#) Triticale will not be a success as a food source for most de'eloping countries. 6. The author pro'ides a sustained argument to support which of the following assertions% (A) @rofitability is neither necessary nor sufficient for a new technology to be adopted. (B) @rofitability is the key factor guiding technological change. (C) #conomic factors and go'ernmental policies strongly influence the ultimate success of any inno'ation. ( ) 8pa"ue(2 mai!e is of limited benefit to poor families in de'eloping countries. (#) 3nno'ations carrying high rewards for big agribusiness groups harm the poor. ,. The primary purpose of the passage is to discuss the (A) means of assessing the e$tent of the world food shortage (B) difficulties of applying technological solutions to the problem of food shortages (C) costs of introducing a new food technology into a de'eloping country ( ) Anglo(American bias of those trying to alle'iate world food problems (#) nature of the new technological inno'ations in the area of food production Passage 78 (15/22)
/n Roman times' de#eated enemies were genera""y put to death as crimina"s #or having o##ended the emperor o# Rome. /n the ?idd"e 0ges' however' the practice o# ransoming' or returning prisoners in e5change #or money' became common. Though some saw this custom as a step towards a more humane society' the primary reasons behind it were economic rather than humanitarian. /n those times' ru"ers had on"y a "imited abi"ity to raise ta5es. They cou"d neither #orce their sub2ects to #ight nor pay them to do so. The promise o# materia" compensation in the #orm o# goods and ransom was there#ore the on"y way o# inducing combatants to participate in a war. /n the ?idd"e 0ges' the predominant incentive #or the individua" so"dier to participate in a war was the e5pectation o# spoi"s. 0"though co""ecting ransom c"ear"y brought #inancia" gain' $eeping a prisoner and arranging #or his e5change had its costs. %onse+uent"y' severa" procedures were devised to reduce transaction costs. 9ne such device was a ru"e asserting that the prisoner had to assess his own va"ue. This compe""ed the prisoner to estab"ish a va"ue without much distortion: indicating too "ow a va"ue wou"d increase the captive3s chances o# being $i""ed' whi"e indicating too high a va"ue wou"d either ruin him #inancia""y or create a prohibitive"y e5pensive ransom that wou"d a"so resu"t in death. 0 second means o# reducing costs was the practice o# re"easing a prisoner on his word o# honor. This procedure was advantageous to both parties since the captor was re"ieved o# the

GMAT

251

e5pense o# $eeping the prisoner whi"e the captive had #reedom o# movement. The captor a"so bene#ited #inancia""y by having his captive raise the ransom himse"#. This ;paro"e< was a viab"e practice since the re"eased prisoner ris$ed recapture or reta"iation against his #ami"y. ?oreover' in medieva" society' brea$ing one3s word had serious conse+uences. 8hen' #or e5amp"e' Ning 7rancois / bro$e his word to the =mperor %har"es B in 1-1-' his reputation su##ered immense"y. 0 third method o# reducing costs was the use o# specia"i)ed institutions to estab"ish contact between the two parties. Two types o# institutions emerged> pro#essiona" dea"ers who acted as bro$ers' and members o# re"igious orders who acted as neutra" intermediaries. Fea"ers advanced money #or the ransom and charged interest on the "oan. Two o# the re"igious orders that became intermediaries were the ?ercedarians and the Trinitarians' who between them arranged the ransom o# near"y one mi""ion prisoners.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) discuss the economic basis of the medie'al practice of e$changing prisoners for ransom (B) e$amine the history of the treatment of prisoners of war (C) emphasi!e the importance of a warrior4s *word of honor+ during the ?iddle Ages ( ) e$plore three ways of reducing the costs of ransom (#) demonstrate why warriors of the ?iddle Ages looked forward to battles

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that a medie'al soldier (A) was less likely to kill captured members of opposing armies than was a soldier of the =oman #mpire (B) was similar to a 25th(century terrorist in that he operated on a basically independent le'el and was moti'ated solely by economic incenti'es (C) had few economic options and chose to fight because it was the only way to earn an ade"uate li'ing ( ) was moti'ated to spare prisoners4 li'es by humanitarian rather than economic ideals (#) had no respect for his captured enemies since capti'es were typically regarded as weak

..

&hich of the following best describes the change in policy from e$ecuting prisoners in =oman times to ransoming prisoners in the ?iddle Ages% (A) The emperors of =ome demanded more respect than did medie'al rulers and thus =oman sub<ects went to greater lengths to defend their nation. (B) 3t was a reflection of the lesser degree of direct control medie'al rulers had o'er their sub<ects. (C) 3t became a show of strength and honor for warriors of the ?iddle Ages to be able to capture and return their enemies.

252

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) ?edie'al soldiers were not as humanitarian as their ransoming practices might ha'e indicated. (#) ?edie'al soldiers demonstrated more concern about economic policy than did their =oman counterparts. 0. The author uses the phrase *without much distortion+ (line 22) in order (A) to indicate that prisoners would fairly assess their worth (B) to emphasi!e the important role medie'al prisoners played in determining whether they should be ransomed (C) to e$plain how prisoners often paid more than an appropriate ransom in order to increase their chances for sur'i'al ( ) suggest that captors and capti'es often had understanding relationships (#) to show that when in prison a soldier4s 'iew could become distorted 1. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as actions that were taken to ensure that ransoming prisoners was a profitable operation #DC#@T (A) each prisoner was made to designate the amount of ransom to be paid for his return (B) prisoners were released on the condition that they guaranteed that their ransoms would be paid (C) professional intermediaries were employed to facilitate the smooth e$change of prisoner and ransom at a price to the prisoner ( ) religious orders acted as impartial mediators by arranging the trade(off of ransom and prisoner (#) medie'al rulers promised to aid soldiers in their efforts to collect ransom 2. 3n the author4s opinion/ a soldier4s decision to spare an ad'ersary4s life be linked historically to (A) the economic relationship of the warring states (B) the case with which a soldier could capture and subse"uently imprison his enemy (C) the economic gain from taking an enemy prisoner rather than killing him in combat ( ) technological ad'ances in weaponry (#) the desire for soldiers to uphold their word of honor -. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the process of arranging ransoms during medie'al times was (A) more lucrati'e for medie'al soldiers and kings than the winning of spoils (B) a procedure so costly that it was not economically worthwhile for the captors (C) futile for the capti'e since he risked recapture e'en after his ransom was paid ( ) a potential source of income for others aside from the captors of the prisoners

GMAT

25.

(#) handled only through ?ercedarian or Trinitarian intermediaries 6. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) An assertion is made/ briefly e$plained/ and then se'eral e$amples that refute the assertion are gi'en. (B) A hypothesis is offered/ carefully "ualified/ and then supporting data is analy!ed. (C) A generally accepted historical 'iewpoint is presented in order to introduce discussion of its strengths and limitations. ( ) A historical analysis is made of a phenomenon and supporting details are offered. (#) A historical dispute is introduced/ and the case for one side is e$amined in detail. Passage 79 (16/22)
/n most earth+ua$es the =arth3s crust crac$s "i$e porce"ain. tress bui"ds up unti" a #racture #orms at a depth o# a #ew $i"ometers and the crust s"ips to re"ieve the stress. ome earth+ua$es' however' ta$e p"ace hundreds o# $i"ometers down in the =arth3s mant"e' where high pressure ma$es roc$ so ducti"e that it #"ows instead o# crac$ing' even under stress severe enough to de#orm it "i$e putty. (ow can there be earth+ua$es at such depthsC That such deep events do occur has been accepted on"y since 1917' when the seismo"ogist Niyoo 8adati convincing"y demonstrated their e5istence. /nstead o# comparing the arriva" times o# seismic waves at di##erent "ocations' as ear"ier researchers had done. 8adati re"ied on a time di##erence between the arriva" o# primary (6) waves and the s"ower secondary ( ) waves. &ecause 6 and #ocus' or rupture point. 7or most earth+ua$es' 8adati discovered' the interva" was +uite short near the epicenter' the point on the sur#ace where sha$ing is strongest. 7or a #ew events' however' the de"ay was "ong even at the epicenter. 8adati saw a simi"ar pattern when he ana"y)ed data on the intensity o# sha$ing. ?ost earth+ua$es had a sma"" area o# intense sha$ing' which wea$ened rapid"y with increasing distance #rom the epicenter' but others were characteri)ed by a "ower pea$ intensity' #e"t over a broader area. &oth the 6- interva"s and the intensity patterns suggested two $inds o# earth+ua$es> the more common sha""ow events' in which the #ocus "ay 2ust under the epicenter' and deep events' with a #ocus severa" hundred $i"ometers down. The +uestion remained> how can such +ua$es occur' given that mant"e roc$ at a depth o# more than -. $i"ometers is too ducti"e to store enough stress to #ractureC 8adati3s wor$ suggested that deep events occur in areas (now ca""ed 8adati-&enio## )ones) where one crusta" p"ate is #orced under another and descends into the mant"e. The descending roc$ is substantia""y coo"er than the surrounding mant"e and hence is "ess ducti"e and much more "iab"e to #racture. waves trave" at di##erent but #air"y constant speeds' the interva" between their arriva"s increases in proportion to the distance #rom the earth+ua$e

250

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

1.

The passage is primarily concerned with (A) demonstrating why the methods of early seismologists were flawed (B) arguing that deep e'ents are poorly understood and deser'e further study (C) defending a re'olutionary theory about the causes of earth"uakes and methods of predicting them ( ) discussing e'idence for the e$istence of deep e'ents and the conditions that allow them to occur (#) comparing the effects of shallow e'ents with those of deep e'ents

2.

The author uses the comparisons to porcelain and putty (lines 2 and 6) in order to (A) e$plain why the #arth4s mantle is under great pressure (B) distinguish the earth"uake4s epicenter from its focus (C) demonstrate the conditions under which a &adati(Benioff !one forms ( ) e$plain why ; wa'es are slower than @ wa'es (#) illustrate why the crust will fracture but the mantle will not

..

3t can be inferred from the passage that if the ; wa'es from an earth"uake arri'e at a gi'en location long after the @ wa'es/ which of the following must be true% (A) The earth"uake was a deep e'ent. (B) The earth"uake was a shallow e'ent. (C) The earth"uake focus was distant. ( ) The earth"uake focus was nearby. (#) The earth"uake had a low peak intensity.

0.

The method used by &adati to determine the depths of earth"uakes is most like which of the following% (A) etermining the depth of a well by dropping stones into the well and timing how long they take to reach the bottom (B) etermining the height of a mountain by measuring the shadow it casts at different times of the day (C) etermining the distance from a thunderstorm by timing the inter'al between the flash of a lightning bolt and the thunder it produces ( ) etermining the distance between two points by counting the number of paces it takes to co'er the distance and measuring a single pace (#) etermining the speed at which a car is tra'eling by timing how long it takes to tra'el a known distance

1.

The passage supports which of the following statements about the relationship between the epicenter and the focus of an earth"uake% (A) @ wa'es originate at the focus and ; wa'es originate at the epicenter. (B) 3n deep e'ents the epicenter and the focus are re'ersed.

GMAT

251

(C) 3n shallow e'ents the epicenter and the focus coincide. ( ) 3n both deep and shallow e'ents the focus lies beneath the epicenter. (#) The epicenter is in the crust/ whereas the focus is in the mantle. 2. The passage suggests that which of the following must take place in order for any earth"uake to occur% 3. 33. ;tress must build up. Cool rock must descend into the mantle.

333. A fracture must occur. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 -. 3nformation presented in the passage suggests that/ compared with seismic acti'ity at the epicenter of a shallow e'ent/ seismic acti'ity at the epicenter of a deep e'ent is characteri!ed by (A) shorter @(; inter'als and higher peak intensity (B) shorter @(; inter'als and lower peak intensity (C) longer @(; inter'als and similar peak intensity ( ) longer @(; inter'als and higher peak intensity (#) longer @(; inter'als and lower peak intensity 6. The passage suggests which of the following about the 'iews held by researchers before 1,2-% (A) ;ome researchers did not belie'e that deep e'ents could actually occur. (B) ?any researchers re<ected the use of @(; inter'als for determining the depths of earth"uakes. (C) ;ome researchers doubted that the mantle was too ductile to store the stress needed for an earth"uake. ( ) ?ost researchers e$pected @ wa'es to be slower than ; wa'es. (#) >ew researchers accepted the current model of how shallow e'ents occur. ,. The author4s e$planation of how deep e'ents occur would be most weakened if which of the following were disco'ered to be true% (A) eep e'ents are far less common than shallow e'ents. (B) eep e'ents occur in places other than where crustal plates meet. (C) ?antle rock is more ductile at a depth of se'eral hundred kilometers than it is at 15 kilometers. ( ) The speeds of both @ and ; wa'es are slightly greater than pre'iously

252

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

thought. (#) Below 215 kilometers earth"uakes cease to occur. Passage 80 (17/22)
?ost "arge corporations in the United tates were once run by individua" capita"ists who owned enough stoc$ to dominate the board o# directors and dictate company po"icy. &ecause putting such "arge amounts o# stoc$ on the mar$et wou"d on"y depress its va"ue' they cou"d not se"" out #or a +uic$ pro#it and instead had to concentrate on improving the "ong-term productivity o# their companies. Today' with #ew e5ceptions' the stoc$ o# "arge United tates corporations is he"d by "arge institutions!pension #unds' #or e5amp"e!and because these institutions are prohibited by antitrust "aws #rom owning a ma2ority o# a company3s stoc$ and #rom active"y in#"uencing a company3s decision-ma$ing' they can enhance their wea"th on"y by buying and se""ing stoc$ in anticipation o# #"uctuations in its va"ue. 0 minority shareho"der is necessari"y a short term trader. 0s a resu"t' United tates productivity is un"i$e"y to improve un"ess shareho"ders and the managers o# the companies in which they invest are encouraged to enhance "ong-term productivity (and hence "ong-term pro#itabi"ity)' rather than simp"y to ma5imi)e short-term pro#its. ince the return o# the o"d-sty"e capita"ist is un"i$e"y' today3s short-term traders must be remade into tomorrow3s "ong-term capita"istic investors. The "ega" "imits that now prevent #inancia" institutions #rom ac+uiring a dominant shareho"ding position in a corporation shou"d be removed' and such institutions encouraged to ta$e a more active ro"e in the operations o# the companies in which they invest. /n addition' any institution that ho"ds twenty percent or more o# a company3s stoc$ shou"d be #orced to give the pub"ic one day3s notice o# the intent to se"" those shares. Un"ess the announced sa"e cou"d be e5p"ained to the pub"ic on grounds other than anticipated #uture "osses' the va"ue o# the stoc$ wou"d p"ummet and' "i$e the o"dtime capita"ists' ma2or investors cou"d cut their "osses on"y by he"ping to restore their companies3 productivity. uch measures wou"d #orce #inancia" institutions to become capita"ists whose success depends not on trading shares at the propitious moment' but on increasing the productivity o# the companies in which they invest.

1.

3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which of the following% (A) Comparing two different approaches to a problem (B) escribing a problem and proposing a solution (C) efending an established method ( ) @resenting data and drawing conclusions from the data (#) Comparing two different analyses of a current situation

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of ma<ority shareholders in a corporation% (A) They make the corporation4s operational management decisions. (B) They are not allowed to own more than fifty percent of the corporation4s

GMAT

25-

stock. (C) They cannot make "uick profits by selling their stock in the corporation. ( ) They are more interested in profits than in producti'ity. (#) They cannot sell any of their stock in the corporation without gi'ing the public ad'ance notice. .. According to the passage/ the purpose of the re"uirement suggested in lines .5(.. would be which of the following% (A) To encourage institutional stockholders to sell stock that they belie'e will decrease in 'alue (B) To discourage institutional stockholders from inter'ening in the operation of a company whose stock they own (C) To discourage short(term profit(taking by institutional stockholders ( ) To encourage a company4s employees to take an acti'e role in the ownership of stock in the company (#) To encourage in'estors to di'ersify their stock holdings 0. &hich of the following best e$plains the author4s statement that *A minority shareholder is necessarily a short(term trader+ (lines 11(12)% (A) The only way a minority shareholder can make money from stocks is to buy and sell stocks as prices fluctuate o'er short periods of time. (B) 8nly a shareholder who owns a ma<ority of a company4s stock can influence the trading price of the stock o'er a long period of time. (C) A minority shareholder is prohibited by law from buying stock and holding it for long(term profits. ( ) Karge institutions like pension funds cannot legally own a ma<ority of any corporation4s stock. (#) A minority shareholder rarely takes an interest in the decisions of a corporation4s board of directors. 1. The author suggests that which of the following is a true statement about people who typify the *old style capitalist+ referred to in line 2.% (A) They now rely on outdated management techni"ues. (B) They seldom engaged in short(term trading of the stock they owned. (C) They did not influence the in'estment policies of the corporations in which they in'ested. ( ) They now play a much smaller role in the stock market as a result of antitrust legislation. (#) They were primarily concerned with ma$imi!ing the short(term profitability of the corporations in which they owned stock.

256

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Passage 81 (18/22)
7or over 4.. years' one o# the most enduring be"ie#s among historians o# =ng"and has been that the character o# =ng"ish society has been shaped by the uni+ue openness o# its ru"ing e"ite to entry by se"#-made entrepreneurs (especia""y new"y wea"thy merchants) ab"e to buy their way into the ran$s o# e"ite society. This upward mobi"ity' historians have argued' a""owed =ng"and to escape the c"ash between those with socia"Kpo"itica" power and those with economic power' a con#"ict that beset the rest o# =urope during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Upward mobi"ity was a"so used to e5p"ain =ng"and3s e5ceptiona" stabi"ity since the "ate seventeenth century (no revo"utions' #or e5amp"e)' as we"" as such ma2or events as the deve"opment o# the most e##icient agricu"tura" system in =urope' the ma$ing o# the #irst industria" revo"ution' and the onset o# severe economic dec"ine. &ut is the thesis trueC Recent wor$ on the supposed conse+uences o# an open e"ite has a"ready produced some doubts. Eitt"e credence' #or e5amp"e' is now accorded the idea that =ng"and3s "ate nineteenth-century economic dec"ine resu"ted #rom absentee business owners too distracted by the demands o# e"ite "i#e to manage their #irms proper"y. &ut' a"though the importance o# an open e"ite to other ma2or events has been severe"y +uestioned' it is on"y with a new wor$ by Eawrence and @eanne tone that the openness itse"# has been con#ronted. =schewing the tac$ o# tracing the careers o# success#u" entrepreneurs to gauge the openness o# the e"ite' the tones chose the a"ternative approach o# ana"y)ing the e"ite itse"#' and proceeded via the ingenious route o# investigating country-house ownership. 0rguing that ownership o# a country house was seen as essentia" #or membership in the ru"ing e"ite' the tones ana"y)e the nature o# country-house ownership in three counties #or the period 1-H.-188.. Their critica" #indings are provocative> there was stri$ing"y "itt"e change in the ownership o# such houses throughout the period. /nstead' even in the #ace o# a demographic crisis (#ewer marriages' dec"ining #erti"ity' rising in#ant morta"ity)' the o"d e"ite was ab"e to maintain itse"#' and its estates' intact #or centuries through recourse to various marriage and inheritance strategies. The popu"ar picture o# venerab"e e"ite #ami"ies overcome by debt and se""ing out to merchants is simp"y not borne out by the tones3 #indings. Rather' the opportunities #or entrepreneurs to buy their way into the e"ite' the tones show' were e5treme"y "imited. /# #urther studies o# country-house ownership attest to the representativeness and accuracy o# their data' then the tones3 conc"usion that the open e"ite thesis cannot be maintained may' indeed' prove true.

1.

According to the passage/ one of the traditional e$planations of #ngland4s late nineteenth(century economic decline has been that it resulted from the (A) tendency of the ruling elite to pursue conser'ati'e rather than inno'ati'e economic policies (B) failure of business entrepreneurs to reduce the power of the ruling elite in #nglish society (C) in'estment of large amounts of capital in the purchase and maintenance of country houses

GMAT

25,

( ) tendency of business owners to attempt to retain control of their firms within their families (#) failure of leading business entrepreneurs to pay close attention to their firms 2. The author suggests that which of the following was true of most #uropean elites during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries% (A) The ranks of these elites were generally closed to most business entrepreneurs. (B) The elites generally dominated industrial de'elopment. (C) ;tatus within these elites was generally determined by the amount of land owned. ( ) These elites generally were able to maintain their power unchallenged. (#) The power of these elites generally forestalled the de'elopment of a large class of self(made entrepreneurs. .. Traditional historians of #ngland/ as they are described in the passage/ would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements regarding open elites% (A) They de'elop more easily in agricultural rather than industrial societies. (B) They de'elop in response to particular sets of economic conditions. (C) They tend to unite some of the powerful groups in a society. ( ) They tend to reduce class distinctions based on income in a society. (#) They tend to insure ade"uate distribution of material goods in a society. 0. The tone of the passage suggests that the author regards the ;tones4 methodological approach as (A) problematic (B) difficult (C) contro'ersial ( ) rigorous (#) cle'er 1. &hich of the following best states the main idea of the passage% (A) Assumptions about the nature of #ngland4s ruling elite can no longer be used with certitude to e$plain many ma<or economic de'elopments. (B) The concept of the open elite is of paramount importance in e$plaining ma<or #nglish political/ social/ and economic e'ents. (C) The long(standing belief that #ngland possessed a remarkably open ruling elite has recently been sub<ected to important and potentially lethal criticism. ( ) Although many possibilities are a'ailable/ the most reliable means of testing the truth of the Fopen elite4 hypothesis is to analy!e changes in the composition of the elite.

215

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) An analysis of #nglish country(house ownership in #ngland indicates that there were few opportunities for merchants to buy the estates of old members of the landed elite. 2. &hich of the following can be inferred from the ;tones4 findings about #nglish country(house ownership in the three counties during the period 1105(1665% (A) Kittle change in the number or si!e of #nglish country houses occurred during this period. (B) &ealthy business owners constituted a growing percentage of #nglish country(house owners during this period. (C) ?ost of the families that owned country houses at the beginning of this period continued to own them at the end. ( ) The most significant changes in #nglish country(house ownership occurred during the second half of this period. (#) ;elf(made entrepreneurs were able to enter the ranks of the #nglish country( house owners during this period only through marriage. -. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) resol'e a debate between two schools of thought. (B) @resent research that "uestions an established 'iew. (C) escribe and critici!e a new approach. ( ) efend a traditional interpretation against recent criticisms. (#) Analy!e possible approaches to resol'ing a long(standing contro'ersy. 6. The ;tones suggest that ma<or problems facing the #nglish elite during the period 1105(1665 included which of the following% 3. 33. A reduction in the number of their offspring An increase in the amount of their indebtedness

333. A decline in their political and social power (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 ,. The author suggests that the ;tones4 conclusions about the openness of the #nglish elite would be strengthened by future studies that (A) pay more attention to other recent historical works (B) include more data on factors other than country(house ownership (C) concentrate more on the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries ( ) e$pand the area of research to include more counties

GMAT

211

(#) focus more on successful business entrepreneurs Passage 82 (19/22)

%omparab"e worth is a concept that re2ects the premise o# a separate and "ower wage hierarchy #or 2obs that are done primari"y by women' arguing instead that earnings shou"d re#"ect on"y the worth o# the wor$ per#ormed. This worth shou"d be determined by an eva"uation system that rates 2obs according to their socia" importance and s$i"" re+uirements. &ecause comparab"e worth does not attac$ a"" #orms o# ine+ua"ity' it can have on"y a modest direct e##ect on the overa"" degree o# ine+ua"ity in society' but in attac$ing gender ine+ua"ity in the 2ob c"assi#ication system it attac$s a ma2or component o# gender ine+ua"ity in the United tates. The "i$e"ihood that other #orms o# ine+ua"ity wi"" become more mani#est with the "essening o# gender ine+ua"ity is not a va"id argument against comparab"e worth. /ndeed' strugg"es #or comparab"e worth may he"p "aunch campaigns against simi"ar #orms o# ine+uity. ti""' whi"e conservatives have batt"ed hard against comparab"e worth' radica"s have been re"uctant to #ight #or it because they see the narrow presentations in comparab"e worth "itigation as the "imits o# the concept. &ut in addition to he"ping redress particu"ar ine+uities' comparab"e worth cou"d open a discussion o# the entire wage system. /ts theoretica" and po"itica" impact wi"" reach #ar beyond the #ramewor$ in which it was conceived and #orce a rethin$ing o# assumptions under"ying current emp"oyment practices and the mar$et itse"#. (ow comparab"e worth wi"" a##ect the hierarchy o# wages is more di##icu"t to #oresee. /t does not direct"y cha""enge the concept o# a hierarchy: in #act' its insistence that 2obs must be eva"uated imp"ies a hierarchy. (owever' its re2ection o# the mar$et as an ade+uate basis #or determining wages initiates a discussion o# how va"ue shou"d be assigned to 2obs. 0dvocates o# comparab"e worth have cha""enged prevai"ing standards o# eva"uation' which them #rom #orma" 2ob ova"ions #irst deve"oped in industria" settings. These eva"uations' based on points awarded #or di##erent 2ob tas$s' gave considerab"e emphasis to such activities as strenuous "i#ting and the operation o# e5pensive e+uipment. %onse+uent"y' the s$i""s and $now"edge more typica" o# wor$ done by women are "ess heavi"y emphasi)ed. The RFictionary o# 9ccupationa" Tit"es3 revea"s numerous current instances o# such imba"ance in 2ob ratings. 8hi"e comparab"e-worth advocates accept the princip"e o# a hierarchy o# wages' arguing on"y that they see$ more ob2ective measures o# 2ob worth' the issues they raise provo$e a broader debate. This debate does not' as the opponents have c"aimed' concern the #easibi"ity o# setting up and app"ying eva"uative standards. =mp"oyers have done that #or centuries. Rather' the debate is about the socia" va"ues and priorities under"ying the wage hierarchy and' u"timate"y' the mar$et where age-o"d conventions and po"itica"' as opposed to pure"y economic' #orces enter the process o# setting wages.

1.

&hich of the following summari!es a main point of the passage% (A) The history of comparable worth closely parallels the history of changes in the structure of the economic system. (B) The ultimate success of comparable worth depends on a public discussion of the historical conditions that led to its formulation.

212

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) Comparable worth has social implications that e$tend beyond specific ad<ustments to the wage hierarchies for men and women. ( ) Comparable worth is gaining adherents e'en though it has traditionally met with organi!ed opposition. (#) Comparable worth has been instrumental in affording women access to <obs that had been held largely by men. 2. 3t can be inferred that the phrase a separate and lower wage hierarchy for <obs that are done primarily by women/ as used in lines 2(. of the passage/ most nearly means which of the following% (A) That there is a greater range of salaries for men than for women (B) That women typically recei'e less money than men do for doing <obs of appro$imately the same 'alue (C) That there are fewer wage(earning women than men in the work force ( ) That men ha'e traditionally been more likely than women to recei'e ad'ancement on the basis of seniority (#) That men and women typically do not compete for the same <obs .. 3n the first paragraph of the passage/ the author describes the potential role and function of comparable worth in language that most often suggests (A) artistic endea'ors (B) business transactions (C) criminal in'estigations ( ) military operations (#) scientific e$periments 0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ad'ocates of comparable worth belie'e which of the following% (A) A gi'en kind of work has a particular inherent 'alue to the employer or to society. (B) The market is more influenced by political and social forces now than it was in the past. (C) Bender ine"uality in the :nited ;tates is primarily a product of the current economic system. ( ) Conser'ati'es and radicals ha'e the same reasons for not supporting comparable worth. (#) Those who de'ised <ob(e'aluation standards were more interested in economic than political issues. 1. As used by the author in line 2 of the last paragraph/ *more ob<ecti'e+ most nearly means (A) more "uantifiable

GMAT

21.

(B) more seminal (C) less categorical ( ) less <ob(specific (#) less se$(biased 2. &hich of the following best represents the sort of "uestion at issue in the *broader debate+ referred to in line 06 abo'e% (A) &hat political factors ha'e affected the relationship between wages and <ob( e'aluation ratings% (B) &hat gains ha'e been achie'ed in the struggle for comparable(worth legislation% (C) &ill a new standard for <ob e'aluation be any more workable than the current one% ( ) )ow will the balance of supply and demand be affected by comparable worth% (#) )ow soon is it reasonable to e$pect the passage of stronger comparable(worth legislation% -. According to the passage/ which of the following is the most likely application of the notion of comparable worth% (A) The detailed e$planation of the 'arious forces that guide the market (B) The formulation of attitudes about the role of supply and demand in setting wages (C) The establishment of a political coalition in the struggle against ine"uity ( ) The integration of the industrial work force into the <ob market for a ser'ice and technology economy (#) The reassessment of <ob characteristics as a means for determining <ust compensation 6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that radicals ha'e not supported comparable worth because they 'iew it as being (A) unrelated to historic de'elopments that ha'e molded the current economic system (B) an integral part of the same system that has institutionali!ed 'arious forms of ine"uity (C) likely to undermine the unity of a reform mo'e(men by polari!ing the different interest groups ( ) too limited and restricted in its uses to promote fundamental changes in the system (#) inherently flawed in that it has gi'en rise to the concept of a wage hierarchy ,. The author4s primary purpose in the passage is to

210

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(A) critici!e inconsistent e$periments (B) suggest a new direction for research (C) describe an intriguing geophysical phenomenon ( ) present e'idence supporting a theory (#) e'aluate data relating to lunar geology Passage 83 (20/22)
(istorians have "ong thought that 0merica was' #rom the beginning' pro#ound"y in#"uenced by the Eoc$ean notion o# "iberty' with its strong emphasis on individua" rights and se"#-interest. Det in his recent boo$' historian @. A. 0. 6ococ$ argues that ear"y 0merican cu"ture was actua""y rooted in the writings o# ?achiave""i' not Eoc$e. The imp"ications o# this substitution are important> i# 6ococ$3s argument is right' then 0mericans may not be as deep"y individua"istic and capita"istic as many be"ieve. 6ococ$ argues that out o# the writings o# anti+uity ?achiave""i created a body o# po"itica" thin$ing ca""ed ;c"assica" repub"icanism.< This body o# thought revived the ancient be"ie# that a human being was by nature a citi)en who achieved mora" #u"#i""ment by participating in a se"#governing repub"ic. Eiberty was interpreted as a condition that is rea"i)ed when peop"e are virtuous and are wi""ing to sacri#ice their individua" interests #or the sa$e o# the community. To be comp"ete"y virtuous' peop"e had to be independent and #ree o# the petty interests o# the mar$etp"ace. The greatest enemy o# virtue was commerce. This c"assica" repub"ican tradition is said by 6ococ$ to have shaped the ideo"ogy o# 0merica during the eighteenth century. ?any events in ear"y 0merican history can be reinterpreted in "ight o# 6ococ$3s ana"ysis. @e##erson is no "onger seen as a progressive reader o# Eoc$e "eading 0merica into its individua"istic #uture: instead @e##erson is understood as a #igure obsessed with virtue and corruption and #ear#u" o# new commercia" deve"opments. /n#"uenced by 6ococ$' some historians have even argued that a communitarian and precapita"ist menta"ity was pervasive among the eighteenth-century #armers o# 0merica. Det 6ococ$3s thesis and the reinterpretation o# the history o# eighteenth-century 0merica engendered by it are o# dubious va"idity. /# 0mericans did be"ieve in the idea"s o# c"assica" virtue that stressed civic duty and made the who"e community greater than its discrete parts' then why did the co"onists "ac$ a sense o# ob"igation to support the greater good o# the &ritish =mpireC /# indeed 0merica has not a"ways been the society o# individua" rights and se"#interest that it is today' how and when did it be come soC %"assica" repub"icanism is e"itist' and it certain"y had "itt"e to o##er the important new socia" groups o# artisans and shop$eepers that emerged in 0merica during the eighteenth century. These midd"e-c"ass radica"s' #or whom @ohn 8i"$es and Thomas 6aine were spo$esmen' had none o# the independence #rom the mar$et that the "anded gentry had. They were "ess concerned with virtue and community than they were with e+ua"ity and private rights. They hated po"itica" privi"ege and wanted #reedom #rom an e"ite-dominated state. /n short' the United tates was created not in a mood o# c"assica" an5iety over virtue and corruption' but in a mood o# "ibera" optimism over individua" pro#its and prosperity.

GMAT

211

1.

&hich of the following best states the author4s main point% (A) Classical republicanism could not ha'e been the ideological basis of eighteenth(century America. (B) Classical republicanism is an elitist theory that was re<ected by eighteenth( century artisans and shopkeepers. (C) @ocock understates the importance of the contributions ?achia'elli made to the formation of early American culture. ( ) @ocock fails to capture the great e$tent to which eighteenth(century Americans were committed to a sense of ci'ic duty. (#) @ocock4s account of Aefferson is incompatible with Aefferson4s commitment to a Kockean notion of liberty.

2.

The conception of liberty that/ according to @ocock/ formed the basis of America4s eighteenth(century ideology is most clearly e$hibited by which of the following indi'iduals% (A) The merchant who rebuilds the damaged sidewalk in front of his store in order to a'oid potential lawsuits by customers who might fall there (B) The professor who allows her students to help her design the content and the format of the courses she teaches (C) The doctor who bows to go'ernment pressure and agrees to treat a small number of low(income patients at no cost ( ) The lawyer who argues that a state law prohibiting smoking in public places unfairly encroaches on the rights of smokers (#) The engineer whose business suffers as a result of the personal time and energy he de'otes to a program to clean up city streets

..

According to the author/ eighteenth(century American artisans and shopkeepers had little reason to (A) support the political efforts of Thomas Aefferson (B) re<ect the ideals of classical 'irtue (C) embrace the principles of classical republicanism ( ) renounce the political ob<ecti'es of the British #mpire (#) worry about increasing profits and maintaining general prosperity

0.

The author mentions which of the following as a fact that weakens @ocock4s argument about the ideology of eighteenth(century America% (A) Aefferson4s obsession with 'irtue and corruption and his fear of commercial de'elopment (B) The precapitalist mentality that was per'asi'e among farmers in early America (C) The political decline of artisans and shopkeepers in eighteenth(century

212

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America ( ) The colonists4 lack of commitment to support the general welfare of the British #mpire (#) The e$istence of political pri'ilege in early American society 1. The passage suggests that/ if classical republicanism had been the ideology of eighteenth(century America/ which of the following would ha'e resulted% (A) @eople would ha'e been moti'ated to open small businesses and e$pand commercial acti'ity. (B) Citi!ens and politicians would not ha'e been encouraged to agitate for increased indi'idual rights. (C) @eople would ha'e been con'inced that by pursuing their own interests they were contributing to the good of the group. ( ) The political and social pri'ileges en<oyed by the landed gentry would ha'e been destroyed. (#) A mood of optimism among people o'er indi'idual profits and prosperity would ha'e been created. 2. The author implies that @ocock4s argument about the ideology of eighteenth( century America would be more plausible if the argument e$plained which of the following% (A) )ow a society that was once committed to the ideals of classical 'irtue could be transformed into a society of indi'idual rights and self(interest (B) )ow Thomas Aefferson could ha'e become obsessed with indi'idual rights and with prosperity and profits (C) &hy classical republicanism had such wide appeal among those who were free from the demands of the marketplace ( ) &hy many colonists who embraced classical republicanism were reluctant to place their indi'idual interests abo'e those of Breat Britain (#) &hy the landed gentry in eighteenth(century America should ha'e belie'ed that moral fulfillment is achie'ed by participating in a self(go'erning republic -. According to the passage/ @ocock4s theory suggests that many eighteenth(century Americans belie'ed that increasing commercial acti'ity would (A) force the landed gentry to relin"uish their 'ast holdings (B) enrich the nation and increase indi'idual rights (C) cause some people to forfeit their liberty and 'irtue ( ) create a mood of optimism about national prosperity (#) strengthen the political appeal of middle(class radicals 6. The author is primarily concerned with

GMAT

21-

(A) refuting a proposed thesis about eighteenth(century America (B) analy!ing a long(established interpretation of American history (C) critici!ing a set of deeply held beliefs about early American ideology ( ) reconciling opposing interpretations of eighteenth(century American ideology (#) defending a no'el reading of the ideology of eighteenth(century America Passage 84 (21/22)
0strophysicists wrest"ing with the study o# a new $ind o# star' the #"at' ;two-dimensiona"< con#igurations $nown as accretion dis$s have recent"y gained new insights into the behavior o# these stars. 0ccretion dis$s e5ist in a variety o# situations where matters swir" around a compact star such as a white dwar# star or a neutron star. 0ccretion dis$s are a"so suspected o# p"aying a part in more e5otic situations' in which the centra" ob2ect is imagined to be a supermassive b"ac$ ho"e' the u"timate #orm o# co""apsed matter' rather than a compact star. The mode"ing o# accretion dis$s is sti"" in its in#ancy' a situation ana"ogous to the days when ordinary stars were mode"ed by using e"ementary sca"ing "aws without bene#it o# $now"edge o# the nuc"ear processes that power the stars. imi"ar"y' the basic physics o# the power by which accretion dis$s radiate' thought to originate in a #orm o# turbu"ent #riction' is $nown on"y at the crudest "eve". 0ccretion dis$s were #irst de#ined in the conte5t o# %atac"ysmic variab"es. /n these systems' matter #rom the outer "ayers o# an ordinary star is attracted by the gravitationa" in#"uence o# a nearby orbiting white dwar# star' the matter "ost #rom the ordinary star cannot stri$e the sur#ace o# the tiny white dwar# direct"y but sett"es into an orbit around the star. The viscosity in the dis$ thus #ormed causes heating' radiation' and a s"ow spira"ing o# dis$ matter onto the sur#ace o# the white dwar#. The rapid advances made in 5-ray astronomy in the past decade have identi#ied a second type o# system in which accretion dis$s occur. /n such a system' an accretion dis$ whir"s about a neutron star rather than a white dwar#. The inner reaches o# the accretion dis$ e5tend deep"y into the gravitationa" potentia" o# the neutron star where very rapid motion is the ru"e. The energy re"eased by #riction and the actua" raining o# the materia" #rom the dis$ onto the sur#ace o# the neutron star is so great that radiation is given o## in a power#u" #"ood o# 5rays. 0nd in at "east one case' 5-ray astronomers be"ieve that the ob2ect in the center o# an accretion dis$ is a b"ac$ ho"e' suggesting that a third system may e5ist. /t had been assumed that portions o# accretion dis$s wou"d be unstab"e and that' as a resu"t' c"umping o# their matter into rings wou"d occur. There is no evidence #rom observation' however' that accretion dis$s do' in #act' su##er #rom these instabi"ities. /n recent wor$' 0bramowic) has shown that added gravitationa" e##ects due to genera" re"ativity may a"ter the e5pected *ewtonian gravitationa" re"ationships in such a way that the dis$ remains stab"e' indicating that it is possib"e that these predicted instabi"ities do not occur. 7urther progress toward understanding accretion dis$s wi"" invo"ve de#ining and proposing so"utions to restricted prob"ems 2ust as was done in this case and was done and continues to be done #or ordinary stars. 0bramowic)3 wor$ is a va"uab"e e5amp"e o# the care

216

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that must be ta$en be#ore reaching conc"usions regarding accretion dis$s.

1.

The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) comparing Abramowic!4 work to the work of earlier astrophysicists (B) pro'iding information about accretion disks and discussing significant new work (C) defining the conditions under which accretion disks can be obser'ed ( ) e$ploring the "uestion of whether a black hole can e'er be the central ob<ect of an accretion disk (#) describing the phenomenon of accretion disks and re'iewing se'eral conflicting theories of their origins

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that predictions of the instability of accretion disks were based on which of the following% (A) A calculation of the probable effects of standard 9ewtonian gra'itational relationships (B) A calculation of the probable relationship between general relati'ity and standard 9ewtonian gra'itational relationships (C) A calculation of the energy released by friction within a compact star ( ) 8bser'ation of the $(rays radiated by compact stars (#) 8bser'ation of the clumping of accretion disk matter into rings around compact stars

..

The author4s attitude toward Abramowic!4 work can best be described as one of (A) uncertain appro'al (B) un"ualified respect (C) mild interest ( ) careful dismissal (#) hostile skepticism

0.

The passage suggests which of the following about current scientific knowledge of the nuclear processes of ordinary stars% (A) 3ts pattern of de'elopment has been analogous to that of de'elopments in $( ray astronomy. (B) 3ts role in the e$planation of turbulent friction has been significant. (C) 3t has contributed to a more accurate modeling of ordinary stars. ( ) 3t lags behind knowledge of scaling laws. (#) 3t e$plains the beha'ior of accretion disks as well as that of ordinary stars.

1.

The passage suggests that Abramowic!4 work was moti'ated by which of the following assumptions% (A) The "uantity of energy released by accretion disks can be as large as it is only

GMAT

21,

if the disks are stable. (B) 3mpro'ed techni"ues in $(ray astronomy would re'eal any instabilities occurring in accretion disks. (C) The lack of obser'ational e'idence of instabilities in accretion disks suggests that predictions of their occurrence might be wrong. ( ) Mnown methods of obser'ing accretion disk surrounding compact stars and black holes do not permit the obser'ation of the matter in accretion disks. (#) The gra'itational potential of compact stars does not 'ary from star to star. 2. The passage implies which of the following about the progress of knowledge in astrophysics% (A) Adherence to outdated theories has/ in the past/ limited the acti'ities of astrophysicists and restricted progress. (B) @rogress has/ in the past/ occurred only as a result of significant breakthroughs in basic physics and chemistry. (C) @rogress has/ in the past/ occurred as a result of a process of defining and sol'ing restricted problems. ( ) Bi'en the recent ac"uisition of knowledge about the nuclear processes of stars/ further progress is likely to be limited to the refinement of what is already known. (#) Conclusions in astrophysics ha'e/ in the past/ been seriously flawed/ thus limiting progress/ although there ha'e recently been signs of change. -. The passage suggests that/ compared to the study of ordinary stars/ the study of accretion disks is (A) deri'ati'e (B) more sophisticated (C) less clearly focused ( ) at an earlier stage of de'elopment (#) more dependent on technological ad'ances 6. According to the passage/ some accretion disks originated in (A) an increase in heat and radiation around an ordinary star (B) a powerful flood of $(rays emitted by a neutron star (C) a collision between two stars ( ) the turbulent friction on the surface of a compact star (#) the accumulation of matter remo'ed from an ordinary star ,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the significance of Abramowic!4 work is that it (A) pro'ides a means of measuring the gra'itational potential of neutron stars

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(B) opens a new area for e$ploration in the field of $(ray astronomy (C) pro'es that scaling laws cannot be applied to accretion disks ( ) proposes a new system of classification of stars (#) suggests a resolution of a discrepancy between a theoretical prediction and actual obser'ation Passage 85 (22/22)
/t is an un#ortunate #act that most *orth 0mericans $now "itt"e about 0merican /ndian cu"ture and history. cho"ars have studied such matters' but they have not succeeded in broadcasting their conc"usions wide"y. Thus' it is sti"" not wide"y $nown that 0merican /ndians have epics' that they per#ormed p"ays "ong be#ore =uropeans arrived' and that they practiced po"itics and carried on trade. 9ne way to gain a #u""er appreciation o# this rich cu"ture is to e5amine 0merican /ndian poetry' #or poetry is in a"" cu"tures the most centra" and articu"ate o# the arts. /t is especia""y important that we study 0merican /ndian poetry as this poetry can create a conte5t that gives cohesive e5pression to the cra#ts' the arti#acts' and the iso"ated #acts that many 0mericans have managed to notice wi""y-ni""y. =ven a survey o# 0merican /ndian poetry revea"s a range o# poetic thought and techni+ue that de#ies easy genera"i)ation. @aro"d Ramsey ha)ards a summary' however' which serves at "east to give the uninitiated reader some sense o# what 0merican /ndian poetry is "i$e. 9vera""' he writes' it represents ;an ora"' #ormu"aic' traditiona"' and anonymous art #orm'< whose approach is to emphasi)e the ;mythic and sacred< components o# rea"ity. /t ;#"ourished through pub"ic per#ormances... by s$i""ed recita"ists whose audiences a"ready $new the individua" stories< and va"ued the per#ormers #or their ;abi"ity to e5p"oit their materia" dramatica""y and to combine them their stories in "onger cyc"es< rather than #or their ;p"ot invention.< &ecause this poetry be"ongs to high"y ethnocentric triba" peop"es' whose cu"tures ;we sti"" do not $now much about'< it ;is "i$e"y to seem a"" the more terse' even cryptic.< 0merican /ndian poetry has another #eature that Ramsey ignores> it is a"ways #unctiona". 8hether sung' chanted' or recited: whether per#ormed ceremonia""y' as entertainment' or as part o# a tas$ such as curing a patient or grinding corn: or whether recited individua""y or by a group' it is a"ways #u""y woven into the #abric o# ordinary "i#e. 7or comp"icated reasons' 0merican /ndian poetry has basica""y been ignored by non/ndian cu"tures. Nenneth Einco"n writes that #ai"ure to hear 0merican /ndian voices resu"ts ;part"y...#rom the tragedies o# triba" dis"ocation' part"y #rom mistrans"ation' part"y #rom misconceptions about "iterature' part"y #rom cu"tura" indi##erence.< &rian wann suggests an additiona" e5p"anation> triba" poetry is ora"' whereas =uropeans arrived in the *ew 8or"d with a deep"y ingrained be"ie# in the primacy o# the written word. 0s a resu"t' =uropean sett"es #ound it hard to imagine that poetry cou"d e5ist without written te5ts and thus that the 0merican /ndians had achieved something para""e" to what =uropeans ca""ed "iterature "ong be#ore =uropeans arrived. 0s a conse+uence' =uropeans did not #u""y respond to the rich vita"ity o# 0merican /ndian poetry.

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221

1.

According to the passage/ American 3ndian cultures ha'e produced all of the following forms of artistic e$pression #DC#@T (A) crafts (B) dramas (C) songs ( ) written poems (#) oral epics

2.

According to Aarold =amsey/ American 3ndian poetry is an art form characteri!ed by its (A) unusual depictions of landscapes (B) integration with e'eryday affairs (C) uni'ersal accessibility ( ) highly original plots (#) adaptability to public performance

..

According to Menneth Kincoln/ one of the reasons that non(3ndians ha'e had little knowledge of American 3ndian poetry is that American 3ndian poems (A) ha'e been poorly translated (B) ha'e not yet attracted the scholarly attention they deser'e (C) can be appreciated only when presented orally ( ) are difficult to understand without a background in comparati'e mythology (#) are too stylistically comple$

0.

According to the passage/ it would be unusual for American 3ndian poetry to be (A) attributed to specific authors (B) sung by a group of performers (C) chanted while working ( ) sung during a sacred ceremony (#) performed in a dramatic manner

1.

3t can be inferred from the passage that Brian ;wann belie'es which of the following about the #uropean settlers of America% (A) They probably were more literate/ on the a'erage/ than the general #uropean population they left behind. (B) They probably thought it necessary to understand American 3ndian politics before studying American 3ndian literature. (C) They probably did not recogni!e e'idence of an oral poetic tradition in the American 3ndian cultures they encountered. ( ) They probably could not appreciate American 3ndian poetry because it was composed in long narrati'e cycles.

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(#) They probably did not study American 3ndian poetry because its sub<ect matter was too practically oriented. 2. The tone of lines 12(12 suggests that the author belie'es that most Americans4 knowledge of American 3ndian culture can best be characteri!ed as (A) spotty and contradictory (B) stereotyped and limited (C) confused and inaccurate ( ) unsystematic and superficial (#) 'ague and biased -. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph of the passage% (A) An obser'ation is made and "ualifications of it are pro'ided. (B) A phenomenon is noted and e$planations for it are presented. (C) A hypothesis is presented and arguments against it are cited. ( ) A prognosis is made and e'idence supporting it is discussed. (#) A criticism is presented and information e$panding it is pro'ided. GMAT 15Passages Passage 86 (1/15)
=ar"y mode"s o# the geography o# the metropo"is were unice""u"ar> that is' they assumed that the entire urban district wou"d norma""y be dominated by a sing"e centra" district' around which the various economic #unctions o# the community wou"d be #ocused. This centra" business district (%&F) is the source o# so-ca""ed high-order goods and services' which can most e##icient"y be provided #rom a centra" "ocation rather than #rom numerous wide"y dispersed "ocations. Thus' retai"ers o# in#re+uent"y and irregu"ar"y purchased goods' such as #ur coats' 2ewe"ry' and anti+ue #urniture' and specia"i)ed service out"ets' such as theaters' advertising agencies' "aw #irms' and government agencies' wi"" genera""y be #ound in the %&F. &y contrast' "ess cost"y' more #re+uent"y demanded goods' such as groceries and housewares' and "ow-order services' such as shoe repair and hairdressing' wi"" be avai"ab"e at many sma""' wide"y scattered out"ets throughout the metropo"is. &oth the concentric-ring mode" o# the metropo"is' #irst deve"oped in %hicago in the "ate nineteenth century' and the sector mode"' c"ose"y associated with the wor$ o# (omer (oyt in the 194.s' ma$e the %&F the #oca" point o# the metropo"is. The concentric-ring mode" assumes that the varying degrees o# need #or accessibi"ity to the %&F o# various $inds o# economic entities wi"" be the main determinant o# their "ocation. Thus' who"esa"e and manu#acturing #irms' which need easy accessibi"ity to the specia"i)ed "ega"' #inancia"' and governmenta" services provided in the %&F' wi"" norma""y be "ocated 2ust outside the %&F itse"#. Residentia" areas wi"" occupy the outer rings o# the mode"' with "ow-income groups residing in the re"ative"y crowded o"der housing c"ose to the business )one and high-income

GMAT

22.

groups occupying the outermost ring' in the more spacious' newer residentia" areas bui"t up through urban e5pansion. (omer (oyt3s sector mode" is a modi#ied version o# the concentric-ring mode". Recogni)ing the in#"uence o# ear"y estab"ished patterns o# geographic distribution on the "ater growth o# the city' (oyt deve"oped the concept o# directional inertia. 0ccording to (oyt' custom and socia" pressures tend to perpetuate "ocationa" patterns within the city. Thus' i# a particu"ar part o# the city (say' the east side) becomes a common residentia" area #or higher-income #ami"ies' perhaps because o# a particu"ar topographica" advantage such as a "a$e or other desirab"e #eature' #uture e5pansion o# the high-income segment o# the popu"ation is "i$e"y to proceed in the same direction. /n our e5amp"e' as the metropo"is e5pands' a wedge-shaped sector wou"d deve"op on the east side o# the city in which the higher-income residence wou"d be c"ustered. Eower-income residences' a"ong with manu#acturing #aci"ities' wou"d be con#ined' there#ore' to the western margins o# the %&F. 0"though (oyt3s mode" undoubted"y represented an advance in sophistication over the simp"er concentric-ring mode"' neither mode" #u""y accounts #or the increasing importance o# #oca" points other than the traditiona" %&F. Recent years have witnessed he estab"ishment around o"der cities o# secondary nuc"ei centered on suburban business districts. /n other cases' particu"ar $inds o# goods' services' and manu#acturing #aci"ities have c"ustered in specia"i)ed centers away #rom the %&F' encouraging the deve"opment o# particu"ar housing patterns in the ad2acent areas. 0 new mu"tice""u"ar mode" o# metropo"itan geography is needed to e5press these and other emerging trends o# urban growth.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) e$plain the significance of )oyt4s concept of directional inertia and its effect on patterns of urban growth (B) emphasi!e the inade"uacy of past attempts to e$plain patterns of urban geography (C) analy!e two 'arying theories concerning the distribution of residential areas within and around the metropolis ( ) describe two models of metropolitan geography and suggest their limitations (#) show the importance of the central business district as a focus for urban growth

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that according to a unicellular urban model/ law firms are commonly located near the center of a city mainly because (A) law firms benefit from the pro$imity to financial and go'ernmental ser'ices that a center city location pro'ides (B) the demand for legal ser'ices is too irregular to support many small law firms in the outer districts of the city (C) law firms re"uire accessibility to the wholesale and retail businesses that pro'ide a ma<or share of their clientele ( ) the high(income groups that make up the primary users of legal ser'ices

220

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demand easy access to the firms4 offices (#) the speciali!ed ser'ice personnel re"uired by a law firm are often interested in residing as close as possible to the city center .. According to the concentric(ring model/ in which of the following orders (from the center of the city outward) would the areas of the typical city be arranged% (A) central business district/ low(income housing/ wholesale and manufacturing businesses/ high(income housing (B) central business district/ wholesale and manufacturing businesses/ low( income housing/ high(income housing (C) wholesale and manufacturing businesses/ central business district/ low( income housing/ high(income housing ( ) central business district/ high(income housing/ wholesale and manufacturing businesses/ low(income housing (#) wholesale and manufacturing businesses/ low(income housing/ central business district/ high(income housing 0. According to the passage/ the sector model differs from the concentric(ring model primarily in that it (A) stresses the role of topographic features in determining patterns of urban de'elopment (B) emphasi!es the continuing e$pansion of the city as an influence on urban de'elopment (C) recogni!es the importance of focal points of urban growth other than the traditional central business district ( ) assumes that the need for access to the central business district is the main determinant of urban de'elopmental patterns (#) takes into account the influence of certain social factors on urban geographical patterns 1. The passage states that both the concentric(ring model and the sector model (A) inade"uately represent the forms of urban de'elopment emerging in today4s cities (B) need to be considerably refined to be of real use to students of urban growth (C) ha'e been superseded by more recently de'eloped models of urban growth ( ) represent older cities more accurately than they do newly founded metropolitan areas (#) fail to e$plain the rapid outward growth of cities that has occurred in recent years 2. According to the passage/ an updated model of urban geography would indicate the

GMAT

221

(A) phenomenal growth in population and area of suburban residential districts beyond the limits of the city itself (B) recent decline in the influence of business and industry o'er the geographical patterns of urban growth (C) growing importance of urban business and ser'ice centers located away from the central business district ( ) clustering of business facilities in recently built areas/ while older districts are turned into residential areas (#) gradual displacement of older urban centers by new/ more highly speciali!ed cities in geographically dispersed locations -. All of the following are e$amples of the emerging trends of urban growth described in the last paragraph of the passage #DC#@T (A) the construction in a suburban community of a large shopping mall where many of the local residents do most of their buying (B) the opening of an industrial park on the outskirts of a declining older city (C) the construction of hospital(medical school comple$ near a highway fifteen miles from a downtown business district ( ) the building of a residential de'elopment near a suburban tool factory to house the factory workers and their families (#) the creation of a lu$ury housing de'elopment in a rural setting thirty miles from the center of a city 6. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph of the passage% (A) 3t summari!es the information presented in the first three paragraphs and draws some conclusions. (B) 3t outlines a new model/ applies it to recent phenomena/ and argues in fa'or of its adoption. (C) 3t introduces no e'idence in support of an e$isting model. ( ) 3t e'aluates two models in the light of recent e'idence and ad'ocates the de'elopment of a third model. (#) 3t compares one model unfa'orably with another and de'elops the comparison by citing e$amples. Passage 87 (2/15)
There is widespread be"ie# that the emergence o# giant industries has been accompanied by an e+uiva"ent surge in industria" research. 0 recent study o# important inventions made since the turn o# the century revea"s that more than ha"# were the product o# individua" inventors wor$ing a"one' independent o# organi)ed industria" research. 8hi"e industria" "aboratories contributed such important products as ny"on and transistors' independent

222

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inventors deve"oped air conditioning' the automatic transmission' the 2et engine' the he"icopter' insu"in' and streptomycin. ti"" other inventions' such as stain"ess stee"' te"evision' si"icones' and 6"e5ig"as were deve"oped through the combined e##orts o# individua"s and "aboratory teams. Fespite these #inding' we are urged to support monopo"istic power on the grounds that such power creates an environment supportive o# innovation. 8e are to"d that the independent inventor' a"ong with the sma"" #irm' cannot a##ord to underta$e the important research needed to improve our standard o# "iving whi"e protecting our diminishing resources: that on"y the giant corporation or cong"omerate' with its prodigious assets' can a##ord the $ind o# e5penditures that produce the techno"ogica" advances vita" to economic progress. &ut when we e5amine e5penditures #or research' we #ind that o# the more than ,4- bi""ion spent each year in this country' a"most two-thirds is spent by the #edera" government. ?ore than ha"# o# this government e5penditure is #unne"ed into mi"itary research and product deve"opment' accounting #or the enormous increase in spending in such industries as nuc"ear energy' aircra#t' missi"es' and e"ectronics. There are those who consider it +uestionab"e that these de#ense-"in$ed research pro2ects wi"" either improve our standard o# "iving or do much to protect our diminishing resources. Recent history has demonstrated that we may have to a"ter our "ongstanding conception o# the process actuated by competition. The price variab"e' once perceived as the dominant aspect o# the process' is now subordinate to the competition o# the new product' the new business structure' and the new techno"ogy. 8hi"e it can be assumed that in a high"y competitive industry not dominated by sing"e corporation' investment in innovation!a ris$y and e5pensive budget item!might meet resistance #rom management and stoc$ho"ders concerned about cost-cutting' e##icient organi)ation' and "arge advertising budgets' it wou"d be an egregious error to e+uate the monopo"istic producer with bounti#u" e5penditures on research. Earge-sca"e enterprises tend to operate more com#ortab"y in stab"e and secure circumstances' and their manageria" bureaucracies tend to promote the status +uo and resist the threat imp"icit in change. ?oreover' in some cases' industria" giants #aced with "itt"e or no competition see$ to avoid the capita" "oss resu"ting #rom obso"escence by de"iberate"y obstructing techno"ogica" progress. &y contrast' sma"" #irms undeterred by "arge investments in p"ant and capita" e+uipment o#ten aggressive"y pursue new techni+ues and new products' investing in innovation in order to e5pand their mar$et shares. The cong"omerates are not' however' comp"ete"y e5cept #rom strong competitive pressures. There are instances in which they too must compete with another industria" Ao"iath' and then their weapons may inc"ude "arge e5penditures #or innovation.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) ad'ocate an increase in go'ernment support of organi!ed industrial research (B) point out a common misconception about the relationship between the e$tent of industrial research and the growth of monopolistic power in industry (C) describe the inade"uacies of small firms in dealing with the important matter of research and inno'ation

GMAT

22-

( ) show that America4s strength depends upon indi'idual ingenuity and resourcefulness (#) encourage free(market competition among industrial giants 2. According to the passage/ important in'entions of the twentieth century (A) were produced largely as a result of go'ernmental support for military weapons research and de'elopment (B) came primarily from the huge laboratories of monopolistic industries (C) were produced at least as fre"uently by independent in'entors as by research teams ( ) ha'e greater impact on smaller firms than on conglomerates (#) sometimes ad'ersely affect our standard of li'ing and diminish our natural resources .. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph of the passage% (A) #$penditures for 'arious aspects of research are listed. (B) =easons for supporting monopolistic power are gi'en and then "uestioned. (C) Arguments are presented for minimi!ing competiti'e bidding for research. ( ) =esources necessary for research are defined. (#) Costs for 'aried aspects of military research are "uestioned. 0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author (A) has little confidence in the ability of monopolistic industry to produce the important in'entions of the future (B) would rather see the federal go'ernment spend money on social ser'ices than on the defense establishment (C) fa'ors a conser'ati'e approach to inno'ation and places trust in conglomerates to pro'ide efficient production ( ) feels that price should still be the dominant 'ariable in the competiti'e process (#) belie'es that e$cessi'e competition is a deterrent to inno'ation 1. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions% 3. 33. &hat portion of the research dollar in this country is spent each year by the federal go'ernment% :nder what circumstances is an industrial giant likely to in'est hea'ily in inno'ation%

333. &hy might a monopolistic producer want to suppress an inno'ation% (A) 3 only (B) 33 only

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(C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 2. &ith which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most likely to agree% (A) ?onopolistic power creates an en'ironment supporti'e of inno'ation. (B) Bo'ernmental e$penditure for military research will do much to protect our dwindling resources. (C) 3ndustrial giants/ with their managerial bureaucracies/ respond more "uickly to technological change than smaller firms do. ( ) >irms with a small share of the market aggressi'ely pursue inno'ations because they are not locked into old capital e"uipment. (#) The independent in'entor cannot afford to undertake the research needed to impro'e our standard of li'ing. -. &hich of the following proposals best responds to the issues raised by the author% (A) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be lifted/ and go'ernment funding should be made a'ailable to large corporations wishing to engage in research. (B) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be tightened/ and go'ernment funding should be made a'ailable to small corporations and independent indi'iduals wishing to engage in research. (C) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be tightened/ and no go'ernment funding should be pro'ided to any corporations or indi'iduals wishing to engage in research. ( ) The amount the go'ernment spends on military research should be decreased/ and the amount it spends to impro'ed the standard of li'ing should be increased. (#) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be lifted/ and no go'ernment funding should be pro'ided to any corporations or indi'iduals wishing to engage in research. 6. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s main point% (A) 3n the last decade/ conglomerates ha'e significantly increased their research budgets for defense technology. (B) Ta$ restructuring permits smaller firms to write off a larger percentage of profits against research. (C) A ten(year study of the e$tent of resources de'oted to research by smaller enterprises re'eals a steady decline. ( ) ?ilitary research is being directed more e$tensi'ely to space technology than to short(range missiles.

GMAT

22,

(#) Competition from foreign industries has increased the cost of labor and materials. Passage 88 (3/15)

haw3s de#ense o# a theater o# ideas brought him up against both his great bugbears! commercia"i)ed art on the one hand and 0rt #or 0rt3s a$e on the other. (is teaching is that beauty is a by-product o# other activity: that the artist writes out o# mora" passion (in #orms varying #rom po"itica" conviction to re"igious )ea")' not out o# "ove o# art: that the pursuit o# art #or its own sa$e is a #orm o# se"#-indu"gence as bad as any other sort o# sensua"ity. /n the end' the errors o# ;pure< art and o# commercia"i)ed art are identica"> they both appea" primari"y to the senses. True art' on the other hand' is not mere"y a matter o# p"easure. /t may be unp"easant. 0 #avorite havian metaphor #or the #unction o# the arts is that o# tooth-pu""ing. =ven i# the patient is under "aughing gas' the tooth is sti"" pu""ed. The history o# aesthetics a##ords more e5amp"es o# a didactic than o# a hedonist view. &ut haw3s didacticism ta$es an unusua" turn in its app"ication to the history o# arts. /#' as haw ho"ds' ideas are a most important part o# a wor$ o# art' and i#' as he a"so ho"ds' ideas go out o# date' it #o""ows that even the best wor$s o# art go out o# date in some important respects and that the genera""y he"d view that great wor$s are in a"" respects eterna" is not shared by haw. /n the pre#ace to Three Plays for Puritans' he maintains that renewa" in the arts means renewa" in phi"osophy' that the #irst great artist who comes a"ong a#ter a renewa" gives to the new phi"osophy #u"" and #ina" #orm' that subse+uent artists' though even more gi#ted' can do nothing but re#ine upon the master without matching him. haw' whose essentia" modesty is as disarming as his pose o# vanity is disconcerting' assigns to himse"# the ro"e' not o# the master' but o# the pioneer' the ro"e o# a ?ar"owe rather than o# a ha$espeare. ;The whir"igig o# time wi"" soon bring my audiences to my own point o# view'< he writes' ;and then the ne5t ha$espeare that comes a"ong wi"" turn these petty tentatives o# mine into masterpieces #ina" #or their epoch.< ;7ina" #or their epoch<!even ha$espearean masterpieces are not #ina" beyond that. *o one' says haw' wi"" ever write a better tragedy than 'ear or a better opera than -on .iovanni or a better music drama than -er *ing des +i$elungen/ but 2ust as essentia" to a p"ay as this aesthetic merit is mora" re"evance which' i# we ta$e a natura"istic and historica" view o# mora"s' it "oses' or part"y "oses' in time. haw' who has the courage o# his historicism' consistent"y withstands the view that mora" prob"ems do not change' and argues there#ore that #or us modern "iterature and music #orm a &ib"e surpassing in signi#icance the (ebrew &ib"e. That is haw3s anticipatory cha""enge to the neo-orthodo5y o# today.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to discuss (A) the unorthodo$y of ;haw4s 'iews on the Bible (B) the aesthetic merit of ;haw4s plays (C) ;haw4s theory of art ( ) ;ha'ian e$amples of the theater of ideas

2.5

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(#) ;haw4s naturalistic and historical 'iew of morals 2. The author sets off the word *pure+ (line ,) with "uotation marks in order to (A) contrast it with the word *true/+ which appears later (line 15) (B) suggest that/ in this conte$t/ it is synonymous with *commerciali!ed+ (line ,) (C) underscore its importance ( ) strip away its negati'e connotations (#) emphasi!e its positi'e connotations .. According to the author/ ;haw compares art to tooth(pulling (lines 12(10) in order to show that (A) the moral rele'ance of a work of art must be e$tracted from the epoch in which it was created (B) true art is painful to the senses (C) e'en the best works of art go out of date ( ) pleasure is not the sole purpose of art (#) all art has a lasting effect on its audience 0. According to the author/ ;haw4s didacticism was unusual in that it was characteri!ed by (A) idealism (B) historicism (C) hedonism ( ) moralism (#) religious !eal 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ;haw would probably agree with all of the following statements about ;hakespeare #DC#@TE (A) )e wrote out of a moral passion. (B) All of his plays are out of date in some important respect. (C) )e was the most profound and original thinker of his epoch. ( ) )e was a greater artist than ?arlowe. (#) )is ear gi'es full and final form to the philosophy of his age. 2. &hich of the following does the author cite as a contradiction in ;haw% (A) &hereas he pretended to be 'ain/ he was actually modest. (B) )e "uestioned the significance of the )ebrew Bible/ and yet he belie'ed that a great artist could be moti'ated by religious !eal. (C) Although he insisted that true art springs from moral passion/ he re<ected the notion that morals do not change. ( ) )e considered himself to be the pioneer of a new philosophy/ but he hoped

GMAT

2.1

his audiences would e'entually adopt his point of 'iew. (#) 8n the one hand/ he held that ideas are a most important part of a work of artI on the other hand/ he belie'ed that ideas go out of date. -. The ideas attributed to ;haw in the passage suggest that he would most likely agree with which of the following statements% (A) #'ery great poet digs down to a le'el where human nature is always and e'erywhere alike. (B) A play cannot be comprehended fully without some knowledge and imaginati'e understanding of its conte$t. (C) A great music drama like !er "ing des Nibelungen springs from a lo'e of beauty/ not from a lo'e of art. ( ) ?orality is immutableI it is not something to be discussed and worked out. (#) !on #io$anni is a masterpiece because it is as rele'ant today as it was when it was created. 6. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions% 3. 33. According to ;haw/ what is the most important part of a work of art% 3n ;haw4s 'iew/ what does the )ebrew Bible ha'e in common with on Bio'anni%

333. According to the author/ what was ;haw4s assessment of himself as a playwright% (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 ,. As it is re'ealed in the passage/ the author4s attitude toward ;haw can best be described as (A) condescending (B) completely neutral (C) appro'ing ( ) en'ious (#) adulatory Passage 89 (4/15)
9ne o# the many theories about a"coho"ism is the "earning and rein#orcement theory' which e5p"ains a"coho"ism by considering a"coho" ingestion as a re#"e5 response to some stimu"us and as a way to reduce an inner drive state such as #ear or an5iety. %haracteri)ing "i#e situations in terms o# approach and avoidance' this theory ho"ds that persons tend to be

2.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

drawn to p"easant situations and repe""ed by unp"easant ones. /n the "atter case' a"coho" ingestion is said to reduce the tension or #ee"ings o# unp"easantness and to rep"ace them with the #ee"ing o# euphoria genera""y observed in most persons a#ter they have consumed one or more drin$s. ome e5perimenta" evidence tends to show that a"coho" reduces #ear in the approachavoidance situation. %onger trained one group o# rats to approach a #ood goa" and' using aversion conditioning' trained another group to avoid e"ectric shoc$. 0#ter an in2ection o# a"coho" the pu"" away #rom the shoc$ was measurab"e wea$er' whi"e the pu"" toward the #ood was unchanged. The obvious troub"es e5perienced by a"coho"ic persons appear to contradict the "earning theory in the e5p"anation o# a"coho"ism. The discom#ort' pain' and punishment they e5perience shou"d presumab"y serve as a deterrent to drin$ing. The #act that a"coho"ic persons continue to drin$ in the #ace o# #ami"y discord' "oss o# emp"oyment' i""ness' and other se+ue"s o# repeated bouts is e5p"ained by the pro5imity o# the drive reduction to the consumption o# a"coho": that is' a"coho" has the immediate e##ect o# reducing tension whi"e the unp"easant conse+uences o# drun$en behavior come on"y "ater. The "earning paradigm' there#ore' #avors the estab"ishment and repetition o# the resort to a"coho". /n #act' the an5ieties and #ee"ings o# gui"t induced by the conse+uences o# e5cessive a"coho" ingestion may themse"ves become the signa" #or another bout o# a"coho" abuse. The way in which the cue #or another bout cou"d be the an5iety itse"# is e5p"ained by the process o# stimu"us genera"i)ation> conditions or events occurring at the time o# rein#orcement tend to ac+uire the characteristics o# state o# an5iety or #ear' the emotiona" state itse"# ta$es on the properties o# a stimu"us' thus triggering another drin$ing bout. The ro"e o# punishment is becoming increasing"y important in #ormu"ating a cause o# a"coho"ism based on the princip"es o# "earning theory. 8hi"e punishment may serve to suppress a response' e5periments have shown that in some cases it can serve as a reward and rein#orce the behavior. Thus i# the a"coho"ic person has "earned to drin$ under conditions o# both reward and punishment' either type o# condition may precipitate renewed drin$ing. 0mp"e e5perimenta" evidence supports the hypothesis that e5cessive a"coho" consumption can be "earned. &y gradua""y increasing the concentration o# a"coho" in drin$ing water' psycho"ogists have been ab"e to induce the ingestion o# "arger amounts o# a"coho" by an anima" than wou"d be norma""y consumed. 9ther researchers have been ab"e to achieve simi"ar resu"ts by varying the schedu"e o# rein#orcement!that is' by re+uiring the anima" to consume "arger and "arger amounts o# the a"coho" so"utions be#ore rewarding it. /n this manner' anima"s "earn to drin$ enough to become dependent on a"coho" in terms o# demonstrating withdrawa" symptoms.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) compare the learning and reinforcement theory to other theories of alcoholism (B) discuss how the beha'ior of alcoholic persons is e$plained by learning theory (C) argue that alcoholism is a learned beha'ior

GMAT

2..

( ) e$plain how fear and an$iety stimulate and reinforce drinking in alcoholic persons (#) present e$perimental e'idence in support of the learning and reinforcement theory of alcoholism 2. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions% (A) &hat are some of the psychosocial problems associated with alcoholism% (B) &hich has pro'en more effecti'e in the treatment of alcoholism/ a'ersion conditioning or reinforcement% (C) &hy does alcohol ingestion reduce tension and gi'e rise to a feeling of euphoria in most people% ( ) According to the learning theory/ in what cases does punishment reinforce rather than deter drinking in alcoholic persons% (#) Are some persons genetically predisposed to alcoholism% .. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a'ersion conditioning is based primarily on the principle that (A) electric shock stimulates a response (B) beha'ior that is punished will be a'oided (C) pain is a stronger stimulus than pleasure ( ) alcohol reduces fear (#) beha'ior that is rewarded will be repeated 0. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of stimulus generali!ation% (A) 3t contradicts the learning and reinforcement theory of alcoholism. (B) 3t is the process by which an organism learns to respond to one stimulus but not to similar stimuli. (C) 3t supports the hypothesis that e$cessi'e alcohol consumption can be learned. ( ) 3t e$plains why people tend to a'oid beha'ior that is associated with painful e$periences. (#) 3t occurs when the conditions associated with a stimulus come to e'oke the same response as the stimulus itself e'okes. 1. The author cites Conger4s e$periment with two groups of rats in order to (A) show that ingestion of alcohol does not affect appetite (B) corroborate the findings of other academic researchers (C) show that alcohol decreases fear ( ) dispro'e the learning and reinforcement theory (#) con'ince the reader of the usefulness of beha'ioral research 2. According to the passage/ which of the following could induce an alcoholic to

2.0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

drink% 3. 33. The need to relie'e tension An$ieties resulting from guilt feelings about pre'ious drinking bouts

333. @unishment for alcoholic beha'ior (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 -. The passage contains information that supports which of the following statements% (A) 3f the pleasurable taste of whisky leads to an ac"uired taste for brandy/ then stimulus generali!ation has occurred. (B) ;lapping a child for misbeha'ing may o'er time encourage the child to repeat the misbeha'ior. (C) 3f a person has learned to drink under two sets of conditions/ both must be present in order to induce that person to drink again. ( ) Continued hea'y use of alcohol usually causes se'ere damage to the body and ner'ous system. (#) &hen consumed in moderation/ alcohol may benefit health. 6. According to the passage/ how does the beha'ior of alcoholics appear to contradict learning theory% (A) Kearning theory holds that people are drawn by pleasant situations and repelled by unpleasant ones/ but in alcoholics that pattern appears to be re'ersed. (B) Contrary to learning theory/ alcoholic persons do not respond to life situations in terms of approach and a'oidance. (C) The unpleasant conse"uences of e$cessi'e alcoholic consumption do not deter alcoholics from drinking/ as might be predicted from learning theory. ( ) According to learning theory/ drinking is a refle$ response to an e$ternal stimulus/ but for alcoholics it is more often a way to reduce an inner dri'e such as fear. (#) 3nstead of the feeling of euphoria predicted by learning theory/ alcoholics fre"uently e$perience discomfort and pain after drinking. ,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author 'iews the learning and reinforcement theory of alcoholism as (A) credible (B) unassailable

GMAT

2.1

(C) outdated ( ) fallacious (#) re'olutionary Passage 90 (5/15)

(The #o""owing passage was written in 1977.) %hanges in the vo"ume o# unemp"oyment are governed by three #undamenta" #orces> the growth o# the "abor #orce' the increase in output per man-hour' and the growth o# tota" demand #or goods and services. %hanges in the average hours o# wor$ enter in e5act"y para""e" #ashion but have been +uantitative"y "ess signi#icant. 0s productivity rises' "ess "abor is re+uired per do""ar o# nationa" product' or more goods and services can be produced with the same number o# man-hours. /# output does not grow' emp"oyment wi"" certain"y #a"": i# production increases more rapid"y than productivity ("ess any dec"ine in average hours wor$ed)' emp"oyment must rise. &ut the "abor #orce grows' too. Un"ess gross nationa" product (tota" #ina" e5penditure #or goods and services corrected #or price changes) rises more rapid"y than the sum o# productivity increase and "abor #orce growth (again modi#ied #or any change in hours o# wor$)' the increase in emp"oyment wi"" be inade+uate to absorb the growth in the "abor #orce. /nevitab"y the unemp"oyment rate wi"" increase. 9n"y when tota" production e5pands #aster than the rate o# "abor #orce growth p"us the rate o# productivity increase and minus the rate at which average annua" hours #a"" does the unemp"oyment rate #a"". /ncreases in productivity were more important than growth o# the "abor #orce as sources o# the wide gains in output e5perienced in the period #rom the end o# 8or"d 8ar // to the mid-si5ties. These increases in potentia" production simp"y were not matched by increases in demand ade+uate to maintain steady #u"" emp"oyment. =5cept #or the recession years o# 19H9' 19-H' and 19-8' the rate o# economic growth e5ceeded the rate o# productivity increase. (owever' in the "ate 19-.s productivity and the "abor #orce were increasing more rapid"y than usua"' whi"e the growth o# output was s"ower than usua". This accounted #or the change in emp"oyment rates. &ut i# part o# the nationa" purpose is to reduce and contain unemp"oyment' arithmetic is not enough. 8e must $now which o# the basic #actors we can contro" and which we wish to contro". Unemp"oyment wou"d have risen more s"ow"y or #a""en more rapid"y i# productivity had increased more s"ow"y' or the "abor #orce had increased more s"ow"y' or the hours o# wor$ had #a""en more steep"y' or tota" output had grown more rapid"y. These are not independent #actors' however' and a change in any o# them might have caused changes in the others. 0 society can choose to reduce the growth o# productivity' and it can probab"y #ind ways to #rustrate its own creativity. (owever' whi"e a reduction in the growth o# productivity at the e5pense o# potentia" output might resu"t in higher emp"oyment in the short run' the "ong-run e##ect on the nationa" interest wou"d be disastrous. 8e must a"so give consideration to the #act that hidden beneath nationa" averages is continuous movement into' out o#' between' and within "abor mar$ets. 7or e5amp"e' 1- years ago' the average number o# persons in the "abor #orce was 74.H mi""ion' with about GG.7

2.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

mi""ion emp"oyed and 4.9 mi""ion unemp"oyed. Det 1H mi""ion e5perienced some term o# unemp"oyment in that year. ome were new entrants to the "abor #orce: others were "aid o## temporari"y. The remainder were those who were permanent"y or inde#inite"y severed #rom their 2obs. Thus' the average number unemp"oyed during a year understates the actua" vo"ume o# invo"untary disp"acement that occurs. (igh unemp"oyment is not an inevitab"e resu"t o# the pace o# techno"ogica" change but the conse+uence o# passive pub"ic po"icy. 8e can anticipate a moderate increase in the "abor #orce accompanied by a s"ow and irregu"ar dec"ine in hours o# wor$. /t #o""ows that the output o# the economy!and the aggregate demand to buy it!must grow by more than H percent a year 2ust to prevent the unemp"oyment rate #rom rising' and by even more i# the unemp"oyment rate is to #a"" #urther. Det our economy has se"dom' i# ever' grown at a rate greater than 4.- percent #or any e5tended "ength o# time. 8e have no cause o# comp"acency. 6ositive #isca"' monetary' and manpower po"icies wi"" be needed in the #uture.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) define the economic terms used in the discussion of employment (B) critici!e the decisions of past administrations during recession years (C) call for the application of positi'e economic control policies in the years that lie ahead ( ) allay current fears about increasing unemployment (#) document the rise of American producti'ity since &orld &ar 33

2.

According to the passage/ if the labor force does not grow and there is no decline in the a'erage number of hours worked/ under which of the following conditions will the employment rate ine'itably rise% (A) Total production e$pands faster than the total demand for goods and ser'ices. (B) The total demand for goods and ser'ices and producti'ity both rise. (C) 8utput per man(hour and gross national product both rise. ( ) @roducti'ity increases more rapidly than production. (#) @roduction increases more rapidly than output per man(hour.

..

3t can be inferred from the passage than in the late 1,15s/ which of the following occurred% 3. 33. The growth in output was less than ..1 percent. The a'erage number of hours worked declined.

333. The increase in output per man(hour was greater than usual. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333

GMAT

2.-

0.

3t can be inferred from the passage that during the recession years of 1,0,/ 1,10/ and 1,16/ which of the following most likely occurred% (A) The labor force increased more rapidly than it did in any other year between 1,01 and 1,21. (B) ?ore labor was re"uired per dollar of national product than in any other year between 1,01 and 1,21. (C) The a'erage number of hours worked rose. ( ) >ull employment was attained. (#) The rate of unemployment increased.

1.

3t can be inferred from the passage that if a policy to increase employment by reducing the growth of producti'ity at the e$pense of potential output were adopted/ the author most likely would regard it as (A) sound but inade"uate (B) o'erly aggressi'e (C) fri'olous ( ) insidious (#) unob<ectionable

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that/ according to the author/ the actual number of people who e$perience some term of unemployment during any gi'en year (A) is the difference between the number of persons in the labor force and the number of persons employed that year (B) does not reflect mo'ement into/ out of/ between/ and within labor markets (C) e$ceeds the a'erage number unemployed during that year ( ) o'erstate the 'olume of in'oluntary displacement that occurs during the year (#) is impossible to calculate

-.

The passage contains information that answers all of the following "uestions #DC#@TE (A) &hat is gross national product% (B) &hat effect does a change in producti'ity in'ariably ha'e on gross national product% (C) :nder what conditions might employment rise in the short run% ( ) &hat effect does an increase in output and a decrease in number of hours worked ha'e on producti'ity% (#) &hat was the a'erage number of people unemployed in 1,22%

6.

&hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the fifth paragraph of the passage%

2.6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) An assertion is made/ data are pro'ided to support it/ and the assertion is reiterated in different words. (B) ;e'eral figures are gi'en and hypothesis is formulated to e$plain them. (C) An e$ample is gi'en to support the conclusion drawn in the preceding paragraph. ( ) A statement is made/ data are pro'ided to illustrate and amplify the statement/ and a conclusion is drawn. (#) A generali!ation is made and an e$ample is gi'en to refute it. ,. &hich of the following proposals best responds to the author4s concerns% (A) The go'ernment should manipulate the si!e of the labor force to pre'ent future recessions. (B) The go'ernment should maintain some controls o'er the economy/ but it should allow the employment rate to rise and fall with the gross national product/ as a check on labor costs. (C) @eople should accept that unemployment is undesirable but una'oidable. ( ) The go'ernment should manage the economy carefully. (#) The go'ernment should not interfere in the interplay among the three forces affecting unemployment. 15. &hich of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage% (A) &e can and must take steps to ensure that the unemployment rate does not continue to rise as our population and our use of technology increase. (B) 3ncreases in potential production must be matched by increases in demand in order to maintain steady full employment. (C) )igh unemployment is not an ine'itable result of the pace of technological change but the conse"uence of passi'e public policy. ( ) 3f part of the national purpose is to reduce and contain unemployment/ arithmetic is not enough. (#) >ull employment/ regardless of fluctuations in the economy/ is within the realm of possibility. Passage 91 (6/15)

0 ma2ority ta$en co""ective"y may be regarded as a being whose opinions and' most #re+uent"y' whose interests are opposed to those o# another being' which is sty"ed a minority. /# it is admitted that a man possessing abso"ute power may misuse that power by wronging his adversaries' why shou"d a ma2ority not be "iab"e to the same reproachC ?en are not apt to change their characters by agg"omeration: nor does their patience in the presence o# obstac"es increase with the consciousness o# their strength. 7or these reasons we shou"d not wi""ing"y invest any group o# our #e""ows with that un"imited authority which we shou"d re#use to

GMAT
any individua".

2.,

9ne socia" power must a"ways predominate over others' but "iberty is endangered when this power is chec$ed by no obstac"es which may retard its course and #orce it to moderate its own vehemence. Un"imited power is in itse"# a bad and dangerous thing' and no power on earth is so worthy o# honor #or itse"# or o# reverentia" obedience to the rights which it represents that we shou"d admit its uncontro""ed and a""-predominant authority. 8hen the right and means o# abso"ute command are con#erred on a peop"e or a $ing' on an aristocracy or a democracy' a monarchy or a repub"ic' there has been imp"anted the germ o# tyranny. The main evi" o# the present democratic institutions o# the United tates does not arise' as is o#ten asserted in =urope' #rom their wea$ness' but #rom their overpowering strength: the e5cessive "iberty which reigns in that country is not so a"arming as is the very inade+uate security which e5ists against tyranny. 8hen an individua" or a party is wronged in the United tates' to whom can he app"y #or redressC /# to the pub"ic opinion' pub"ic opinion constitutes the ma2ority: i# to the "egis"ature' it represents the ma2ority and imp"icit"y obeys its in2unctions: i# to the e5ecutive power' it is appointed by the ma2ority and remains a passive too" in its hands: the pub"ic troops consist o# the ma2ority under arms: the 2ury is the ma2ority invested with the right o# hearing 2udicia" cases' and in certain states even the 2udges are e"ected by the ma2ority. (owever ini+uitous or absurd the evi" comp"ained about' no sure barrier is estab"ished to de#end against it.

1.

&hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage% (A) The Tyranny of the ?a<ority (B) emocracyE Triumph of the @eople (C) Abuses of @ower ( ) The >ailure of emocracy in the :nited ;tates (#) ?inority =ights

2.

&hich of the following best paraphrases the author4s statement in the third sentence of paragraph 1 (lines -(11)% (A) 3ndi'iduals do not change their beha'ior when they act in concert with others who are likeminded/ and/ knowing they are acting as part of the group/ they are not likely to show greater restraint when opposed than they would if they were acting indi'idually. (B) Broups are not different from one another/ they all show strong impatience when thwarted. (C) The character of men is formed by the accumulation of their traits/ and patience is not a common trait among men of strength. ( ) The leopard does not change its spots no matter how long it li'es/ and it is/ and remains/ patient in the presence of obstacles. (#) ?en change their beha'ior when they act in groupsI they are more patient when they are in the company of their fellows than they are when they are alone.

205

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

..

&ith which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most likely to agree% (A) emocracy is no greater defense against tyranny than is monarchy or aristocracy. (B) ?inority rule would probably be more responsi'e to the needs of all people than ma<ority rule. (C) 9o go'ernment should be trusted since all go'ernments are e"ually tyrannical. ( ) ;ince one social power must always predominate o'er others/ it is futile to pro'ide checks and balances in go'ernment. (#) To render itself immune to the germ of tyranny/ the :nited ;tates should strengthen its political institutions.

0.

&hich of the following/ assuming that each is true/ would most weaken the point that the author is making in the last two paragraphs of the passage% (A) The framers of the :.;. Constitution deliberately separated the three branches of the go'ernment to pre'ent tyranny. (B) There is not a single ma<ority in the :nited ;tatesI there are many ma<orities/ each composed of a different collection of indi'iduals and each acting as a restraint on the others. (C) The >irst Amendment to the :.;. Constitution specifically guarantees the right of each citi!en to petition the go'ernment for redress of grie'ances. ( ) #'en though the :nited ;tates is not a direct democracy/ all :.;. citi!ens ha'e an e"ual opportunity to participate in political life and to hold public office. (#) The framers of the :.;. Constitution had two primary concernsE to pre'ent the go'ernment from e$ercising tyranny o'er the people and to pre'ent the ma<ority from e$ercising tyranny o'er the minority.

1.

The author4s treatment of the topic of the passage can best be described as (A) ironic (B) neutral (C) logical ( ) irre'erent (#) diffident

2.

3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) challenging a commonly held belief (B) contrasting two opposing 'iews (C) ad'ocating a course of action ( ) reconciling an apparent conflict

GMAT

201

(#) proposing a solution to an unrecogni!ed problem Passage 92 (7/15)

0"though much has been written about the theo"ogica" con#"icts with Farwinian theory' "itt"e is $nown o# the power#u" scienti#ic ob2ections that modi#ied Farwin3s be"ie#s. Furing Farwin3s "i#etime' the accepted theory o# heredity was not ?ende"3s theory o# particu"ate inheritance' which' though pub"ished' was unrecogni)ed' but the theory o# b"ending inheritance' which ho"ds that #orms intermediate between those o# the parents resu"t #rom mating. @en$in pointed out that i# a rare and #avorab"e mutation occurred' it wou"d soon be b"ended out by repeated crossings #rom the wi"d-type #orm. Fisputing Farwin3s conception o# evo"ution as proceeding through the natura" se"ection o# those with s"ight"y better characteristics that arose random"y' @en$in conc"uded that natura" se"ection cou"d not account #or the tremendous diversity o# "i#e' hypothesi)ing that "arge numbers o# organisms mutated simu"taneous"y in the same direction!a contro""ed orthogenetic process resemb"ing a series o# ;specia" creations.< ince ;specia" creationism< was an ideo"ogica" target o# his' Farwin #ound himse"# in a +uandary. 0"though he did not abandon his theory' he admitted that natura" se"ection p"ayed a much sma""er part in evo"ution than he had previous"y c"aimed. (e a"so embraced the Eamarc$ian concept that ac+uired traits in parents are transmitted to their o##spring' thus providing a mechanism by which an entire popu"ation cou"d change in the same direction at once. 0nother potent ob2ection came #rom the physicists "ed by Eord Ne"vin' who contested the assumption o# previous geo"ogists and bio"ogists that "i#e had e5isted #or bi""ions o# years' i# not in#inite"y. (ow' they as$ed' cou"d evo"ution proceed by s"ow steps in mi""ions o# years' and how cou"d advanced #orms recent"y evo"ved show such great di##erencesC The Ne"vinists' basing their conc"usion on the assumption that the sun was an incandescent "i+uid mass rapid"y radiating heat' ca"cu"ated that the age o# the earth was between 1. and H. mi""ion years. 0dmitting that their ca"cu"ations were correct and their premises rationa"' Farwin was #orced to ad2ust this theory. (e proposed that change had occurred much more rapid"y in the past than in the present' where species seemed static' and that more advanced #orms varied more rapid"y than "ower #orms. This provided #urther reason to advocate Eamarc$3s theory o# inheritance' because that cou"d account #or the rapid change. /nteresting"y' both these retreats o# Farwin were "ater shown to be #au"ty. The discovery that the sun runs on a near"y in#inite amount o# atomic #ue" tota""y inva"idated Ne"vin3s argument' ?ende" was ;rediscovered< in the twentieth century' when it was pointed out that the particu"ate nature o# inheritance meant that #avorab"e mutation not on"y cou"d persist' but cou"d rapid"y become preva"ent.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) outline the process by which arwin formulated and modified his theory of

202

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

natural selection (B) propose a new interpretation of arwin4s theory of e'olution (C) e$plain how other scientists of the time helped arwin modify and perfect his theories ( ) defend arwinian theory against the ob<ections raised by arwin4s contemporaries in the scientific community (#) discuss some of the scientific contro'ersy that arwin sparked and describe his response to it 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the theory of blending inheritance would predict that the offspring of (A) two strains of snapdragons/ one with abnormal/ radically symmetrical flowers and the other with normal/ bilaterally symmetrical flowers/ would always ha'e normal/ bilaterally symmetrical flowers (B) a white horse and a black horse would always be gray (C) a man with type A blood and a woman with type B blood would always ha'e type A/ type B/ or type AB blood ( ) a fly with large eyes and a fly with small eyes would always ha'e one large eye and one small eye (#) two pink(flowered plants would always be red or white .. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *wild(type+ (line 12) means (A) nonmutant (B) rare (C) abnormal ( ) random (#) fa'orable 0. &hich of the following/ if it could be demonstrated/ would tend to support the Kamarckian concept that arwin embraced% (A) )uman beings e'ol'ed from now(e$tinct animals much like chimpan!ees as a result of an erratic accumulation of changes in the gene pool through thousands of generations. (B) ;ome parental traits disappear in offspring and reappear in the following generation. (C) All species of organisms were immutably created in their present forms. ( ) =ats who ha'e had their trails cut off produce tailless offspring. (#) Those hereditary traits that make their owners more likely to grow up and reproduce become increasingly common in a population from one generation to the ne$t. 1. The author4s attitude toward Aenkin and Mel'in can best be described as

GMAT

20.

(A) respectful (B) contemptuous (C) ambi'alent ( ) denunciatory (#) adulatory 2. According to the passage/ arwin modified his beliefs in order to (A) bring them into line with the theory of particulate inheritance (B) dispro'e Kord Mel'in4s 'iew on the age of the earth (C) meet the ob<ections of Aenkin and Kamarck ( ) resol'e theological conflicts about e'olution (#) dissociate himself from those who belie'ed in *special creationism+ (line 21) -. The author sets off the word *redisco'ered+ (line 11) in "uotation marks in order to (A) emphasi!e that ma<or scientific theories are rarely acknowledged or accepted when they are first promulgated (B) indicate that the term is somewhat ironic/ since ?endel4s work was 'irtually ignored when it was published (C) rebuke the scientific community for deliberately suppressing ?endel4s work until long after his death ( ) underscore the similarity between ?endel4s theory of particulate inheritance and the theory of blending inheritance that was accepted during his lifetime (#) suggest that a scientist of arwin4s stature should ha'e read ?endel4s work when it was first published and immediately recogni!ed its importance 6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if ?endel4s work had been recogni!ed and accepted during arwin4s lifetime/ it would ha'e had which of the following effect% 3. 33. 3t would ha'e refuted Aenkin4s ob<ections to arwin4s theories. 3t would ha'e supported arwin4s theory that e'olution proceeds by 'ery slow steps o'er millions of years.

333. 3t would ha'e clarified and supported arwin4s theory of natural selection. (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 ,. All of the following can be reasonably inferred from the passage #DC#@TE (A) The idea that e'olution occurs by means of natural selection was not widely

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accepted until the twentieth century. (B) arwin4s theories were originally predicated on the assumption that the earth is more than 05 million years old. (C) ?any of arwin4s ideas about heredity were later shown to be incorrect. ( ) 8ther scientists of arwin4s time/ including both Aenkin and Kamarck/ belie'ed in e'olution. (#) arwin was the only scientist of his day who belie'ed in natural selection. Passage 93 (8/15)
/n terms o# its preva"ence' obesity is the "eading disease in the United tates. There is no universa""y accepted standard #or obesity' de#ined genera""y as an e5cess o# adipose tissue' but a common ru"e o# thumb c"assi#ies peop"e who are more than 1. percent above their desirab"e weight as obese. &y this measure' 4. percent o# men and H. percent o# women in 0merica are obese. 0"though studies show that #ew o# these peop"e wi"" ever recover #u""y and permanent"y #rom the disease' the incidence o# obesity in #uture generations can be reduced. 0dipose tissue is a triumph o# evo"ution. 7at yie"ds 9 ca"ories per gram' whi"e protein' "i$e carbohydrates' yie"ds on"y H ca"ories per gram. 7at a"so contains much "ess water than protein does. There#ore' #at is much more e##icient #or storing e5cess energy than is protein. 6rimitive humans' with uncertain #ood sources' had a great need #or e5cess #at' and their bodies adapted according"y. ?odern humans' with a predictab"e #ood supp"y and a sedentary "i#e-sty"e' are burdened by this vestige o# evo"ution. 0"though they need some adipose tissue to provide insu"ation and protect interna" organs #rom in2ury' modern humans need much "ess than their primitive ancestors did. /n an attempt to shed e5cess adipose tissue' many 0mericans turn #rom one #ad diet to another' and a bi""ion-do""ar diet industry has grown up to aid them in their e##orts. *everthe"ess' the #ive-year cure rate #or obesity is very "ow. /n #act' by comparison' cancer is more curab"e. The reasons #or this are psycho"ogica" as we"" as physio"ogica". 7rom a physica" standpoint' "osing a pound or two a wee$ #or a #ew wee$s is not di##icu"t because most o# the "oss is in the #orm o# protein and water' and protein carries #our times its weight in water. (owever' protein is a"so the on"y source o# nitrogen in the body' and when the body "oses too much nitrogen' it acts to correct the imba"ance by e5creting "ess nitrogen than it ta$es in. (ence beyond a certain point additiona" weight "oss must come #rom adipose tissue' which' because o# its compactness' ta$es "onger to shed. The body3s tendency to return to nitrogen ba"ance and to protect its energy reserves can be so strong that dieters may stop "osing or even gain weight whi"e sti"" e5pending more ca"ories than they ingest. 0s a resu"t' they #re+uent"y su##er not on"y #rom hunger' wea$ness' and a decreased metabo"ic rate' but a"so #rom depression and inactivity' a"" o# which "ead them to abandon their diets. 6robab"y because o# numerous psycho"ogica" #actors as we"" as physio"ogica" #actors such as increased "ipid synthesis' they then tend to regain weight rapid"y. 8hi"e vigorous attempts to reduce obesity in 0merica shou"d be aimed at a"" a##ected' the most success#u" e##orts are "i$e"y to be those directed toward chi"dren. /# the advertising and

GMAT
#ood industries stop trying to se"" high-ca"orie' nutritiona""y de#icient #ood to chi"dren' and i#

201

parents understand that the #eeding patterns they impose on their chi"dren can determine the ado"escent and adu"t eating habits those chi"dren wi"" deve"op' the #uture generation may not be as #at as ours is.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) e$plain why pre'ention is the best defense against obesity (B) critici!e the food and ad'ertising industries for encouraging bad eating habits and thus contributing to the pre'alence of obesity in the :nited ;tates (C) recruit 'olunteers for a national crusade against obesity ( ) discourage dependency on fad diets as a method for losing weight (#) argue that obesity is a genetic disorder that is 'irtually impossible to cure

2.

By the rule of thumb mentioned in the passage/ which of the following would be considered obese% 3. 33. A 21(pound toddler whose desirable weight is 25 pounds A large(framed woman weighting 105 pounds whose desirable weight for her height is between 112 and 125 pounds

333. A 1-1(pound man who was 21 pounds o'er his desirable weight and then gained an additional 15 pounds (A) 33 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 .. &hich of the following/ if true/ best helps to e$plain why a greater percentage of women than men in the :nited ;tates are considered obese by the measure mentioned in the passage% (A) The measure is the same for both men and women/ but it is normal for women to carry a greater percentage of fat at any weight. (B) The a'erage man is hea'ier than the a'erage womanI therefore/ men generally need to gain more weight than women do before they are considered obese. (C) There are more women in the :nited ;tates than there are men. ( ) Because of the influence of the fashion and film industries/ many American women consider themsel'es obese e'en though they are not. (#) &omen burn off fewer calories than men because their bodies contain a lower percentage of muscle/ and muscle burns calories at a faster rate than fat. 0. According to the passage/ modern humans do not need to store as much fat as primiti'e humans because (A) modern humans work fewer hours than their primiti'e forebears did

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(B) the diet of modern humans is higher in protein than was the diet of primiti'e humans (C) modern humans eat more regularly than primiti'e humans did ( ) primiti'e humans had to insulate their bodies from the cold whereas modern humans do not (#) the food consumed by modern humans has a higher nutritional 'alue than that consumed by primiti'e humans 1. All of the following statements about protein are supported by the passage #DC#@TE (A) Bram for gram/ foods that are high in protein are lower in calories than foods that are high in fat. (B) The body gets all of its nitrogen from protein. (C) 9ine grams of protein yield the same number of calories as 0 grams of fat. ( ) @rotein is not con'erted into adipose tissue. (#) >i'e grams of protein carry 25 grams of water. 2. The author mentions that *cancer is more curable+ (line 2-) than obesity in order to (A) underscore the point that obesity is the leading disease in the :nited ;tates (B) support the conclusion that it is easier to keep people from becoming obese than it is to cure them once they are (C) discourage obese people from trying to lose weight ( ) demonstrate by analogy that more money should be spent on obesity research (#) refute the contention that the causes of obesity are purely physiological -. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions% (A) &hat percent of the total population in the :nited ;tates is obese% (B) &hat psychological factors cause people to gain weight rapidly once they go off a diet% (C) &hat function does nitrogen perform in the body% ( ) )ow is an indi'idual4s desirable eight determined% (#) 3f a snack bar contains 1.5 calories and 0 grams of fat/ what percentage of the calories in the bar come from fat% 6. The author mentions all of the following as factors that cause obese people to abandon diets #DC#@T (A) depression (B) increased lipid synthesis (C) a negati'e nitrogen balance ( ) ener'ation

GMAT

20-

(#) a lower metabolic rate ,. &hich of the following/ if it could be demonstrated/ would most strengthen the claim that the feeding patterns of children *can determine the adolescent and adult eating habits those children will de'elop+ (lines 11(12)% (A) The incidence of obesity in children whose parents are both obese is 65 percent. (B) Thirty(si$ percent of infants who are obese during their first half year of life are also o'erweight between the ages of 25 and .2. (C) #$cessi'e weight gain during the teen years can set the stage for a lifetime battle against the bulge. ( ) :p to 65 percent of youngsters who are fat as 1(year(olds end up fat as adults. (#) The a'erage child witnesses more than 11/555 commercials a year for snacks/ candy/ and soft drinks laden with fat/ sugar/ and calories. Passage 94 (9/15)
The impressionist painters e5press"y disavowed any interest in phi"osophy' yet their new approach to art had #ar-reaching phi"osophica" imp"ications. 7or the view o# matter that the /mpressionists assumed di##ered pro#ound"y #rom the view that had previous"y prevai"ed among artists. This view he"ped to uni#y the artistic wor$s created in the new sty"e. The ancient Aree$s had conceived o# the wor"d in concrete terms' even endowing abstract +ua"ities with bodies. This Aree$ view o# matter persisted' so #ar as painting was concerned' into the nineteenth century. The /mpressionists' on the other hand' viewed "ight' not matter' as the u"timate visua" rea"ity. The phi"osopher Taine e5pressed the /mpressionist view o# things when he said' ;The chie# Mperson3 in a picture is the "ight in which everything is bathed.< /n /mpressionist painting' so"id bodies became mere re#"ectors o# "ight' and distinctions between one ob2ect and another became arbitrary conventions: #or by "ight a"" things were we"ded together. The treatment o# both co"or and out"ine was trans#ormed as we"". %o"or' #ormer"y considered a property inherent in an ob2ect' was seen to be mere"y the resu"t o# vibrations o# "ight on the ob2ect3s co"or"ess sur#ace. 0nd out"ine' whose #unction had #ormer"y been to indicate the "imits o# ob2ects' now mar$ed instead mere"y the boundary between units o# pattern' which o#ten merged into one another. The /mpressionist wor"d was composed not o# separate ob2ects but o# many sur#aces on which "ight struc$ and was re#"ected with varying intensity to the eye through the atmosphere' which modi#ied it. /t was this process that produced the mosaic o# co"ors that #ormed an /mpressionist canvas. ;Eight becomes the so"e sub2ect o# the picture'< writes ?auc"air. ;The interest o# the ob2ect upon which it p"ays is secondary. 6ainting thus conceived becomes a pure"y optic art.< 7rom this pro#ound"y revo"utionary #orm o# art' then' a"" ideas!re"igious' mora"' psycho"ogica"!were e5c"uded' and so were a"" emotions e5cept certain aesthetic ones. The

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peop"e' p"aces' and things depicted in an /mpressionist picture do not te"" story or convey any specia" meaning: they are' instead' mere"y parts o# pattern o# "ight drawn #rom nature and captured on canvas by the artist.

1.

The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) e$plaining how the 3mpressionists were influenced by scientific studies of light and color (B) discussing the philosophical implications of the 3mpressionist style of painting (C) identifying the re'olutionary artistic techni"ues de'eloped by the 3mpressionist painters ( ) analy!ing the influence of thinkers like Taine and ?auclair on 3mpressionist painting (#) defending the importance of the 3mpressionist painters in the history of modern art

2.

According to the passage/ the 3mpressionists differed from the ancient Breeks in that the 3mpressionists (A) considered color to be property inherent in ob<ects (B) placed a higher 'alue on the narrati'e element in painting (C) depicted the ob<ects in a painting as isolated/ rather than united in a single pattern ( ) treated light/ rather than matter/ as the ultimate reality (#) regarded art primarily as a medium for e$pressing moral and aesthetic ideas

..

The author4s "uotation of a statement by Taine (lines 11(12) ser'es which of the following functions in the passage% (A) 3t furnishes a specific e$ample of an 3mpressionist painting that features light as its chief sub<ect. (B) 3t resol'es an apparent contradiction in the philosophy of the 3mpressionists. (C) 3t "ualifies the statement that the ancient Breeks 'iewed the world in concrete terms. ( ) 3t summari!es the uni"ue perspecti'e that the 3mpressionists brought to painting. (#) 3t pro'ides a concrete illustration of the far(reaching philosophical implications of 3mpressionism.

0.

According to the passage/ the 3mpressionists belie'ed that the atmosphere (A) reflects light with 'arying intensity (B) creates the illusion of color in colorless surfaces (C) modifies the shapes of ob<ects ( ) is the result of 'ibrations of light

GMAT

20,

(#) affects the way we percei'ed color 1. The author4s use of the term *mosaic of colors+ (line .2) suggests that 3mpressionist paintings were characteri!ed by (A) discontinuous dabs of unmi$ed pigment (B) broad/ sweeping brush strokes (C) clearly defined forms and ob<ects ( ) sub<ects de'oid of emoti'e or literary "ualities (#) the glowing reds/ greens/ and midnight blues of stained glass 2. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions% 3. 33. 33. )ow did the 3mpressionists percei'e matter% &hat is the unifying element in a typical 3mpressionist painting% )ow did the 3mpressionists4 'iew of color differ from that of eighteenth( century artists%

(A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 -. The ideas attributed to the 3mpressionists in the passage suggest that an 3mpressionist painter would be most likely to agree with which of the following statement% (A) A picture is significant primarily as a manifestation of the artist4s mental state. (B) The highest purpose of art is to teach religious truths. (C) The "uality of a picture has nothing to do with the nature of the ob<ects it depicts. ( ) An artist should stri'e to recreate on can'as the inner nature of ob<ects from real life. (#) 3t is futile to attempt to paint pictures that aim to copy the optical appearance of the world. Passage 95 (10/15)
Radiation occurs #rom three natura" sources> radioactive materia" in the environment' such as in soi"' roc$' or bui"ding materia"s: cosmic rays: and substances in the human body' such as radioactive potassium in bone and radioactive carbon in tissues. These natura" sources account #or an e5posure o# about 1.. mi""irems a year #or the average 0merican. The "argest sing"e source o# man-made radiation is medica" I rays' yet most scientists agree that ha)ards #rom this source are not as great as those #rom weapons test #a""out' since strontium 9. and carbon 1H become incorporated into the body' hence de"ivering radiation #or

215

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an entire "i#etime. The issue is' however' by no means uncontroversia". The "ast two decades have witnessed intensi#ied e5amination and dispute about the e##ects o# "ow-"eve" radiation' beginning with the United *ations cienti#ic %ommittee on the =##ects o# 0tomic Radiation' which reported in 19-8 that ;even the sma""est amounts o# radiation are "i$e"y to cause de"eterious genetic and perhaps a"so somatic e##ects.< 0 survey conducted in &ritain con#irmed that an abnorma""y high percentage o# patients su##ering #rom arthritis o# the spine who had been treated with I rays contracted cancer. 0nother study revea"ed a high incidence o# chi"dhood cancer in cases where the mother had been given prenata" pe"vic I rays. These studies have pointed to the need to ree5amine the assumption that e5posure to "ow-"inear energy trans#er presents on"y a minor ris$. Recent"y' e5amination o# the death certi#icates o# #ormer emp"oyees o# a 8est %oast p"ant that produces p"utonium #or nuc"ear weapons revea"ed mar$ed"y higher rates #or cancers o# the pancreas' "ung' bone marrow' and "ymphatic system than wou"d have been e5pected in a norma" popu"ation. 8hi"e the *ationa" 0cademy o# ciences committee attributes this di##erence to chemica" or other environmenta" causes rather than radiation' other scientists maintain that any radiation e5posure' no matter how sma""' "eads to an increase in cancer ris$. /t is be"ieved by some that a dose o# one rem' i# sustained over many generations' wou"d "ead to an increase o# 1 percent in the number o# serious genetic de#ects at birth' a possib"e increase o# 1'... disorders per mi""ion births. /n the meantime' regu"atory e##orts have been disorgani)ed' #ragmented' inconsistent' and characteri)ed by internecine stri#e and bureaucratic de"ays. 0 enate report conc"uded that coordination o# regu"ation among invo"ved departments and agencies was not possib"e because o# 2urisdictiona" disputes and con#usion. 9ne #edera" agency has been unsuccess#u" in its e##orts to obtain su##icient #unding and manpower #or the en#orcement o# e5isting radiation "aws' and the chairperson o# a pane" especia""y created to deve"op a coordinated #edera" program has resigned.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) e$plain the difference between natural and man(made radiation (B) arouse concern about the risks connected with e$posure to radiation (C) critici!e the :nited 9ations ;cientific Committee on the #ffects of Atomic =adiation ( ) ad'ocate limiting the use of atomic weapons testing/ since the fallout is e$tremely ha!ardous (#) publici!e the results of British medical sur'ey

2.

&hich of the following/ according to the passage/ is a list of three natural sources of radiation% (A) =adioacti'e potassium in bone/ strontium ,5/ uranium ore (B) Carbon 10 in tissues/ cosmic rays/ D rays (C) Cosmic rays/ radioacti'e potassium in bones/ radioacti'e carbon in tissues

GMAT

211

( ) @lutonium/ radioacti'e material in rock/ strontium ,5 (#) D rays/ carbon 10/ plutonium .. &hich of the following does the author cite in support of the "uotation from the :nited 9ations ;cientific Committee on the #ffects of Atomic =adiation (lines 16(25)% 3. 33. ;trontium ,5 and carbon 10 become incorporated into the body and deli'er radiation for an entire lifetime. An abnormally high percentage of patients with arthritis of the spine who were treated with D rays subse"uently contracted cancer.

333. A high incidence of cancer appeared among children of mothers who had been gi'en prenatal pel'ic D rays. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 0. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions% (A) )ow many millirems of radiation from man(made sources is the a'erage American e$posed to each year% (B) 3s e$posure to radiation linked to any other diseases besides cancer% (C) )ow many types of radiation are there% ( ) &hat is the ma$imum le'el of radiation to which humans can safely be e$posed% (#) &hy is e$posure to the fallout from weapons testing considered by some to be more ha!ardous than e$posure to D rays% 1. According to the passage/ some scientists belie'e that a dose of one rem of radiation continued o'er a period of generations would (A) raise the strontium ,5 le'els in the body but otherwise ha'e little effect (B) relie'e the acute suffering of those afflicted with arthritis of the spine without side effects (C) ha'e the effect of increasing by 1 percent the cases of serious genetic defects ( ) ha'e little impact on the regulatory efforts of federal agencies (#) cause an additional 1/555 per million cases of cancer of the bone marrow or lymphatic system 2. 3t can be inferred from the last paragraph of the passage that the chairperson who resigned from the panel to de'elop a coordinated federal program for radiation regulation most likely did so because (A) he or she disagreed with the findings of the ;enate committee

212

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(B) his or her agency could not obtain funding or manpower for implementation of e$isting laws (C) he or she supported the position of the 9ational Academy of ;ciences committee and opposed regulation of radiation e$posure ( ) he or she was disorgani!ed and inconsistent in chairing the panel (#) regulatory efforts ha'e been balked by disputes/ confusion/ and bureaucratic delays -. The passage contains e'idence suggesting that it was most likely written (A) in 1,16 (B) by a British scientist (C) for the <ournal of the 9ational Academy of ;ciences ( ) by a lobbyist for the defense industry (#) in the late 1,-5s 6. The passage implies that each of the following statements about radiation has been disputed #DC#@T% (A) #'en small doses of radiation are likely to cause birth defects. (B) #$posure to low(linear energy transfer presents only a minor risk. (C) ?any small doses of radiation are as harmful as a single large dose. ( ) )umans can tolerate a certain amount of radiation. (#) #$posure to radiation causes cancer. Passage 96 (11/15)

?any readers assume that' as a neoc"assica" "iterary critic' amue" @ohnson wou"d norma""y pre#er the abstract' the #orma"' and the regu"ated to the concrete' the natura"' and the spontaneous in a wor$ o# "iterature. Det any c"ose reading o# @ohnson3s criticism shows that @ohnson is not b"ind to the importance o# the immediate' vivid' speci#ic detai" in "iterature: rather' he wou"d underscore the need #or the telling rather than the mere"y accidental detai". /n other ways' too' @ohnson3s critica" method had much in common with that o# the Romantics' with whom @ohnson and' indeed' the entire neoc"assica" tradition are genera""y supposed to be in con#"ict. @ohnson was we"" aware' #or e5amp"e' o# the steri"ity o# "iterary criticism that is "ega"istic or pedantic' as was the case with the worst products o# the neoc"assica" schoo". (is #amous argument against the s"avish #o""owing o# the ;three unities< o# c"assica" drama is a good e5amp"e' as is his de#ense o# the supposed"y i""egitimate ;tragicomic< mode o# ha$espeare3s "atest p"ays. *ote' in particu"ar' the basis o# that de#ense> ;That this is a practice contrary to the ru"es o# criticism'< @ohnson wrote' ;wi"" be readi"y a""owed: but there is a"ways an appea" #rom criticism to nature.< The sentiment thus e5pressed cou"d easi"y be endorsed by any o# the Romantics: the

GMAT

21.

empiricism it e5emp"i#ies is vita" +ua"ity o# @ohnson3s criticism' as is the wi""ingness to 2ettison ;"aws< o# criticism when to do so ma$es possib"e a more direct appea" to the emotions o# the reader. 0ddison3s Cato' high"y praised in @ohnson3s day #or its ;correctness'< is damned with #aint praise by @ohnson> ;Cato a##ords a sp"endid e5hibition o# arti#icia" and #ictitious manners' and de"ivers 2ust and nob"e sentiments' in diction easy' e"evated' and harmonious' but its hopes and #ears communicate no vibration to the heart.< 8ordsworth cou"d hard"y demur. =ven on the +uestion o# poetic diction' which' according to the usua" interpretation o# 8ordsworth3s 18.. pre#ace to the 'yrical Ballads' was the centra" area o# con#"ict between Romantic and 0ugustan' @ohnson3s views are surprising"y ;modern.< /n his 'ife of -ryden' he de#ends the use o# a specia" diction in poetry' it is true: but his reasons are a""-important. 7or @ohnson' poetic diction shou"d serve the ends o# direct emotiona" impact and ease o# comprehension' not those o# #a"se pro#undity or grandiosity. ;8ords too #ami"iar'< he wrote' ;or too remote' de#eat the purpose o# a poet. 7rom those sounds which we hear on sma"" or on coarse occasions' we do not easi"y receive strong impressions' or de"ight#u" images: and words to which we are near"y strangers' whenever they occur' draw that attention on themse"ves which they shou"d transmit to things.< /# the poetic diction o# the neoc"assica" poets' at its worst' erects need"ess barriers between reader and meaning' that envisioned by @ohnson wou"d do 2ust the opposite> it wou"d put the reader in c"oser contact with the ;things< that are the poem3s sub2ect.

1.

The author of the passage de'elops her points about Aohnson primarily by (A) contrasting Aohnson4s critical methods with those of his contemporaries (B) citing specific illustrations drawn from Aohnson4s work (C) alluding to contemporary comments about Aohnson4s theories ( ) "uoting Aohnson4s remarks about the critical approaches pre'alent in his own day (#) emphasi!ing the fallacies inherent in the most common 'iew of Aohnson

2.

The passage implies that the <udging of literary works according to preconcei'ed rules (A) tends to lessen the effecti'eness of much modern literary criticism (B) is the primary distinguishing mark of the neoclassical critic (C) was the primary neoclassical techni"ue against which the =omantics rebelled ( ) is the underlying basis of much of Aohnson4s critical work (#) characteri!es e$amples of the worst neoclassical criticism

..

The passage implies that the neoclassical critics generally condemned (A) ;hakespeare4s use of the *tragicomic+ (line 16) literary mode (B) the sla'ish following of the *three unities+ (line 12) in drama (C) attempts to <udge literary merit on the basis of *correctness+ (line 26) ( ) artificiality and abstraction in literary works (#) the use of a special diction in the writing of poetry

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0.

According to the author/ Aohnson4s defense of ;hakespeare4s latest plays illustrates Aohnson4s reliance on which of the following in his criticism% (A) The sentiments endorsed by the =omantics (B) The criteria set forth by &ordsworth in his 1655 preface to the yrical %allads (C) The precedents established by the Breek and =oman playwrights of the Classical Age ( ) The principles followed by the neoclassical school of criticism (#) )is own e$perience and <udgment

1.

According to the passage/ Aohnson4s opinion of Addison4s Cato was (A) roundly condemnatory (B) somewhat self(contradictory (C) ultimately negati'e ( ) effusi'ely adulatory (#) uncharacteristically bold

2.

According to the passage/ Aohnson4s 'iews on the use of a special diction in the writing of poetry were (A) *modern+ in their re<ection of a clear(cut di'ision between the diction of poetry and that of prose (B) *neoclassical+ in their emphasis on the use of language that appeals directly to the emotions of the reader (C) *=omantic+ in their defense of the idea that a special diction for poetry could be stylistically effecti'e ( ) *modern+ in their underlying concern for the impact of the literary work on the sensibility of the reader (#) *neoclassical+ in their emphasis on ease of comprehension as a literary 'irtue

-.

3t can be inferred from the passage that in addition to being a literary critic/ Aohnson was also a (A) surprisingly modern poet (B) poet in the Augustan mode (C) dramatist ( ) biographer (#) naturalist

6.

&hich one of the following statements best summari!es the main point of the passage% (A) Although many of Aohnson4s critical opinions resemble those of the neoclassical critics/ his basic concerns are closer to those of the =omantics.

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211

(B) The usual classification of Aohnson as a member of the neoclassical school of criticism is based on an inaccurate e'aluation of his critical theories and ideals. (C) The =omantic critics were mistaken in their belief that the critical ideas they formulated represented a departure from those propounded by Aohnson. ( ) Although many of Aohnson4s critical opinions resemble those of the =omantic critics/ his basic concerns are closer to those of the neoclassical critics. (#) Aohnson4s literary criticism represents an attempt to unify the best elements of the neoclassical and the =omantic schools of criticism. ,. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) defending a reputation (B) reconciling conflicting 'iews (C) comparing two schools of thought ( ) challenging an assumption (#) presenting new e'idence in support of an established theory Passage 97 (12/15)
The idea o# bui"ding ;*ew Towns< to absorb growth is #re+uent"y considered a cure-a"" #or urban prob"ems. /t is erroneous"y assumed that i# new residents can be diverted #rom e5isting centers' the present urban situation at "east wi"" get no worse. /t is #urther and e+ua""y erroneous"y assumed that since =uropean *ew Towns have been #inancia""y and socia""y success#u"' we can e5pect the same sorts o# resu"ts in the United tates. 6resent p"anning' thin$ing' and "egis"ation wi"" not produce the $inds o# *ew Town that have been success#u" abroad. /t wi"" mu"tip"y suburbs or encourage deve"opments in areas where "and is cheap and construction pro#itab"e rather than where *ew Towns are genuine"y needed. uch i""-considered pro2ects not on"y wi"" #ai" to re"ieve pressures on e5isting cities but wi""' in #act' tend to wea$en those cities #urther by drawing away high-income citi)ens and increasing the concentration o# "ow-income groups that are unab"e to provide ta5 income. The remaining ta5payers' according"y' wi"" #ace increasing burdens' and industry and commerce wi"" see$ escape. Un#ortunate"y' this mechanism is a"ready at wor$ in some metropo"itan areas. The promoters o# *ew Towns so #ar in the United tates have been deve"opers' bui"ders' and #inancia" institutions. The main interest o# these promoters is economic gain. 7urthermore' #edera" regu"ations designed to promote the *ew Town idea do not consider socia" needs as the =uropean *ew Town p"ans do. /n #act' our regu"ations speci#y virtua""y a"" the ingredients o# the typica" suburban community' with a bit o# po"itica" rhetoric thrown in. 0 wor$ab"e 0merican *ew Town #ormu"a shou"d be estab"ished as #irm"y here as the nationa" #ormu"a was in &ritain. 0"" possib"e socia" and governmenta" innovations as we"" as #inancia" #actors shou"d be thorough"y considered and accommodated in this po"icy. /ts

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ob2ectives shou"d be c"ear"y stated' and both incentives and pena"ties shou"d be provided to ensure that the ob2ectives are pursued. /# such a po"icy is deve"oped' then the *ew Town approach can p"ay an important ro"e in a""eviating 0merica3s urban prob"ems.

1.

The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions% (A) &here did the idea of 9ew Towns originate% (B) )ow does Britain4s 9ew Town formula differ from that of other #uropean countries% (C) &hat is the purpose of building 9ew Towns% ( ) &hat incenti'es and penalties will be necessary to make a 9ew Town formula workable% (#) &hy ha'e #uropean 9ew Towns been financially successful%

2.

The author belie'es that 9ew Towns are not being built where they are genuinely needed because (A) the go'ernment offers de'elopers incenti'es to build in other areas (B) the promoters of 9ew Town are moti'ated chiefly by self(interest (C) few people want to li'e in areas where land is still cheap ( ) no studies ha'e been done to determine the best locations (#) federal regulations make construction in those areas less profitable

..

According to the author/ ill(considered 9ew Towns will tend to weaken e$isting cities in which of the following ways% 3. 33. They will cause an erosion in the ta$ base of e$isting cities. The will di'ert residents from e$isting cities to other areas.

333. They will increase the number of low(income residents in e$isting cities. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 0. According to the passage/ as compared with American 9ew Towns/ #uropean 9ew Towns ha'e been designed with greater concern for (A) social needs (B) financial factors (C) urban congestion ( ) the profits of de'elopers and builders (#) the en'ironment 1. The author4s tone in discussing *de'elopers/ builders/ and financial institutions+ (lines 21(22) can best be described as

GMAT

21-

(A) critical (B) pedantic (C) e'asi'e ( ) captious (#) 'itriolic 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following about suburbs% (A) They are a panacea for urban problems. (B) They will soon be plagued by the same problems that now plague cities. (C) They are poor models for 9ew Towns. ( ) They dri'e up property 'alues in inner cities. (#) They alle'iate some/ but not all/ of America4s urban problems. -. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers the present American 9ew Town formula to be (A) thoroughly considered (B) insufficiently inno'ati'e (C) potentially workable ( ) o'erly restricti'e (#) financially sound 6. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) arguing for a change in policy (B) e$ploring the implications of no'el idea (C) comparing and contrasting two manifestations of the same phenomenon ( ) proposing a radically new solution to an old problem (#) summari!ing recent research on a topic Passage 98 (13/15)
/n reaction to a rigid' overre#ined c"assica" curricu"um' some educationa" phi"osophers have swung sharp"y to an espousa" o# ;"i#e e5perience< as the so"e source o# "earning. Using their narrow interpretation o# @ohn Fewey3s theories #or support and spouting such phrases as ;Teach the chi"d' not the sub2ect'< they demand an end to rigorous study and insist that on"y through doing can "earning ta$e p"ace. 8hi"e not a"" adherents to this phi"osophy wou"d tota""y e"iminate the study o# great boo$s' the gradua" subordination o# "iterature in the schoo" curricu"um re#"ects their in#"uence. 8hat is the purpose o# "iteratureC 8hy read i# "i#e a"one is to be our teacherC @ames @oyce te""s us that the artist revea"s the human condition by re-creating "i#e out o# "i#e: 0ristot"e' that art presents universa" truths because its #orm is ta$en #rom nature. Thus' conscious"y or

216

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otherwise' great writers e5tend our understanding o# ourse"ves and our wor"d. 8e can soar with them to the heights o# aspiration or p"ummet with them to the depths o# despair. (ow much wider is the understanding we gain #rom reading than #rom viewing "i#e through the $eyho"e o# our individua" e5perience. This #unction o# "iterature' the en"arging o# our "i#e sphere' is o# ma2or importance in itse"#. 0dditiona""y' however' "iterature suggests so"utions to socia" prob"ems. The overweening ambitions o# po"itica" "eaders!and their sneering contempt #or the "aw!did not appear #or the #irst time in the writings o# &ernstein and 8oodward. The prob"ems and behavior o# the gui"tridden did not await the appearance o# the bearded psychoana"ysts o# the nineteenth century. 7edera" @udge Eearned (and wrote' ;/ venture to be"ieve that it is as important to a 2udge ca""ed upon to pass on a +uestion o# constitutiona" "aw' to have at "east a bowing ac+uaintance with Thucydides' Aibbon' and %ar"y"e' with (omer' Fante' ha$espeare' and ?i"ton' with ?ontaigne and Rabe"ais' with 6"ato' &acon' (ume' and Nant' as with the boo$s which have been speci#ica""y written on the sub2ect. 7or in such matters everything turns upon the spirit in which he approaches the +uestions be#ore him.< (ow do we overcome our dissenterC 8e must start with the #ie"d o# agreement> the be"ie# that education shou"d serve to improve the individua" and society. 8e must persuade our dissenters that the voices o# human e5perience stretch our human #acu"ties and open us to "earning. 8e must convince them o# the unity o# "i#e and art. 8e must prove to them that #ar #rom being separate' "iterature is that part o# "i#e that i""umines "i#e.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) list the writers who make up the backbone of a great literature curriculum (B) e$plain the function of literature (C) ad'ocate the adoption of a new philosophy of education ( ) plead for the retention of great literature as a fundamental part of the school curriculum (#) o'ercome the opposition of ewey4s followers to the inclusion of contemporary literature in the curriculum

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers those who belie'e in *Flife e$perience4 as the sole source of learning+ (line .) to be (A) practical (B) progressi'e (C) misguided ( ) infle$ible (#) ignorant

..

Based on the information in the passage/ with which of the following statements about education would Aohn ewey be most likely to agree% (A) #ducation should be a continuous reconstruction of li'ing e$perience/ with the child the center of concern.

GMAT

21,

(B) #ducation is the imparting of knowledge/ not the drawing out of what is already in the child. (C) Though rigid/ the classical curriculum has ser'ed us well for centuries and should be restored. ( ) The purpose of education is to correct the ine"ualities brought about by the rise of ci'ili!ation. (#) Children should be taught only the skills and knowledge they need to get ahead. 0. The author implies that children who learn e$clusi'ely by doing are likely to (A) be good problem sol'ers but poor <udges (B) be more guilt(ridden than those who learn both by doing and reading (C) ha'e below(a'erage reading skills ( ) belie'e that art has nothing to do with life (#) ha'e a myopic 'iew of themsel'es and the world 1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph of the passage% (A) An idea is reiterated/ a new idea is introduced/ and two supporting e$amples are gi'en. (B) The preceding paragraph is summari!ed and conclusions are drawn. (C) A new idea is introduced/ the idea is "ualified/ and the implications of the idea are analy!ed. ( ) The main idea of the preceding paragraph is restated/ and e'idence is gi'en to support it. (#) Two functions of literature are identified/ and an e$ample of each is gi'en. 2. The author "uotes Audge Kearned )and (lines .2(01 primarily in order to (A) call attention to the writing of Thucydides and Carlyle (B) support the point that literature broadens the reader4s understanding (C) point out that constitutional law is a part of the great literature of the past ( ) show that e'eryone/ including <udges/ en<oys reading (#) gi'e specific e$amples of writers who ha'e suggested solutions to social problems -. &hich of the following could best be substituted for the words *the sub<ect+ (line .,) in the "uotation from Audge )and without altering the meaning of the "uotation% (A) The "uestion of constitutional law before the <udge (B) The contempt of political leaders for the law (C) ;ocial problems

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( ) The liberal arts/ specifically history/ literature/ and philosophy (#) The human condition 6. The passage supplies information to suggest that the author and the educational philosophers mentioned in the first paragraph would agree that (A) learning is the key to adaptability in an e'er(changing en'ironment (B) the traditional classroom should be transformed into a learning laboratory (C) the purpose of education is to impro'e society as well as the indi'idual ( ) one must know history in order to understand the present and the future (#) the primary aim of education is the transmission of culture ,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author makes which of the following assumptions about his readers% (A) They belie'e that schools should reflect society. (B) They belie'e that the sub<ect/ not the child/ should be taught. (C) They fa'or a return to the classical curriculum. ( ) They share his 'iew that the study of great books is essential to education. (#) They belie'e that only through reading can learning take place. Passage 99 (14/15)
?ethods #or typing b"ood were deve"oped around the turn o# the century' about the same time that #ingerprints were #irst used #or identi#ication. 9n"y in the "ast decade or two' however' have scientists begun to be"ieve that genetic mar$ers in b"ood and other bodi"y #"uids may someday prove as use#u" in crime detection as #ingerprints. The standard 0&9 b"ood typing has "ong been used as a #orm o# negative identi#ication. 0dded sophistication came with the discovery o# additiona" subgroups o# genetic mar$ers in b"ood and with the discovery that genetic mar$ers are present not on"y in b"ood but a"so in other bodi"y #"uids' such as perspiration and sa"iva. These discoveries were o# "itt"e use in crime detection' however' because o# the circumstances in which po"ice scientists must wor$. Rather than a p"enti#u" samp"e o# b"ood #resh"y drawn #rom a patient' the crime "aboratory is "i$e"y to receive on"y a tiny #"ec$ o# dried b"ood o# un$nown age #rom an un$nown ;donor< on a shirt or a scrap o# rag that has spent hours or days e5posed to air' high temperature' and other contaminants. &ritish scientists #ound a method #or identi#ying genetic mar$ers more precise"y in sma"" samp"es. /n this process' ca""ed e"ectrophoresis' a samp"e is p"aced on a tray containing a ge" through which an e"ectrica" current is then passed. 0 trained ana"yst reads the resu"ting patterns in the ge" to determine the presence o# various chemica" mar$ers. ="ectrophoresis made it possib"e to identi#y severa" thousand subgroups o# b"ood types rather than the twe"ve $nown be#ore. (owever' the e+uipment and specia" training re+uired were e5pensive. /n addition' the process cou"d "ead to the destruction o# evidence. 7or e5amp"e' repeated tests o# a b"ood-#"ec$ed shirt!one #or each mar$er!"ed to increasing

GMAT
deterioration o# the evidence and the cost o# a wee$ or more o# "aboratory time. /t remained #or another &ritish researcher' &rian 8re5a""' to demonstrate that simu"taneous ana"yses' using an ine5pensive e"ectrophoresis apparatus' cou"d test #or ten

221

di##erent genetic mar$ers within a 1H-hour period. This deve"opment made the study o# b"ood and other #"uid samp"es an even more va"uab"e too" #or crime detection.

1.

The author of the passage is primarily concerned with describing (A) how ad'ances in crime detection methods ha'e led to new disco'eries in science (B) 'arious ways in which crime detection laboratories assist the police (C) the de'elopment of new scientific tools for use in crime detection ( ) areas of current research in the science of crime detection (#) de'elopments in genetic research and their application to crime detection

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that electrophoresis resembles fingerprinting in that both (A) pro'ide a form of negati'e identification in crime detection (B) were first de'eloped by British scientists (C) may be used to help identify those who were present at the time of a crime ( ) were de'eloped by scientists at around the same time (#) must be employed almost immediately after a crime to be effecti'e

..

The author sets off the word *Fdonor4+ (line 16) with "uotation marks in order to (A) emphasi!e that most of the blood samples recei'ed by crime laboratories come from anonymous sources (B) underscore the contrast between the work done in a crime laboratory and that done in a blood bank (C) call attention to the fact that/ because of underfunding/ crime laboratories are forced to rely on charitable contributions ( ) show that the word is being used in a technical/ rather than a general/ sense (#) indicate that the blood samples recei'ed by crime laboratories are not gi'en freely

0.

The passage contains information that would answer which of the following "uestions% (A) 3s e'idence of genetic markers in bodily fluids admissible in court% (B) Can electrophoresis be used to identify genetic markers in sali'a% (C) )ow many subgroups of blood types are currently identifiable% ( ) )ow accurate is the process of electrophoresis% (#) )ow many tests for genetic markers must police scientists run in order to establish the identity of a criminal%

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1.

According to the passage/ all of the following may reduce the usefulness of a fluid sample for crime detection #DC#@T (A) the passage of time (B) discoloration or staining (C) e$posure to heat ( ) the small si!e of the sample (#) e$posure to contaminants

2.

The passage implies that electrophoresis may help scientists determine (A) whether or not a sample of blood could ha'e come from a particular person (B) the age and condition of a dried specimen of blood or other bodily fluid (C) when and where a crime was probably committed ( ) the cause of death in homicide cases (#) the age/ gender/ and ethnic background of an unknown criminal suspect

-.

According to the passage/ Brian &re$all4s refinement of electrophoresis led to (A) more accurate test results (B) easier a'ailability of fluid samples (C) wider applicability of genetic analysis ( ) increased costs of testing (#) more rapid testing

6.

&hich of the following statements about genetic markers can be inferred from the passage% 3. 33. They carry an electrical charge. They cannot be identified through standard AB8 blood typing.

333. They were of no use in crime detection before the in'ention of electrophoresis. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 Passage 100 (15/15)
The de"egates to the %onstitutiona" %onvention were rea"ists. They $new that the greatest batt"es wou"d ta$e p"ace a#ter the convention' once the %onstitution had a"ready been dra#ted and signed. The de"egates had overstepped their bounds. /nstead o# amending the 0rtic"es o# %on#ederation by which the 0merican states had previous"y been governed' they had proposed an entire"y new government. Under these circumstances' the convention was

GMAT
understandab"y re"uctant to submit its wor$ to the %ongress #or approva".

22.

/nstead' the de"egates decided to pursue what amounted to a revo"utionary course. They dec"ared that rati#ication o# the new %onstitution by nine states wou"d be su##icient to estab"ish the new government. /n other words' the %onstitution was being submitted direct"y to the peop"e. *ot even the %ongress' which had ca""ed the convention' wou"d be as$ed to approve its wor$. The "eaders o# the convention shrewd"y wished to bypass the state "egis"atures' which were attached to states3 rights and which re+uired in most cases the agreement o# two houses. 7or speedy rati#ication o# the %onstitution' the sing"e-chambered' specia""y e"ected state rati#ying conventions o##ered the greatest promise o# agreement. &att"e "ines were +uic$"y drawn. The 7edera"ists' as the supporters o# the %onstitution were ca""ed' had one so"id advantage> they came with a concrete proposa". Their opponents' the 0nti#edera"ists' came with none. ince the 0nti#edera"ists were opposing something with nothing' their ob2ections' though sincere' were basica""y negative. They stood #or a po"icy o# dri#t whi"e the 7edera"ists were providing c"ear "eadership. 7urthermore' a"though the 0nti#edera"ists c"aimed to be the democratic group' their opposition to the %onstitution did not necessari"y spring #rom a more democratic view o# government. ?any o# the 0nti#edera"ists were as distrust#u" o# the common peop"e as their opponents. /n *ew Dor$' #or e5amp"e' Aovernor Aeorge %"inton critici)ed the peop"e #or their #ic$"eness and their tendency to ;vibrate #rom one e5treme to another.< ="bridge Aerry o# ?assachusetts' who re#used to sign the %onstitution' asserted that ;the evi"s we e5perience #"ow #rom the e5cess o# democracy'< and @ohn 7. ?ercer o# ?ary"and pro#essed "itt"e #aith in his neighbors as voters when he said that ;the peop"e cannot $now and 2udge the character o# candidates.<

1.

The author is primarily concerned with (A) contrasting the opposing sides in a battle (B) analy!ing the effects of an e'ent (C) urging a reassessment of history ( ) critici!ing the opponents of a plan (#) describing the background of conflict

2.

According to the passage/ the delegates to the Constitutional Con'ention did not submit their work to Congress for appro'al because (A) they knew that most members of congress would want to broaden the powers of the national go'ernment (B) it was unclear whether Congress had the legal right to offer or withhold such appro'al (C) they considered it more democratic to appeal directly to the citi!ens of the separate states ( ) they belie'ed that Congress would not accept the sweeping changes they had proposed

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(#) Congress was dominated by a powerful group of Antifederalist leaders .. According to the passage/ in contrast to most state legislatures/ state ratifying con'entions were (A) elected (B) unicameral (C) characteri!ed by strong leadership ( ) nearly unanimous in their support of the new Constitution (#) opposed to states4 rights 0. The author characteri!es the leaders of the Constitutional Con'ention as (A) shrewd and 'isionary (B) liberal and enlightened (C) radical and idealistic ( ) cle'er and pragmatic (#) elo"uent and persuasi'e 1. 3n stating that the Antifederalists *were opposing something with nothing+ (line 26)/ the author suggests that the Antifederalists (A) based most of their arguments on their antidemocratic sentiments (B) lacked leaders who were as articulate as the >ederalist leaders (C) were unable to rally significant support for their position among the populace ( ) had few reasonable arguments to put forth in support of their position (#) offered no alternati'e plan of go'ernment of their own 2. &hich of the following statements about #lbridge Berry can be inferred from the passage% (A) )e was a delegate to the ?assachusetts state ratifying con'ention. (B) )e was a delegate to the Constitutional Con'ention. (C) )e was the architect of the *policy of drift+ (line .5) ad'ocated by the Antifederalists. ( ) )e claimed to ha'e a more democratic 'iew of go'ernment than the >ederalists. (#) )e was one of the leaders of the Antifederalist @arty. -. The author4s "uotation of Aohn >. ?ercer (lines 0.(01) ser'es which of the following functions in the passage% (A) 3t summari!es the last paragraph. (B) 3t furnishes a concrete e$ample. (C) 3t articulates the main point of the passage. ( ) 3t clarifies the preceding "uotation.

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(#) 3t e$presses a general conclusion. 6. &hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage% (A) i'ided Keadership at the Constitutional Con'ention (B) )ow the Constitution Became Kaw (C) The :.;. ConstitutionE 3ts ;trengths and &eaknesses ( ) The Battle for =atification of the Constitution (#) The Ciews of the Antifederalists on emocracy OG 17Passages Passage 101 (1/17)
Two recent pub"ications o##er di##erent assessment o# the career o# the #amous &ritish nurse 7"orence *ightinga"e. 0 boo$ by 0nne ummers see$s to debun$ the idea"i)ations and present a rea"ity at odds with *ightinga"e3s heroic reputation. 0ccording to ummers' *ightinga"e3s importance during the %rimean 8ar has been e5aggerated> not unti" near the war3s end did she become supervisor o# the #ema"e nurses. 0dditiona""y' ummers writes that the contribution o# the nurses to the re"ie# o# the wounded was at best margina". The prevai"ing prob"ems o# mi"itary medicine were caused by army organi)ationa" practices' and the addition o# a #ew nurses to the medica" sta## cou"d be no more than symbo"ic. *ightinga"e3s p"ace in the nationa" pantheon' ummers asserts' is "arge"y due to the propagandistic e##orts o# contemporary newspaper reporters. &y contrast' the editors o# a new vo"ume o# *ightinga"e3s "etters view *ightinga"e as a person who signi#icant"y in#"uenced not on"y her own age but a"so subse+uent generations. They high"ight her ongoing e##orts to re#orm sanitary conditions a#ter the war. 7or e5amp"e' when she "earned that peacetime "iving conditions in &ritish barrac$s were so horrib"e that the death rate o# en"isted men #ar e5ceeded that o# neighboring civi"ian popu"ations' she succeeded in persuading the government to estab"ish a Roya" %ommission on the (ea"th o# the 0rmy. he used sums raised through pub"ic contributions to #ound a nurses3 training hospita" in Eondon. =ven in administrative matters' the editors assert' her practica" inte""igence was #ormidab"e> as recent"y as 19H7 the &ritish 0rmy3s medica" services were sti"" using the cost-accounting system she had devised in the 18G.3s. / be"ieve that the evidence o# her "etters supports continued respect #or *ightinga"e3s bri""iance and creativity. 8hen counse"ing a vi""age schoo"master to encourage chi"dren to use their #acu"ties o# observation' she sounds "i$e a modern educator. (er insistence on c"assi#ying the prob"ems o# the needy in order to devise appropriate treatments is simi"ar to the approach o# modern socia" wor$ers. /n sum' a"though *ightinga"e may not have achieved a"" o# her goa"s during the %rimean 8ar' her breadth o# vision and abi"ity to rea"i)e ambitious pro2ects have earned her an eminent p"ace among the ran$s o# socia" pioneers.

-.. The passage is primarily concerned with e'aluating (A) the importance of >lorence 9ightingale4s inno'ations in the field of nursing

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(B) contrasting approaches to the writing of historical biography (C) contradictory accounts of >lorence 9ightingale4s historical significance ( ) the "uality of health care in nineteenth(century #ngland (#) the effect of the Crimean &ar on de'elopments in the field of health care -0. According to the passage/ the editors of 9ightingale4s letters credit her with contributing to which of the following% (A) 3mpro'ing of the sur'i'al rate for soldiers in British Army hospitals during the Crimean &ar (B) The de'elopment of a nurses4 training curriculum that was far in ad'ance of its day (C) The increase in the number of women doctors practicing in British Army hospitals ( ) #stablishment of the first facility for training nurses at a ma<or British uni'ersity (#) The creation of an organi!ation for monitoring the peacetime li'ing conditions of British soldiers -1. The passage suggests which of the following about 9ightingale4s relationship with the British public of her day% (A) ;he was highly respected/ her pro<ects recei'ing popular and go'ernmental support. (B) ;he encountered resistance both from the army establishment and the general public. (C) ;he was supported by the working classes and opposed by the wealthier classes. ( ) ;he was supported by the military establishment but had to fight the go'ernmental bureaucracy. (#) After initially being recei'ed with enthusiasm/ she was "uickly forgotten. -2. The passage suggests which of the following about sanitary conditions in Britain after the Crimean &ar% (A) &hile not ideal/ they were superior to those in other parts of the world. (B) Compared with conditions before the war/ they had deteriorated. (C) They were more ad'anced in rural areas than in the urban centers. ( ) They were worse in military camps than in the neighboring ci'ilian populations. (#) They were uniformly crude and unsatisfactory throughout #ngland. --. &hich of the following statements regarding the differing interpretations of 9ightingale4s importance would the author most likely agree% (A) ;ummers misunderstood both the importance of 9ightingale4s achie'ements

GMAT

22-

during the Crimean &ar and her subse"uent influence on British policy. (B) The editors of 9ightingale4s letters made some 'alid points about her practical achie'ements/ but they still e$aggerated her influence on subse"uent generations. (C) Although ;ummers4 account of 9ightingale4s role in the Crimean &ar may be accurate/ she ignored e'idence of 9ightingales4 subse"uent achie'ement that suggests that her reputation as an eminent social reformer is well deser'ed. ( ) The editors of 9ightingale4s letters mistakenly propagated the outdated ideali!ation of 9ightingale that only impedes attempts to arri'e at a balance assessment of her true role. (#) The e'idence of 9ightingale4s letters supports ;ummers4 conclusions both about 9ightingale4s acti'ities and about her influence. -6. &hich of the following is an assumption underlying the author4s assessment of 9ightingale4s creati'ity% (A) #ducational philosophy in 9ightingale4s day did not normally emphasi!e de'eloping children4s ability to obser'e. (B) 9ightingale was the first to notice the poor li'ing conditions in British military barracks in peacetime. (C) 9o educator before 9ightingale had thought to enlist the help of 'illage schoolmasters in introducing new teaching techni"ues. ( ) :ntil 9ightingale began her work/ there was no concept of organi!ed help for the needy in nineteenth(century Britain. (#) The British Army4s medical ser'ices had no cost(accounting system until 9ightingale de'ised one in the 16254s. -,. 3n the last paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) summari!ing the arguments about 9ightingale presented in the first two paragraphs (B) refuting the 'iew of 9ightingale4s career presented in the preceding paragraph (C) analy!ing the weaknesses of the e'idence presented elsewhere in the passage ( ) citing e'idence to support a 'iew of 9ightingale4s career (#) correcting a factual error occurring in one of the works under re'iew Passage 102 (2/17)
0 meteor stream is composed o# dust partic"es that have been e2ected #rom a parent comet at a variety o# ve"ocities. These partic"es #o""ow the same orbit as the parent comet' but due to their di##ering ve"ocities they s"ow"y gain on or #a"" behind the disintegrating comet unti" a shroud o# dust surrounds the entire cometary orbit. 0stronomers have hypothesi)ed that a meteor stream shou"d broaden with time as the dust partic"es3 individua" orbits are perturbed by p"anetary gravitationa" #ie"ds. 0 recent computer-mode"ing e5periment tested this

226

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

hypothesis by trac$ing the in#"uence o# p"anetary gravitation over a pro2ected -'...-year period on the positions o# a group o# hypothetica" dust partic"es. /n the mode"' the partic"es were random"y distributed throughout a computer simu"ation o# the orbit o# an actua" meteor stream' the Aeminid. The researcher #ound' as e5pected' that the computer-mode" stream broadened with time. %onventiona" theories' however' predicted that the distribution o# partic"es wou"d be increasing"y dense toward the center o# a meteor stream. urprising"y' the computer-mode" meteor stream gradua""y came to resemb"e a thic$-wa""ed' ho""ow pipe. 8henever the =arth passes through a meteor stream' a meteor shower occurs. ?oving at a "itt"e over 1'-..'... mi"es per day around its orbit' the =arth wou"d ta$e' on average' 2ust over a day to cross the ho""ow' computer-mode" Aeminid stream i# the stream were -'... years o"d. Two brie# periods o# pea$ meteor activity during the shower wou"d be observed' one as the =arth entered the thic$-wa""ed ;pipe< and one as it e5ited. There is no reason why the =arth shou"d a"ways pass through the stream3s e5act center' so the time interva" between the two bursts o# activity wou"d vary #rom one year to the ne5t. (as the predicted twin-pea$ed activity been observed #or the actua" year"y Aeminid meteor showerC The Aeminid data between 197. and 1979 show 2ust such a bi#urcation' a secondary burst o# meteor activity being c"ear"y visib"e at an average o# 19 hours (1'1..'... mi"es) a#ter the #irst burst. The time interva"s between the bursts suggest the actua" Aeminid stream is about 4'... years o"d.

65. The primary focus of the passage is on which of the following% (A) Comparing two scientific theories and contrasting the predictions that each would make concerning a natural phenomenon (B) escribing a new theoretical model and noting that it e$plains the nature of obser'ations made of a particular natural phenomenon (C) #'aluating the results of a particular scientific e$periment and suggesting further areas for research ( ) #$plaining how two different natural phenomena are related and demonstrating a way to measure them (#) Analy!ing recent data deri'ed from obser'ations of an actual phenomenon and constructing a model to e$plain the data 61. According to the passage/ which of the following is an accurate statement concerning meteor streams% (A) ?eteor streams and comets start out with similar orbits/ but only those of meteor streams are perturbed by planetary gra'itation. (B) ?eteor streams grow as dust particles are attracted by the gra'itational fields of comets. (C) ?eteor streams are composed of dust particles deri'ed from comets. ( ) Comets may be composed of se'eral kinds of materials/ while meteor streams consist only of large dust particles. (#) 8nce formed/ meteor streams hasten the further disintegration of comets.

GMAT

22,

62. The author states that the research described in the first paragraph was undertaken in order to (A) determine the age of an actual meteor stream (B) identify the 'arious structural features of meteor streams (C) e$plore the nature of a particularly interesting meteor stream ( ) test the hypothesis that meteor streams become broader as they age (#) show that a computer model could help in e$plaining actual astronomical data 6.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would most probably be obser'ed during the #arth4s passage through a meteor stream if the con'entional theories mentioned in line 16 were correct% (A) ?eteor acti'ity would gradually increase to a single/ intense peak/ and then gradually decline. (B) ?eteor acti'ity would be steady throughout the period of the meteor shower. (C) ?eteor acti'ity would rise to a peak at the beginning and at the end of the meteor shower. ( ) =andom bursts of 'ery high meteor acti'ity would be interspersed with periods of 'ery little acti'ity. (#) 3n years in which the #arth passed through only the outer areas of a meteor stream/ meteor acti'ity would be absent. 60. According to the passage/ why do the dust particles in a meteor stream e'entually surround a comet4s original orbit% (A) They are e<ected by the comet at differing 'elocities. (B) Their orbits are uncontrolled by planetary gra'itational fields. (C) They become part of the meteor stream at different times. ( ) Their 'elocity slows o'er time. (#) Their e<ection 'elocity is slower than that of the comet. 61. The passage suggests that which of the following is a prediction concerning meteor streams that can be deri'ed from both the con'entional theories mentioned in line 16 and the new computer(deri'ed theory% (A) ust particles in a meteor stream will usually be distributed e'enly throughout any cross section of the steam. (B) The orbits of most meteor streams should cross the orbit of the #arth at some point and gi'e rise to a meteor shower. (C) 8'er time the distribution of dust in a meteor stream will usually become denser at the outside edges of the stream than at the center. ( ) ?eteor showers caused by older meteor streams should be/ on a'erage/ longer in duration than those caused by 'ery young meteor streams. (#) The indi'idual dust particles in older meteor streams should be/ on a'erage/

2-5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

smaller than those that compose younger meteor streams. 62. 3t can be inferred from the last paragraph of the passage that which of the following must be true of the #arth as it orbits the ;un% (A) ?ost meteor streams it encounters are more than 2/555 years old. (B) &hen passing through a meteor stream/ it usually passes near to the stream4s center. (C) 3t crosses the Beminid meteor stream once e'ery year. ( ) 3t usually takes o'er a day to cross the actual Beminid meteor stream. (#) 3t accounts for most of the gra'itational perturbation affecting the Beminid meteor stream. 6-. &hich of the following is an assumption underlying the last sentence of the passage% (A) 3n each of the years between 1,-5 and 1,-,/ the #arth took e$actly 1, hours to cross the Beminid meteor stream. (B) The comet associated with the Beminid meteor stream has totally disintegrated. (C) The Beminid meteor stream should continue to e$ist for at least 1/555 years. ( ) The Beminid meteor stream has not broadened as rapidly as the con'entional theories would ha'e predicted. (#) The computer(model Beminid meteor stream pro'ides an accurate representation of the de'elopment of the actual Beminid stream. Passage 103 (3/17)
The new schoo" o# po"itica" history that emerged in the 19G.3s and 197.3s sought to go beyond the traditiona" #ocus o# po"itica" historians on "eaders and government institutions by e5amining direct"y the po"itica" practices o# ordinary citi)ens. Ei$e the o"d approach' however' this new approach e5c"uded women. The very techni+ues these historians used to uncover mass po"itica" behavior in the nineteenth-century United tates!+uantitative ana"yses o# e"ection returns' #or e5amp"e!were use"ess in ana"y)ing the po"itica" activities o# women' who were denied the vote unti" 191.. &y rede#ining ;po"itica" activity'< historian 6au"a &a$er has deve"oped a po"itica" history that inc"udes women. he conc"udes that among ordinary citi)ens' po"itica" activism by women in the nineteenth century pre#igured trends in twentieth-century po"itics. Fe#ining ;po"itics< as ;any action ta$en to a##ect the course o# behavior o# government or o# the community'< &a$er conc"udes that' whi"e voting and ho"ding o##ice were restricted to men' women in the nineteenth century organi)ed themse"ves into societies committed to socia" issues such as temperance and poverty. /n other words' &a$er contends' women activists were ear"y practitioners o# nonpartisan' issue-oriented po"itics and thus were more interested in en"isting "awma$ers' regard"ess o# their party a##i"iation' on beha"# o# certain issues than in ensuring that one party or another won an e"ection. /n the twentieth century' more men drew

GMAT

2-1

c"oser to women3s ideas about po"itics and too$ up modes o# issue-oriented po"itics that &a$er sees women as having pioneered.

1.1. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) enumerate reason why both traditional scholarly methods and newer scholarly methods ha'e limitations (B) identify a shortcoming in a scholarly approach and describe an alternati'e approach (C) pro'ide empirical data to support a long(held scholarly assumption ( ) compare two scholarly publications on the basis of their authors4 backgrounds (#) attempt to pro'ide a partial answer to a long(standing scholarly dilemma 1.2. The passage suggests which of the following concerning the techni"ues used by the new political historians described in the first paragraph of the passage% (A) They in'ol'ed the e$tensi'e use of the biographies of political party leaders and political theoreticians. (B) They were concei'ed by political historians who were reacting against the political climates of the 1,25s and 1,-5s. (C) They were of more use in analy!ing the positions of :nited ;tates political parties in the nineteenth century than in analy!ing the positions of those in the twentieth century. ( ) They were of more use in analy!ing the political beha'ior of nineteenth( century 'oters than in analy!ing the political acti'ities of those who could not 'ote during that period. (#) They were de'ised as a means of tracing the influence of nineteenth(century political trends on twentieth(century political trends. 1... 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage "uotes Baker directly in the second paragraph primarily in order to (A) clarify a position before pro'iding an alternati'e of that position (B) differentiate between a no'el definition and traditional definitions (C) pro'ide an e$ample of a point agreed on by different generations of scholars ( ) pro'ide an e$ample of the prose style of an important historian (#) amplify a definition gi'en in the first paragraph 1.0. According to the passage/ @aula Baker and the new political historians of the 1,254s and 1,-54s shared which of the following% (A) A commitment to interest(group politics (B) A disregard for political theory and ideology (C) An interest in the ways in which nineteenth(century politics prefigured contemporary politics ( ) A reliance on such "uantitati'e techni"ues as the analysis of election returns

2-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) An emphasis on the political in'ol'ement of ordinary citi!ens 1.1. &hich of the following best describes the structure of the first paragraph of the passage% (A) Two scholarly approaches are compared/ and a shortcoming common to both is identified. (B) Two ri'al schools of thought are contrasted/ and a third is alluded to. (C) An outmoded scholarly approach is described/ and a correcti'e approach is called for. ( ) An argument is outlined/ and counterarguments are mentioned. (#) A historical era is described in terms of its political trends. 1.2. The information in the passage suggests that a pre(1,254s political historian would ha'e been most likely to undertake which of the following studies% (A) An analysis of 'oting trends among women 'oters of the 1,254s (B) A study of male 'oters4 gradual ideological shift from party politics to issue( oriented politics (C) A biography of an influential nineteenth(century minister of foreign affairs ( ) An analysis of narrati'es written by pre'iously unrecogni!ed women acti'ists (#) A study of 'oting trends among naturali!ed immigrant laborers in a nineteenth(century logging camp Passage 104 (4/17)
*ew observations about the age o# some g"obu"ar c"usters in our ?i"$y 8ay ga"a5y have cast doubt on a "ong-he"d theory about how the ga"a5y was #ormed. The ?i"$y 8ay contains about 11- g"obu"ar c"usters (compact groups o# anywhere #rom severa" tens o# thousands to perhaps a mi""ion stars) distributed in a rough"y spherica" ha"o around the ga"actic nuc"eus. The stars in these c"usters are be"ieved to have been born during the #ormation o# the ga"a5y' and so may be considered re"ics o# the origina" ga"actic nebu"a' ho"ding vita" c"ues to the way the #ormation too$ p"ace. The conventiona" theory o# the #ormation o# the ga"a5y contends that rough"y 11 to 14 bi""ion years ago the ?i"$y 8ay #ormed over a re"ative"y short time (about 1.. mi""ion years) when a spherica" c"oud o# gas co""apsed under the pressure o# its own gravity into a disc surrounded by a ha"o. uch a rapid #ormation o# the ga"a5y wou"d mean that a"" stars in the ha"o shou"d be very near"y the same age. (owever' the astronomer ?ichae" &o"te has #ound considerab"e variation in the ages o# g"obu"ar c"usters. 9ne o# the c"usters studied by &o"te is 1 bi""ions years o"der than most other c"usters in the ga"a5y' whi"e another is 1 bi""ion years younger. 0 co""eague o# &o"te contends that the c"uster ca""ed 6a"omar 11 is - bi""ion years younger than most other g"obu"ar c"usters. To e5p"ain the age di##erences among the g"obu"ar c"usters' astronomers are ta$ing a second "oo$ at ;renegade< theories. 9ne such new"y #ashionab"e theory' #irst put #orward by

GMAT
Richard Earson in the ear"y 197.3s' argues that the ha"o o# the ?i"$y 8ay #ormed over a

2-.

period o# a bi""ion or more years as hundreds o# sma"" gas c"ouds dri#ted about' co""ided' "ost orbita" energy' and #ina""y co""apsed into a centra""y condensed e""iptica" system. Earson3s conception o# a ;"umpy and turbu"ent< protoga"a5y is comp"emented by computer mode"ing done in the 197.3s by mathematician 0"an Toomre' which suggests that c"ose"y interacting spira" ga"a5ies cou"d "ose enough orbita" energy to merge into a sing"e ga"a5y.

1.-. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing (A) the importance of determining the age of globular clusters in assessing when the ?ilky &ay gala$y was formed (B) recent changes in the procedure used by astronomers to study the formation of the ?ilky &ay gala$y (C) current disputes among astronomers regarding the si!e and form of the ?ilky &ay gala$y ( ) the effect of new disco'eries regarding globular clusters on theories about the formation of the ?ilky &ay gala$y (#) the origin/ nature/ and significance of groups of stars known as globular clusters 1.6. According to the passage/ one way in which Karson4s theory and the con'entional theory of the formation of the ?ilky &ay gala$y differs is in their assessment of the (A) amount of time it took to form the gala$y (B) si!e of the gala$y immediately after its formation (C) particular gas in'ol'ed in the formation of the gala$y ( ) importance of the age of globular clusters in determining how the gala$y was formed (#) shape of the halo that formed around the gala$y 1.,. &hich of the following/ if true/ would be most useful in supporting the conclusions drawn from recent obser'ations about globular clusters% (A) There is firm e'idence that the absolute age of the ?ilky &ay gala$y is between 15 and 1- billion years. (B) A sur'ey re'eals that a gala$y close to the ?ilky &ay gala$y contains globular clusters of ages close to the age of @alomar 12. (C) A mathematical model pro'es that small gas clouds mo'e in regular patterns. ( ) ;pace probes indicate that the stars in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are composed of se'eral different types of gas. (#) A study of o'er 1/155 indi'idual stars in the halo of the ?ilky &ay gala$y indicates wide discrepancies in there ages. 105. 3f Bolte and his colleague are both correct/ it can be inferred that the globular cluster @alomar 12 is appro$imately

2-0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) 1 billion years younger than any other cluster in the gala$y (B) the same age as most other clusters in the gala$y (C) - billion years younger than another cluster in the gala$y ( ) 12 billion years younger than most other clusters in the gala$y (#) 2 billion years younger than most other clusters in the gala$y 101. The passage suggests that Toomre4s work complements Karson4s theory because it (A) specifies more precisely the time frame proposed by Karson (B) subtly alters Karson4s theory to make it more plausible (C) supplements Karson4s hypothesis with direct astronomical obser'ations ( ) pro'ides theoretical support for the ideas suggested by Karson (#) e$pands Karson4s theory to make it more widely applicable 102. &hich of the following most accurately states a finding of Bolte4s research/ as described in the passage% (A) The globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are 2 billion years older than predicted by the con'entional theory. (B) The ages of at least some globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y differ by at least 0 billion years. (C) 8ne of the globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y is 1 billion years younger than most others. ( ) The globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are significantly older than the indi'idual stars in the halo. (#) ?ost globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are between 11 and 11 billion years old. 10.. The author of the passage puts the word *renegade+ (line 2,) in "uotation marks most probably in order to (A) emphasi!e the lack of support for the theories in "uestion (B) contrast the contro'ersial "uality of the theories in "uestion with the respectable character of their formulators (C) generate skepticism about the theories in "uestion ( ) ridicule the scientists who once doubted the theories in "uestion (#) indicate that the theories in "uestion are no longer as uncon'entional as they once seemed Passage 105 (5/17)
Furing the 19G.3s and 197.3s' the primary economic deve"opment strategy o# "oca" governments in the United tates was to attract manu#acturing industries. Un#ortunate"y' this

GMAT
strategy was usua""y imp"emented at another community3s e5pense> many manu#acturing #aci"ities were "ured away #rom their moorings e"sewhere through ta5 incentives and s"ic$

2-1

promotiona" e##orts. Through the trans#er o# 2obs and re"ated revenues that resu"ted #rom this practice' one town3s triumph cou"d become another town3s tragedy. /n the 198.3s the strategy shi#ted #rom this )ero-sum game to one ca""ed ;high-techno"ogy deve"opment'< in which "oca" governments competed to attract new"y #ormed high-techno"ogy manu#acturing #irms. 0"though this approach was pre#erab"e to victimi)ing other geographica" areas by ta$ing their 2obs' it a"so had its shortcomings> high-tech manu#acturing #irms emp"oy on"y a specia""y trained #raction o# the manu#acturing wor$#orce' and there simp"y are not enough high-tech #irms to satis#y a"" geographic areas. Recent"y' "oca" governments have increasing"y come to recogni)e the advantages o# yet a third strategy> the promotion o# homegrown sma"" businesses. ma"" indigenous businesses are created by a near"y ubi+uitous resource' "oca" entrepreneurs. 8ith roots in their communities' these individua"s are "ess "i$e"y to be enticed away by incentives o##ered by another community. /ndigenous industry and ta"ent are $ept at home' creating an environment that both provides 2obs and #osters #urther entrepreneurship.

100. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) ad'ocate more effecti'e strategies for encouraging the de'elopment of high( technology enterprises in the :nited ;tates (B) contrast the incenti'es for economic de'elopment offered by local go'ernments with those offered by the pri'ate sector (C) acknowledge and counter ad'erse criticism of programs being used to stimulate local economic de'elopment ( ) define and e$plore promotional efforts used by local go'ernments to attract new industry (#) re'iew and e'aluate strategies and programs that ha'e been used to stimulate economic de'elopment 101. The passage suggests which of the following about the ma<ority of :nited ;tates manufacturing industries before the high(technology de'elopment era of the 1,654s% (A) They lost many of their most inno'ati'e personnel to small entrepreneurial enterprises. (B) They e$perienced a ma<or decline in profits during the 1,254s and 1,-54s. (C) They could pro'ide real economic benefits to the areas in which they were located. ( ) They employed workers who had no speciali!ed skills. (#) They acti'ely interfered with local entrepreneurial 'entures. 102. The tone of the passage suggests that the author is most optimistic about the economic de'elopment potential of which of the following groups%

2-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) Kocal go'ernments (B) )igh(technology promoters (C) Kocal entrepreneurs ( ) ?anufacturing(industry managers (#) #conomic de'elopment strategists 10-. The passage does 98T state which of the following about local entrepreneurs% (A) They are found nearly e'erywhere. (B) They encourage further entrepreneurship. (C) They attract out(of(town in'estors. ( ) They employ local workers. (#) They are established in their communities. 106. The author of the passage mentions which of the following as an ad'antage of high(technology de'elopment% (A) 3t encourages the moderni!ation of e$isting manufacturing facilities. (B) 3t promotes healthy competition between ri'al industries. (C) 3t encourages the growth of related industries. ( ) 3t takes full ad'antage of the e$isting workforce. (#) 3t does not ad'antage one local workforce at the e$pense of another. Passage 106 (6/17)
Researchers compared the number o# tooth #ractures in present-day carnivores with tooth #ractures in carnivores that "ived 4G'... to 1.'... years ago and that were preserved in the Rancho Ea &rea tar pits in Eos 0nge"es. The brea$age #re+uencies in the e5tinct species were stri$ing"y higher than those in the present-day species. /n considering possib"e e5p"anations #or this #inding' the researchers dismissed demographic bias because o"der individua"s were not overrepresented in the #ossi" samp"es. They re2ected preservationa" bias because a tota" absence o# brea$age in two e5tinct species demonstrated that the #ractures were not the resu"t o# abrasion within the pits. They ru"ed out "oca" bias because brea$age data obtained #rom other 6"eistocene sites were simi"ar to the Ea &rea data. The e5p"anation they consider most p"ausib"e is behaviora" di##erences between e5tinct and present-day carnivores!in particu"ar' more contact between the teeth o# predators and the bones o# prey due to more thorough consumption o# carcasses by the e5tinct species. uch thorough carcass consumption imp"ies to the researchers either that prey avai"abi"ity was "ow' at "east seasona""y' or that there was intense competition over $i""s and a high rate o# carcass the#t due to re"ative"y high predator densities.

2.1. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) present se'eral e$planations for a well(known fact (B) suggest alternati'e method of resol'ing a debate

GMAT

2--

(C) argue in fa'or of a contro'ersial theory ( ) "uestion the methodology used in a study (#) discuss the implications of a research finding 2.2. The passage suggests that/ compared with @leistocene carni'ores in other areas/ @leistocene carni'ores in the Ka Brea area (A) included the same species/ in appro$imately the same proportions (B) had a similar fre"uency of tooth fractures (C) populated the Ka Brea more densely ( ) consumed their preys more thoroughly (#) found it harder to obtain sufficiency prey 2... According to the passage/ the researchers belie'es that the high fre"uency of tooth breakage in carni'ores found at Ka Brea was caused primarily by (A) the aging process in indi'idual carni'ores (B) contact between the fossils in the pits (C) poor preser'ation of the fossils after they were remo'ed from the pits ( ) the impact of carni'ores4 teeth against the bones of their prey (#) the impact of carni'ores4 teeth against the bones of other carni'ores during fights o'er kills 2.0. The researchers4 conclusion concerning the absence of demographic bias would be most seriously undermined if it were found that (A) the older as indi'idual carni'ore is/ the more likely it is to ha'e a large number of tooth fractures (B) the a'erage age at death of a present(day carni'ores is greater than was the a'erage age at death of a @leistocene carni'ore (C) in @leistocene carni'ore species/ older indi'iduals consumed carcasses as thoroughly as did younger indi'iduals ( ) the methods used to determine animals4 ages in fossil samples tend to misidentify many older indi'iduals as younger indi'iduals (#) data concerning the ages of fossil samples cannot pro'ide reliable information about beha'ioral differences between e$tinct carni'ores and present(day carni'ores 2.1. The passage suggests that if the researchers had not found that two e$tinct carni'ore species were free of tooth breakage/ the researchers would ha'e concluded that (A) the difference in breakage fre"uencies could ha'e been the result of damage to the fossil remains in the Ka Brea pits (B) the fossils in other @leistocene sites could ha'e higher breakage fre"uencies than do the fossils in the Ka Brea pits

2-6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) @leistocene carni'ore species probably beha'ed 'ery similarly to one another with respect to consumption of carcass ( ) all @leistocene carni'ores species differed beha'iorally from present(day carni'ore species (#) predator densities during the @leistocene era were e$tremely high Passage 107 (7/17)
Furing the nineteenth-century' occupationa" in#ormation about women that was provided by the United tates census!a popu"ation count conducted each decade!became more detai"ed and precise in response to socia" changes. Through 18H.' simp"e enumeration by househo"d mirrored a home-based agricu"tura" economy and hierarchica" socia" order> the head o# the househo"d (presumed ma"e or absent) was speci#ied by name' whereas other househo"d members were on"y indicated by the tota" number o# persons counted in various categories' inc"uding occupationa" categories. Ei$e #arms' most enterprises were #ami"y-run' so that the census measured economic activity as an attribute o# the entire househo"d' rather than o# individua"s. The 18-. census' part"y responding to antis"avery and women3s rights movements' initiated the co""ection o# speci#ic in#ormation about each individua" in a househo"d. *ot unti" 187. was occupationa" in#ormation ana"y)ed by gender> the census superintendent reported 1.8 mi""ion women emp"oyed outside the home in ;gain#u" and reputab"e occupations.< /n addition' he arbitrari"y attributed to each #ami"y one woman ;$eeping house.< 9ver"ap between the two groups was not ca"cu"ated unti" 189.' when the rapid entry o# women into the paid "abor #orce and socia" issues arising #rom industria"i)ation were causing women3s advocates and women statisticians to press #or more thorough and accurate accounting o# women3s occupations and wages.

2.2. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) e$plain and criti"ue the methods used by early statisticians (B) compare and contrast a historical situation with a current(day one (C) describe and e$plain a historical change ( ) discuss historical opposition to an established institution (#) trace the origin of a contemporary contro'ersy 2.-. #ach of the following aspects of nineteenth(century :nited ;tates censuses is mentioned in the passage #DC#@T the (A) year in which data on occupations began to be analy!ed by gender (B) year in which specific information began to be collected on indi'iduals in addition to the head of the household (C) year in which o'erlap between women employed outside the home and women keeping house was first calculated ( ) way in which the 16,5 census measured women4s income le'els and

GMAT

2-,

educational backgrounds (#) way in which household members were counted in the 1605 census 2.6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the 1605 :nited ;tates census pro'ided a count of which of the following% (A) &omen who worked e$clusi'ely in the home (B) @eople engaged in nonfarming occupations (C) @eople engaged in social mo'ements ( ) &omen engaged in family(run enterprises (#) ?en engaged in agriculture 2.,. The author uses the ad<ecti'e *simple+ in line 1 most probably to emphasi!e that the (A) collection of census information became progressi'ely more difficult throughout the nineteenth(century (B) technology for tabulating census information was rudimentary during the first half of the nineteenth century (C) home(based agricultural economy of the early nineteenth century was easier to analy!e than the later industrial economy ( ) economic role of women was better defined in the early nineteenth century than in the late nineteenth century (#) information collected by early(nineteen(century censuses was limited in its amount of detail 205. The passage suggests which of the following about the *women4s ad'ocates and women statisticians+ mentioned in lines 2-(26% (A) They wanted to call attention to the lack of pay for women who worked in the home. (B) They belie'ed that pre'ious census information was inade"uate and did not reflect certain economic changes in the :nited ;tates. (C) They had begun to press for changes in census(taking methods as part of their participation in the antisla'ery mo'ement. ( ) They thought that census statistics about women would be more accurate if more women were employed as census officials. (#) They had conducted independent studies that disputed the official statistics pro'ided by pre'ious :nited ;tates censuses. Passage 108 (8/17)
The modern mu"tinationa" corporation is described as having originated when the ownermanagers o# nineteenth-century &ritish #irms carrying on internationa" trade were rep"aced by teams o# sa"aried managers organi)ed into hierarchies. /ncreases in the vo"ume o#

265

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transactions in such #irms are common"y be"ieved to have necessitated this structura" change. *ineteenth-century inventions "i$e the steamship and the te"egraph' by #aci"itating coordination o# manageria" activities' are described as $ey #actors. i5teenth- and seventeenth-century chartered trading companies' despite the internationa" scope o# their activities' are usua""y considered irre"evant to this discussion> the vo"ume o# their transactions is assumed to have been too "ow and the communications and transport o# their day too primitive to ma$e comparisons with modern mu"tinationa"s interesting. /n rea"ity' however' ear"y trading companies success#u""y purchased and out#itted ships' bui"t and operated o##ices and warehouses' manu#actured trade goods #or use abroad' maintained trading posts and production #aci"ities overseas' procured goods #or import' and so"d those goods both at home and in other countries. The "arge vo"ume o# transactions associated with these activities seems to have necessitated hierarchica" management structures we"" be#ore the advent o# modern communications and transportation. 7or e5amp"e' in the (udson3s &ay %ompany' each #ar-#"ung trading outpost was managed by a sa"aried agent' who carried out the trade with the *ative 0mericans' managed day-to-day operations' and oversaw the post3s wor$ers and servants. 9ne chie# agent' answerab"e to the %ourt o# Firectors in Eondon through the correspondence committee' was appointed with contro" over a"" o# the agents on the bay. The ear"y trading companies did di##er stri$ing"y #rom modern mu"tinationa"s in many respects. They depended heavi"y on the nationa" governments o# their home countries and thus characteristica""y acted abroad to promote nationa" interests. Their top managers were typica""y owners with a substantia" minority share' whereas senior managers3 ho"dings in modern mu"tinationa"s are usua""y insigni#icant. They operated in a pre-industria" wor"d' gra#ting a system o# capita"ist internationa" trade onto a pre-modern system o# artisan and peasant production. Fespite these di##erences' however' ear"y trading companies organi)ed e##ective"y in remar$ab"y modern ways and merit #urther study as ana"ogues o# more modern structures.

201. The author4s main point is that (A) modern multinationals originated in the si$teenth and se'enteenth centuries with the establishment of chartered trading companies (B) the success of early chartered trading companies/ like that of modern multinationals/ depended primarily on their ability to carry out comple$ operations (C) early chartered trading companies should be more seriously considered by scholars studying the origins of modern multinationals ( ) scholars are "uite mistaken concerning the origins of modern multinationals (#) the management structures of early chartered trading companies are fundamentally the same as those of modern multinationals 202. According to the passage/ early chartered trading companies are usually described as (A) irrele'ant to a discussion of the origins of the modern multinational

GMAT

261

corporation (B) interesting but ultimately too unusually to be good sub<ects for economic study (C) analogues of nineteenth(century British trading firms ( ) rudimentary and 'ery early forms of the modern multinational corporation (#) important national institutions because they e$isted to further the political aims of the go'ernments of their home countries 20.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would characteri!e the acti'ities engaged in by early chartered trading companies as being (A) comple$ enough in scope to re"uire a substantial amount of planning and coordination on the part of management (B) too simple to be considered similar to those of a modern multinational corporation (C) as intricate as those carried out by the largest multinational corporations today ( ) often unprofitable due to slow communications and unreliable means of transportation (#) hampered by the political demands imposed on them by the go'ernments of their home countries 200. The author lists the 'arious acti'ities of early chartered trading companies in order to (A) analy!e the 'arious ways in which these acti'ities contributed to changes in management structure in such companies (B) demonstrate that the 'olume of business transactions of such companies e$ceeded that of earlier firms (C) refute the 'iew that the 'olume of business undertaken by such companies was relati'ely low ( ) emphasi!e the international scope of these companies4 operations (#) support the argument that such firms coordinated such acti'ities by using a'ailable means of communication and transport 201. &ith which of the following generali!ations regarding management structures would the author of the passage most probably agree% (A) )ierarchical management structures are the most efficient management structures possible in a modern conte$t. (B) >irms that routinely ha'e a high 'olume of business transactions find it necessary to adopt hierarchical management structures. (C) )ierarchical management structures cannot be successfully implemented without modern communications and transportation. ( ) ?odern multinational firms with a relati'ely small 'olume of business

262

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

transactions usually do not ha'e hierarchically organi!ed management structures. (#) Companies that adopt hierarchical management structures usually do so in order to facilitate e$pansion into foreign trade. 202. The passage suggests that modern multinationals differ from early chartered trading companies in that (A) the top managers of modern multinationals own stock in their own companies rather than simply recei'ing a salary (B) modern multinationals depend on a system of capitalist international trade rather than on less modern trading systems (C) modern multinationals ha'e operations in a number of different foreign counties rather than merely in one or two ( ) the operations of modern multinationals are highly profitable despite the more stringent en'ironmental and safety regulations of modern go'ernments (#) the o'erseas operations of modern multinationals are not go'erned by the national interests of their home countries 20-. The author mentions the artisan and peasant production systems of early chartered trading companies as an e$ample of (A) an area of operations of these companies that was unhampered by rudimentary systems of communications and transport (B) a similarity that allows fruitful comparison of these companies with modern multinationals (C) a positi'e achie'ement of these companies in the face of 'arious difficulties ( ) a system that could not ha'e emerged in the absence of management hierarchies (#) a characteristic that distinguishes these companies from modern multinationals 206. The passage suggests that one of the reasons that early chartered trading companies deser'e comparison with early modern multinationals is (A) the degree to which they both depended on new technology (B) the similar nature of their management structures (C) similarities in their top managements4 degree of ownership in the company ( ) their common dependence on political stability abroad in order to carry on foreign operations (#) their common tendency to re'olutioni!e systems of production Passage 109 (9/17)
/n an un#inished but high"y suggestive series o# essays' the "ate arah =isenstein has

GMAT

26.

#ocused attention on the evo"ution o# wor$ing women3s va"ues #rom the turn o# the century to the 7irst 8or"d 8ar. =isenstein argues that turn-o#-the-century women neither who""y accepted nor re2ected what she ca""s the dominant ;ideo"ogy o# domesticity'< but rather too$ this and other avai"ab"e ideo"ogies!#eminism' socia"ism' trade unionism!and modi#ied or adapted them in "ight o# their own e5periences and needs. /n thus maintaining that wage-wor$ he"ped to produce a new ;consciousness< among women' =isenstein to some e5tent cha""enges the recent' controversia" proposa" by Ees"ie Tent"er that #or women the wor$ e5perience on"y served to rein#orce the attractiveness o# the dominant ideo"ogy. 0ccording to the Tent"er' the degrading conditions under which many #ema"e wage earners wor$ed made them view the #ami"y as a source o# power and esteem avai"ab"e nowhere e"se in their socia" wor"d. /n contrast' =isenstein3s study insists that wage-wor$ had other imp"ications #or women3s identities and consciousness. ?ost important"y' her wor$ aims to demonstrate that wage-wor$ enab"ed women to become aware o# themse"ves as a distinct socia" group capab"e o# de#ining their co""ective circumstance. =isenstein insists that as a group wor$ingc"ass women were not ab"e to come to co""ective consciousness o# their situation unti" they began entering the "abor #orce' because domestic wor$ tended to iso"ate them #rom one another. Un#ortunate"y' =isenstein3s un#inished study does not deve"op these ideas in su##icient depth or detai"' o##ering tanta"i)ing hints rather than an e5haustive ana"ysis. 8hatever =isenstein3s overa"" p"an may have been' in its current #orm her study su##ers #rom the "imited nature o# the sources she depended on. he uses the speeches and writings o# re#ormers and "abor organi)ers' who she ac$now"edges were #ar #rom representative' as the voice o# the typica" woman wor$er. 0nd there is "ess than ade+uate attention given to the di##ering va"ues o# immigrant groups that made up a signi#icant proportion o# the popu"ation under investigation. 8hi"e raising important +uestions' =isenstein3s essays do not provide de#initive answer' and it remains #or others to ta$e up the cha""enges they o##er.

20,. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) critici!e a scholar4s assumptions and methodology (B) e'aluate an approach to women4s study (C) compare two sociological theories ( ) correct a misconception about feminist theory (#) defend an unpopular ideology 215. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in #isenstein4s 'iew/ working women at the turn of the century had which of the following attitudes toward the dominant ideology of their time% (A) They resented the dominant ideology as degrading. (B) They preferred the dominant ideology to other a'ailable ideologies. (C) They began to 'iew the dominant ideology more fa'orably as a result of their e$periences in the labor force. ( ) They accepted some but not all aspects of the dominant ideology.

260

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) They belie'ed that the dominant ideology isolated them from one another. 211. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph of the passage% (A) A chronological account of a historical de'elopment is presented/ and then future de'elopments are predicted. (B) A term is defined according to se'eral different schools of thought/ and then a new definition is formulated. (C) A theory is presented/ an alternati'e 'iewpoint is introduced/ and then the reasoning behind the initial theory is summari!ed. ( ) A tentati'e proposal is made/ reasons for and against it are weighed/ and then a modified 'ersion of the proposal is offered. (#) A contro'ersy is described/ its historical implications are assessed/ and then a compromise is suggested. 212. &hich of the following would the author of the passage be most likely to appro'e as a continuation of #isenstein4s study% (A) An oral history of prominent women labor organi!ers (B) An analysis of letters and diaries written by typical female wage earners at the turn of the century (C) An assessment of what different social and political groups defined as the dominant ideology in the early twentieth century ( ) A theoretical study of how socialism and feminism influenced one another at the turn of the century (#) A documentary account of labor4s role in the introduction of women into the labor force Passage 110 (10/17)
*eotropica" coasta" mangrove #orests are usua""y ;)ona"'< with certain mangrove species #ound predominant"y in the seaward portion o# the habitat and other mangrove species on the more "andward portions o# the coast. The ear"iest research on mangrove #orests produced descriptions o# species distribution #rom shore to "and' without e5p"oring the causes o# the distributions. The idea that )onation is caused by p"ant succession was #irst e5pressed by @. (. Favis in a study o# 7"orida mangrove #orests. 0ccording to Favis3 scheme' the shore"ine is being e5tended in a seaward direction because o# the ;"and-bui"ding< ro"e o# mangroves' which' by trapping sediments over time' e5tend the shore. 0s a habitat gradua""y becomes more in"and as the shore e5tends' the ;"and-bui"ding< species are rep"aced. This continuous process o# accretion and succession wou"d be interrupted on"y by hurricanes or storm #"ushings. Recent"y the universa" app"ication o# Favis3 succession paradigm has been cha""enged. /t appears that in areas where wea$ currents and wea$ tida" energies a""ow the accumu"ation o#

GMAT
sediments' mangroves wi"" #o""ow "and #ormation and acce"erate the rate o# soi" accretion:

261

succession wi"" proceed according to Favis3 scheme. &ut on stab"e coast"ines' the distribution o# mangrove species resu"ts in other patterns o# )onation: ;"and bui"ding< does not occur. To #ind a princip"e that e5p"ains the various distribution patterns' severa" researchers have "oo$ed to sa"inity and its e##ects on mangrove. 8hi"e mangroves can deve"op in #resh water' they can a"so thrive in sa"inities as high as 1.- times that o# seawater. (owever' those mangrove species #ound in #reshwater habitats do we"" on"y in the absence o# competition' thus suggesting that sa"inity to"erance is a critica" #actor in competitive success among mangrove species. Research suggests that mangroves wi"" norma""y dominate high"y sa"ine regions' a"though not because they re+uire sa"t. Rather' they are metabo"ica""y e##icient (and hence grow we"") in portions o# an environment whose high sa"inity e5c"udes p"ants adapted to "ower sa"inities. Tides create di##erent degrees o# sa"inity a"ong a coast"ine. The characteristic mangrove species o# each )one shou"d e5hibit a higher metabo"ic e##iciency at that sa"inity than wi"" any potentia" invader' inc"uding other species o# mangrove.

21.. The primary of the purpose of the passage is to (A) refute the idea that the !onation e$hibited in mangro'e forests is caused by adaptation to salinity (B) describe the pattern of !onation typically found in >lorida mangro'e forests (C) argue that a'is4 succession paradigm cannot be successfully applied to >lorida mangro'e forests ( ) discuss hypotheses that attempt to e$plain the !onation of coastal mangro'e forests (#) establish that plants that do well in saline forest en'ironments re"uire salt to achie'e ma$imum metabolic efficiency 210. According to the passage/ the earliest research on mangro'e forest produced which of the following% (A) ata that implied random patterns of mangro'e species distribution (B) escriptions of species distributions suggesting !onation (C) escriptions of the de'elopment of mangro'e forests o'er time ( ) =eclassification of species formerly thought to be identical (#) ata that confirmed the *land(building+ role of mangro'es 211. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a'is4 paradigm does 98T apply to which of the following% (A) The shoreline of >lorida mangro'e forests first studies by a'is (B) A shoreline in an area with weak currents (C) A shoreline in an area with weak tidal energy ( ) A shoreline e$tended by *land(building+ species of mangro'e (#) A shoreline in which few sediments can accumulate

262

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

212. 3nformation in the passage indicates that the author would most probably regard which of following statements as 39C8==#CT% (A) Coastal mangro'e forests are usually !onal. (B) )urricanes interrupt the process of accretion and succession that e$tends e$isting shorelines. (C) ;pecies of plants that thri'e in a saline habitat re"uire salt to flourish. ( ) @lants with the highest metabolic efficiency in a gi'en habitat tend to e$clude other plants from that habitat. (#) ;horeline in areas with weak currents and tides are more likely to be e$tended through the process of accumulation of sediment than are shorelines with strong currents and tides. Passage 111 (11/17)
?odern manu#acturers' who need re"iab"e sources o# materia"s and techno"ogica""y advanced components to operate pro#itab"y' #ace an increasing"y di##icu"t choice between owning the producers o# these items (a practice $nown as bac$ward integration) and buying #rom independent producers. ?anu#acturers who integrate may reap short-term rewards' but they o#ten restrict their #uture capacity #or innovative product deve"opment. &ac$ward integration removes the need #or some purchasing and mar$eting #unctions' centra"i)es overhead' and permits manu#acturers to e"iminate dup"icated e##orts in research and deve"opment. 8here components are commodities (#errous meta"s or petro"eum' #or e5amp"e)' bac$ward integration a"most certain"y boosts pro#its. *everthe"ess' because product innovation means adopting the most techno"ogica""y advanced and cost-e##ective ways o# ma$ing components' bac$ward integration may entai" a serious ris$ #or a techno"ogica""y active company!#or e5amp"e' a producer o# sophisticated consumer e"ectronics. 0 company that decides to ma$e rather than buy important parts can "oc$ itse"# into an outdated techno"ogy. /ndependent supp"iers may be unwi""ing to share innovations with assemb"ers with whom they are competing. ?oreover' when an assemb"er sets out to master the techno"ogy o# producing advanced components' the resu"ting demands on its resources may compromise its abi"ity to assemb"e these components success#u""y into end products. Eong-term contracts with supp"iers can achieve many o# the same cost bene#its as bac$ward integration without compromising a company3s abi"ity to innovate. (owever' moving away #rom bac$ward integration is not a comp"ete so"ution either. Feve"oping innovative techno"ogies re+uires independent supp"iers o# components to invest huge sums in research and deve"opment. The resu"ting "ow pro#it margins on the sa"e o# components threaten the "ong-term #inancia" stabi"ity o# these #irms. &ecause the abi"ity o# end-product assemb"ers to respond to mar$et opportunities depends heavi"y on supp"iers o# components' assemb"ers are o#ten #orced to integrate by purchasing the supp"iers o# components 2ust to $eep their supp"iers in business.

21-. According to the passage/ all of the following are benefits associated with

GMAT

26-

backward integration #DC#@TE (A) impro'ement in the management of o'erhead e$penses (B) enhancement of profit margins on sales of components (C) simplification of purchasing and marketing operations ( ) reliability of a source of necessary components (#) elimination of unnecessary research efforts 216. According to passage/ when an assembler buys a firm that makes some important component of the end product that the assembler produces/ independent suppliers of the same component may (A) withhold technological inno'ations from the assembler (B) e$perience impro'ed profit margins on sales of their products (C) lower their prices to protect themsel'es from competition ( ) suffer financial difficulties and go out of business (#) stop de'eloping new 'ersions of the component 21,. &hich of the following best describes the way the last paragraph functions in the conte$t of the passage% (A) The last in a series of arguments supporting the central argument of the passage is presented. (B) A 'iewpoint is presented which "ualifies one presented earlier in the passage. (C) #'idence is presented in support of the argument de'eloped in the preceding paragraph. ( ) Nuestions arising from the earlier discussion are identified as points of departure for further study of the topic. (#) A specific e$ample is presented to illustrate the main elements of argument presented in the earlier paragraphs. 225. According to the passage/ which of the following relationships between profits and in'estments in research and de'elopment holds true for producers of technologically ad'anced components% (A) ?odest in'estments are re"uired and the profit margins on component sales are low. (B) ?odest in'estments are re"uired but the profit margins on component sales are "uite high. (C) espite the huge in'estments that are re"uired/ the profit margins on components sales are high. ( ) Because huge in'estments are re"uired/ the profit margins on component sales are low. (#) Kong(term contractual relationships with purchasers of components ensure a high ratio of profits to in'estment costs.

266

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Passage 112 (12/17)

(omeostasis' an anima"3s maintenance o# certain interna" variab"es within an acceptab"e range' particu"ar"y in e5treme physica" environments' has "ong interested bio"ogists. The desert rat and the came" in the most water-deprived environments' and marine vertebrates in an a""-water environment' encounter the same regu"atory prob"em> maintaining ade+uate interna" #"uid ba"ance. 7or desert rats and came"s' the prob"em is conservation o# water in an environment where standing water is none5istent' temperature is high' and humidity is "ow. Fespite these handicaps' desert rats are ab"e to maintain the osmotic pressure o# their b"ood' as we"" as their tota" body-water content' at appro5imate"y the same "eve"s as other rats. 9ne countermeasure is behaviora"> these rats stay in burrows during the hot part o# the day' thus avoiding "oss o# #"uid through panting or sweating' which are regu"atory mechanisms #or maintaining interna" body temperature by evaporative coo"ing. 0"so' desert rats3 $idneys can e5crete a urine having twice as high a sa"t content as sea water. %ame"s' on the other hand' re"y more on simp"e endurance. They cannot store water' and their re"iance on an entire"y une5ceptiona" $idney resu"ts in a rate o# water "oss through rena" #unction signi#icant"y higher than that o# desert rats. 0s a resu"t' came"s must to"erate "osses in body water o# up to thirty percent o# their body weight. *everthe"ess' came"s do re"y on a specia" mechanism to $eep water "oss within a to"erab"e range> by seating and panting on"y when their body temperature e5ceeds that which wou"d $i"" a human' they conserve interna" water. ?arine vertebrates e5perience di##icu"ty with their water ba"ance because though there is no shortage o# seawater to drin$' they must drin$ a "ot o# it to maintain their interna" #"uid ba"ance. &ut the e5cess sa"ts #rom the seawater must be discharged somehow' and the $idneys o# most marine vertebrates are unab"e to e5crete a urine in which the sa"ts are more concentrated than in seawater. ?ost o# these anima"s have specia" sa"t-secreting organs outside the $idney that enab"e them to e"iminate e5cess sa"t.

221. &hich of the following most accurately states the purpose of the passage% (A) To compare two different approaches to the study of homeostasis (B) To summari!e the findings of se'eral studies regarding organisms4 maintenance of internal 'ariables in e$treme en'ironments (C) To argue for a particular hypothesis regarding 'arious organisms4 conser'ation of water in desert en'ironments ( ) To cite e$amples of how homeostasis is achie'ed by 'arious organisms (#) To defend a new theory regarding the maintenance of ade"uate fluid balance 222. According to the passage/ the camel maintains internal fluid balance in which of the following ways% 3. 33. By beha'ioral a'oidance of e$posure to conditions that lead to fluid loss By an ability to tolerate high body temperatures

GMAT

26,

333. By reliance on stored internal fluid supplies (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 22.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that some mechanisms that regulate internal body temperature/ like sweating and panting/ can lead to which of the following% (A) A rise in the e$ternal body temperature (B) A drop in the body4s internal fluid le'el (C) A decrease in the osmotic pressure of the blood ( ) A decrease in the amount of renal water loss (#) A decrease in the urine4s salt content 220. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author characteri!es the camel4s kidney as *entirely une$ceptional+ (line 20) primarily to emphasi!e that it (A) functions much as the kidney of a rat functions (B) does not aid the camel in coping with the e$ceptional water loss resulting from the e$treme conditions of its en'ironment (C) does not enable the camel to e$crete as much salt as do the kidneys of marine 'ertebrates ( ) is similar in structure to the kidneys of most mammals li'ing in water( depri'ed en'ironments (#) re"uires the help of other organs in eliminating e$cess salt Passage 113 (13/17)
/n the seventeenth-century 7"orentine te5ti"e industry' women were emp"oyed primari"y in "ow-paying' "ow-s$i"" 2obs. To e5p"ain this segregation o# "abor by gender' economists have re"ied on the use#u" theory o# human capita". 0ccording to this theory' investment in human capita"!the ac+uisition o# di##icu"t 2ob-re"ated s$i""s!genera""y bene#its individua"s by ma$ing them e"igib"e to engage in we""-paid occupations. 8omen3s ro"e as chi"d bearers' however' resu"ts in interruptions in their participation in the 2ob mar$et (as compared with men3s) and thus reduces their opportunities to ac+uire training #or high"y s$i""ed wor$. /n addition' the human capita" theory e5p"ains why there was a high concentration o# women wor$ers in certain "ow-s$i"" 2obs' such as weaving' but not in others' such as combing or carding' by positing that because o# their primary responsibi"ity in chi"d rearing women too$ occupations that cou"d be carried out in the home. There were' however' di##erences in pay sca"es that cannot be e5p"ained by the human capita" theory. 7or e5amp"e' ma"e construction wor$ers were paid signi#icant"y higher wage than #ema"e ta##eta weavers. The wage di##erence between these two "ow-s$i"" occupations

2,5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

stems #rom the segregation o# "abor by gender> because a "imited number o# occupations were open to women' there was a "arge supp"y o# wor$ers in their #ie"ds' and this ;overcrowding< resu"ted in women receiving "ower wages and men receiving higher wages.

221. The passage suggests that combing and carding differ from wea'ing in that combing and carding are (A) low(skill <obs performed by primarily by women employees (B) low(skill <obs that were not performed in the home (C) low(skill <obs performed by both male and female employees ( ) high(skill <obs performed outside the home (#) high(skill <obs performed by both male and female employees 222. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the e$planation pro'ided by the human capital theory for women4s concentration in certain occupations in se'enteenth(century >lorence% (A) &omen were unlikely to work outside the home e'en in occupations whose house were fle$ible enough to allow women to accommodate domestic tasks as well as paid labor. (B) @arents were less likely to teach occupational skills to their daughters than they were to their sons. (C) &omen4s participation in the >lorentine paid labor force grew steadily throughout the si$teenth and se'enteenth centuries. ( ) The 'ast ma<ority of female wea'ers in the >lorentine wool industry had children. (#) >ew women worked as wea'ers in the >lorentine silk industry/ which was de'oted to making cloths that re"uired a high degree of skill to produce. 22-. The author of the passage would be most likely to describe the e$planation pro'ided by the human capital theory for the high concentration of women in certain occupations in the se'enteenth(century >lorence te$tile industry as (A) well founded though incomplete (B) difficult to articulate (C) plausible but poorly substantiated ( ) seriously flawed (#) contrary to recent research Passage 114 (14/17)

?aps made by non-*ative 0mericans to depict *ative 0merican "and tenure' resources and popu"ation distributions appeared a"most as ear"y as =uropeans3 #irst encounters with *ative 0mericans and too$ many #orm> missionaries3 #ie"d s$etches' e5p"orers3 drawings' and

GMAT
surveyors3 maps' as we"" as maps rendered in connection with treaties invo"ving "and trans#ers. ?ost e5isting maps o# *ative 0merican "ands are reconstructions that are based

2,1

"arge"y on archaeo"ogy' ora" reports' and evidence gathered #rom observers3 accounts in "etter' diaries' and o##icia" reports: according"y' the accuracy o# these maps is especia""y dependent on the mapma$ers3 own interpretive abi"ities. ?any e5isting maps a"so re#"ect the 1-.-year ro"e o# the &ureau o# /ndian 0##airs (&/0) in administering triba" "ands. Though these maps incorporate some in#ormation g"eaned direct"y #rom *ative 0mericans' rare"y has *ative 0merican cartography contributed to this o##icia" record' which has been compi"ed' surveyed' and authenticated by non-*ative 0merican. Thus our current cartographic record re"ating to *ative 0merican tribes and their migrations and cu"tura" #eatures' as we"" as territoria"ity and contemporary trust "ands' re#"ects the origins o# the data' the mi5ed purposes #or which the maps have been prepared' and changes both in United tates government po"icy and in non-*ative 0mericans3 attitudes toward an understanding o# *ative 0mericans.

226. &hich of the following best describes the content of the passage% (A) A chronology of the de'elopment of different methods for mapping 9ati'e Americans (B) A discussion of how the mapmaking techni"ues of 9ati'e Americans differed from those of #uropeans (C) An argument concerning the present(day uses to which historical maps of 9ati'e American lands are put ( ) An argument concerning the nature of information contained in maps of 9ati'e American lands (#) A proposal for impro'ing the accuracy of maps of 9ati'e American lands 22,. The passage mentions each of the following as a factor affecting current maps of 9ati'e American lands #DC#@T (A) :nited ;tates go'ernment policy (B) non(9ati'e Americans4 perspecti'e on 9ati'e Americans (C) origins of the information utili!ed to produce the maps ( ) changes in ways that tribal lands are used (#) the reason for producing the maps 2-5. The passage suggests which of the following about most e$isting maps of 9ati'e American lands% (A) They do not record the migrations of 9ati'e American tribes. (B) They ha'e been preser'ed primarily because of their connection with treaties in'ol'ing land transfers. (C) They tend to reflect archaeological e'idence that has become outdated. ( ) They tend to be less accurate when they are based on oral reports than when they are based on written documents.

2,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) They are not based primarily on the mapmakers4 firsthand obser'ations of 9ati'e American lands. 2-1. All of the following are e$amples of the type of e'idence used in creating *?ost e$isting maps+ (line -(6) #DC#@T (A) a nineteenth(century go'ernment report on population distribution of a particular tribe (B) taped con'ersations with people who li'ed on 9ati'e American tribal lands in the early twentieth century (C) aerial photographs of geological features of lands inhabited by 9ati'e Americans ( ) findings from a recently e$ca'ated site once inhabited by a certain 9ati'e American people (#) a <ournal kept by a non(9ati'e American e$plorer who tra'eled in 9ati'e American territory in the early nineteenth century Passage 115 (15/17)
(This passage was written in 198H.) /t is now possib"e to hear a recording o# %aruso3s singing that is #ar superior to any made during his "i#etime. 0 decades-o"d wa5-cy"inder recording o# this great operatic tenor has been digiti)ed' and the digiti)ed signa" has been processed by computer to remove the e5traneous sound' or ;noise'< introduced by the now ;ancient< wa5-cy"inder recording process. 0"though this digita" techni+ue needs improvements' it represents a new and superior way o# recording and processing sound which overcomes many o# the "imitations o# ana"og recording. /n ana"og recording systems' the origina" sound is represented as a continuous wave#orm created by variations in the sound3s amp"itude over time. 8hen ana"og p"aybac$ systems reproduce this wave#orm' however' they invariab"y introduce distortions. 7irst' the wave#orm produced during p"aybac$ di##ers somewhat #rom the origina" wave#orm. econd' the medium that stores the ana"og recording creates noise during p"aybac$ which gets added to the recorded sounds. Figita" recordings' by contrast' reduce the origina" sound to a series o# discrete numbers that represent the sound3s wave#orm. &ecause the digita" p"aybac$ system ;reads< on"y numbers' any noise and distortion that may accumu"ate during storage and manipu"ation o# the digiti)ed signa" wi"" have "itt"e e##ect> as "ong as the numbers remain recogni)ab"e' the origina" wave#orm wi"" be reconstructed with "itt"e "oss in +ua"ity. (owever' because the wave#orm is continuous' whi"e its digita" representation is composed o# discrete numbers' it is impossib"e #or digita" systems to avoid some distortion. 9ne $ind o# distortion' ca""ed ;samp"ing error'< occurs i# the sound is samp"ed (i.e.' its amp"itude is measured) too in#re+uent"y' so that the amp"itude changes more than one +uantum (the sma""est change in amp"itude measured by the digita" system) between samp"ings. /n e##ect' the sound is changing too +uic$"y #or the system to record it accurate"y. 0 second #orm o# distortion is ;+uanti)ing error'< which arises when the amp"itude being measured is not a who"e number o#

GMAT

2,.

+uanta' #orcing the digita" recorder to round o##. 9ver the "ong term' these errors are random' and the noise produced (a bac$ground bu))ing) is simi"ar to ana"og noise e5cept that it on"y occurs when recorded sounds are being reproduced.

2-2. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the first paragraph to the passage as a whole% (A) The first paragraph introduces a general thesis that is elaborated on in detail elsewhere in the passage. (B) The first paragraph presents a concrete instance of a problem that is discussed elsewhere in the passage. (C) The first paragraph describes a traditional process that is contrasted unfa'orably with a newer process described elsewhere in the passage. ( ) The first paragraph presents a dramatic e$ample of the potential of a process that is described elsewhere in the passage. (#) The first paragraph describes a historic incident that ser'ed as the catalyst for de'elopments described elsewhere in the passage. 2-.. According the passage/ one of the ways in which analog recording systems differ from digital recording systems is that analog systems (A) can be used to reduce background noise in old recordings (B) record the original sound as a continuous wa'eform (C) distort the original sound somewhat ( ) can a'oid introducing e$traneous and nonmusical sounds (#) can reconstruct the original wa'eform with little loss in "uality 2-0. &hich of the following statements about the numbers by which sound is represented in a digital system can be inferred from the passage% (A) They describe the time inter'al between successi'e sounds in a passage of music. (B) They model large changes in the amplitude of the initial sound with relati'ely poor precision. (C) They are slightly altered each time they are read by the playback apparatus. ( ) They are not readily altered by distortion and noise accumulated as the digital signal is stored and manipulated. (#) They are stored in the recording medium in small groups that can be read simultaneously by the playback apparatus. 2-1. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the digital approach to the processing of sound% (A) 3t was de'eloped in competition with wa$(cylinder recording technology. (B) 3t has resulted in the first distortion(free playback system. (C) 3t has been e$tensi'ely applied to nonmusical sounds.

2,0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) 3t cannot yet process music originally recorded on analog e"uipment. (#) 3t is not yet capable of reprocessing old recordings in a completely distortion( free manner. Passage 116 (16/17)
The #unction o# capita" mar$ets is to #aci"itate an e5change o# #unds among a"" participants' and yet in practice we #ind that certain participants are not on a par with others. ?embers o# society have varying degrees o# mar$et strength in terms o# in#ormation they bring to a transaction' as we"" as o# purchasing power and creditworthiness' as de#ined by "enders. 7or e5amp"e' within minority communities' capita" mar$ets do not proper"y #u"#i"" their #unctions: they do not provide access to the aggregate #"ow o# #unds in the United tates. The #inancia" system does not generate the credit or investment vehic"es needed #or underwriting economic deve"opment in minority areas. The prob"em under"ying this dys#unction is #ound in a rationing mechanism a##ecting both the avai"ab"e a"ternatives #or investment and the amount o# #inancia" resources. This creates a distributive mechanism pena"i)ing members o# minority groups because o# their socioeconomic di##erences #rom others. The e5isting system e5presses de#inite socia""y based investment pre#erences that resu"t #rom the previous a""ocation o# income and that in#"uence the a""ocation o# resources #or the present and #uture. The system tends to increase the ine+ua"ity o# income distribution. 0nd' in the United tates economy' a greater ine+ua"ity o# income distribution "eads to a greater concentration o# capita" in certain types o# investment. ?ost traditiona" #inancia"-mar$et ana"ysis studies ignore #inancia" mar$ets3 de#iciencies in a""ocation because o# ana"ysts3 inherent pre#erences #or the simp"e mode" o# per#ect competition. %onventiona" #inancia" ana"ysis pays "imited attention to issues o# mar$et structure and dynamics' re"ative costs o# in#ormation' and prob"ems o# income distribution. ?ar$et participants are viewed as acting as entire"y independent and homogeneous individua"s with per#ect #oresight about capita"-mar$et behavior. 0"so' it is assumed that each individua" in the community at "arge has the same access to the mar$et and the same opportunity to transact and to e5press the pre#erence appropriate to his or her individua" interest. ?oreover' it is assumed that transaction costs #or various types o# #inancia" instruments (stoc$s' bonds' etc.) are e+ua""y $nown and e+ua""y divided among a"" community members.

2-2. The main point made by the passage is that (A) financial markets pro'ide for an optimum allocation of resources among all competing participants by balancing supply and demand (B) the allocation of financial resources takes place among separate indi'idual participants/ each of whom has access to the market (C) the e$istence of certain factors ad'ersely affecting members of minority groups shows that financial markets do not function as con'entional theory says they function

GMAT

2,1

( ) in'estments in minority communities can be made by the use of 'arious alternati'e financial instruments/ such as stocks and bonds (#) since transaction costs for stocks/ bonds/ and other financial instruments are not e"ually apportioned among all minority(group members/ the financial market is sub<ect to criticism 2--. The passage states that traditional studies of the financial market o'erlook imbalances in the allocation of financial resources because (A) an optimum allocation of resources is the final result of competition among participants (B) those performing the studies choose an o'ersimplified description of the influences on competition (C) such imbalances do not appear in the statistics usually compiled to measure the market4s beha'ior ( ) the analysts who study the market are unwilling to accept criticism of their methods as biased (#) socioeconomic difference form the basis of a rationing mechanism that puts minority groups at a disad'antage 2-6. The author4s main point is argued by (A) gi'ing e$amples that support a con'entional generali!ation (B) showing that the 'iew opposite to the author4s is self(contradictory (C) critici!ing the presuppositions of a proposed plan ( ) showing that omissions in a theoretical description make it inapplicable in certain cases (#) demonstrating that an alternati'e hypothesis more closely fits the data 2-,. A difference in which of the following would be an e$ample of ine"uality in transaction costs as alluded to in lines 05(0.% (A) ?a$imum amounts of loans e$tended by a bank to businesses in different areas (B) >ees charged to large and small in'estors for purchasing stocks (C) @rices of similar goods offered in large and small stores in an area ( ) ;tipends paid to different attorneys for preparing legal suits for damages (#) #$change rates in dollars for currencies of different countries 265. &hich of the following can be inferred about minority communities on the basis of the passage% (A) They pro'ide a significant portion of the funds that become a'ailable for in'estment in the financial market. (B) They are penali!ed by the ta$ system/ which increases the ine"uality of the distribution of income between in'estors and wage earners.

2,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) They do no recei'e the share of the amount of funds a'ailable for in'estment that would be e$pected according to traditional financial(market analysis. ( ) They are not granted go'ernmental subsidies to assist in underwriting the cost of economic de'elopment. (#) They pro'ide the same access to alternati'e sources of credit to finance businesses as do ma<ority communities. 261. According to the passage/ a "uestionable assumption of the con'entional theory about the operation of financial markets is that (A) creditworthiness as determined by lenders is a factor determining market access (B) market structure and market dynamics depend on income distribution (C) a scarcity of alternati'e sources of funds would result from taking socioeconomic factors into consideration ( ) those who engage in financial(market transactions are perfectly well informed about the market (#) ine"ualities in income distribution are increased by the functioning of the financial market 262. According to the passage/ analysts ha'e con'entionally tended to 'iew those who participate in financial market as (A) <udging in'estment preferences in terms of the good of society as a whole (B) influencing the allocation of funds through prior ownership of certain kinds of assets (C) 'arying in market power with respect to one another ( ) basing <udgments about future e'ents mainly on chance (#) ha'ing e"ual opportunities to engage in transactions Passage 117 (17/17)
(The #o""owing is based on materia" written in 199G.) The ?ontrea" 6rotoco" on ubstances that Fep"ete the 9)one Eayer' signed in 1987 by more than 1-. nations' has attained its short-term goa"s> it has decreased the rate o# increase in amounts o# most o)one-dep"eting chemica"s reaching the atmosphere and has even reduced the atmospheric "eve"s o# some o# them. The pro2ection that the o)one "ayer wi"" substantia""y recover #rom o)one dep"etion by 1.-. is based on the assumption that the protoco"3s regu"ations wi"" be strict"y #o""owed. Det there is considerab"e evidence o# vio"ations' particu"ar"y in the #orm o# the re"ease o# o)one-dep"eting ch"oro#"uorocarbons (%7%3s)' which are common"y used in the re#rigeration' heating' and air conditioning industries. These vio"ations re#"ect industry attitudes: #or e5amp"e' in the United tates' H8 percents o# respondents in a recent survey o# subscribers to "ir Conditioning& %eating& and *efrigeration +ews' an industry trade 2ourna"' said that they did not be"ieve that %7%3s damage the o)one

GMAT
"ayer. ?oreover' some in the industry apparent"y do not want to pay #or %7% substitutes' which can run #ive times the cost o# %7%3s. %onse+uent"y' a b"ac$ mar$et in imported i""icit

2,-

%7%3s has grown. =stimates o# the contraband %7% trade range #rom 1.'... to 11'... tons a year' with most o# the %7%3s originating in /ndia and %hina' whose agreements under the 6rotoco" sti"" a""ow them to produce %7%3s. /n #act' the United tates %ustoms ervice reports that %7%-11 is a contraband prob"em second on"y to i""icit drugs.

26.. According to the passage/ which of the following best describes most o!one( depleting chemicals in 1,,2 as compared to those in 1,6-% (A) The le'els of such chemicals in the atmosphere had decreased. (B) The number of such chemicals that reached the atmosphere had declined. (C) The amounts of such chemicals released had increased but the amounts that reached the atmosphere had decreased. ( ) The rate of increase in amounts of such chemicals reaching the atmosphere had decreased. (#) The rate at which such chemicals were being reduced in the atmosphere had slowed. 260. The author of the passage compares the smuggling of C>C4s to the illicit drug trade most likely for which of the following reasons% (A) To "ualify a pre'ious claim (B) To emphasi!e the e$tent of a problem (C) To pro'ide an e$planation for an earlier assertion ( ) To suggest that the illicit C>C trade/ likely the illicit drug trade/ will continue to increase (#) To suggest that the conse"uences of a relati'ely little(known problem are as serious as those of a well(known one 261. The passage suggests which of the following about the illicit trade in C>C4s% (A) 3t would cease if manufacturers in 3ndia and China stopped producing C>C4s. (B) ?ost people who participate in such trade do not belie'e that C>C4s deplete the o!one layer. (C) 3t will probably surpass illicit drugs as the largest contraband problem faced by the :nited ;tates Custom ;er'ices. ( ) 3t is fostered by people who do not want to pay the price of C>C substitutes. (#) 3t has grown primarily because of the e$pansion of the refrigeration/ heating/ and air(conditioning industries in foreign countries.

2,6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

GRE RC (No. 2No. 9) No. 2-1 SECTION A

=5tended debate concerning the e5act point o# origin o# individua" #o"$ta"es to"d by 0#ro0merican s"aves has un#ortunate"y ta$en precedence over ana"ysis o# the ta"es3 meaning and #unction. %u"tura" continuities with 0#rica were not dependent on importation and perpetuation o# speci#ic #o"$ta"es in their pristine #orm. /t is in the p"ace that ta"es occupied in the "ives o# the s"aves and in the meaning s"aves derived #rom them that the c"earest resemb"ances to 0#rican tradition can be #ound. 0#ro-0merican s"aves did not borrow ta"es indiscriminate"y #rom the 8hites among whom they "ived. &"ac$ peop"e were most in#"uenced by those =uro-0merican ta"es whose #unctiona" meaning and aesthetic appea" had the greatest simi"arity to the ta"es with deep roots in their ancestra" home"and. Regard"ess o# where s"ave ta"es came #rom' the essentia" point is that' with respect to "anguage' de"ivery' detai"s o# characteri)ation' and p"ot' s"aves +uic$"y made them their own.

1-. The author claims that most studies of folktales told by Afro(American sla'es are inade"uate because the studies (A) fail to recogni!e any possible #uro(American influence on the folktales (B) do not pay enough attention to the features of a folktale that best re'eal an African influence (C) o'erestimate the number of folktales brought from Africa by the sla'es ( ) do not consider the fact that a folktale can be changed as it is retold many times (#) o'ersimplify the di'erse and comple$ traditions of the sla'es ancestral homeland 16. The author4s main purpose is to (A) create a new field of study (B) discredit an e$isting field of study (C) change the focus of a field of study ( ) transplant scholarly techni"ues from one field of study to another (#) restrict the scope of a burgeoning new field of study 1,. The passage suggests that the author would regard which of the following areas of in"uiry as most likely to re'eal the sla'es4 cultural continuities with Africa% (A) The means by which Blacks disseminated their folktales in nineteenth( century America (B) ;pecific regional differences in the styles of deli'ery used by the sla'es in telling folktales

GRE

2,,

(C) The functional meaning of Black folktales in the li'es of &hite children raised by sla'e ( ) The specific way the sla'es used folktales to impart moral teaching to their children (#) The comple$ities of plot that appear most fre"uently in the sla'es4 tales 25. &hich of the following techni"ues is used by the author in de'eloping the argument in the passage% (A) Bi'ing a clichP a new meaning (B) @ointedly refusing to define key terms (C) Alternately presenting generalities and concrete details ( ) Concluding the passage with a restatement of the first point made in the passage (#) Au$taposing statements of what is not the case and statements of what is the case
The energy contained in roc$ within the earth3s crust represents a near"y un"imited energy source' but unti" recent"y commercia" retrieva" has been "imited to underground hot water andKor steam recovery systems. These systems have been deve"oped in areas o# recent vo"canic activity' where high rates o# heat #"ow cause visib"e eruption o# water in the #orm o# geysers and hot springs. /n other areas' however' hot roc$ a"so e5ists near the sur#ace but there is insu##icient water present to produce eruptive phenomena. Thus a potentia" hot dry roc$ ((FR) reservoir e5ists whenever the amount o# spontaneous"y produced geotherma" #"uid has been 2udged inade+uate #or e5isting commercia" systems. 0s a resu"t o# recent energy crisis' new concepts #or creating (FR recovery systems! which invo"ve dri""ing ho"es and connecting them to arti#icia" reservoirs p"aced deep within the crust!are being deve"oped. /n a"" attempts to retrieve energy #rom (FR3s' arti#icia" stimu"ation wi"" be re+uired to create either su##icient permeabi"ity or bounded #"ow paths to #aci"itate the remova" o# heat by circu"ation o# a #"uid over the sur#ace o# the roc$. The (FR resource base is genera""y de#ined to inc"uded crusta" roc$ that is hotter than 1-.' is at depths "ess than ten $i"ometers' and can be dri""ed with present"y avai"ab"e e+uipment. 0"though we""s deeper than ten $i"ometers are technica""y #easib"e' prevai"ing economic #actors wi"" obvious"y determine the commercia" #easibi"ity o# we""s at such depths. Roc$ temperatures as "ow as 1.. may be use#u" #or space heating: however' #or producing e"ectricity' temperatures greater than 1.. are desirab"e. The geotherma" gradient' which speci#ica""y determines the depth o# dri""ing re+uired to reach a desired temperature' is a ma2or #actor in the recoverabi"ity o# geotherma" resources. Temperature gradient maps generated #rom oi" and gas we"" temperature-depth records $ept by the 0merican 0ssociation o# 6etro"eum Aeo"ogists suggest that tappab"e high-temperature gradients are distributed a"" across the United tates. (There are many areas' however' #or which no temperature gradient records e5ist.) /ndications are that the (FR resource base is very "arge. /# an average geotherma"

.55

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

temperature gradient o# 11 per $i"ometer o# depth is used' a staggering 14'...'... +uadri""ion &.T.U.3s o# tota" energy are ca"cu"ated to be contained in crusta" roc$ to a ten$i"ometer depth in the United tates. /# we conservative"y estimate that on"y about ..1 percent is recoverab"e' we #ind a tota" o# a"" the coa" remaining in the United tates. The remaining prob"em is to ba"ance the economics o# deeper' hotter' more cost"y we""s and sha""ower' coo"er' "ess e5pensive we""s against the va"ue o# the #ina" product' e"ectricity andKor heat.

21. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) alert readers to the e$istence of ) =4s as an a'ailable energy source (B) document the challengers that ha'e been surmounted in the effort to reco'er energy from ) =4s (C) warn the users of coal and oil that ) =4s are not an economically feasible alternati'e ( ) encourage the use of new techni"ues for the reco'ery of energy from underground hot water and steam (#) urge consumers to demand "uicker de'elopment of ) = resources for the production of energy 22. The passage would be most likely to appear in a (A) petrological research report focused on the history of temperature(depth records in the :nited ;tates (B) congressional report urging the conser'ation of oil and natural gas reser'es in the :nited ;tates (C) technical <ournal article concerned with the reco'erability of newly identified energy sources ( ) consumer report describing the e$tent and accessibility of remaining coal resources (#) pamphlet designed to introduce homeowners to the ad'antages of ) = space(heating systems 2.. According the passage/ an a'erage geothermal gradient of 22 per kilometer of depth can be used to (A) balance the economics of ) = energy retrie'al against that of underground hot water or steam reco'ery systems (B) determine the amount of energy that will used for space heating in the :nited ;tates (C) pro'ide comparisons between hot water and ) = energy sources in :nited ;tates ( ) re'ise the estimates on the e$tent of remaining coal resources in the :nited ;tates (#) estimate the total ) = resource base in the :nited ;tates 20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the a'ailability of temperature(depth

GRE

.51

records for any specific area in the :nited ;tates depends primarily on the (A) possibility that ) =4s may be found in that area (B) e$istence of pre'ious attempts to obtain oil or gas in that area (C) history of successful hot water or steam reco'ery efforts in that area ( ) failure of inhabitants to conser'e oil gas reser'es in that area (#) use of coal as a substitute for oil or gas in that area 21. According to the passage/ in all ) = reco'ery systems fluid will be necessary in order to allow (A) sufficient permeability (B) artificial stimulation (C) drilling of holes ( ) construction of reser'oirs (#) transfer of heat 22. According to the passage/ if the a'erage geothermal gradient in an area is 22 per kilometer of depth/ which of the following can be reliably predicted% 3. 33. The temperature at the base of a 15(kilometer well will be sufficient for the production of electricity. rilling of wells deeper than 15 kilometers will be economically feasible.

333. 3nsufficient water is present to produce erupti'e phenomena. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 2-. &hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage% (A) #nergy from &ater ;ourcesE The >easibility of Commercial ;ystems (B) Beothermal #nergy =etrie'alE Colcanic Acti'ity and )ot ry =ocks (C) #nergy :ndergroundE Beothermal ;ources Bi'e &ay to >ossil >uels ( ) Tappable #nergy for America4s >utureE )ot ry =ocks (#) )igh Beothermal Bradients in the :nited ;tatesE ?yth or =eality% SECTION B
7our "ega" approaches may be #o""owed in attempting to channe" techno"ogica" deve"opment in socia""y use#u" direction> speci#ic directives' mar$et incentive modi#ications' crimina" prohibitions' and changes in decision-ma$ing structures. peci#ic directives invo"ve the government3s identi#ying one or more #actors contro""ing research' deve"opment' or imp"ementation o# a given techno"ogy. Firectives a##ecting such #actors may vary #rom

.52

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

administrative regu"ation o# private activity to government ownership o# a techno"ogica" operation. ?ar$et incentive modi#ications are de"iberate a"terations o# the mar$et within which private decisions regarding the deve"opment and imp"ementation o# techno"ogy are made. uch modi#ications may consist o# imposing ta5es to cover the costs to society o# a given techno"ogy' granting subsidies to pay #or socia" bene#its o# a techno"ogy' creating the right to sue to prevent certain techno"ogica" deve"opment' or easing procedura" ru"es to enab"e the recovery o# damages to compensate #or harm caused by destructive techno"ogica" activity. %rimina" prohibitions may modi#y techno"ogica" activity in areas impinging on #undamenta" socia" va"ues' or they may modi#y human behavior "i$e"y to resu"t #rom techno"ogica" app"ications!#or e5amp"e' the deactivation o# automotive po""ution contro" devices in order to improve vehic"e per#ormance. 0"teration o# decision-ma$ing structures inc"udes a"" possib"e modi#ications in the authority' constitution' or responsibi"ity o# private and pub"ic entities deciding +uestions o# techno"ogica" deve"opment and imp"ementation. uch a"terations inc"ude the addition o# pub"ic-interest members to corporate boards' the imposition by statute o# duties on governmenta" decision-ma$ers' and the e5tension o# warranties in response to consumer action. =##ective use o# these methods to contro" techno"ogy depends on whether or not the goa" o# regu"ation is the optima" a""ocation o# resources. 8hen the ob2ect is optima" resource a""ocation' that combination o# "ega" methods shou"d be used that most near"y yie"ds the a""ocation that wou"d e5ist i# there were no e5terna" costs resu"ting #rom a""ocating resources through mar$et activity. There are e5terna" costs when the price set by buyers and se""ers o# goods #ai"s to inc"ude some costs' to anyone' that resu"t #rom the production and use o# the goods. uch costs are interna"i)ed when buyers pay them. 0ir po""ution #rom motor vehic"es imposes e5terna" costs on a"" those e5posed to it' in the #orm o# soi"ing' materia"s damage' and disease> these e5terna"ities resu"t #rom #ai"ure to p"ace a price on air' thus ma$ing it a #ree good' common to a"". uch e5terna"ities "ead to nonoptima" resource a""ocation' because the private net product and the socia" net product o# mar$et activity are not o#ten identica". /# a"" e5terna"ities were interna"i)ed' transactions wou"d occur unti" bargaining cou"d no "onger improve the situation' thus giving an optima" a""ocation o# resources at a given time.

1-. The passage is primarily concerned with describing (A) ob<ecti'es and legal method for directing technological de'elopment (B) technical approaches to the problem of controlling market acti'ity (C) economic procedures for facilitating transactions between buyers and sellers ( ) reasons for slowing the technological de'elopment in light of en'ironmentalist ob<ections (#) technological inno'ations making it possible to achie'e optimum allocation of resources 16. The author cites air pollution from motor 'ehicles in lines 10(12 in order to (A) re'ise cost estimates calculated by including the costs of resources (B) e'aluate legal methods used to pre'ent technological de'elopments

GRE

.5.

(C) gi'e e$amples of costs not included in buyer(seller bargains ( ) refute hypotheses not made on the basis of monetary e$change 'alues (#) commend technological research undertaken for the common welfare 1,. According to the passage/ transactions between pri'ate buyers and sellers ha'e effects on society that generally (A) are harmful when all factors are considered (B) gi'e rise to e'er(increasing resource costs (C) reflect an optimal allocation of natural resources ( ) encompass more than the effects on the buyers and sellers alone (#) are guided by legal controls on the de'elopment of technology 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author does 98T fa'or which of the following% (A) @rotecting the en'ironment for future use (B) Changing the balance of power between opposing interests in business (C) 3nter'ening in the acti'ity of the free market ( ) ?aking prices reflect costs to e'eryone in society (#) Causing technological de'elopment to cease 21. A gasoline(conser'ation ta$ on the purchase of large automobiles/ with the proceeds of the ta$ rebated to purchasers of small automobiles/ is an e$ample of (A) a specific directi'e (B) a market incenti'e modification (C) an optimal resource allocation ( ) an alteration of a decision(making structure (#) an e$ternal cost 22. 3f there were no e$ternal costs/ as they are described in the passage/ which of the following would be true% (A) All technology(control methods would be effecti'e. (B) ;ome resource allocations would be illegal. (C) @rices would include all costs to members of society. ( ) ;ome decision(making structures would be altered. (#) The a'ailability of common goods would increase. 2.. The author assumes that/ in determining what would be an optimal allocation of resources/ it would be possible to (A) assign monetary 'alue to all damage resulting from the use of technology (B) combine legal methods to yield the theoretical optimum (C) con'ince buyers to bear the burden of damage from technological

.50

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

de'elopments ( ) predict the costs of new technological de'elopments (#) deri'e an e"uation making costs depend on prices 20. 8n the basis of the passage/ it can be inferred that the author would agree with which of the following statements concerning technological de'elopment% (A) The go'ernment should own technological operations. (B) The effect of technological de'elopment cannot be controlled. (C) ;ome technological de'elopments are beneficial. ( ) The current state of technological de'elopment results in a good allocation of resources. (#) Applications of technological de'elopments are criminally destructi'e.
The who"e biosphere' "i$e the individua" organisms that "ive inside it' e5ists in a chemica""y dynamic state. /n this homeostatic system' a great number o# organic compounds are synthesi)ed' trans#ormed' and decomposed continuous"y: together' these processes constitute the ma2or parts o# the carbon cyc"e. 7or the smooth operation o# this cyc"e' degradation is 2ust as important as synthesis> the green p"ants produce great +uantities o# po"ymers' such as ce""u"ose' and innumerab"e other compounds "i$e a"$a"oids' terpenes' and #"avonoids' that green p"ants cannot use as sources o# energy during respiration. The re"ease o# the carbon in these compounds #or recyc"ing depends a"most entire"y on the action o# both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and certain types o# #ungi. ome bacteria and #ungi possess the uni+ue and e5treme"y important biochemica" asset o# being ab"e to cata"y)e the o5idation o# numerous inert products' thereby initiating reaction se+uences that produce carbon dio5ide and so return much carbon to a #orm that active"y enters into "i#e cyc"es once again.

21. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following "uestions about the carbon cycle% 3. 33. &hat are some of the compounds that are broken down in the carbon cycle% &hy are some compounds that are in'ol'ed in the carbon cycle less reacti'e than others%

333. &hat role do bacteria and fungi play in the carbon cycle% (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 33 only (#) 3 and 333 only 22. The author implies that which of the following is the primary reason that degradation is as important as synthesis to the smooth operation of the carbon cycle% (A) ?ost of the polymers and organic compounds found in the plant kingdom are chemically unstable.

GRE

.51

(B) The synthesis of some organic material depri'es life processes of an energy source. (C) ecomposition permits the recycling of carbon that would otherwise be fi$ed in certain substances. ( ) ?any organisms cannot use plants as a source of food/ but can feed on bacteria and fungi. (#) Bacteria and fungi could not sur'i'e if some carbon compounds were not degraded. 2-. The author4s contention about the importance of bacteria and fungi in the production of energy for life processes would be most clearly strengthened if which of the following were found to be true% (A) Both aerobes and anaerobes pro'ide sources of energy through the decomposition of organic material. (B) ?ost compounds containing carbon are una'ailable as energy sources e$cept to some bacteria and fungi. (C) Bacteria and fungi break down inert material in ways that do not in'ol'e o$idation. ( ) ?any compounds remain inert/ e'en in the presence of bacteria and fungi. (#) Bacteria and fungi assist in the synthesis of many organic compounds. No. 2-2 SECTION A
=ven as the number o# #ema"es processed through 2uveni"e courts c"imbs steadi"y' an imp"icit consensus remains among scho"ars in crimina" 2ustice that ma"e ado"escents de#ine the de"in+uency prob"em in the United tates. 8e suggest two reasons why this view persists. 7irst' #ema"e ado"escents are accused primari"y o# victim"ess crimes' such as truancy' that do not invo"ve c"ear-cut damage to persons or property. /# committed by adu"ts' these actions are not even considered prosecutab"e: i# committed by 2uveni"e ma"es' they have traditiona""y been "oo$ed on "enient"y by the courts. Thus' ironica""y' the p"ight o# #ema"e de"in+uents receives "itt"e scrutiny because they are accused o# committing re"ative"y minor o##enses. econd' the courts have "ong 2usti#ied so-ca""ed preventive intervention into the "ives o# young #ema"es viewed as antisocia" with the rationa"e that women are especia""y vu"nerab"e. Traditiona" stereotypes o# women as the wea$er and more dependent se5 have "ed to ear"ier intervention and "onger periods o# misdirected supervision #or #ema"e de"in+uents than #or ma"es.

1-. &hich of the following statements best e$presses the irony pointed out by the authors in lines 1.(12 of the passage% (A) >emale delin"uents tend to commit 'ictimless crimes more fre"uently than their male counterparts.

.52

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) The predicament of male delin"uents recei'es more attention than that of females because males are accused of more serious crimes. (C) Adults are fre"uently punished less se'erely than adolescents for committing more serious crimes. ( ) The <u'enile <ustice system cannot correct its biases because it does not e'en recogni!e them. (#) Although the number of female delin"uents is steadily increasing/ the crimes of which they are accused are not particularly serious. 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the authors belie'e traditional stereotypes of women to be (A) fre"uently challenged (B) persistently ine$plicable (C) potentially harmful ( ) rapidly changing (#) habitually disregarded 1,. The passage suggests that scholars in criminal <ustice could be critici!ed for which of the following% (A) :nderestimating the seriousness of <u'enile crime (B) =ationali!ing the distinction made between <u'eniles and adults in the legal system (C) Concerning themsel'es too little with the pre'ention of <u'enile delin"uency ( ) >ocusing on those whose crimes ha'e in'ol'ed damage to persons or property (#) >ailing to point out in<ustices in the correctional system
cattered around the g"obe are more than one hundred regions o# vo"canic activity $nown as hot spots. Un"i$e most vo"canoes' hot spots are rare"y #ound a"ong the boundaries o# the continenta" and oceanic p"ates that comprise the =arth3s crust: most hot spots "ie deep in the interior o# p"ates and are anchored deep in the "ayers o# the =arth3s sur#ace. (ot spots are a"so distinguished #rom other vo"canoes by their "avas' which contain greater amounts o# a"$a"i meta"s than do those #rom vo"canoes at p"ate margins. /n some cases' p"ates moving past hot spots have "e#t trai"s o# e5tinct vo"canoes in much the same way that wind passing over a chimney carries o## pu##s o# smo$e. /t appears that the (awaiian /s"ands were created in such a manner by a sing"e source o# "ava' we""ing up #rom a hot spot' over which the 6aci#ic 9cean p"ate passed on a course rough"y #rom the east toward the northwest' carrying o## a "ine o# vo"canoes o# increasing age. Two other 6aci#ic is"and chains!the 0ustra" Ridge and the Tuamotu Ridge!para""e" the con#iguration o# the (awaiian chain: they are a"so a"igned #rom the east toward the northwest' with the most recent vo"canic activity near their eastern terminuses. That the 6aci#ic p"ate and the other p"ates are moving is now beyond dispute: the re"ative

GRE
motion o# the p"ates has been reconstructed in detai". (owever' the re"ative motion o# the

.5-

p"ates with respect to the =arth3s interior cannot be determined easi"y. (ot spots provide the measuring instruments #or reso"ving the +uestion o# whether two continenta" p"ates are moving in opposite directions or whether one is stationary and the other is dri#ting away #rom it. The most compe""ing evidence that a continenta" p"ate is stationary is that' at some hot spots' "avas o# severa" ages are superposed instead o# being spread out in chrono"ogica" se+uence. 9# course' reconstruction o# p"ate motion #rom the trac$s o# hot-spot vo"canoes assumes that hot spots are immobi"e' or near"y so. evera" studies support such an assumption' inc"uding one that has shown that prominent hot spots throughout the wor"d seem not to have moved during the past ten mi""ion years. &eyond acting as #rames o# re#erence' hot spots apparent"y in#"uence the geophysica" processes that prope" the p"ates across the g"obe. 8hen a continenta" p"ate comes to rest over a hot spot' materia" we""ing up #rom deeper "ayers #orms a broad dome that' as it grows' deve"ops deep #issures. /n some instances' the continenta" p"ate may rupture entire"y a"ong some o# the #issures so that the hot spot initiates the #ormation o# a new ocean. Thus' 2ust as ear"ier theories have e5p"ained the mobi"ity o# the continenta" p"ates' so hot-spot activity may suggest a theory to e5p"ain their mutabi"ity.

25. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) describe the way in which hot spots influence the e$tinction of 'olcanoes (B) describe and e$plain the formation of the oceans and continents (C) e$plain how to estimate the age of la'a flows from e$tinct 'olcanoes ( ) describe hot spots and e$plain how they appear to influence and record the motion of plates (#) describe the formation and orientation of island chains in the @acific 8cean 21. According to the passage/ hot spots differ from most 'olcanoes in that hot spots (A) can only be found near islands (B) are acti'e whereas all other 'olcanoes are e$tinct (C) are situated closer to the earth4s surface ( ) can be found along the edges of the plates (#) ha'e greater amounts of alkali metals in their la'as 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that e'idence for the apparent course of the @acific plate has been pro'ided by the (A) contours of the continents (B) dimensions of ocean hot spots (C) concurrent mo'ement of two hot spots ( ) pattern of fissures in the ocean floor (#) configurations of se'eral mid(ocean island chains 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the spreading out of la'as of different

.56

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

ages at hot spots indicates that a (A) hot spot is acti'e (B) continental plate has mo'ed (C) continental rupture is imminent ( ) hot spot had been mo'ing 'ery rapidly (#) 'olcano contains large concentrations of alkali metals 20. The passage suggests which of the following about the )awaiian 3slands/ the Austral =idge/ and the Tuamotu =idge% (A) The three chains of islands are mo'ing eastward. (B) All the islands in the three chains ha'e stopped mo'ing. (C) The three island chains are a result of the same plate mo'ement. ( ) The )awaiian 3slands are receding from the other two island chains at a relati'ely rapid rate. (#) The Austral =idge and the Tuamotu =idge chains ha'e mo'ed closer together whereas the )awaiian 3slands ha'e remained stationary. 21. &hich of the following/ if true/ would best support the author4s statement that hot(spot acti'ity may e$plain the mutability of continental plates% (A) )ot spots mo'e more rapidly than the continental and oceanic plates. (B) )ot spots are reliable indicators of the age of continental plates. (C) )ot spots are regions of 'olcanic acti'ity found only in the interiors of the continental plates. ( ) The alignment of hot spots in the @acific 8cean parallels the alignment of @acific 8cean islands. (#) The coastlines of Africa and ;outh America suggest that they may once ha'e constituted a single continent that ruptured along a line of hot spots. 22. The author4s argument that hot spots can be used to reconstruct the mo'ement of continental plates is weakened by the fact that (A) hot spots are ne'er found at the boundaries of plates (B) only e$tinct 'olcanoes remain after a plate mo'es o'er a hot spot (C) la'a flow patterns for all hot spots ha'e not been shown to be the same ( ) the immobility or near immobility of hot spots has not been conclusi'ely pro'en (#) the changing configurations of islands make pinpointing the locations of hot spots difficult 2-. The author4s style can best be described as (A) dramatic (B) archaic

GRE

.5,

(C) esoteric ( ) ob<ecti'e (#) humanistic SECTION B

0"though scientists observe that an organism3s behavior #a""s into rhythmic patterns' they disagree about how these patterns are a##ected when the organism is transported to a new environment. 9ne e5perimenter' &rown' brought oysters #rom %onnecticut waters to /""inois waters. he noted that the oysters initia""y opened their she""s widest when it was high tide in %onnecticut' but that a#ter #ourteen days their rhythms had adapted to the tide schedu"e in /""inois. 0"though she cou"d not posit an une+uivoca" causa" re"ationship between behavior and environmenta" change' &rown conc"uded that a change in tide schedu"e is one o# severa" possib"e e5ogenous in#"uences (those outside the organism) on the oysters3 rhythms. 0nother e5perimenter' (amner' however' discovered that hamsters #rom %a"i#ornia maintain their origina" rhythms even at the outh 6o"e. (e conc"uded that endogenous in#"uences (those inside the organism) seem to a##ect an organism3s rhythmic behavior.

1-. All of the following could be considered e$amples of e$ogenous influences on an organism #DC#@T the influence of the (A) le'el of a hormone on a field mouse4s readiness for mating (B) temperature of a region on a bear4s hibernation (C) salt le'el of a ri'er on a fish4s migration ( ) humidity of an area on a cat4s shedding of its fur (#) pro$imity of an owl on a li!ard4s searching for food 16. &hich of the following statements best describes the conclusion drawn by Brown (lines 10(1-) (A) A change in tide schedule is the primary influence on an oyster4s rhythms. (B) A change in tide schedule may be an important e$ogenous influence on an oyster4s rhythms. (C) #$ogenous influences/ such as a change in tide schedule/ seldom affect an oyster4s rhythms. ( ) #ndogenous influences ha'e no effect on an oyster4s rhythms. (#) #ndogenous influences are the only influences on an oyster4s rhythms. 1,. The passage suggests that Brown4s study was similar to )amner4s in which of the following ways% 3. 33. Both e$perimenters disco'ered that a new en'ironment had a significant effect on an organism4s beha'ior rhythms. Both e$perimenters obser'ed an organism4s beha'ioral rhythms after the organism had been transported to a new en'ironment.

.15

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

333. Both e$perimenters knew an organism4s rhythmic patterns in its original en'ironment. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken Brown4s conclusion% (A) The oyster gradually closed their shells after high tide in 3llinois had passed. (B) The oysters4 beha'ioral rhythms maintained their adaptation to the tide schedule in 3llinois throughout thirty days of obser'ation. (C) ;i$teen days after they were mo'ed to 3llinois/ the oysters opened their shells widest when it was high tide in Connecticut. ( ) A scientist who brought ?aryland oysters to ?aine found that the oysters opened their shells widest when it was high tide in ?aine. (#) 3n an e$periment similar to Brown4s/ a scientist was able to establish a clear causal relationship between en'ironmental change and beha'ioral rhythms.
6icture-ta$ing is a techni+ue both #or anne5ing the ob2ective wor"d and #or e5pressing the singu"ar se"#. 6hotographs depict ob2ective rea"ities that a"ready e5ist' though on"y the camera can disc"ose them. 0nd they depict an individua" photographer3s temperament' discovering itse"# through the camera3s cropping o# rea"ity. That is' photography has two antithetica" idea"s> in the #irst' photography is about the wor"d and the photographer is a mere observe who counts #or "itt"e: but in the second' photography is the instrument o# intrepid' +uesting sub2ectivity and the photographer is a"". These con#"icting idea"s arise #rom a #undamenta" uneasiness on the part o# both photographers and viewers o# photographs toward the aggressive component in ;ta$ing< a picture. 0ccording"y' the idea" o# a photographer as observer is attractive because it imp"icit"y denies that picture-ta$ing is an aggressive act. The issue' o# course' is not so c"ear-cut. 8hat photographers do cannot be characteri)ed as simp"y predatory or as simp"y' and essentia""y' benevo"ent. 0s a conse+uence' one idea" o# picture-ta$ing or the other is a"ways being rediscovered and championed. 0n important resu"t o# the coe5istence o# these two idea"s is a recurrent ambiva"ence toward photography3s means. 8hatever the c"aims that photography might ma$e to be a #orm o# persona" e5pression on a par with painting' its origina"ity is ine5tricab"y "in$ed to the powers o# a machine. The steady growth o# these powers has made possib"e the e5traordinary in#ormativeness and imaginative #orma" beauty o# many photographs' "i$e (aro"d =dgerton3s high-speed photographs o# a bu""et hitting its target or o# the swir"s and eddies o# a tennis stro$e. &ut as cameras become more sophisticated' more automated' some photographers are tempted to disarm themse"ves or to suggest that they are not rea""y armed' pre#erring to submit themse"ves to the "imits imposed by premodern camera techno"ogy because a cruder'

GRE
"ess high-powered machine is thought to give more interesting or emotive resu"ts' to "eave

.11

more room #or creative accident. 7or e5amp"e' it has been virtua""y a point o# honor #or many photographers' inc"uding 8a"$er =vans and %artier-&resson' to re#use to use modern e+uipment. These photographers have come to doubt the va"ue o# the camera as an instrument o# ;#ast seeing.< %artier-&resson' in #act' c"aims that the modern camera may see too #ast. This ambiva"ence toward photographic means determines trends in taste. The cu"t o# the #uture (o# #aster and #aster seeing) a"ternates over time with the wish to return to a purer past !when images had a handmade +ua"ity. This nosta"gia #or some pristine state o# the photographic enterprise is current"y widespread and under"ies the present-day enthusiasm #or daguerreotypes and the wo$ o# #orgotten nineteenth-century provincia" photographers. 6hotographers and viewers o# photographs' it seems' need periodica""y to resist their own $nowingness.

21. According to the passage/ interest among photographers in each of photography4s two ideals can be described as (A) rapidly changing (B) cyclically recurring (C) steadily growing ( ) unimportant to the 'iewers of photographs (#) unrelated to changes in technology 22. The author is primarily concerned with (A) establishing new technical standards for contemporary photography (B) analy!ing the influence of photographic ideals on picture(taking (C) tracing the de'elopment of camera technology in the twentieth century ( ) describing how photographers4 indi'idual temperaments are reflected in their work (#) e$plaining how the technical limitations imposed by certain photographers on themsel'es affect their work 2.. The passage states all of the following about photographs #DC#@TE (A) They can display a cropped reality. (B) The can con'ey information. (C) They can depict the photographer4s temperament. ( ) They can possess great formal beauty. (#) They can change the 'iewer4s sensibilities. 20. The author mentions the work of )arold #dgerton in order to pro'ide an e$ample of (A) how a controlled ambi'alence toward photography4s means can produce outstanding pictures

.12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) how the content of photographs has changed from the nineteenth century to the twentieth (C) the popularity of high(speed photography in the twentieth century ( ) the relationship between photographic originality and technology (#) the primacy of formal beauty o'er emotional content 21. The passage suggests that photographers such as &alker #'ans prefer old( fashioned techni"ues and e"uipment because these photographers (A) admire instruments of fast seeing (B) need to feel armed by technology (C) stri'e for intense formal beauty in their photographs ( ) like the discipline that comes from self(imposed limitations (#) dislike the dependence of photographic effecti'eness on the powers of a machine 22. According to the passage/ the two antithetical ideals of photography differ primarily in the (A) 'alue that each places on the beauty of the finished product (B) emphasis that each places on the emotional impact of the finished product (C) degree of technical knowledge that each re"uires of the photographer ( ) e$tent of the power that each re"uires of the photographer4s e"uipment (#) way in which each defines the role of the photographer 2-. &hich of the following statements would be most likely to begin the paragraph immediately following the passage% (A) @hotographers/ as a result of their heightened awareness of time/ are constantly trying to capture e'ents and actions that are fleeting. (B) Thus the cult of the future/ the worship of machines and speed/ is firmly established in spite of efforts to the contrary by some photographers. (C) The re<ection of technical knowledge/ howe'er/ can ne'er be complete and photography cannot for any length of time pretend that it has no weapons. ( ) The point of honor in'ol'ed in re<ecting comple$ e"uipment is/ howe'er/ of no significance to the 'iewer of a photograph. (#) Conse"uently the impulse to return to the past through images that suggest a handwrought "uality is nothing more that a passing fad. No. 2-3 SECTION A
/t is we"" $nown that bio"ogica" changes at the mo"ecu"ar "eve" have morphogenetic

GRE
conse+uences' conse+uences a##ecting the #ormation and di##erentiation o# tissues and

.1.

organs. /t is super#"uous to point out that gene mutations and disturbances o# the bio-synthetic processes in the embryo may resu"t in abnorma"ities in the morpho"ogy (structure) o# an organism. (owever' whereas much is $nown about causes and conse+uences at the mo"ecu"ar "eve"' and in spite o# an enormous accumu"ation o# chemica" and morpho"ogica" data on embryos o# various $inds' our understanding o# how genes contro" morphogenesis is sti"" #ar #rom comp"ete. 6erhaps one reason #or this is that mo"ecu"ar bio"ogists and morpho"ogists spea$ di##erent "anguages. 8hereas the #ormer spea$ about messenger-R*0 and con#ormationa" changes o# protein mo"ecu"es' the "atter spea$ o# ectoderms' hypob"asts' and neura" crests. 9ne so"ution to this predicament is to try to #ind some phenomena re"evant to morphogenesis which both the mo"ecu"ar bio"ogist and the morpho"ogist can understand and discuss. 0s morphogenesis must be basica""y the resu"t o# changes in behavior o# the individua" ce""s' it seems "ogica" to as$ morpho"ogists to describe the morphogenetic events observed in terms o# changes in ce""u"ar contact' changes in the rate o# pro"i#eration o# ce""s' or simi"ar phenomena. 9nce this is done' it may be appropriate to as$ +uestions about the mo"ecu"ar bac$ground #or these changes. 9ne may' #or instance' as$ whether variations in ce"" contact re#"ect a"terations in the popu"ations o# mo"ecu"es at the ce"" sur#ace' or one may in+uire about the mo"ecu"ar basis #or the increased ce"" mobi"ity invo"ved in ce"" dispersion. tudies o# this $ind have been carried out with ce""s re"eased #rom tissues in various ways and then a""owed to revea" their behavior a#ter being spread out into a thin "ayer. /n many cases' such ce""s show the abi"ity to reaggregate' a#ter which di##erent ce"" types may sort themse"ves out into di##erent "ayers and even ta$e part in sti"" more intricate morphogenetic events. &ut in most cases' the behavior o# ce""s in the intact embryo is di##icu"t to study because o# the thic$ness and opacity o# the ce"" masses. The sea urchin embryo' however' has the advantage that it is so transparent that each ce"" can be easi"y observed throughout deve"opment. Thus' by recording the deve"opment o# a sea urchin embryo with time-"apse photography' the research scientist might discover previous"y un$nown #eatures o# ce""u"ar behavior. 6erhaps the study o# the sea urchin in this manner can provide a medium by which the mo"ecu"ar bio"ogist and the morpho"ogist can begin communicating with each other more e##ective"y about the way in which genes contro" morphogenesis.

1-. The author4s primary purpose is to (A) outline a procedure and discuss possible applications (B) e'aluate an e$periment in terms of its applicability to medical research (C) propose a method for curing specific genetic disorders ( ) e$plain a problem and suggest a solution for it (#) re'eal the shortcomings of se'eral attitudes toward genetic research 16. The author states that research into the genetic control of morphogenesis has been impeded by (A) an incomplete understanding of biomolecular reactions that are highly comple$

.10

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) a lack of communication between scientists whose work could be complementary (C) a reluctance on the part of morphologists to share data with molecular biologists ( ) a lack of research in the area of morphology (#) the una'ailability of suitable research e"uipment 1,. The ma<or ob<ecti'e of the author4s proposal is to (A) de'ise a techni"ue for pro'ing that abnormalities in morphology result from gene mutations (B) impro'e the procedures for organi!ing chemical and morphological data (C) increase the accuracy of measurements of cell populations and cell mobility ( ) reduce the margin of error in the study of conformational changes of protein molecules (#) pro'ide a plan for increasing knowledge about the influence of genes on morphogenesis 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that some cells that ha'e been isolated from an organism ha'e the ability to (A) control morphogenesis (B) reform to make higher organisms (C) reorgani!e to form clusters of cells ( ) regulate the transmission of light through the cell wall (#) regulate the rate of tissue formation 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the study of the effects of genes on morphogenesis is best accomplished by obser'ing (A) intact de'eloping embryos (B) adult sea urchins (C) isolated li'ing cells ( ) groups of genetically mutated cells (#) cells from the same kink of tissue 22. According to the passage/ it is difficult to study cells in most intact embryos because (A) morphogenetic e'ents cannot be isolated (B) embryos die "uickly (C) embryos are difficult to obtain ( ) indi'idual cells reaggregate too "uickly (#) indi'idual cells are difficult to see

GRE

.11

2.. &hich of the following se"uences best describes the author4s suggestion for future research on morphogenesis% (A) Accumulation of data/ simplification of language/ e$planation of morphogenesis (B) ispersion of cells/ e'aluation of cell acti'ity/ de'elopment of an e$planatory hypothesis (C) Classification of cell types/ separation of cell/ obser'ation of cell acti'ity ( ) 8bser'ation of cell de'elopment/ description of cell beha'ior/ e$planation at the molecular le'el (#) ifferentiation of cell types/ description of cell structure/ analysis of molecular components 20. The tone of the author4s discussion of the difference in the language used by morphologists and that used by molecular biologists is one of (A) indifference (B) neutrality (C) derision ( ) approbation (#) indignation
The b"ac$ e5perience' one might automatica""y assume' is $nown to every &"ac$ author. (enry @ames was pondering a simi"ar assumption when he said> ;Dou were to su##er your #ate. That was not necessari"y to $now it.< This disparity between an e5perience and $now"edge o# that e5perience is the "ongest bridge an artist must cross. Fon E. Eee' in his picture o# the &"ac$ poet' ;studying his own poetry and the poetry o# other &"ac$ poets'< touches on the crucia" point. /n order to trans#orm his own su##erings!or 2oys!as a &"ac$ person into usab"e $now"edge #or his readers' the author must #irst order his e5periences in his mind. 9n"y then can he create #ee"ing"y and coherent"y the combination o# #act and meaning that &"ac$ audiences re+uire #or the ree5p"oration o# their "ives. 0 cu"tura" community o# &"ac$ authors studying one another3s best wor$s systematica""y wou"d represent a dynamic interchange o# the spirit!corrective and instructive and increasing"y beauti#u" in its recorded e5pression.

21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers poetry to be which of the following% (A) A means of di'ersion in which suffering is transformed into <oy (B) An art form that sometimes stifles creati'e energy (C) A bridge between the mundane and the unreal ( ) A medium for con'eying important information (#) An area where beauty must be sacrificed for accuracy 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be K#A;T likely to appro'e of which of the following%

.12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) Courses that promote cultural awareness through the study of contemporary art (B) The de'elopment of creati'e writing courses that encourage mutual criticism of student work (C) Browing interest in e$temporaneous writing that records e$periences as they occur ( ) A shift in interest from abstract philosophical poetry to concrete autobiographical poetry (#) &orkshops and newsletters designed to promote dialogues between poets 2-. The author refers to )enry Aames primarily in order to (A) support his own perception of the *longest bridge+ (lines 2(-) (B) illustrate a coherent *combination of fact and meaning+ (lines 10(11) (C) pro'ide an e$ample of *dynamic interchange of the spirit+ (line 1,) ( ) establish the per'asi'eness of lack of self(knowledge (#) contrast Aames4s ideas about poetry with those of on K. Kee SECTION B
?y ob2ective is to ana"y)e certain #orms o# $now"edge' not in terms o# repression or "aw' but in terms o# power. &ut the word power is apt to "ead to misunderstandings about the nature' #orm' and unity o# power. &y power' / do not mean a group o# institutions and mechanisms that ensure the subservience o# the citi)enry. / do not mean' either' a mode o# sub2ugation that' in contrast to vio"ence' has the #orm o# the ru"e. 7ina""y' / do not have in mind a genera" system o# domination e5erted by one group over another' a system whose e##ects' through successive derivations' pervade the entire socia" body. The sovereignty o# the state' the #orm o# "aw' or the overa"" unity o# a domination are on"y the termina" #orms power ta$es. /t seems to me that power must be understood as the mu"tip"icity o# #orce re"ations that are immanent in the socia" sphere: as the process that' through cease"ess strugg"e and con#rontation' trans#orms' strengthens' or reverses them: as the support that these #orce re"ations #ind in one another' or on the contrary' the dis2unctions and contradictions that iso"ate them #rom one another: and "ast"y' as the strategies in which they ta$e e##ect' whose genera" design or institutiona" crysta""i)ation is embodied in the state apparatus' in the #ormu"ation o# the "aw' in the various socia" hegemonies. Thus' the viewpoint that permits one to understand the e5ercise o# power' even in its more ;periphera"< e##ects' and that a"so ma$es it possib"e to use its mechanisms as a structura" #ramewor$ #or ana"y)ing the socia" order' must not be sought in a uni+ue source o# sovereignty #rom which secondary and descendent #orms o# power emanate but in the moving substrate o# #orce re"ations that' by virtue o# their ine+ua"ity' constant"y engender "oca" and unstab"e states o# power. /# power seems omnipresent' it is not because it has the privi"ege o# conso"idating everything under its invincib"e unity' but because it is produced #rom one moment to the ne5t' at every point' or rather in every re"ation #rom one point to another. 6ower

GRE

.1-

is everywhere' not because it embraces everything' but because it comes #rom everywhere. 0nd i# power at times seems to be permanent' repetitious' inert' and se"#-reproducing' it is simp"y because the overa"" e##ect that emerges #rom a"" these mobi"ities is a concatenation that rests on each o# them and see$s in turn to arrest their movement. 9ne needs to be nomina"istc' no doubt> power is not an institution' and not a structure: neither is it a certain strength we are endowed with: it is the name that one attributes to a comp"e5 strategic situation in a particu"ar society.

1-. The author4s primary purpose in defining power is to (A) counteract self(ser'ing and confusing uses of the term (B) establish a compromise among those who ha'e defined the term in different ways (C) increase comprehension of the term by pro'iding concrete e$amples ( ) demonstrate how the meaning of the term has e'ol'ed (#) a'oid possible misinterpretations resulting from the more common uses of the term 16. According to the passage/ which of the following best describes the relationship between law and power% (A) Kaw is the protector of power. (B) Kaw is the source of power. (C) Kaw sets bounds to power. ( ) Kaw is a product of power. (#) Kaw is a stabili!er of power. 1,. &hich of the following methods is 98T used e$tensi'ely by the author in describing his own conception of power% (A) =estatement of central ideas (B) @ro'ision of concrete e$amples (C) Analysis and classification ( ) Comparison and contrast (#) ;tatement of cause and effect 25. &ith which of the following statement would the author be most likely to agree% (A) @ower tends to corruptI absolute power corrupts absolutely. (B) The highest proof of 'irtue is to possess boundless power without abusing it. (C) To lo'e knowledge is to lo'e power. ( ) 3t is from the people and their deeds that power springs. (#) The health of the people as a state is the foundation on which all their power depends. 21. The author4s attitude toward the 'arious kinds of compulsion employed by social

.16

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

institutions is best described as (A) concerned and sympathetic (B) scientific and detached (C) suspicious and cautious ( ) reproachful and disturbed (#) meditati'e and wistful 22. According to the passage/ states of power are transient because of the (A) differing natures and directions of the forces that create them (B) rigid structural framework in which they operate (C) uni"ue source from which they emanate ( ) per'asi'e nature and comple$ity of the mechanisms by which they operate (#) concatenation that seeks to arrest their mo'ement 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es the conflict among social forces to be (A) essentially the same from one society to another e'en though its outward manifestation may seem different (B) usually the result of misunderstandings that impede social progress (C) an ine'itable feature of the social order of any state ( ) wrongly blamed for disrupting the stability of society (#) best moderated in states that possess a strong central go'ernment
The hypothesis o# an e5panding =arth has never attracted notab"e support' and i# it were not #or the historica" e5amp"e o# continenta" dri#t' such indi##erence might be a "egitimate response to an apparent"y improbab"e concept. /t shou"d be remembered' however' that dri#t too was once regarded as i""usory' but the idea was $ept a"ive unti" evidence #rom physicists compe""ed geo"ogists to reinterpret their data. 9# course' it wou"d be as dangerous to overreact to history by conc"uding that the ma2ority must now be wrong about e5pansion as it wou"d be to reenact the response that greeted the suggestion that the continents had dri#ted. The cases are not precise"y ana"ogous. There were serious prob"ems with the pre-dri#t wor"d view that a dri#t theory cou"d he"p to reso"ve' whereas =arth e5pansion appears to o##er no comparab"e advantages. /#' however' physicists cou"d show that the =arth3s gravitationa" #orce has decreased with time' e5pansion wou"d have to be reconsidered and accommodated.

20. The passage indicates that one reason why the e$pansion hypothesis has attracted little support is that it will not (A) o'ercome deficiencies in current geologic hypotheses (B) clarify theories concerning the #arth4s gra'itational forces (C) complement the theory of continental drift ( ) accommodate rele'ant theories from the field of physics

GRE

.1,

(#) withstand criticism from scientists outside the field of geology 21. The final acceptance of a drift theory could best be used to support the argument that (A) physicists are reluctant to communicate with other scientists (B) improbable hypotheses usually turn out to be 'alid (C) there should be cooperation between different fields of science ( ) there is a need for go'ernmental control of scientific research (#) scientific theories are often pro'ed by accident 22. 3n de'eloping his argument/ the author warns against (A) relying on incomplete measurements (B) introducing irrele'ant information (C) re<ecting corroborati'e e'idence ( ) accepting uninformed opinions (#) making unwarranted comparisons 2-. 3t can be deduced from the passage that the gra'itational force at a point on the #arth4s surface is (A) representati'e of the geologic age of the #arth (B) analogous to the mo'ement of land masses (C) similar to optical phenomena such as mirages ( ) proportional to the si!e of the #arth (#) dependent on the speed of the #arth4s rotation No. 3-1 SECTION A
*otab"e as important nineteenth-century nove"s by women' ?ary he""ey3s Frankenstein and =mi"y &ronte3s ,uthering %eights treat women very di##erent"y. he""ey produced a ;mascu"ine< te5t in which the #ates o# subordinate #ema"e characters seem entire"y dependent on the actions o# ma"e heroes or anti-heroes. &ronte produced a more rea"istic narrative' portraying a wor"d where men batt"e #or the #avors o# apparent"y high-spirited' independent women. *everthe"ess' these two nove"s are a"i$e in severa" crucia" ways. ?any readers are convinced that the compe""ing mysteries o# each p"ot concea" e"aborate structures o# a""usion and #ierce' though shadowy' mora" ambitions that seem to indicate metaphysica" intentions' though e##orts by critics to articu"ate these intentions have generated much controversy. &oth nove"ists use a storyte""ing method that emphasi)es ironic dis2unctions between di##erent perspectives on the same events as we"" as ironic tensions that inhere in the re"ationship between sur#ace drama and concea"ed authoria" intention' a method / ca"" an evidentiary narrative techni+ue.

.25

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) defend a contro'ersial interpretation of two no'els (B) e$plain the source of widely recogni!ed responses to two no'els (C) delineate broad differences between two no'els ( ) compare and contrast two no'els (#) critici!e and e'aluate two no'els 16. According the passage/ Frankenstein differs from Wuthering &eights in its (A) use of multiple narrators (B) method of disguising the author4s real purposes (C) portrayal of men as determiners of the no'el4s action ( ) creation of a realistic story (#) contro'ersial effect on readers 1,. &hich of the following narrati'e strategies best e$emplifies the *e'identiary narrati'e techni"ue+ mentioned in line 20% (A) Telling a story in such a way that the author4s real intentions are discernible only through interpretations of allusions to a world outside that of the story (B) Telling a story in such a way that the reader is aware as e'ents unfold of the author4s underlying purposes and the ways these purposes conflict with the drama of the plot (C) Telling a story in a way that both directs attention to the incongruities among the points of 'iew of se'eral characters and hints that the plot has a significance other than that suggested by its mere e'ents ( ) Telling a story as a mystery in which the reader must deduce/ from the conflicting e'idence presented by se'eral narrators/ the moral and philosophical significance of character and e'ent (#) Telling a story from the author4s point of 'iew in a way that implies both the author4s and the reader4s ironic distance from the dramatic unfolding of e'ents 25. According to the passage/ the plots of Wuthering &eights and Frankenstein are notable for their elements of (A) drama and secrecy (B) heroism and tension (C) realism and ambition ( ) mystery and irony (#) morality and metaphysics
%"imatic conditions are de"icate"y ad2usted to the composition o# the =arth3s atmosphere. /# there were a change in the atmosphere!#or e5amp"e' in the re"ative proportions o# atmospheric gases!the c"imate wou"d probab"y change a"so. 0 s"ight increase in water vapor'

GRE

.21

#or instance' wou"d increase the heat-retaining capacity o# the atmosphere and wou"d "ead to a rise in g"oba" temperatures. /n contrast' a "arge increase in water vapor wou"d increase the thic$ness and e5tent o# the c"oud "ayer' reducing the amount o# so"ar energy reaching the =arth3s sur#ace. The "eve" o# carbon dio5ide' %91' in the atmosphere has an important e##ect on c"imatic change. ?ost o# the =arth3s incoming energy is short-wave"ength radiation' which tends to pass through atmospheric %91 easi"y. The =arth' however' reradiates much o# the received energy as "ong-wave"ength radiation' which %91 absorbs and then remits toward the =arth. This phenomenon' $nown as the greenhouse e##ect' can resu"t in an increase in the sur#ace temperature o# a p"anet. 0n e5treme e5amp"e o# the e##ect is shown by Benus' a p"anet covered by heavy c"ouds composed most"y o# %91' whose sur#ace temperatures have been measured at H4.. /# the %91 content o# the atmosphere is reduced' the temperature #a""s. 0ccording to one respectab"e theory' i# the atmospheric %9 1 concentration were ha"ved' the =arth wou"d become comp"ete"y covered with ice. 0nother e+ua""y respectab"e theory' however' states that a ha"ving o# the %91 concentration wou"d "ead on"y to a reduction in g"oba" temperatures o# 4. /#' because o# an increase in #orest #ires or vo"canic activity' the %9 1 content o# the atmosphere increased' a warmer c"imate wou"d be produced. 6"ant growth' which re"ies on both the warmth and the avai"abi"ity o# %91 wou"d probab"y increase. 0s a conse+uence' p"ants wou"d use more and more %91. =ventua""y %91 "eve"s wou"d diminish and the c"imate' in turn' wou"d become coo"er. 8ith reduced temperatures many p"ants wou"d die: %9 1 wou"d thereby be returned to the atmosphere and gradua""y the temperature wou"d rise again. Thus' i# this process occurred' there might be a "ong-term osci""ation in the amount o# %9 1 present in the atmosphere' with regu"ar temperature increases and decreases o# a set magnitude. ome c"imato"ogists argue that the burning o# #ossi" #ue"s has raised the "eve" o# %9 1 in the atmosphere and has caused a g"oba" temperature increase o# at "east 1 . &ut a supposed g"oba" temperature rise o# 1 may in rea"ity be on"y severa" regiona" temperature increases' restricted to areas where there are many meteoro"ogica" stations and caused simp"y by shi#ts in the pattern o# atmospheric circu"ation. 9ther areas' #or e5amp"e the outhern (emisphere oceanic )one' may be e5periencing an e+uiva"ent temperature decrease that is unrecogni)ed because o# the shortage o# meteoro"ogica" recording stations.

21. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions% (A) &hy are pro<ections of the effects of changes in water 'apor le'els on the climate so inaccurate% (B) &hat are the steps in the process that takes place as C82 absorbs long( wa'elength radiation% (C) )ow might our understanding of the greenhouse effect be impro'ed if the burning of fossil fuels were decreased% ( ) &hat might cause a series of regular increases and decreases in the amount of C82 in the atmosphere%

.22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) &hy are there fewer meteorological recording stations in the ;outhern )emisphere oceanic !one than elsewhere% 22. The author is primarily concerned with (A) e$plaining the effects that the burning of fossil fuels might ha'e on climate (B) illustrating the effects of C82 on atmospheric radiation (C) discussing effects that changes in the C82 le'el in the atmosphere might ha'e on climate ( ) challenging hypotheses about the effects of water 'apor and C82 on climate (#) refuting hypotheses by climatologists about the causes of global temperature fluctuations 2.. The passage suggests that a large decrease in the amount of C82 in the atmosphere would result in (A) at least a slight decrease in global temperatures (B) at the most a slight increase in short(wa'elength radiation reaching the #arth (C) a slight long(term increase in global temperatures ( ) a large long(term increase in the amount of 'olcanic acti'ity (#) a slight short(term increase in atmosphere water 'apor content 20. The author refers to Cenus primarily in order to (A) show the inherent weakness of the greenhouse effect theory (B) show that the greenhouse effect works on other planets but not on #arth (C) show the e$tent to which #arth4s atmosphere differs from that of Cenus ( ) support the contention that as water 'apor increase/ the amount of C82 increases (#) support the argument that the C82 le'el in the atmosphere has a significant effect on climate 21. The passage suggests that if there were a slight global warming at the present time/ it would be (A) easy to measure the e$act increase in temperature because of the abundance of temperature recording stations throughout the world (B) difficult to measure the increase of C82 in the atmosphere because of local 'ariations in amounts (C) easy to demonstrate the effects of the warming on the water 'apor in the atmosphere ( ) difficult to pro'e that the warming was caused by the burning of fossil fuels (#) easy to pro'e that the warming was caused by an increase of cloud co'er 22. The discussion of climate in the passage suggests which of the following conclusion%

GRE

.2.

3. 33.

Climate is not perfectly stable/ and slight regional temperature 'ariations can be considered a normal feature of the en'ironment. &e are unable at present to measure global temperature changes precisely.

333. The most important cause of regional climatic fluctuations is the change in C82 le'els in the atmosphere. (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 2-. All of the following can be found in the author4s discussion of climate #DC#@T (A) a statement about the effects of increased 'olcanic acti'ity on the #arth4s temperatures (B) an indication of the effect of an increase in water 'apor in the atmosphere (C) a contrast between two theories about the effects of a lowering of C82 le'els in the atmosphere ( ) a generali!ation about the efficiency of meteorological recording stations (#) a hypothesis about the relationship between atmospheric gases and changes in climate SECTION B
The 7ood and Frug 0dministration has recent"y proposed severe restrictions on the use o# antibiotics to promote the hea"th and growth o# meat anima"s. ?edications added to #eeds $i"" many microorganisms but a"so encourage the appearance o# bacteria" strains that are resistant to anti-in#ective drugs. 0"ready' #or e5amp"e' penici""in and the tetracyc"ines are not as e##ective therapeutica""y as they once were. The drug resistance is chie#"y con#erred by tiny circ"ets o# genes' ca""ed p"asmids' that can be e5changed between di##erent strains and even di##erent species o# bacteria. 6"asmids are a"so one o# the two $inds o# vehic"es (the other being viruses) that mo"ecu"ar bio"ogists depend on when per#orming gene transp"ant e5periments. =ven present guide"ines #orbid the "aboratory use o# p"asmids bearing genes #or resistance to antibiotics. Det' whi"e congressiona" debate rages over whether or not to toughen these restrictions on scientists in their "aboratories' "itt"e congressiona" attention has been #ocused on an i""-advised agricu"tura" practice that produces $nown de"eterious e##ects.

1-. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) disco'ering methods of eliminating harmful microorganisms without subse"uently generating drug(resistant bacteria (B) e$plaining reasons for congressional inaction on the regulation of gene transplant e$periments (C) describing a problematic agricultural practice and its serious genetic

.20

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

conse"uences ( ) 'erifying the therapeutic ineffecti'eness of anti(infecti'e drugs (#) e'aluating recently proposed restrictions intended to promote the growth of meat animals 16. According to the passage/ the e$change of plasmids between different bacteria can results in which of the following% (A) ?icroorganisms resistant to drugs (B) Therapeutically useful circlets of genes (C) Anti(infecti'e drugs like penicillin ( ) Ciruses for use by molecular biologists (#) Cehicles for performing gene transplant e$periments 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that those in fa'or of stiffening the restrictions on gene transplant research should logically also (A) encourage e$periments with any plasmids e$cept those bearing genes for antibiotic resistance (B) "uestion the addition of anti(infecti'e drugs to li'estock feeds (C) resist the use of penicillin and tetracyclines to kill microorganisms ( ) agree to the de'elopment of meatier li'estock through the use of antibiotics (#) fa'or congressional debate and discussion of all science and health issues 25. The author4s attitude toward the de'elopment of bacterial strains that render antibiotic drugs ineffecti'e can best be described as (A) indifferent (B) perple$ed (C) pretentious ( ) insincere (#) apprehensi'e
Furing ado"escence' the deve"opment o# po"itica" ideo"ogy becomes apparent in the individua": ideo"ogy here is de#ined as the presence o# rough"y consistent attitudes' more or "ess organi)ed in re#erence to a more encompassing' though perhaps tacit' set o# genera" princip"es. 0s such' po"itica" ideo"ogy is dim or absent at the beginning o# ado"escence. /ts ac+uisition by the ado"escent' in even the most modest sense' re+uires the ac+uisition o# re"ative"y sophisticated cognitive s$i""s> the abi"ity to manage abstractness' to synthesi)e and genera"i)e' to imagine the #uture. These are accompanied by a steady advance in the abi"ity to understand princip"es. The chi"d3s rapid ac+uisition o# po"itica" $now"edge a"so promotes the growth o# po"itica" ideo"ogy during ado"escence. &y $now"edge / mean more than the dreary ;#acts'< such as the composition o# county government that the chi"d is e5posed to in the conventiona" ninth-grade civics course. *or do / mean on"y in#ormation on current po"itica" rea"ities. These are #acets o#

GRE
$now"edge' but they are "ess critica" than the ado"escent3s absorption' o#ten unwitting' o# a #ee"ing #or those many unspo$en assumptions about the po"itica" system that comprise the

.21

common ground o# understanding!#or e5amp"e' what the state can appropriate"y demand o# its citi)ens' and vice versa' or the proper re"ationship o# government to subsidiary socia" institutions' such as the schoo"s and churches. Thus po"itica" $now"edge is the awareness o# socia" assumptions and re"ationships as we"" as o# ob2ective #acts. ?uch o# the naivetS that characteri)es the younger ado"escent3s grasp o# po"itics stems not #rom an ignorance o# ;#acts< but #rom conventions o# the system' o# what is and is not customari"y done' and o# how and why it is or is not done. Det / do not want to overemphasi)e the signi#icance o# increased po"itica" $now"edge in #orming ado"escent ideo"ogy. 9ver the years / have become progressive"y disenchanted about the centra"ity o# such $now"edge and have come to be"ieve that much current wor$ in po"itica" socia"i)ation' by re"ying too heavi"y on its apparent ac+uisition' has been mis"ed about the tempo o# po"itica" understanding in ado"escence. @ust as young chi"dren can count numbers in series without grasping the princip"e o# ordination' young ado"escents may have in their heads many random bits o# po"itica" in#ormation without a secure understanding o# those concepts that wou"d give order and meaning to the in#ormation. Ei$e magpies' chi"dren3s minds pic$ up bits and pieces o# data. /# you encourage them' they wi"" drop these at your #eet!Repub"icans and Femocrats' the tripartite division o# the #edera" system' perhaps even the capita" o# ?assachusetts. &ut unti" the ado"escent has grasped the integumenta" #unction that concepts and princip"es provide' the data remain #ragmented' random' disordered.

21. The author4s primary purpose in the passage is to (A) clarify the kinds of understanding an adolescent must ha'e in order to de'elop a political ideology (B) dispute the theory that a political ideology can be ac"uired during adolescence (C) e$plain why adolescents are generally uninterested in political arguments ( ) suggest 'arious means of encouraging adolescents to de'elop personal political ideologies (#) e$plain why an adolescent4s political ideology usually appears more sophisticated than it actually is 22. According to the author/ which of the following contributes to the de'elopment of political ideology during adolescence% (A) Conscious recognition by the adolescent of his or her own nai'etP (B) Thorough comprehension of the concept of ordination (C) #'aluation by the adolescent of the general principles encompassing his or her specific political ideas ( ) 3ntuiti'e understanding of relationships among 'arious components of society (#) =e<ection of abstract reasoning in fa'or of in'ol'ement with pragmatic

.22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

situations 2.. The author uses the term *common ground of understanding+ (line 2-) to refer to (A) familiar legislation regarding political acti'ity (B) the e$periences that all adolescents share (C) a society4s general sense of its own political acti'ity ( ) a society4s willingness to resol'e political tensions (#) the assumption that the state controls social institutions 20. The passage suggests that/ during early adolescence/ a child would find which of the following most difficult to understand% (A) A book chronicling the ways in which the presidential inauguration ceremony has changed o'er the years (B) An essay in which an incident in British history is used to e$plain the system of monarchic succession (C) A summary of the respecti'e responsibilities of the legislati'e/ e$ecuti'e/ and <udicial branches of go'ernment ( ) A debate in which the participants argue/ respecti'ely/ that the federal go'ernment should or should not support pri'ate schools (#) An article detailing the specific religious groups that founded American colonies and the guiding principles of each one 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about schools% (A) They should present political information according to carefully planned/ schematic arrangements. (B) They themsel'es constitute part of a general sociopolitical system that adolescents are learning to understand. (C) 3f they were to introduce political sub<ect matter in the primary grades/ students would understand current political realities at an earlier age. ( ) They are ineffectual to the degree that they disregard adolescents4 political nai'etP. (#) Because they are subsidiary to go'ernment their contribution to the political understanding of adolescent must be limited. 22. &hich of the following best summari!es the author4s e'aluation of the accumulation of political knowledge by adolescents% (A) 3t is un"uestionably necessary/ but its significance can easily be o'erestimated. (B) 3t is important/ but not as important as is the ability to appear knowledgeable. (C) 3t delays the necessity of considering underlying principles. ( ) 3t is primarily rele'ant to an understanding of limited/ local concerns/ such as

GRE

.2-

county politics. (#) 3t is primarily dependent on information gleaned from high school courses such as ci'ics. 2-. &hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of the author4s discussion of the role of political knowledge in the formation of political ideology during adolescence% (A) )e acknowledges its importance/ but then modifies his initial assertion of that importance. (B) )e consistently resists the idea that it is important/ using a series of e$amples to support his stand. (C) )e wa'ers in e'aluating it and finally uses analogies to e$plain why he is indecisi'e. ( ) )e begins by "uestioning con'entional ideas about its importance/ but finally concedes that they are correct. (#) )e carefully refrains from making an initial <udgment about it/ but later confirms its critical role. No. 3-2 SECTION A
The ma$ing o# c"assi#ications by "iterary historians can be a somewhat ris$y enterprise. 8hen &"ac$ poets are discussed separate"y as a group' #or instance' the e5tent to which their wor$ re#"ects the deve"opment o# poetry in genera" shou"d not be #orgotten' or a distortion o# "iterary history may resu"t. This caution is particu"ar"y re"evant in an assessment o# the di##erences between &"ac$ poets at the turn o# the century (19..-19.9) and those o# the generation o# the 191.3s. These di##erences inc"ude the bo"der and more #orthright speech o# the "ater generation and its technica" inventiveness. /t shou"d be remembered' though' that comparab"e di##erences a"so e5isted #or simi"ar generations o# 8hite poets. 8hen poets o# the 191.3s and 191.3s are considered together' however' the distinctions that "iterary historians might ma$e between ;conservative< and ;e5perimenta"< wou"d be o# "itt"e signi#icance in a discussion o# &"ac$ poets' a"though these remain he"p#u" c"assi#ications #or 8hite poets o# these decades. %ertain"y di##erences can be noted between ;conservative< &"ac$ poets such as %ounter %u""en and %"aude ?cNay and ;e5perimenta"< ones such as @ean Toomer and Eangston (ughes. &ut &"ac$ poets were not batt"ing over o"d or new sty"es: rather' one accomp"ished &"ac$ poet was ready to we"come another' whatever his or her sty"e' #or what mattered was racia" pride. (owever' in the 191.3s &"ac$ poets did debate whether they shou"d dea" with speci#ica""y racia" sub2ects. They as$ed whether they shou"d on"y write about &"ac$ e5perience #or a &"ac$ audience or whether such demands were restrictive. /t may be said' though' that virtua""y a"" these poets wrote their best poems when they spo$e out o# racia" #ee"ing' race being' as

.26

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

@ames 8e"don @ohnson right"y put it' ;per#orce the thing the *egro poet $nows best.< 0t the turn o# the century' by contrast' most &"ac$ poets genera""y wrote in the conventiona" manner o# the age and e5pressed nob"e' i# vague' emotions in their poetry. These poets were not unusua""y gi#ted' though Roscoe @amison and A. ?. ?c%"e""en may be mentioned as e5ceptions. They chose not to write in dia"ect' which' as ter"ing &rown has suggested' ;meant a re2ection o# stereotypes o# *egro "i#e'< and they re#used to write on"y about racia" sub2ects. This re#usa" had both a positive and a negative conse+uence. 0s &rown observes' ;Ba"uab"y insisting that *egro poets shou"d not be con#ined to issues o# race' these poets committed TanU errorV they re#used to "oo$ into their hearts and write.< These are important insights' but one must stress that this re#usa" to "oo$ within was a"so typica" o# most 8hite poets o# the United tates at the time. They' too' o#ten turned #rom their own e5perience and conse+uent"y produced not very memorab"e poems about vague topics' such as the peace o# nature.

1-. According to the passage/ most turn(of(the(century Black poets generally did which of the following% (A) &rote in ways that did not challenge accepted literary practice. (B) escribed scenes from their own li'es. (C) Aroused patriotic feelings by e$pressing de'otion to the land. ( ) #$pressed comple$ feelings in the words of ordinary people. (#) 3nterpreted the frustrations of Blacks to an audience of &hites. 16. According to the passage/ an issue facing Black poets in the 1,254s was whether they should (A) seek a consensus on new techni"ues of poetry (B) write e$clusi'ely about and for Blacks (C) withdraw their support from a repressi'e society ( ) turn away from social "uestions to recollect the tran"uility of nature (#) identify themsel'es with an international mo'ement of Black writers 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that classifying a poet as either conser'ati'e or e$perimental would be of *little significance+ (line 21) when discussing Black poets of the 1,154s and the 1,254s because (A) these poets wrote in 'ery similar styles (B) these poets all wrote about nature in the same way (C) these poets were fundamentally united by a sense of racial achie'ement despite differences in poetic style ( ) such a method of classification would fail to take account of the influence of general poetic practice (#) such a method of classification would be rele'ant only in a discussion of poets separated in time by more than three decades

GRE

.2,

25. The author "uotes ;terling Brown in lines 1.(12 in order to (A) present an interpretation of some black poets that contradicts the author4s own assertion about their acceptance of 'arious poetic styles (B) introduce a distinction between Black poets who used dialect and &hite poets who did not (C) dispro'e Aames &eldon Aohnson4s claim that race is what *the 9egro poet knows best+ ( ) suggest what were the effects of some Black poets4 decision not to write only about racial sub<ects (#) pro'e that Black poets at the turn of the century wrote less con'entionally than did their &hite counterparts 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author finds the work of the ma<ority of the Black poets at the turn of the century to be (A) une$citing (B) calming (C) confusing ( ) delightful (#) inspiring 22. The author would be most likely to agree that poets tend to produce better poems when they (A) e$press a lo'e of nature (B) declaim noble emotions (C) a'oid technical "uestions about style ( ) emulate the best work of their predecessors (#) write from personal e$perience 2.. &hich of the following best describes the attitude of the author toward classification as a techni"ue in literary history% (A) #nthusiastic (B) 3ndifferent (C) &ary ( ) erisi'e (#) efensi'e
The primary method previous"y used by pa"eonto"ogists to estimate c"imatic changes that occurred during 6"eistocene g"acia" cyc"es was the determination o# 189K1G9 ratios in ca"careous #ossi"s. (owever' because this ratio is in#"uenced by a number o# #actors' the abso"ute magnitude o# the temperature di##erence between 6"eistocene g"acia" and interg"acia" cyc"es cou"d not be une+uivoca""y ascertained. 7or e5amp"e' both temperature #"uctuations and isotopic changes in seawater a##ect the 189K1G9 ratio. 0nd' since both #actors in#"uence the

..5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

ratio in the same direction' the contribution o# each to the 189K1G9 cannot be determined. 7ortunate"y' recent studies indicate that the racemi)ation reaction o# amino acids can be used to determine more accurate"y temperatures that occurred during 6"eistocene g"acia" cyc"es. 9n"y E-amino acids are usua""y #ound in the proteins o# "iving organisms' but over "ong periods o# geo"ogica" time these acids undergo racemi)ation' producing F-amino acids' which are not #ound in proteins. This reaction depends on both time and temperature: thus' i# one variab"e is $nown' the reaction can be used to ca"cu"ate the other.

20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that determination of the temperatures mentioned in line 1- through 168J128 ratios and determination through racemi!ation reactions both re"uire which of the following% (A) Calcium deposits known to be from @leistocene seas (B) @roteins containing both K(amino acids and (amino acids (C) Blacial debris from both before and after the @leistocene period ( ) >ossil material from organisms li'ing during the @leistocene period (#) @roteins containing both amino acids and 168 21. The passage suggests that the 168J128 ratio could be used more successfully as a means of measurement if scientists were able to (A) determine the 168J128 ratio in li'ing animals as well as in fossil remains (B) locate a greater number of calcareous fossils from the @leistocene glacial and interglacial cycles (C) locate the factors other than temperature fluctuations and isotopic changes in seawater that affect the 168J128 ratio ( ) arri'e at more e$act determinations of which amino acids are found in the proteins of li'ing organisms (#) isolate the relati'e effects of temperature fluctuations and isotopic changes in seawater on 168J128 ratios 22. The information in the passage can be used to answer which of the following "uestions% 3. 33. o temperature 'ariations and isotopic changes in seawater cause the 168J128 ratio to shift in the same direction% &hat are the methods used to determine the 168J128 ratio%

333. 3s the study of racemi!ation reactions useful in estimating climatic changes that occurred during @leistocene glacial cycles if only one of the two important 'ariables is known% (A) 3 only (B) 3 and 33 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only

GRE

..1

(#) 3/ 33/ and 333 2-. According to the passage/ before the recent e$periments described in the passage were completed/ scientists could (A) determine temperatures only for @leistocene seas (B) determine temperatures that occurred during @leistocene glacial cycles only by e$amining fossil remains (C) measure changes in temperatures that occurred during @leistocene glacial cycles with only "uestionable accuracy ( ) only partially identify factors tending to lower @leistocene temperatures (#) accurately determine temperatures only for land masses affected by glaciation SECTION B
%himps and chi"dren' gu""s and Aree$s!the etho"ogists go their merry way' comparing bits o# human cu"tura" behavior with bits o# genetica""y programmed anima" behavior. True' humans are anima"s: they share certain anatomica" #eatures with other anima"s' and some items o# human behavior may seem ana"ogous to the behavior o# other anima"s. &ut such ana"ogies can serious"y mis"ead i# we #ai" to "oo$ at the conte5t o# a particu"ar item o# behavior. Thus one etho"ogist compares the presentation o# a twig by a cormorant with gi#t-giving in humans. Det the cormorant3s twig-presentation simp"y inhibits attac$ and is comparab"e to other appeasement ritua"s #ound in many species. (uman gi#t-giving di##ers in #orm and purpose not on"y #rom cu"ture to cu"ture' but within the same cu"ture in various socia" conte5ts. =verything signi#icant about it derives #rom its socia" conte5t. Thus' etho"ogists can accomp"ish "itt"e!beyond reminding us that we are anima"s!unti" they study humans as cu"tura" beings.

1-. The author is primarily concerned with (A) demonstrating the usefulness of ethology in disco'ering the beha'ioral limits within which humans operate (B) ob<ecting to the degradation of humanity implicit in the ethologists e"uation of humans and animals (C) pointing out the dangers inherent in comparing highly dissimilar species/ such as humans and cormorants/ rather than similar ones/ such as humans and apes ( ) refuting the idea that the appeasement rituals in human cultural beha'ior can be profitably sub<ected to ethological analysis (#) arguing that the ethologists4 assumption that human beha'ior can be straightforwardly compared with animal beha'ior is in'alid 16. The author belie'es that gift(gi'ing in humans (A) is instincti'e beha'ior (B) is analogous to appeasement rituals in other animals

..2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) is not an appropriate sub<ect of study for ethologists ( ) must be considered within its social conte$t to be properly understood (#) may be a cultural remnant of beha'ior originally designed to inhibit attack 1,. The author4s attitude toward contemporary ethologists can best be described as (A) pu!!led (B) conciliatory (C) defensi'e ( ) amused (#) disparaging 25. &hich of the following statements from a report on a cross(cultural study of gift( gi'ing would/ if true/ most strongly support the author4s assertions concerning human gift(gi'ing% (A) 3n e'ery culture studied/ it was found that some forms of gift(gi'ing are acts of aggression that place the recei'er under obligation to the gi'er. (B) ?ost go'ernmental ta$ation systems differentiate between gifts of property gi'en to children during a parent4s lifetime/ and a child4s inheritance of the same property from a parent dying without a will. (C) ;ome gift(gi'ing customs ha'e analogous forms in nearly e'ery culture/ as in the almost uni'ersal custom of welcoming strangers with gifts of food. ( ) 3n 9orth America/ generally speaking/ money is an acceptable holiday gift to one4s letter carrier or garbage collector/ but is often considered an insult if gi'en to one4s employer/ friends/ or relati'es. (#) ;ome gifts/ being conciliatory in nature/ indicate by their costliness the degree of hostility they must appease in the recipient.
7ew areas o# neurobehaviora" research seemed more promising in the ear"y si5ties than that investigating the re"ationship between protein synthesis and "earning. The conceptua" #ramewor$ #or this research was derived direct"y #rom mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy' which had shown that genetic in#ormation is stored in nuc"eic acids and e5pressed in proteins. 8hy not ac+uired in#ormation as we""C The #irst step toward estab"ishing a connection between protein synthesis and "earning seemed to be b"oc$ memory (cause amnesia) by interrupting the production o# protein. 8e were #ortunate in #inding a non"etha" dosage o# puromycin that cou"d' it #irst appeared' thorough"y inhibit brain protein synthesis as we"" as re"iab"y produce amnesia. &e#ore the actua" connection between protein synthesis and "earning cou"d be estab"ished' however' we began to have doubts about whether inhibition o# protein synthesis was in #act the method by which puromycin produced amnesia. 7irst' other drugs' g"utarimides!themse"ves potent protein-synthesis inhibitors!either #ai"ed to cause amnesia in some situations where it cou"d easi"y be induced by puromycin or produced an amnesia with a di##erent time course #rom that o# puromycin. econd' puromycin was #ound to inhibit

GRE
protein synthesis by brea$ing certain amino-acid chains' and the resu"ting #ragments were suspected o# being the actua" cause o# amnesia in some cases. Third' puromycin was reported to cause abnorma"ities in the brain' inc"uding sei)ures. Thus' not on"y were decreased protein synthesis and amnesia dissociated' but a"ternative mechanisms #or the amnestic action o# puromycin were readi"y suggested.

...

o' puromycin turned out to be a disappointment. /t came to be regarded as a poor agent #or amnesia studies' a"though' o# course' it was poor on"y in the conte5t o# our origina" paradigm o# protein-synthesis inhibition. /n our #rustration' our initia" response was simp"y to change drugs rather than our conceptua" orientation. 0#ter many such disappointments' however' it now appears un"i$e"y that we wi"" ma$e a #irm connection between protein synthesis and "earning mere"y by pursuing the approaches o# the past. 9ur e5perience with drugs has shown that a"" the amnestic agents o#ten inter#ere with memory in ways that seem unre"ated to their inhibition o# protein synthesis. ?ore important"y' the notion that the interruption or intensi#ication o# protein production in the brain can be re"ated in cause-ande##ect #ashion to "earning now seems simp"istic and unproductive. Remove the battery #rom a car and the car wi"" not go. Frive the car a "ong distance at high speed and the battery wi"" become more high"y charged. *either o# these #acts proves that the battery powers the car: on"y a $now"edge o# the overa"" automotive system wi"" revea" its mechanism o# the "ocomotion and the ro"e o# the battery within that system.

21. This passage was most likely e$cerpted from (A) a diary kept by a practicing neurobeha'ioral researcher (B) a newspaper article on recent ad'ances in the biochemistry of learning (C) a technical article on e$perimental techni"ues in the field of molecular biology ( ) an article summari!ing a series of scientific in'estigations in neurobeha'ioral research (#) a book re'iew in a leading <ournal de'oted to genetic research 22. The primary purpose of the passage is to show that e$tensi'e e$perimentation has (A) demonstrated the importance of amino(acid fragmentation in the induction of amnesia (B) cast doubt on the 'alue of puromycin in the neurobeha'ioral in'estigation of learning (C) re'ealed the importance of amnesia in the neurobeha'ioral study of learning ( ) not yet demonstrated the applicability of molecular biology to neurobeha'ioral research (#) not supported the hypothesis that learning is directly dependent on protein synthesis 2.. According to the passage/ neurobeha'iorists initially based their belief that protein synthesis was related to learning on which of the following% (A) Traditional theories about learning

..0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) 9ew techni"ues in protein synthesis (C) @re'ious disco'eries in molecular biology ( ) ;pecific research into learning and amnesia (#) )istoric e$periments on the effects of puromycin 20. The passage mentions all of the following as effects of puromycin #DC#@TE (A) brain sei!ures (B) memory loss (C) inhibition of protein synthesis ( ) destruction of genetic information (#) fragmentation of amino(acid chains 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ after puromycin was percei'ed to be a disappointment/ researchers did which of the following% (A) They ceased to e$periment with puromycin and shifted to other promising protein(synthesis inhibitors. (B) They ceased to e$periment with puromycin/ and ree$amined through e$periments the relationship between genetic information and ac"uired information. (C) The continued to e$periment with puromycin/ but applied their results to other facets of memory research. ( ) They continued to e$periment with puromycin/ but also tried other protein( synthesis inhibitors. (#) They continued to e$periment with puromycin until a new neuroanatomical framework was de'eloped. 22. 3n the e$ample of the car (lines 16(21)/ the battery is meant to represent which of the following elements in the neurobeha'ioral research program% (A) @uromycin (B) Amnesia (C) Blutarimides ( ) @rotein synthesis (#) Ac"uired information 2-. &hich of the following statements could be most likely to come after the last sentence of the passage% (A) The failures of the past/ howe'er/ must not impede further research into the amnestic action of protein(synthesis inhibitors. (B) 3t is a legacy of this research/ therefore/ that molecular biology4s genetic models ha'e led to disagreements among neurobeha'iorists. (C) The ambi'alent status of current research/ howe'er/ should not deter

GRE

..1

neurobeha'iorists from e$ploring the deeper connections between protein production and learning. ( ) 3t is important in the future/ therefore/ for beha'ioral biochemists to emphasi!e more strongly the place of their specific findings within the o'erall protein(synthesis model of learning. (#) 3t is important in the future/ therefore/ for beha'ioral biochemists to focus on the se'eral components of the total learning system. No. 3-3 SECTION A
0"though pathogenic organisms constant"y a"ight on the s$in' they #ind it a very un#avorab"e environment and' in the absence o# in2ury' have great di##icu"ty co"oni)ing it. This ;se"#-steri"i)ing< capacity o# the s$in resu"ts #rom the tendency o# a"" we""-deve"oped ecosystems toward homeostasis' or the maintenance o# the status +uo. pecies that typica""y "ive in soi"' water' and e"sewhere rare"y mu"tip"y on the s$in. Undamaged s$in is a"so un#avorab"e to most human pathogens. The s$in is too acid and too arid #or some species. The constant shedding o# the sur#ace s$in "ayers #urther hinders the estab"ishment o# invaders. The most interesting de#ense mechanism' however' resu"ts #rom the metabo"ic activities o# the resident #"ora. Unsaturated #atty acids' an important component o# the "ipids in sebum co""ected #rom the s$in sur#ace' inhibit the growth o# severa" bacteria" and #unga" cutaneous pathogens. These acids are a metabo"ic product o# certain grampositive members o# the cutaneous community' which brea$ down the more comp"e5 "ipids in #resh"y secreted sebum.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) offer an analysis of metabolic processes (B) detail the ways in which bacteria and fungi can be inhibited (C) describe mechanisms by which the skin protects itself against pathogens ( ) analy!e the methods whereby biological systems maintain the status "uo (#) pro'ide a specific e$ample of the skin4s basic defenses against pathogens 16. The *resident flora+ mentioned in line 12 refer to (A) *:nsaturated fatty acids+ (line 1-) (B) *sebum collected from the skin surface+ (lines 16(1,) (C) *bacterial and fungal cutaneous pathogens+ (lines 1,(25) ( ) *certain gram(positi'e members of the cutaneous community+ (lines 21(22) (#) *more comple$ lipids+ (lines 2.) 1,. Among the natural defenses of the skin against pathogenic organisms are all of the following #DC#@T the

..2

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(A) dryness of the skin (B) acidity of the skin (C) tendency of the pathogens toward homeostasis ( ) shedding of surface layers of the skin (#) metabolic breakdown of lipids 25. The author presents her material in which of the following ways% (A) ;tating a problem and then supplying a solution (B) @resenting a phenomenon and then analy!ing reason for it (C) @ro'iding information and then drawing a conclusion from it ( ) ?aking a general statement and then arguing by analogy (#) ?aking an inference and then de'eloping it by illustration
;?asterpieces are dumb'< wrote 7"aubert' ;They have a tran+ui" aspect "i$e the very products o# nature' "i$e "arge anima"s and mountains.< (e might have been thin$ing o# ,ar and Peace& that vast' si"ent wor$' un#athomab"e and simp"e' provo$ing end"ess +uestions through the ma2esty o# its being. To"stoi3s simp"icity is ;overpowering'< says the critic &ay"ey' ;disconcerting'< because it comes #rom ;his casua" assumption that the wor"d is as he sees it.< Ei$e other nineteenth-century Russian writers he is ;impressive< because he ;means what he says'< but he stands apart #rom a"" others and #rom most 8estern writers in his identity with "i#e' which is so comp"ete as to ma$e us #orget he is an artist. (e is the center o# his wor$' but his egocentricity is o# a specia" $ind. Aoethe' #or e5amp"e' says &ay"ey' ;cared #or nothing but himse"#. To"stoi was nothing but himse"#.< 7or a"" his varied modes o# writing and the mu"tip"icity o# characters in his #iction' To"stoi and his wor$ are o# a piece. The #amous ;conversion< o# his midd"e years' moving"y recounted in his Confession& was a cu"mination o# his ear"y spiritua" "i#e' not a departure #rom it. The apparent"y #undamenta" changes that "ed #rom epic narrative to dogmatic parab"e' #rom a 2oyous' buoyant attitude toward "i#e to pessimism and cynicism' #rom ,ar and Peace to The 0reut1er onata& came #rom the same rest"ess' impressionab"e depths o# an independent spirit yearning to get at the truth o# its e5perience. ;Truth is my hero'< wrote To"stoi in his youth' reporting the #ighting in ebastopo". Truth remained his hero!his own' not others3' truth. 9thers were awed by *apo"eon' be"ieved that a sing"e man cou"d change the destinies o# nations' adhered to meaning"ess ritua"s' #ormed their tastes on estab"ished canons o# art. To"stoi reversed a"" preconceptions: and in every reversa" he overthrew the ;system'< the ;machine'< the e5terna""y ordained be"ie#' the conventiona" behavior in #avor o# unsystematic' impu"sive "i#e' o# inward motivation and the so"utions o# independent thought. /n his wor$ the arti#icia" and the genuine are a"ways e5hibited in dramatic opposition> the supposed"y great *apo"eon and the tru"y great' unregarded "itt"e %aptain Tushin' or *icho"as Rostov3s actua" e5perience in batt"e and his "ater account o# it. The simp"e is a"ways pitted against the e"aborate' $now"edge gained #rom observation against assertions o# borrowed #aiths. To"stoi3s magica" simp"icity is a product o# these tensions: his wor$ is a record o# the +uestions he put to himse"# and o# the answers he #ound in his search. The greatest

GRE

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characters o# his #iction e5emp"i#y this search' and their happiness depends on the measure o# their answers. To"stoi wanted happiness' but on"y hard-won happiness' that emotiona" #u"#i""ment and inte""ectua" c"arity which cou"d come on"y as the pri)e o# a""-consuming e##ort. (e scorned "esser satis#actions.

21. &hich of the following best characteri!es the author4s attitude toward Tolstoi% (A) ;he deprecates the cynicism of his later works. (B) ;he finds his theatricality artificial. (C) ;he admires his wholehearted sincerity. ( ) ;he thinks his inconsistency disturbing. (#) ;he respects his de'otion to orthodo$y. 22. &hich of the following best paraphrases >laubert4s statement "uoted in lines 1(0% (A) ?asterpiece seem ordinary and unremarkable from the perspecti'e of a later age. (B) Breat works of art do not e$plain themsel'es to us any more than natural ob<ects do. (C) 3mportant works of art take their place in the pageant of history because of their uni"ueness. ( ) The most important aspects of good art are the orderliness and tran"uility it reflects. (#) ?asterpieces which are of enduring 'alue represent the forces of nature. 2.. The author "uotes from Bayley (line 6(25) to show that (A) although Tolstoi obser'es and interprets life/ he maintains no self(conscious distance from his e$perience (B) the realism of Tolstoi4s work gi'es the illusion that his no'els are reports of actual e'ents (C) unfortunately/ Tolstoi is unaware of his own limitation/ though he is sincere in his attempt to describe e$perience ( ) although Tolstoi works casually and makes unwarranted assumption/ his work has an ine$plicable appearance of truth (#) Tolstoi4s personal perspecti'e makes his work almost unintelligible to the ma<ority of his readers 20. The author states that Tolstoi4s con'ersion represented (A) a radical renunciation of the world (B) the re<ection of a'ant(garde ideas (C) the natural outcome of his earlier beliefs ( ) the acceptance of religion he had earlier re<ected (#) a fundamental change in his writing style

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT

21. According to the passage/ Tolstoi4s response to the accepted intellectual and artistic 'alues of his times was to (A) select the most 'alid from among them (B) combine opposing 'iewpoints into a new doctrine (C) re<ect the claims of religion in order to ser'e his art ( ) sub'ert them in order to defend a new political 'iewpoint (#) upset them in order to be faithful to his e$perience 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of War and Peace% (A) 3t belongs to an early period of Tolstoi4s work. (B) 3t incorporates a polemic against the disorderliness of =ussian life. (C) 3t has a simple structural outline. ( ) 3t is a work that reflects an ironic 'iew of life. (#) 3t conforms to the standard of aesthetic refinement fa'ored by Tolstoi4s contemporaries. 2-. According to the passage/ the e$planation of Tolstoi4s *magical simplicity+ (line 11) lies partly in his (A) remarkable power of obser'ation and his facility in e$act description (B) persistent disregard for con'entional restraints together with his great energy (C) unusual ability to reduce the description of comple$ situations to a few words ( ) abiding hatred of religious doctrine and preference for new scientism (#) continuing attempt to represent the natural in opposition to the pretentious SECTION B
The stratospheric o)one "ayer is not a comp"ete"y uni#orm stratum' nor does it occur at the same a"titude around the g"obe. /t "ies c"osest to the =arth over the po"es and rises to ma5imum a"titude over the e+uator. /n the stratosphere' o)one is continuous"y being made and destroyed by natura" processes. Furing the day the un brea$s down some o# the o5ygen mo"ecu"es to sing"e o5ygen atoms' and these reacting with the o5ygen mo"ecu"es that have not been dissociated' #orm o)one. (owever' the sun"ight a"so brea$s down o)one by converting some o# it bac$ to norma" o5ygen. /n addition natura""y occurring nitrogen o5ides enter into the cyc"e and speed the brea$down reactions. The amount o# o)one present at any one time is the ba"ance between the processes that create it and those that destroy it. ince the sp"itting o# the o5ygen mo"ecu"es depends direct"y upon the intensity o# so"ar radiation' the greatest rate o# o)one production occurs over the tropics. (owever o)one is a"so destroyed most rapid"y there' and wind circu"ation patterns carry the o)one-enriched upper "ayers o# the atmosphere away #rom the e+uator. /t turns out that the "argest tota" o)one amounts are #ound at high "atitudes. 9n a typica" day the amount o# o)one over ?innesota' #or e5amp"e' is 4. percent greater than the amount over Te5as' 9.. mi"es #arther south. The

GRE
density and a"titude o# the o)one "ayer a"so change with the seasons' the weather' and the

..,

amount o# so"ar activity. *everthe"ess' at any one p"ace above the =arth3s sur#ace' the "ongterm averages maintained by natura" processes are be"ieved to be reasonab"y constant. The amount o# o)one near the =arth is on"y a sma"" percent o# the amount in the stratosphere' and e5change o# mo"ecu"es between the o)one "ayer and the air at ground "eve" is thought to be re"ative"y sma"". 7urthermore' the o)one mo"ecu"e is so unstab"e that on"y a tiny #raction o# ground-"eve" o)one cou"d survive the "ong trip to the stratosphere' so the o)one "ayer wi"" not be rep"enished to any signi#icant degree by the increasing concentrations o# o)one that have been detected in recent years near the earth3s sur#ace. The "ong-term averages o# o)one both near ground "eve" and in the stratosphere are regu"ated by continuous processes that are constant"y destroying and creating it in each o# these p"aces. This is why scientists are so concerned about human beings in2ection into the stratosphere o# chemica"s "i$e nitrogen o5ides' which are cata"ysts that #aci"itate the brea$down o# o)one. /# the o)one "ayer is dep"eted signi#icant"y' more u"travio"et radiation wou"d penetrate to the =arth3s sur#ace and damage many "iving organisms.

1-. The passage suggests that factors contributing to the 'ariation in the amount of o!one abo'e different areas of the #arth4s surface include which of the following% 3. 33. ;ome of the o!one found at higher latitudes was produced elsewhere. There is usually a smaller amount of naturally occurring nitrogen o$ide o'er high latitudes.

333. The rate of o!one production o'er the poles is less than that o'er the tropics. (A) 33 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 16. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage% (A) 9aturally occurring nitrogen o$ides/ as well as those introduced by humans/ threaten to deplete the layer of o!one in the stratosphere. (B) A delicate but reasonably constant balance e$ists between the natural processes that produce and those that destroy o!one in the stratosphere. (C) There is little hope that the increased concentrations of ground(le'el o!one obser'ed in recent years can offset any future depletion of stratospheric o!one. ( ) ?eteorologically induced changes in the concentration of o!one in the stratosphere tend to cancel themsel'es out o'er a period of time. (#) ;olar radiation not only produces and destroys !one but also poses a ha!ard to human life. 1,. The processes that determine the amount of o!one in a gi'en portion of the

.05

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

stratosphere most resemble which of the following% (A) Automobile emissions and seasonal fog that create a layer of smog o'er a city (B) @lanting and har'esting acti'ities that produce a crop whose si!e is always about the same (C) &ithdrawals and deposits made in a bank account whose a'erage balance remains about the same ( ) Assets and liabilities that determine the net worth of a corporation (#) )igh grades and low grades made by a student whose a'erage remains about the same from term to term 25. According to the passage/ which of the following has the K#A;T effect on the amount of o!one at a gi'en location in the upper atmosphere% (A) Katitude (B) &eather (C) ;eason ( ) Bround(le'el o!one (#) ;olar acti'ity 21. The author pro'ides information that answers which of the following "uestions% 3. 33. &hat is the a'erage thickness of the stratospheric o!one layer% &hy does increased e$posure to ultra'iolet radiation damage many li'ing organisms%

333. &hat is the role of o$ygen in the production of stratospheric !one% (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 33 (#) 33 and 333 22. 3n e$plaining what determines the amount of o!one in the stratosphere/ the author describes natural processes that form (A) an interacti'e relationship (B) a reducti'e system (C) a linear progression ( ) a set of randomly occurring phenomena (#) a set of sporadically recurring e'ents
7ee"ings o# hope"essness among medieva" wor$ers trapped in the poverty cyc"e gradua""y "essened as it became possib"e #or women3s "abor to supp"ement a #ami"y3s money income by more than pennies. &y 14..' women spinners cou"d be #ound wor$ing on their own #or wea"thy sponsors' even a#ter the introduction in /ta"y and 7rance o# prohibition against

GRE
advancing money #or supp"ies to women spinners. (istorians have usua""y interpreted this

.01

prohibition simp"y as evidence o# women3s economic sub2ection' since it ob"iged them to turn to usurers: however' it was a"so a"most certain"y a response to a trend toward di##erentia" reward #or women3s higher s$i"". Darn can be spun irregu"ar"y and "umpi"y' but per#ect"y smooth yarn is worth more. 8or$ing #or merchant entrepreneurs on time rates' women had been paid hard"y more than chi"dren: wor$ing as entrepreneurs themse"ves and producing good wor$ by the piece' they cou"d brea$ into the rationa" system o# di##erentia" rewards.

2.. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) propose and defend a theory about the conse"uences of a certain historical e'ent (B) present historical facts and offer a broader interpretation of those facts than has been offered in the past (C) describe the socioeconomic effects of a widely held attitude during a particular historical period ( ) demonstrate the superiority of using an economic approach to historical analysis (#) call attention to the influence of the te$tile industry on society during a particular historical period 20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author 'iews the system of paying all workers e"ually on time rates as (A) unfair and not rational (B) undesirable but una'oidable (C) efficient and profitable ( ) ad'antageous to most women workers (#) e'idence of a trend toward a more modern wage system 21. The passage implies which of the following about women spinners in medie'al #urope% (A) ?ost of them worked independently for wealthy sponsors. (B) They were not typical of medie'al women entrepreneurs. (C) ;ome of them were paid for their work after it was done/ according to its 'alue. ( ) They would ha'e been able to contribute substantial amounts to their families incomes were it not for the prohibition against ad'ancing money to them. (#) They were ine'itably disad'antaged in the marketplace because they were obliged to obtain money for their supplies from usurers. 22. The passage implies that feelings of hopelessness among medie'al workers (A) resulted primarily from the lack of a rational system of differential rewards (B) disappeared completely once medie'al te$tile workers were able to break the

.02

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

cycle of po'erty (C) were more pre'alent among female workers than among male workers ( ) came into being in part because of women4s limited earning capacity (#) were particularly common among te$tile workers in 3taly and >rance 2-. The author suggests that historians ha'e done which of the following% (A) >ailed to gi'e ade"uate consideration to the economic contribution of women during the medie'al period. (B) 8'erestimated the degree of hopelessness e$perienced by medie'al workers trapped in the po'erty cycle. (C) 3gnored the fact that by 1.55 many women spinners were working independently rather than for merchant entrepreneurs. ( ) =egard the economic status of women in 3taly and >rance as representati'e of women4s status throughout medie'al #urope. (#) 8'erlooked part of the significance of a prohibition go'erning one aspect of yarn production in medie'al #urope. No. 4-1 SECTION A
&y the time the 0merican co"onists too$ up arms against Areat &ritain in order to secure their independence' the institution o# &"ac$ s"avery was deep"y entrenched. &ut the contradiction inherent in this situation was' #or many' a source o# constant embarrassment. ;/t a"ways appeared a most ini+uitous scheme to me'< 0bigai" 0dams wrote her husband in 177H' ;to #ight ourse"ves #or what we are dai"y robbing and p"undering #rom those who have as good a right to #reedom as we have.< ?any 0mericans besides 0bigai" 0dams were struc$ by the inconsistency o# their stand during the 8ar o# /ndependence' and they were not averse to ma$ing moves to emancipate the s"aves. Oua$ers and other re"igious groups organi)ed antis"avery societies' whi"e numerous individua"s manumitted their s"aves. /n #act' within severa" years o# the end o# the 8ar o# /ndependence' most o# the =astern states had made provisions #or the gradua" emancipation o# s"aves.

1-. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage% (A) The &ar of 3ndependence produced among many Black Americans a heightened consciousness of the ine"uities in American society. (B) The &ar of 3ndependence strengthened the bonds of sla'ery of many Black Americans while intensifying their desire to be free. (C) The &ar of 3ndependence e$posed to many Americans the contradiction of sla'ery in a country seeking its freedom and resulted in efforts to resol'e that contradiction.

GRE

.0.

( ) The &ar of 3ndependence pro'oked strong criticisms by many Americans of the institution of sla'ery/ but produced little substanti'e action against it. (#) The &ar of 3ndependence renewed the efforts of many American groups toward achie'ing Black emancipation. 16. The passage contains information that would support which of the following statements about the colonies before the &ar of 3ndependence% (A) They contained organi!ed antisla'ery societies. (B) They allowed indi'iduals to own sla'es. (C) They prohibited religious groups from political action. ( ) They were inconsistent in their legal definitions of sla'e status. (#) They encouraged abolitionist societies to e$pand their influence. 1,. According to the passage/ the &ar of 3ndependence was embarrassing to some Americans for which of the following reasons% 3. 33. 3t in'ol'ed a struggle for many of the same liberties that Americans were denying to others. 3t in'ol'ed a struggle for independence from the 'ery nation that had founded the colonies.

333. 3t in'ol'ed a struggle based on inconsistencies in the participants4 conceptions of freedom. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 25. &hich of the following statements regarding American society in the years immediately following the &ar of 3ndependence is best supported by the passage% (A) The une$pected successes of the antisla'ery societies led to their gradual demise in the #astern states. (B) ;ome of the newly independent American states had begun to make progress toward abolishing sla'ery. (C) Americans like Abigail Adams became disillusioned with the slow progress of emancipation and gradually abandoned the cause. ( ) #mancipated sla'es gradually were accepted in the #astern states as e"ual members of American society. (#) The abolition of sla'ery in many #astern states was the result of close cooperation between religious groups and free Blacks.
The evo"ution o# se5 ratios has produced' in most p"ants and anima"s with separate

.00

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

se5es' appro5imate"y e+ua" numbers o# ma"es and #ema"es. 8hy shou"d this be soC Two main $inds o# answers have been o##ered. 9ne is couched in terms o# advantage to popu"ation. /t is argued that the se5 ratio wi"" evo"ve so as to ma5imi)e the number o# meetings between individua"s o# the opposite se5. This is essentia""y a ;group se"ection< argument. The other' and in my view correct' type o# answer was #irst put #orward by 7isher in 194.. This ;genetic< argument starts #rom the assumption that genes can in#"uence the re"ative numbers o# ma"e and #ema"e o##spring produced by an individua" carrying the genes. That se5 ratio wi"" be #avored which ma5imi)es the number o# descendants an individua" wi"" have and hence the number o# gene copies transmitted. uppose that the popu"ation consisted most"y o# #ema"es> then an individua" who produced sons on"y wou"d have more grandchi"dren. /n contrast' i# the popu"ation consisted most"y o# ma"es' it wou"d pay to have daughters. /#' however' the popu"ation consisted o# e+ua" numbers o# ma"es and #ema"es' sons and daughters wou"d be e+ua""y va"uab"e. Thus a one-to-one se5 ratio is the on"y stab"e ratio: it is an ;evo"utionari"y stab"e strategy.< 0"though 7isher wrote be#ore the mathematica" theory o# games had been deve"oped' his theory incorporates the essentia" #eature o# a game!that the best strategy to adopt depends on what others are doing. ince 7isher3s time' it has been rea"i)ed that genes can sometimes in#"uence the chromosome or gamete in which they #ind themse"ves so that the gamete wi"" be more "i$e"y to participate in #erti"i)ation. /# such a gene occurs on a se5-determining (I or D) chromosome' then high"y aberrant se5 ratios can occur. &ut more immediate"y re"evant to game theory are the se5 ratios in certain parasitic wasp species that have a "arge e5cess o# #ema"es. /n these species' #erti"i)ed eggs deve"op into #ema"es and un#erti"i)ed eggs into ma"es. 0 #ema"e stores sperm and can determine the se5 o# each egg she "ays by #erti"i)ing it or "eaving it un#erti"i)ed. &y 7isher3s argument' it shou"d sti"" pay a #ema"e to produce e+ua" numbers o# sons and daughters. (ami"ton' noting that the eggs deve"op within their host!the "arva o# another insect!and that the new"y emerged adu"t wasps mate immediate"y and disperse' o##ered a remar$ab"y cogent ana"ysis. ince on"y one #ema"e usua""y "ays eggs in a given "arva' it wou"d pay her to produce one ma"e on"y' because this one ma"e cou"d #erti"i)e a"" his sisters on emergence. Ei$e 7isher' (ami"ton "oo$ed #or an evo"utionari"y stab"e strategy' but he went a step #urther in recogni1ing that he was "oo$ing #or a strategy.

21. The author suggests that the work of >isher and )amilton was similar in that both scientists (A) conducted their research at appro$imately the same time (B) sought to manipulate the se$ ratios of some of the animals they studied (C) sought an e$planation of why certain se$ ratios e$ist and remain stable ( ) studied game theory/ thereby pro'iding important groundwork for the later de'elopment of strategy theory (#) studied reproduction in the same animal species 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers >isher4s work to be (A) fallacious and unprofessional (B) definiti'e and thorough

GRE

.01

(C) inaccurate but popular/ compared with )amilton4s work ( ) admirable/ but not as up(to(date as )amilton4s work (#) accurate/ but tri'ial compared with )amilton4s work 2.. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following "uestions about wasps% 3. 33. )ow many eggs does the female wasp usually lay in a single host lar'a% Can some species of wasp determine se$ ratios among their offspring%

333. &hat is the appro$imate se$ ratio among the offspring of parasitic wasps% (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 33 only (#) 33 and 333 only 20. 3t can be inferred that the author discusses the genetic theory in greater detail than the group selection theory primarily because he belie'es that the genetic theory is more (A) complicated (B) accurate (C) popular ( ) comprehensi'e (#) accessible 21. According to the passage/ successful game strategy depends on (A) the ability to ad<ust one4s beha'ior in light of the beha'ior of others (B) one4s awareness that there is safety in numbers (C) the degree of stability one can create in one4s immediate en'ironment ( ) the accuracy with which one can predict future e'ents (#) the success one achie'es in conser'ing and storing one4s resources 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the mathematical theory of games has been (A) de'eloped by scientists with an interest in genetics (B) adopted by )amilton in his research (C) helpful in e$plaining how genes can sometimes influence gametes ( ) based on animals studies conducted prior to 1,.5 (#) useful in e$plaining some biological phenomena 2-. &hich of the following is 98T true of the species of parasitic wasps discussed in the passage%

.02

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) Adult female wasps are capable of storing sperm. (B) >emale wasps lay their eggs in the lar'ae of other insects. (C) The adult female wasp can be fertili!ed by a male that was hatched in the same lar'a as herself. ( ) ;o few male wasps are produced that e$tinction is almost certain. (#) ?ale wasps do not emerge from their hosts until they reach se$ual maturity. SECTION B
Thomas (ardy3s impu"ses as a writer' a"" o# which he indu"ged in his nove"s' were numerous and divergent' and they did not a"ways wor$ together in harmony. (ardy was to some degree interested in e5p"oring his characters3 psycho"ogies' though impe""ed "ess by curiosity than by sympathy. 9ccasiona""y he #e"t the impu"se to comedy (in a"" its detached co"dness) as we"" as the impu"se to #arce' but he was more o#ten inc"ined to see tragedy and record it. (e was a"so inc"ined to "iterary rea"ism in the severa" senses o# that phrase. (e wanted to describe ordinary human beings: he wanted to specu"ate on their di"emmas rationa""y (and' un#ortunate"y' even schematica""y): and he wanted to record precise"y the materia" universe. 7ina""y' he wanted to be more than a rea"ist. (e wanted to transcend what he considered to be the bana"ity o# so"e"y recording things e5act"y and to e5press as we"" his awareness o# the occu"t and the strange. /n his nove"s these various impu"ses were sacri#iced to each other inevitab"y and o#ten. /nevitab"y' because (ardy did not care in the way that nove"ists such as 7"aubert or @ames cared' and there#ore too$ paths o# "east resistance. Thus' one impu"se o#ten surrendered to a #resher one and' un#ortunate"y' instead o# e5acting a compromise' simp"y disappeared. 0 desire to throw over rea"ity a "ight that never was might give way abrupt"y to the desire on the part o# what we might consider a nove"ist-scientist to record e5act"y and concrete"y the structure and te5ture o# a #"ower. /n this instance' the new impu"se was at "east an energetic one' and thus its indu"gence did not resu"t in a re"a5ed sty"e. &ut on other occasions (ardy abandoned a peri"ous' ris$y' and high"y energi)ing impu"se in #avor o# what was #or him the #ata""y re"a5ing impu"se to c"assi#y and schemati)e abstract"y. 8hen a re"a5ing impu"se was indu"ged' the sty"e!that sure inde5 o# an author3s "iterary worth!was certain to become verbose. (ardy3s wea$ness derived #rom his apparent inabi"ity to contro" the comings and goings o# these divergent impu"ses and #rom his unwi""ingness to cu"tivate and sustain the energetic and ris$y ones. (e submitted to #irst one and then another' and the spirit b"ew where it "isted: hence the unevenness o# any one o# his nove"s. (is most contro""ed nove"' 2nder the .reenwood Tree& prominent"y e5hibits two di##erent but reconci"ab"e impu"ses!a desire to be a rea"ist-historian and a desire to be a psycho"ogist o# "ove!but the s"ight inter"oc$ings o# p"ot are not enough to bind the two comp"ete"y together. Thus even this boo$ sp"its into two distinct parts.

1-. &hich of the following is the most appropriate title for the passage/ based on its content% (A) 'nder the #reen(ood TreeE )ardy4s Ambiguous Triumph

GRE

.0-

(B) The =eal and the ;trangeE The 9o'elist4s ;hifting =ealms (C) #nergy )ersus =eposeE The =ole ofE 8rdinary @eople in )ardy4s >iction ( ) )ardy4s 9o'elistic 3mpulsesE The @roblem of Control (#) i'ergent 3mpulsesE The 3ssue of :nity in the 9o'el 16. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about literary realism% (A) Kiterary realism is most concerned with the e$ploration of the internal li'es of ordinary human beings. (B) The term *literary realism+ is susceptible to more than a single definition. (C) Kiterary realism and an interest in psychology are likely to be at odds in a no'elist4s work. ( ) *Kiterary realism+ is the term most often used by critics in describing the method of )ardy4s no'els. (#) A propensity toward literary realism is a less interesting no'elistic impulse than is an interest in the occult and the strange. 1,. The author of the passage considers a writer4s style to be (A) a reliable means by which to measure the writer4s literary merit (B) most apparent in those parts of the writer4s work that are not realistic (C) problematic when the writer attempts to follow perilous or risky impulses ( ) shaped primarily by the writer4s desire to classify and schemati!e (#) the most accurate inde$ of the writer4s literary reputation 25. &hich of the following words could best be substituted for *rela$ed+ (line .-) without substantially changing the author4s meaning% (A) informal (B) confined (C) risky ( ) wordy (#) metaphoric 21. The passage supplies information to suggest that its author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about the no'elists >laubert and Aames% (A) They indulged more impulses in their no'els than did )ardy in his no'els. (B) They ha'e elicited a greater degree of fa'orable response from most literary critics than has )ardy. (C) 3n the writing of their no'els/ they often took pains to effect a compromise among their 'arious no'elistic impulses. ( ) =egarding no'elistic construction/ they cared more about the opinions of

.06

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

other no'elists than about the opinions of ordinary readers. (#) They wrote no'els in which the impulse toward realism and the impulse away from realism were e'ident in e"ual measure. 22. &hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of lines 2- to 01 of the passage (*ThusRabstractly+)% (A) The author makes a disappro'ing obser'ation and then presents two cases/ one of which leads to a "ualification of his disappro'al and the other of which does not. (B) The author draws a conclusion from a pre'ious statement/ e$plains his conclusion in detail/ and then gi'es a series of e$amples that ha'e the effect of resol'ing an inconsistency. (C) The author concedes a point and then makes a counterargument/ using an e$tended comparison and contrast that "ualifies his original concession. ( ) The author makes a <udgment/ points out an e$ception to his <udgment/ and then contradicts his original assertion. (#) The author summari!es and e$plains an argument and then ad'ances a brief history of opposing arguments. 2.. &hich of the following statements about the use of comedy in )ardy4s no'els is best supported by the passage% (A) )ardy4s use of comedy in his no'els tended to weaken his literary style. (B) )ardy4s use of comedy in his no'els was inspired by his natural sympathy. (C) Comedy appeared less fre"uently in )ardy4s no'els than did tragedy. ( ) Comedy played an important role in )ardy4s no'els though that comedy was usually in the form of farce. (#) Comedy played a secondary role in )ardy4s more controlled no'els only. 20. The author implies which of the following about 'nder the #reen(ood Tree in relation to )ardy4s other no'els% (A) 3t is )ardy4s most thorough in'estigation of the psychology of lo'e. (B) Although it is his most controlled no'el/ it does not e$hibit any harsh or risky impulses. (C) 3t/ more than his other no'els/ re'eals )ardy as a realist interested in the history of ordinary human beings. ( ) 3n it )ardy4s no'elistic impulses are managed somewhat better than in his other no'els. (#) 3ts plot/ like the plots of all of )ardy4s other no'els/ splits into two distinct parts.
Upwards o# a bi""ion stars in our ga"a5y have burnt up their interna" energy sources' and so can no "onger produce the heat a star needs to oppose the inward #orce o# gravity. These stars' o# more than a #ew so"ar masses' evo"ve' in genera"' much more rapid"y than does a

GRE

.0,

star "i$e the un. ?oreover' it is 2ust these more massive stars whose co""apse does not ha"t at intermediate stages (that is' as white dwar#s or neutron stars). /nstead' the co""apse continues unti" a singu"arity (an in#inite"y dense concentration o# matter) is reached. /t wou"d be wonder#u" to observe a singu"arity and obtain direct evidence o# the undoubted"y bi)arre phenomena that occur near one. Un#ortunate"y in most cases a distant observer cannot see the singu"arity: outgoing "ight rays are dragged bac$ by gravity so #orce#u""y that even i# they cou"d start out within a #ew $i"ometers o# the singu"arity' they wou"d end up in the singu"arity itse"#.

21. The author4s primary purpose in the passage is to (A) describe the formation and nature of singularities (B) e$plain why large numbers of stars become singularities (C) compare the characteristics of singularities with those of stars ( ) e$plain what happens during the stages of a singularity4s formation (#) imply that singularities could be more easily studied if obser'ers could get closer to them 22. The passage suggests which of the following about the ;un% 3. 33. The ;un could e'ol'e to a stage of collapse that is less dense than a singularity. 3n the ;un/ the inward force of gra'ity is balanced by the generation of heat.

333. The ;un emits more obser'able light than does a white dwarf or a neutron star. (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 2-. &hich of the following sentences would most probably follow the last sentence of the passage% (A) Thus/ a physicist interested in studying phenomena near singularities would necessarily hope to find a singularity with a measurable gra'itational field. (B) Accordingly/ physicists to date ha'e been unable to obser'e directly any singularity. (C) 3t is specifically this startling phenomenon that has allowed us to codify the scant information currently a'ailable about singularities. ( ) ?oreo'er/ the e$istence of this e$traordinary phenomenon is implied in the e$tensi'e reports of se'eral physicists. (#) Although unanticipated/ phenomena such as these are consistent with the structure of a singularity.

.15

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

No. 4-2 SECTION A

The evo"ution o# inte""igence among ear"y "arge mamma"s o# the grass"ands was due in great measure to the interaction between two eco"ogica""y synchroni)ed groups o# these anima"s' the hunting carnivores and the herbivores that they hunted. The interaction resu"ting #rom the di##erences between predator and prey "ed to a genera" improvement in brain #unctions: however' certain components o# inte""igence were improved #ar more than others. The $ind o# inte""igence #avored by the interp"ay o# increasing"y smarter catchers and increasing"y $eener escapers is de#ined by attention!that aspect o# mind carrying consciousness #orward #rom one moment to the ne5t. /t ranges #rom a passive' #ree-#"oating awareness to a high"y #ocused' active #i5ation. The range through these states is mediated by the arousa" system' a networ$ o# tracts converging #rom sensory systems to integrating centers in the brain stem. 7rom the more re"a5ed to the more vigorous "eve"s' sensitivity to nove"ty is increased. The organism is more awa$e' more vigi"ant: this increased vigi"ance resu"ts in the apprehension o# ever more subt"e signa"s as the organism becomes more sensitive to its surroundings. The processes o# arousa" and concentration give attention its direction. 0rousa" is at #irst genera"' with a #"ooding o# impu"ses in the brain stem: then gradua""y the activation is channe"ed. Thus begins concentration' the ho"ding o# consistent images. 9ne meaning o# inte""igence is the way in which these images and other a"ert"y searched in#ormation are used in the conte5t o# previous e5perience. %onsciousness "in$s past attention to the present and permits the integration o# detai"s with perceived ends and purposes. The e"ements o# inte""igence and consciousness come together marve"ous"y to produce di##erent sty"es in predator and prey. (erbivores and carnivores deve"op di##erent $inds o# attention re"ated to escaping or chasing. 0"though in both $inds o# anima"' arousa" stimu"ates the production o# adrena"ine and norepinephrine by the adrena" g"ands' the e##ect in herbivores is primari"y #ear' whereas in carnivores the e##ect is primari"y aggression. 7or both' arousa" attunes the anima" to what is ahead. 6erhaps it does not e5perience #orethought as we $now it' but the anima" does e5perience something "i$e it. The predator is searching"y aggressive' innerdirected' tuned by the nervous system and the adrena" hormones' but aware in a sense c"oser to human consciousness than' say' a hungry "i)ard3s instinctive snap at a passing beet"e. Using past events as a #ramewor$' the "arge mamma" predator is wor$ing out a re"ationship between movement and #ood' sensitive to possibi"ities in co"d trai"s and distant sounds!and yesterday3s un#orgotten "essons. The herbivore prey is o# a di##erent mind. /ts mood o# wariness rather than searching and its attitude o# genera" e5pectancy instead o# anticipating are si"$-thin vei"s o# tran+ui"ity over an e5p"osive endocrine system.

1-. The author is primarily concerned with (A) dispro'ing the 'iew that herbi'ores are less intelligent than carni'ores (B) describing a relationship between animals4 intelligence and their ecological

GRE

.11

roles (C) establishing a direct link between early large mammals and their modern counterparts ( ) analy!ing the ecological basis for the dominance of some carni'ores o'er other carni'ores (#) demonstrating the importance of hormones in mental acti'ity 16. The author refers to a hungry li!ard (line 11) primarily in order to (A) demonstrate the similarity between the hunting methods of mammals and those of nonmammals (B) broaden the application of his argument by including an insecti'ore as an e$ample (C) make a distinction between higher and lower le'els of consciousness ( ) pro'ide an additional illustration of the brutality characteristic of predators (#) offer an ob<ection to suggestions that all animals lack consciousness 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in animals less intelligent than the mammals discussed in the passage (A) past e$perience is less helpful in ensuring sur'i'al (B) attention is more highly focused (C) muscular coordination is less highly de'eloped ( ) there is less need for competition among species (#) en'ironment is more important in establishing the proper ratio of prey to predator 25. The sensiti'ity described in lines 12(21 is most clearly an e$ample of (A) *free(floating awareness+ (lines 12(1-) (B) *flooding of impulses in the brain stem+ (lines 2,(.5) (C) *the holding of consistent images+ (lines .1(.2) ( ) *integration of details with percei'ed ends and purposes+ (lines .-(.6) (#) *silk(thin 'eils of tran"uility+ (line 20) 21. The author4s attitude toward the mammals discussed in the passage is best described as (A) superior and condescending (B) lighthearted and <ocular (C) apologetic and conciliatory ( ) wistful and tender (#) respectful and admiring 22. The author pro'ides information that would answer which of the following

.12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

"uestions% 3. 33. &hy is an aroused herbi'ore usually fearful% &hat are some of the degrees of attention in large mammals%

333. &hat occurs when the stimulus that causes arousal of a mammal is remo'ed% (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33 and 333 2.. According to the passage/ impro'ement in brain function among early large mammals resulted primarily from which of the following% (A) 3nterplay of predator and prey (B) @ersistence of free(floating awareness in animals of the grasslands (C) Bradual dominance of warm(blooded mammals o'er cold(blooded reptiles ( ) 3nteraction of early large mammals with less intelligent species (#) 3mpro'ement of the capacity for memory among herbi'ores and carni'ores 20. According to the passage/ as the process of arousal in an organism continues/ all of the following may occur #DC#@TE (A) the production of adrenaline (B) the production of norepinephrine (C) a heightening of sensiti'ity to stimuli ( ) an increase in selecti'ity with respect to stimuli (#) an e$pansion of the range of states mediated by the brain stem
Toc+uevi""e' apparent"y' was wrong. @ac$sonian 0merica was not a #"uid' ega"itarian society where individua" wea"th and poverty were ephemera" conditions. 0t "east so argues =. 6essen in his iconoc"astic study o# the very rich in the United tates between 181- and 18-.. 6essen does present a +uantity o# e5amp"es' together with some re#reshing"y inte""igib"e statistics' to estab"ish the e5istence o# an inordinate"y wea"thy c"ass. Though active in commerce or the pro#essions' most o# the wea"thy were not se"#-made' but had inherited #ami"y #ortunes. /n no sense mercuria"' these great #ortunes survived the #inancia" panics that destroyed "esser ones. /ndeed' in severa" cities the wea"thiest one percent constant"y increased its share unti" by 18-. it owned ha"# o# the community3s wea"th. 0"though these observations are true' 6essen overestimates their importance by conc"uding #rom them that the undoubted progress toward ine+ua"ity in the "ate eighteenth century continued in the @ac$sonian period and that the United tates was a c"ass-ridden' p"utocratic society even be#ore industria"i)ation.

21. According to the passage/ @essen indicates that all of the following were true of

GRE

.1.

the 'ery wealthy in the :nited ;tates between 1621 and 1615 #DC#@TE (A) They formed a distinct upper class. (B) ?any of them were able to increase their holdings. (C) ;ome of them worked as professionals or in business. ( ) ?ost of them accumulated their own fortunes. (#) ?any of them retained their wealth in spite of financial uphea'als. 22. The author4s attitude toward @essen4s presentation of statistics can be best described as (A) disappro'ing (B) shocked (C) suspicious ( ) amused (#) laudatory 2-. &hich of the following best states the author4s main point% (A) @essen4s study has o'erturned the pre'iously established 'iew of the social and economic structure of early nineteenth(century America. (B) Toc"ue'ille4s analysis of the :nited ;tates in the Aacksonian era remains the definiti'e account of this period. (C) @essen4s study is 'aluable primarily because it shows the continuity of the social system in the :nited ;tates throughout the nineteenth century. ( ) The social patterns and political power of the e$tremely wealthy in the :nited ;tates between 1621 and 1615 are well documented. (#) @essen challenges a 'iew of the social and economic system in the :nited ;tates from 1621 to 1615/ but he draws conclusions that are incorrect. SECTION B
;/ want to critici)e the socia" system' and to show it at wor$' at its most intense.< Birginia 8oo"#3s provocative statement about her intentions in writing (rs. -alloway has regu"ar"y been ignored by the critics' since it high"ights an aspect o# her "iterary interests very di##erent #rom the traditiona" picture o# the ;poetic< nove"ist concerned with e5amining states o# reverie and vision and with #o""owing the intricate pathways o# individua" consciousness. &ut Birginia 8oo"# was a rea"istic as we"" as a poetic nove"ist' a satirist and socia" critic as we"" as a visionary> "iterary critics3 cava"ier dismissa" o# 8oo"#3s socia" vision wi"" not withstand scrutiny. /n her nove"s' 8oo"# is deep"y engaged by the +uestions o# how individua"s are shaped (or de#ormed) by their socia" environments' how historica" #orces impinge on peop"e3s "ives' how c"ass' wea"th' and gender he"p to determine peop"e3s #ates. ?ost o# her nove"s are rooted in a rea"istica""y rendered socia" setting and in a precise historica" time. 8oo"#3s #ocus on society has not been genera""y recogni)ed because o# her intense

.10

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

antipathy to propaganda in art. The pictures o# re#ormers in her nove"s are usua""y satiric or sharp"y critica". =ven when 8oo"# is #undamenta""y sympathetic to their causes' she portrays peop"e an5ious to re#orm their society and possessed o# a message or program as arrogant or dishonest' unaware o# how their po"itica" ideas serve their own psycho"ogica" needs. ((er ,riters -iary notes> ;the on"y honest peop"e are the artists'< whereas ;these socia" re#ormers and phi"anthropistsVharborVdiscreditab"e desires under the disguise o# "oving their $indV<) 8oo"# detested what she ca""ed ;preaching< in #iction' too' and critici)ed nove"ist F. (. Eawrence (among others) #or wor$ing by this method. 8oo"#3s own socia" criticism is e5pressed in the "anguage o# observation rather than in direct commentary' since #or her' #iction is a contemp"ative' not an active art. he describes phenomena and provides materia"s #or a 2udgment about society and socia" issues: it is the reader3s wor$ to put the observations together and understand the coherent point o# view behind them. 0s a mora"ist' 8oo"# wor$s by indirection' subt"y undermining o##icia""y accepted mores' moc$ing' suggesting' ca""ing into +uestion' rather than asserting' advocating' bearing witness> hers is the satirist3s art. 8oo"#3s "iterary mode"s were acute socia" observers "i$e %he$hov and %haucer. 0s she put it in The Common *eader& ;/t is sa#e to say that not a sing"e "aw has been #ramed or one stone set upon another because o# anything %haucer said or wrote: and yet' as we read him' we are absorbing mora"ity at every pore.< Ei$e %haucer' 8oo"# chose to understand as we"" as to 2udge' to $now her society root and branch!a decision crucia" in order to produce art rather than po"emic.

1-. &hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage% (A) @oetry and ;atire as 3nfluences on the 9o'els of Cirginia &oolf (B) Cirginia &oolfE Critic and Commentator on the Twentieth(Century 9o'el (C) Trends in Contemporary =eform ?o'ements as a Mey to :nderstanding Cirginia &oolf4s 9o'els ( ) ;ociety as Allegory for the 3ndi'idual in the 9o'els of Cirginia &oolf (#) Cirginia &oolf4s 9o'elsE Critical =eflections on the 3ndi'idual and on ;ociety 16. 3n the first paragraph of the passage/ the author4s attitude toward the literary critics mentioned can best be described as (A) disparaging (B) ironic (C) facetious ( ) skeptical but resigned (#) disappointed but hopeful 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &oolf chose Chaucer as a literary model because she belie'ed that (A) Chaucer was the first #nglish author to focus on society as a whole as well as on indi'idual characters

GRE

.11

(B) Chaucer was an honest and forthright author/ whereas no'elists like / )/ Kawrence did not sincerely wish to change society (C) Chaucer was more concerned with understanding his society than with calling its accepted mores into "uestion ( ) Chaucer4s writing was greatly/ if subtly/ effecti'e in influencing the moral attitudes of his readers (#) her own no'els would be more widely read if/ like Chaucer/ she did not o'ertly and 'ehemently critici!e contemporary society 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the most probable reason &oolf realistically described the social setting in the ma<ority of her no'els was that she (A) was aware that contemporary literary critics considered the no'el to be the most realistic of literary genres (B) was interested in the effect of a person4s social milieu on his or her character and actions (C) needed to be as attenti'e to detail as possible in her no'els in order to support the arguments she ad'anced in them ( ) wanted to show that a painstaking fidelity in the representation of reality did not in any way hamper the artist (#) wished to pre'ent critics from charging that her no'els were written in an ambiguous and ine$act style 21. &hich of the following phrases best e$presses the sense of the word *contemplati'e+ as it is used in lines 0.(00 of the passage% (A) Bradually elucidating the rational structures underlying accepted mores (B) =eflecting on issues in society without pre<udice or emotional commitment (C) A'oiding the aggressi'e assertion of the author4s perspecti'e to the e$clusion of the reader4s <udgment ( ) Con'eying a broad 'iew of society as a whole rather than focusing on an isolated indi'idual consciousness (#) Appreciating the world as the artist sees it rather than <udging it in moral terms 22. The author implies that a ma<or element of the satirist4s art is the satirist4s (A) consistent adherence to a position of lofty disdain when 'iewing the foibles of humanity (B) insistence on the helplessness of indi'iduals against the social forces that seek to determine an indi'idual4s fate (C) cynical disbelief that 'isionaries can either enlighten or impro'e their societies ( ) fundamental assumption that some ambiguity must remain in a work of art in order for it to reflect society and social mores accurately

.12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) refusal to indulge in polemic when presenting social mores to readers for their scrutiny 2.. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions% (A) )a'e literary critics ignored the social criticism inherent in the works of Chekho' and Chaucer% (B) oes the author belie'e that &oolf is solely an introspecti'e and 'isionary no'elist% (C) &hat are the social causes with which &oolf shows herself to be sympathetic in her writings% ( ) &as . ). Kawrence as concerned as &oolf was with creating realistic settings for his no'els% (#) oes &oolf attribute more power to social en'ironment or to historical forces as shapers of a person4s life%
/t is a popu"ar misconception that nuc"ear #usion power is #ree o# radioactivity: in #act' the deuterium-tritium reaction that nuc"ear scientists are current"y e5p"oring with such )ea" produces both a"pha partic"es and neutrons. (The neutrons are used to produce tritium #rom a "ithium b"an$et surrounding the reactor.) 0nother common misconception is that nuc"ear #usion power is a virtua""y un"imited source o# energy because o# the enormous +uantity o# deuterium in the sea. 0ctua""y' its "imits are set by the amount o# avai"ab"e "ithium' which is about as p"enti#u" as uranium in the =arth3s crust. Research shou"d certain"y continue on contro""ed nuc"ear #usion' but no energy program shou"d be premised on its e5istence unti" it has proven practica". 7or the immediate #uture' we must continue to use hydroe"ectric power' nuc"ear #ission' and #ossi" #ue"s to meet our energy needs. The energy sources a"ready in ma2or use are in ma2or use #or good reason.

20. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) critici!e scientists who belie'e that the deuterium(tritium fusion reaction can be made feasible as an energy source (B) admonish scientists who ha'e failed to correctly calculate the amount of lithium a'ailable for use in nuclear fusion reactors (C) defend the continued short(term use of fossil fuels as a ma<or energy source ( ) caution against uncritical embrace of nuclear fusion power as a ma<or energy source (#) correct the misconception that nuclear fusion power is entirely free of radioacti'ity 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following about the current state of public awareness concerning nuclear fusion power% (A) The public has been deliberately misinformed about the ad'antages and disad'antages of nuclear fusion power.

GRE

.1-

(B) The public is unaware of the principal ad'antage of nuclear fusion o'er nuclear fission as an energy source. (C) The public4s awareness of the scientific facts concerning nuclear fusion power is somewhat distorted and incomplete. ( ) The public is not interested in increasing its awareness of the ad'antages and disad'antages of nuclear fusion power. (#) The public is aware of the disad'antages of nuclear fusion power but not of its ad'antages. 22. The passage pro'ides information that would answer which of the following "uestions% (A) &hat is likely to be the principal source of deuterium for nuclear fusion power% (B) )ow much incidental radiation is produced in the deuterium tritium fusion reaction% (C) &hy are scientists e$ploring the deuterium(tritium fusion reaction with such !eal% ( ) &hy must the tritium for nuclear fusion be synthesi!ed from lithium% (#) &hy does the deuterium(tritium reaction yield both alpha particles and neutrons% 2-. &hich of the following statements concerning nuclear scientists is most directly suggested in the passage% (A) 9uclear scientists are not themsel'es aware of all of the facts surrounding the deuterium(tritium fusion reaction. (B) 9uclear scientists e$ploring the deuterium(tritium reaction ha'e o'erlooked key facts in their eagerness to pro'e nuclear fusion practical. (C) 9uclear scientists may ha'e o'erestimated the amount of lithium actually a'ailable in the #arth4s crust. ( ) 9uclear scientists ha'e not been entirely dispassionate in their in'estigation of the deuterium(tritium reaction. (#) 9uclear scientists ha'e insufficiently in'estigated the lithium(to(tritium reaction in nuclear fusion. No. 4-3 SECTION A
Areat comic art is never otherword"y' it does not see$ to mysti#y us' and it does not deny ambiguity by branding as evi" whatever di##ers #rom good. Areat comic artists assume that truth may bear a"" "ights' and thus they see$ to accentuate contradictions in socia" action' not g"oss over or transcend them by appea"s to e5trasocia" symbo"s o# divine ends' cosmic

.16

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

purpose' or "aws o# nature. The moment o# transcendence in great comic art is a socia" moment' born out o# the conviction that we are human' even though we try to be gods. The comic community to which artists address themse"ves is a community o# reasoning' "oving' 2oy#u"' compassionate beings' who are wi""ing to assume the human ris$s o# acting rationa""y. 8ithout invo$ing gods or demons' great comic art arouses courage in reason' courage which grows out o# trust in what human beings can do as humans.

1-. The passage suggests that great comic art can be characteri!ed as optimistic about the ability of humans to (A) rid themsel'es of pride (B) transcend the human condition (C) differentiate clearly between good and e'il ( ) a'oid social conflicts (#) act rationally 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author admires great comic artists primarily for their (A) ability to understand the fre"uently subtle differences between good and e'il (B) ability to reconcile the contradictions in human beha'ior (C) ability to distinguish between rational and irrational beha'ior ( ) insistence on confronting the truth about the human condition (#) insistence on condemning human faults and weaknesses 1,. &hich of the following is the most accurate description of the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A se"uence of obser'ations leading to a prediction (B) A list of inferences drawn from facts stated at the beginning of the passage (C) A series of assertions related to one general sub<ect ( ) A statement of the ma<or idea/ followed by specific e$amples (#) A succession of ideas mo'ing from specific to general
/t has "ong been $nown that the rate o# o5idative metabo"ism (the process that uses o5ygen to convert #ood into energy) in any anima" has a pro#ound e##ect on its "iving patterns. The high metabo"ic rate o# sma"" anima"s' #or e5amp"e' gives them sustained power and activity per unit o# weight' but at the cost o# re+uiring constant consumption o# #ood and water. Bery "arge anima"s' with their re"ative"y "ow metabo"ic rates' can survive we"" on a sporadic #ood supp"y' but can generate "itt"e metabo"ic energy per gram o# body weight. /# on"y o5idative metabo"ic rate is considered' there#ore' one might assume that sma""er' more active' anima"s cou"d prey on "arger ones' at "east i# they attac$ed in groups. 6erhaps they cou"d i# it were not #or anaerobic g"yco"ysis' the great e+ua"i)er. 0naerobic g"yco"ysis is a process in which energy is produced' without o5ygen' through the brea$down o# musc"e g"ycogen into "actic acid and adenosine triphosphate (0T6)' the energy provider. The amount o# energy that can be produced anaerobica""y is a #unction o# the

GRE

.1,

amount o# g"ycogen present!in a"" vertebrates about ..- percent o# their musc"es3 wet weight. Thus the anaerobic energy reserves o# a vertebrate are proportiona" to the si)e o# the anima". /#' #or e5amp"e' some predators had attac$ed a 1..-ton dinosaur' norma""y torpid' the dinosaur wou"d have been ab"e to generate a"most instantaneous"y' via anaerobic g"yco"ysis' the energy o# 4'... humans at ma5imum o5idative metabo"ic energy production. This e5p"ains how many "arge species have managed to compete with their more active neighbors> the compensation #or a "ow o5idative metabo"ic rate is g"yco"ysis. There are "imitations' however' to this compensation. The g"ycogen reserves o# any anima" are good' at most' #or on"y about two minutes at ma5imum e##ort' a#ter which on"y the norma" o5idative metabo"ic source o# energy remains. 8ith the conc"usion o# a burst o# activity' the "actic acid "eve" is high in the body #"uids' "eaving the "arge anima" vu"nerab"e to attac$ unti" the acid is reconverted' via o5idative metabo"ism' by the "iver into g"ucose' which is then sent (in part) bac$ to the musc"es #or g"ycogen resynthesis. Furing this process the enormous energy debt that the anima" has run up through anaerobic g"yco"ysis must be repaid' a debt that is proportiona""y much greater #or the "arger vertebrates than #or the sma""er ones. 8hereas the tiny shrew can rep"ace in minutes the g"ycogen used #or ma5imum e##ort' #or e5amp"e' the gigantic dinosaur wou"d have re+uired more than three wee$s. /t might seem that this interminab"y "ong recovery time in a "arge vertebrate wou"d prove a grave disadvantage #or surviva". 7ortunate"y' musc"e g"ycogen is used on"y when needed and even then on"y in whatever +uantity is necessary. 9n"y in times o# panic or during morta" combat wou"d the entire reserves be consumed.

25. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) refute a misconception about anaerobic glycolysis (B) introduce a new hypothesis about anaerobic glycolysis (C) describe the limitations of anaerobic glycolysis ( ) analy!e the chemistry of anaerobic glycolysis and its similarity to o$idati'e metabolism (#) e$plain anaerobic glycolysis and its effects on animal sur'i'al 21. According to the author/ glycogen is crucial to the process of anaerobic glycolysis because glycogen (A) increases the organism4s need for AT@ (B) reduces the amount of AT@ in the tissues (C) is an inhibitor of the o$idati'e metabolic production of AT@ ( ) ensures that the synthesis of AT@ will occur speedily (#) is the material from which AT@ is deri'ed 22. According to the author/ a ma<or limitation of anaerobic glycolysis is that it can (A) produce in large animals more lactic acid than the li'er can safely recon'ert (B) necessitate a dangerously long reco'ery period in large animals (C) produce energy more slowly than it can be used by large animals

.25

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) consume all of the a'ailable glycogen regardless of need (#) reduce significantly the rate at which energy is produced by o$idati'e metabolism 2.. The passage suggests that the total anaerobic energy reser'es of a 'ertebrate are proportional to the 'ertebrate4s si!e because (A) larger 'ertebrates conser'e more energy than smaller 'ertebrates (B) larger 'ertebrates use less o$ygen per unit weight than smaller 'ertebrates (C) the ability of a 'ertebrate to consume food is a function of its si!e ( ) the amount of muscle tissue in a 'ertebrate is directly related to its si!e (#) the si!e of a 'ertebrate is proportional to the "uantity of energy it can utili!e 20. The author suggests that/ on the basis of energy production/ a 155(ton dinosaur would ha'e been markedly 'ulnerable to which of the following% 3. 33. =epeated attacks by a single smaller/ more acti'e ad'ersary ;ustained attack by numerous smaller/ more acti'e ad'ersaries

333. An attack by an indi'idual ad'ersary of similar si!e (A) 33 only (B) 3 and 33 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the time re"uired to replenish muscle glycogen following anaerobic glycolysis is determined by which of the following factors% 3. 33. =ate of o$idati'e metabolism Nuantity of lactic acid in the body fluids

333. @ercentage of glucose that is returned to the muscles (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 22. The author is most probably addressing which of the following audiences% (A) College students in an introductory course on animal physiology (B) )istorians of science in'estigating the disco'ery of anaerobic glycolysis (C) Braduate students with speciali!ed training in comparati'e anatomy ( ) Loologists interested in prehistoric animals

GRE

.21

(#) Biochemists doing research on o$idati'e metabolism 2-. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage% (A) The disad'antage of a low o$idati'e metabolic rate in large animals can be offset by their ability to con'ert substantial amounts of glycogen into energy. (B) The most significant problem facing animals that ha'e used anaerobic glycolysis for energy is the resynthesis of its by(product/ glucose/ into glycogen. (C) The benefits to animals of anaerobic glycolysis are offset by the profound costs that must be paid. ( ) The ma<or factor ensuring that a large animal will triumph o'er a smaller animal is the large animal4s ability to produce energy 'ia anaerobic glycolysis. (#) The great differences that e$ist in metabolic rates between species of small animals and species of large animals can ha'e important effects on the patterns of their acti'ities. SECTION B
The dar$ regions in the starry night s$y are not poc$ets in the universe that are devoid o# stars as had "ong been thought. Rather' they are dar$ because o# interste""ar dust that hides the stars behind it. 0"though its visua" e##ect is so pronounced' dust is on"y a minor constituent o# the materia"' e5treme"y "ow in density' that "ies between the stars. Fust accounts #or about one percent o# the tota" mass o# interste""ar matter. The rest is hydrogen and he"ium gas' with sma"" amounts o# other e"ements. The interste""ar materia"' rather "i$e terrestria" c"ouds' comes in a"" shapes and si)es. The average density o# interste""ar materia" in the vicinity o# our un is 1'... to 1.'... times "ess than the best terrestria" "aboratory vacuum. /t is on"y because o# the enormous interste""ar distances that so "itt"e materia" per unit o# vo"ume becomes so signi#icant. 9ptica" astronomy is most direct"y a##ected' #or a"though interste""ar gas is per#ect"y transparent' the dust is not.

1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is a direct perceptual conse"uence of interstellar dust% (A) ;ome stars are rendered in'isible to obser'ers on #arth. (B) ?any 'isible stars are made to seem brighter than they really are. (C) The presence of hydrogen and helium gas is re'ealed. ( ) The night sky appears dusty at all times to obser'ers on #arth. (#) The dust is conspicuously 'isible against a background of bright stars. 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the density of interstellar material is (A) higher where distances between the stars are shorter (B) e"ual to that of interstellar dust (C) unusually low in the 'icinity of our ;un

.22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) independent of the incidence of gaseous components (#) not homogeneous throughout interstellar space 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that it is because space is so 'ast that (A) little of the interstellar material in it seems substantial (B) normal units of 'olume seem futile for measurements of density (C) stars can be far enough from #arth to be obscured e'en by 'ery sparsely distributed matter ( ) interstellar gases can/ for all practical purposes/ be regarded as transparent (#) optical astronomy would be of little use e'en if no interstellar dust e$isted
/n his 197G study o# s"avery in the United tates' (erbert Autman' "i$e 7oge"' =ngerman' and Aenovese' has right"y stressed the s"aves3 achievements. &ut un"i$e these historians' Autman gives p"antation owners "itt"e credit #or these achievements. Rather' Autman argues that one must "oo$ to the &"ac$ #ami"y and the s"aves3 e5tended $inship system to understand how crucia" achievements' such as the maintenance o# a cu"tura" heritage and the deve"opment o# a communa" consciousness' were possib"e. (is #indings compe" attention. Autman recreates the #ami"y and e5tended $inship structure main"y through an ingenious use o# what any historian shou"d draw upon' +uanti#iab"e data' derived in this case most"y #rom p"antation birth registers. (e a"so uses accounts o# e5-s"aves to probe the human rea"ity behind his statistics. These sources indicate that the two-parent househo"d predominated in s"ave +uarters 2ust as it did among #reed s"aves a#ter emancipation. 0"though Autman admits that #orced separation by sa"e was #re+uent' he shows that the s"aves3 pre#erence' revea"ed most c"ear"y on p"antations where sa"e was in#re+uent' was very much #or stab"e monogamy. /n "ess conc"usive #ashion 7oge"' =ngerman' and Aenovese had a"ready indicated the predominance o# two-parent househo"ds: however' on"y Autman emphasi)es the pre#erence #or stab"e monogamy and points out what stab"e monogamy meant #or the s"aves3 cu"tura" heritage. Autman argues convincing"y that the stabi"ity o# the &"ac$ #ami"y encouraged the transmission o#!and so was crucia" in sustaining!the &"ac$ heritage o# #o"$"ore' music' and re"igious e5pression #rom one generation to another' a heritage that s"aves were continua""y #ashioning out o# their 0#rican and 0merican e5periences. Autman3s e5amination o# other #acets o# $inship a"so produces important #indings. Autman discovers that cousins rare"y married' an e5ogamous tendency that contrasted sharp"y with the endogamy practiced by the p"antation owners. This pre#erence #or e5ogamy' Autman suggests' may have derived #rom 8est 0#rican ru"es governing marriage' which' though they di##ered #rom one triba" group to another' a"" invo"ved some $ind o# prohibition against unions with c"ose $in. This taboo against cousins3 marrying is important' argues Autman' because it is one o# many indications o# a strong awareness among s"aves o# an e5tended $inship networ$. The #act that distant"y re"ated $in wou"d care #or chi"dren separated #rom their #ami"ies a"so suggests this awareness. 8hen b"ood re"ationships were #ew' as in new"y created p"antations in the outhwest' ;#ictive< $inship arrangements too$ their p"ace unti" a new pattern o# consanguinity deve"oped. Autman presents convincing evidence that this e5tended $inship structure!which he be"ieves deve"oped by the mid-to-"ate eighteenth

GRE
century!provided the #oundations #or the strong communa" consciousness that e5isted among s"aves. /n sum' Autman3s study is signi#icant because it o##ers a c"ose"y reasoned and origina" e5p"anation o# some o# the s"aves3 achievements' one that correct"y emphasi)es the resources that s"aves themse"ves possessed.

.2.

25. According to the passage/ >ogel/ #ngerman/ Beno'ese/ and Butman ha'e all done which of the following% 3. 33. iscounted the influence of plantation owners on sla'es4 achie'ements. #mphasi!ed the achie'ements of sla'es.

333. @ointed out the pre'alence of the two(parent household among sla'es. 3C. ;howed the connection between stable monogamy and sla'es4 cultural heritage. (A) 3 and 33 only (B) 3 and 3C only (C) 33 and 333 only ( ) 3/ 333/ and 3C only (#) 33/ 333/ and 3C only 21. &ith which of the following statements regarding the resources that historians ought to use would the author of the passage be most likely to agree% (A) )istorians ought to make use of written rather than oral accounts. (B) )istorians should rely primarily on birth registers. (C) )istorians should rely e$clusi'ely on data that can be "uantified. ( ) )istorians ought to make use of data that can be "uantified. (#) )istorians ought to draw on earlier historical research but they should do so in order to refute it. 22. &hich of the following statements about the formation of the Black heritage of folklore/ music/ and religious e$pression is best supported by the information presented in the passage% (A) The heritage was formed primarily out of the e$periences of those sla'es who attempted to preser'e the stability of their families. (B) The heritage was not formed out of the e$periences of those sla'es who married their cousins. (C) The heritage was formed more out of the African than out of the American e$periences of sla'es. ( ) The heritage was not formed out of the e$periences of only a single generation of sla'es. (#) The heritage was formed primarily out of sla'es4 e$periences of interdependence on newly created plantations in the ;outhwest.

.20

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ of the following/ the most probable reason why a historian of sla'ery might be interested in studying the type of plantations mentioned in line 21 is that this type would (A) gi'e the historian access to the most complete plantation birth registers (B) permit the historian to obser'e the kinship patterns that had been most popular among &est African tribes (C) pro'ide the historian with e'idence concerning the preference of freed sla'es for stable monogamy ( ) furnish the historian with the opportunity to disco'er the kind of marital commitment that sla'es themsel'es chose to ha'e (#) allow the historian to e$amine the influence of sla'es4 preferences on the actions of plantation owners 20. According to the passage/ all of the following are true of the &est African rules go'erning marriage mentioned in lines 02(15 #DC#@TE (A) The rules were deri'ed from rules go'erning ficti'e kinship arrangements. (B) The rules forbade marriages between close kin. (C) The rules are mentioned in )erbert Butman4s study. ( ) The rules were not uniform in all respects from one &est African tribe to another. (#) The rules ha'e been considered to be a possible source of sla'es4 marriage preferences. 21. &hich of the following statements concerning the marriage practices of plantation owners during the period of Black sla'ery in the :nited ;tates can most logically be inferred from the information in the passage% (A) These practices began to alter sometime around the mid(eighteenth century. (B) These practices 'aried markedly from one region of the country to another. (C) @lantation owners usually based their choice of marriage partners on economic considerations. ( ) @lantation owners often married earlier than sla'es. (#) @lantation owners often married their cousins. 22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) The author compares and contrasts the work of se'eral historians and then discusses areas for possible new research. (B) The author presents his thesis/ draws on the work of se'eral historians for e'idence to support his thesis/ and concludes by reiterating his thesis. (C) The author describes some features of a historical study and then uses those features to put forth his own argument. ( ) The author summari!es a historical study/ e$amines two main arguments

GRE

.21

from the study/ and then shows how the arguments are potentially in conflict with one another. (#) The author presents the general argument of a historical study/ describes the study in more detail/ and concludes with a brief <udgments of the study4s 'alue. 2-. &hich of the following is the most appropriate title for the passage/ based on its content% (A) The 3nfluence of )erbert Butman on )istorians of ;la'ery in the :nited ;tates (B) Butman4s #$planation of )ow ;la'es Could ?aintain a Cultural )eritage and e'elop a Communal Consciousness (C) ;la'ery in the :nited ;tatesE 9ew Contro'ersy About an 8ld ;ub<ect ( ) The Black )eritage of >olklore/ ?usic/ and =eligious #$pressionE 3ts Browing 3nfluence (#) The Black >amily and #$tended Minship ;tructureE )ow They &ere 3mportant for the >reed ;la'e No. 5-1 SECTION A
0 ?ar5ist socio"ogist has argued that racism stems #rom the c"ass strugg"e that is uni+ue to the capita"ist system!that racia" pre2udice is generated by capita"ists as a means o# contro""ing wor$ers. (is thesis wor$s re"ative"y we"" when app"ied to discrimination against &"ac$s in the United tates' but his de#inition o# racia" pre2udice as ;racia""y-based negative pre2udgments against a group genera""y accepted as a race in any given region o# ethnic competition'< can be interpreted as a"so inc"uding hosti"ity toward such ethnic groups as the %hinese in %a"i#ornia and the @ews in medieva" =urope. (owever' since pre2udice against these "atter peop"es was not inspired by capita"ists' he has to reason that such antagonisms were not rea""y based on race. (e disposes thus"y (a"beit unconvincing"y) o# both the into"erance #aced by @ews be#ore the rise o# capita"ism and the ear"y twentieth-century discrimination against 9rienta" peop"e in %a"i#ornia' which' inconvenient"y' was instigated by wor$ers.

1-. The passage supplies information that would answer which of the following "uestions% (A) &hat accounts for the pre<udice against the Aews in medie'al #urope% (B) &hat conditions caused the discrimination against 8riental people in California in the early twentieth century% (C) &hich groups are not in ethnic competition with each other in the :nited ;tates%

.22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) &hat e$planation did the ?ar$ist sociologist gi'e for the e$istence of racial pre<udice% (#) &hat e'idence did the ?ar$ist sociologist pro'ide to support his thesis% 16. The author considers the ?ar$ist sociologist4s thesis about the origins of racial pre<udice to be (A) unoriginal (B) unpersuasi'e (C) offensi'e ( ) obscure (#) speculati'e 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the ?ar$ist sociologist would argue that in a noncapitalist society racial pre<udice would be (A) per'asi'e (B) tolerated (C) ignored ( ) forbidden (#) none$istent 25. According to the passage/ the ?ar$ist sociologist4s chain of reasoning re"uired him to assert that pre<udice toward 8riental people in California was (A) directed primarily against the Chinese (B) similar in origin to pre<udice against the Aews (C) understood by 8riental people as ethnic competition ( ) pro'oked by workers (#) nonracial in character
&y 19-.' the resu"ts o# attempts to re"ate brain processes to menta" e5perience appeared rather discouraging. uch variations in si)e' shape' chemistry' conduction speed' e5citation thresho"d' and the "i$e as had been demonstrated in nerve ce""s remained neg"igib"e in signi#icance #or any possib"e corre"ation with the mani#o"d dimensions o# menta" e5perience. *ear the turn o# the century' it had been suggested by (ering that di##erent modes o# sensation' such as pain' taste' and co"or' might be corre"ated with the discharge o# speci#ic $inds o# nervous energy. (owever' subse+uent"y deve"oped methods o# recording and ana"y)ing nerve potentia"s #ai"ed to revea" any such +ua"itative diversity. /t was possib"e to demonstrate by other methods re#ined structura" di##erences among neuron types: however' proo# was "ac$ing that the +ua"ity o# the impu"se or its condition was in#"uenced by these di##erences' which seemed instead to in#"uence the deve"opmenta" patterning o# the neura" circuits. 0"though +ua"itative variance among nerve energies was never rigid"y disproved' the doctrine was genera""y abandoned in #avor o# the opposing view' name"y' that nerve impu"ses are essentia""y homogeneous in +ua"ity and are transmitted as ;common currency< throughout

GRE
the nervous system. 0ccording to this theory' it is not the +ua"ity o# the sensory nerve impu"ses that determines the diverse conscious sensations they produce' but rather the di##erent areas o# the brain into which they discharge' and there is some evidence #or this

.2-

view. /n one e5periment' when an e"ectric stimu"us was app"ied to a given sensory #ie"d o# the cerebra" corte5 o# a conscious human sub2ect' it produced a sensation o# the appropriate moda"ity #or that particu"ar "ocus' that is' a visua" sensation #rom the visua" corte5' an auditory sensation #rom the auditory corte5' and so on. 9ther e5periments revea"ed s"ight variations in the si)e' number' arrangement' and interconnection o# the nerve ce""s' but as #ar as psychoneura" corre"ations were concerned' the obvious simi"arities o# these sensory #ie"ds to each other seemed much more remar$ab"e than any o# the minute di##erences. (owever' cortica" "ocus' in itse"#' turned out to have "itt"e e5p"anatory va"ue. tudies showed that sensations as diverse as those o# red' b"ac$' green' and white' or touch' co"d' warmth' movement' pain' posture' and pressure apparent"y may arise through activation o# the same cortica" areas. 8hat seemed to remain was some $ind o# di##erentia" patterning e##ects in the brain e5citation> it is the di##erence in the centra" distribution o# impu"ses that counts. /n short' brain theory suggested a corre"ation between menta" e5perience and the activity o# re"ative"y homogeneous nerve-ce"" units conducting essentia""y homogeneous impu"ses through homogeneous cerebra" tissue. To match the mu"tip"e dimensions o# menta" e5perience psycho"ogists cou"d on"y point to a "imit"ess variation in the spatiotempora" patterning o# nerve impu"ses.

21. The author suggests that/ by 1,15/ attempts to correlate mental e$perience with brain processes would probably ha'e been 'iewed with (A) indignation (B) impatience (C) pessimism ( ) indifference (#) defiance 22. The author mentions *common currency+ in line 22 primarily in order to emphasi!e the (A) lack of differentiation among ner'e impulses in human beings (B) similarity of the sensations that all human beings e$perience (C) similarities in the 'iews of scientists who ha'e studied the human ner'ous system ( ) continuous passage of ner'e impulses through the ner'ous system (#) recurrent "uestioning by scientists of an accepted e$planation about the ner'ous system 2.. The description in lines .2(.6 of an e$periment in which electric stimuli were applied to different sensory fields of the cerebral corte$ tends to support the theory that (A) the simple presence of different cortical areas cannot account for the di'ersity

.26

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

of mental e$perience (B) 'ariation in spatiotemporal patterning of ner'e impulses correlates with 'ariation in sub<ecti'e e$perience (C) ner'e impulses are essentially homogeneous and are relati'ely unaffected as they tra'el through the ner'ous system ( ) the mental e$periences produced by sensory ner'e impulses are determined by the cortical area acti'ated (#) 'ariation in neuron types affects the "uality of ner'e impulses 20. According to the passage/ some e'idence e$ists that the area of the corte$ acti'ated by a sensory stimulus determines which of the following% 3. 33. The nature of the ner'e impulse The modality of the sensory e$perience

333. Nualitati'e differences within a modality (A) 33 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33 and 333 21. The passage can most accurately be described as a discussion concerning historical 'iews of the (A) anatomy of the brain (B) manner in which ner'e impulses are conducted (C) significance of different cortical areas in mental e$perience ( ) mechanics of sense perception (#) physiological correlates of mental e$perience 22. &hich of the following best summari!es the author4s opinion of the suggestion that different areas of the brain determine perceptions produced by sensory ner'e impulses% (A) 3t is a plausible e$planation/ but it has not been completely pro'ed. (B) 3t is the best e$planation of brain processes currently a'ailable. (C) 3t is dispro'ed by the fact that the 'arious areas of the brain are physiologically 'ery similar. ( ) There is some e'idence to support it/ but it fails to e$plain the di'ersity of mental e$perience. (#) There is e$perimental e'idence that confirms its correctness. 2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following e$hibit the K#A;T "ualitati'e 'ariation%

GRE

.2,

(A) 9er'e cells (B) 9er'e impulses (C) Cortical areas ( ) ;patial patterns of ner'e impulses (#) Temporal patterns of ner'e impulses SECTION B
The trans#er o# heat and water vapor #rom the ocean to the air above it depends on a dise+ui"ibrium at the inter#ace o# the water and the air. 8ithin about a mi""imeter o# the water' air temperature is c"ose to that o# the sur#ace water' and the air is near"y saturated with water vapor. &ut the di##erences' however sma""' are crucia"' and the dise+ui"ibrium is maintained by air near the sur#ace mi5ing with air higher up' which is typica""y appreciab"y coo"er and "ower in water-vapor content. The air is mi5ed by means o# turbu"ence that depends on the wind #or its energy. 0s wind speed increases' so does turbu"ence' and thus the rate o# heat and moisture trans#er. Fetai"ed understanding o# this phenomenon awaits #urther study. 0n interacting!and comp"icating!phenomenon is wind-to-water trans#er o# momentum that occurs when waves are #ormed. 8hen the wind ma$es waves' it trans#ers important amounts o# energy!energy that is there#ore not avai"ab"e to provide turbu"ence.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) resol'e a contro'ersy (B) describe a phenomenon (C) outline a theory ( ) confirm research findings (#) classify 'arious obser'ations 16. According to the passage/ wind o'er the ocean generally does which of the following% 3. 33. Causes relati'ely cool/ dry air to come into pro$imity with the ocean surface. ?aintains a steady rate of heat and moisture transfer between the ocean and the air.

333. Causes fre"uent changes in the temperature of the water at the ocean4s surface. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author regards current knowledge about heat and moisture transfer from the ocean to air as

.-5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) re'olutionary (B) inconse"uential (C) outdated ( ) deri'ati'e (#) incomplete 25. The passage suggests that if on a certain day the wind were to decrease until there was no wind at all which of the following would occur% (A) The air closest to the ocean surface would become saturated with water 'apor. (B) The air closest to the ocean surface would be warmer than the water. (C) The amount of moisture in the air closest to the ocean surface would decrease. ( ) The rate of heat and moisture transfer would increase. (#) The air closest to the ocean would be at the same temperature as air higher up.
=5traordinary creative activity has been characteri)ed as revo"utionary' #"ying in the #ace o# what is estab"ished and producing not what is acceptab"e but what wi"" become accepted. 0ccording to this #ormu"ation' high"y creative activity transcends the "imits o# an e5isting #orm and estab"ishes a new princip"e o# organi)ation. (owever' the idea that e5traordinary creativity transcends estab"ished "imits is mis"eading when it is app"ied to the arts' even though it may be va"id #or the sciences. Fi##erences between high"y creative art and high"y creative science arise in part #rom a di##erence in their goa"s. 7or the sciences' a new theory is the goa" and end resu"t o# the creative act. /nnovative science produces new propositions in terms o# which diverse phenomena can be re"ated to one another in more coherent ways. uch phenomena as a bri""iant diamond or a nesting bird are re"egated to the ro"e o# data' serving as the means #or #ormu"ating or testing a new theory. The goa" o# high"y creative art is very di##erent> the phenomenon itse"# becomes the direct product o# the creative act. ha$espeare3s %amlet is not a tract about the behavior o# indecisive princes or the uses o# po"itica" power: nor is 6icasso3s painting .uernica primari"y a propositiona" statement about the panish %ivi" 8ar or the evi"s o# #ascism. 8hat high"y creative artistic activity produces is not a new genera"i)ation that transcends estab"ished "imits' but rather an aesthetic particu"ar. 0esthetic particu"ars produced by the high"y creative artist e5tend or e5p"oit' in an innovative way' the "imits o# an e5isting #orm' rather than transcend that #orm. This is not to deny that a high"y creative artist sometimes estab"ishes a new princip"e o# organi)ation in the history o# an artistic #ie"d: the composer ?onteverdi' who created music o# the highest aesthetic va"ue' comes to mind. ?ore genera""y' however' whether or not a composition estab"ishes a new princip"e in the history o# music has "itt"e bearing on its aesthetic worth. &ecause they embody a new princip"e o# organi)ation' some musica" wor$s' such as the operas o# the 7"orentine %amerata' are o# signa" historica" importance' but #ew "isteners or musico"ogists wou"d inc"ude these among the great wor$s o# music. 9n the other hand' ?o)art3s The (arriage of Figaro is sure"y among the masterpieces o# music even though its modest innovations are con#ined to e5tending e5isting means. /t has been said o# &eethoven that he topp"ed the ru"es and #reed music #rom the sti#"ing con#ines o# convention.

GRE
&ut a c"ose study o# his compositions revea"s that &eethoven overturned no #undamenta"

.-1

ru"es. Rather' he was an incomparab"e strategist who e5p"oited "imits!the ru"es' #orms' and conventions that he inherited #rom predecessors such as (aydn and ?o)art' (ande" and &ach!in stri$ing"y origina" ways.

21. The author considers a new theory that coherently relates di'erse phenomena to one another to be the (A) basis for reaffirming a well(established scientific formulation (B) byproduct of an aesthetic e$perience (C) tool used by a scientist to disco'er a new particular ( ) synthesis underlying a great work of art (#) result of highly creati'e scientific acti'ity 22. The author implies that Beetho'en4s music was strikingly original because Beetho'en (A) stro'e to outdo his predecessors by becoming the first composer to e$ploit limits (B) fundamentally changed the musical forms of his predecessors by adopting a richly in'enti'e strategy (C) embellished and interwo'e the melodies of se'eral of the great composers who preceded him ( ) manipulated the established con'entions of musical composition in a highly inno'ati'e fashion (#) attempted to create the illusion of ha'ing transcended the musical forms of his predecessors 2.. The passage states that the operas of the >lorentine Camerata are (A) un<ustifiably ignored by musicologists (B) not generally considered to be of high aesthetic 'alue e'en though they are important in the history of music (C) among those works in which popular historical themes were portrayed in a musical production ( ) often inappropriately cited as e$amples of musical works in which a new principle of organi!ation was introduced (#) minor e$ceptions to the well(established generali!ation that the aesthetic worth of a composition determines its importance in the history of music 20. The passage supplies information for answering all of the following "uestions #DC#@TE (A) )as unusual creati'e acti'ity been characteri!ed as re'olutionary% (B) id Beetho'en work within a musical tradition that also included )andel and Bach%

.-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) 3s ?o!art4s The *arriage o+ Figaro an e$ample of a creati'e work that transcended limits% ( ) &ho besides ?onte'erdi wrote music that the author would consider to embody new principles of organi!ation and to be of high aesthetic 'alue% (#) oes anyone claim that the goal of e$traordinary creati'e acti'ity in the arts differs from that of e$traordinary creati'e acti'ity in the sciences% 21. The author regards the idea that all highly creati'e artistic acti'ity transcends limits with (A) deep skepticism (B) strong indignation (C) marked indifference ( ) moderate amusement (#) sharp derision 22. The author implies that an inno'ati'e scientific contribution is one that (A) is cited with high fre"uency in the publications of other scientists (B) is accepted immediately by the scientific community (C) does not relegate particulars to the role of data ( ) presents the disco'ery of a new scientific fact (#) introduces a new 'alid generali!ation 2-. &hich of the following statements would most logically concluded the last paragraph of the passage% (A) :nlike Beetho'en/ howe'er/ e'en the greatest of modern composers/ such as ;tra'insky/ did not transcend e$isting musical forms. (B) 3n similar fashion/ e$isting musical forms were e'en further e$ploited by the ne$t generation of great #uropean composers. (C) Thus/ many of the great composers displayed the same combination of talents e$hibited by ?onte'erdi. ( ) By contrast/ the 'iew that creati'ity in the arts e$ploits but does not transcend limits is supported in the field of literature. (#) Actually/ Beetho'en4s most original works were largely unappreciated at the time that they were first performed. No. 5-2 SECTION A
Bisua" recognition invo"ves storing and retrieving memories. *eura" activity' triggered by the eye' #orms an image in the brain3s memory system that constitutes an interna"

GRE

.-.

representation o# the viewed ob2ect. 8hen an ob2ect is encountered again' it is matched with its interna" representation and thereby recogni)ed. %ontroversy surrounds the +uestion o# whether recognition is a para""e"' one-step process or a seria"' step-by-step one. 6sycho"ogists o# the Aesta"t schoo" maintain that ob2ects are recogni)ed as who"es in a para""e" procedure> the interna" representation is matched with the retina" image in a sing"e operation. 9ther psycho"ogists have proposed that interna" representation #eatures are matched seria""y with an ob2ect3s #eatures. 0"though some e5periments show that' as an ob2ect becomes #ami"iar' its interna" representation becomes more ho"istic and the recognition process corresponding"y more para""e"' the weight o# evidence seems to support the seria" hypothesis' at "east #or ob2ects that are not notab"y simp"e and #ami"iar.

1-. The author is primarily concerned with (A) e$plaining how the brain recei'es images (B) synthesi!ing hypotheses of 'isual recognition (C) e$amining the e'idence supporting the serial recognition hypothesis ( ) discussing 'isual recognition and some hypotheses proposed to e$plain it (#) reporting on recent e$periments dealing with memory systems and their relationship to neural acti'ity 16. According to the passage/ Bestalt psychologists make which of the following suppositions about 'isual recognition% 3. 33. A retinal image is in e$actly the same forms as its internal representation. An ob<ect is recogni!ed as a whole without any need for analysis into component parts.

333. The matching of an ob<ect with its internal representation occurs in only one step. (A) 33 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the matching process in 'isual recognition is (A) not a neural acti'ity (B) not possible when an ob<ect is 'iewed for the 'ery first time (C) not possible if a feature of a familiar ob<ect is changed in some way ( ) only possible when a retinal image is recei'ed in the brain as a unitary whole (#) now fully understood as a combination of the serial and parallel processes 25. 3t terms of its tone and form/ the passage can best be characteri!ed as (A) a biased e$position

.-0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) a speculati'e study (C) a dispassionate presentation ( ) an indignant denial (#) a dogmatic e$planation
/n "arge part as a conse+uence o# the #eminist movement' historians have #ocused a great dea" o# attention in recent years on determining more accurate"y the status o# women in various periods. 0"though much has been accomp"ished #or the modern period' premodern cu"tures have proved more di##icu"t> sources are restricted in number' #ragmentary' di##icu"t to interpret' and o#ten contradictory. Thus it is not particu"ar"y surprising that some ear"ier scho"arship concerning such cu"tures has so #ar gone uncha""enged. 0n e5amp"e is @ohann &acho#en3s 18G1 treatise on 0ma)ons' women-ru"ed societies o# +uestionab"e e5istence contemporary with ancient Areece. tarting #rom the premise that mytho"ogy and "egend preserve at "east a nuc"eus o# historica" #act' &acho#en argued that women were dominant in many ancient societies. (is wor$ was based on a comprehensive survey o# re#erences in the ancient sources to 0ma)onian and other societies with matri"inea" customs!societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the #ema"e "ine. ome support #or his theory can be #ound in evidence such as that drawn #rom (erodotus' the Aree$ ;historian< o# the #i#th century &. %.' who spea$s o# an 0ma)onian society' the auromatae' where the women hunted and #ought in wars. 0 woman in this society was not a""owed to marry unti" she had $i""ed a person in batt"e. *onethe"ess' this assumption that the #irst recorders o# ancient myths have preserved #acts is prob"ematic. /# one begins by e5amining why ancients re#er to 0ma)ons' it becomes c"ear that ancient Aree$ descriptions o# such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historica" #act!rea" 0ma)onian societies!but rather to o##er ;mora" "essons< on the supposed outcome o# women3s ru"e in their own society. The 0ma)ons were o#ten characteri)ed' #or e5amp"e' as the e+uiva"ents o# giants and centaurs' enemies to be s"ain by Aree$ heroes. Their customs were presented not as those o# a respectab"e society' but as the very antitheses o# ordinary Aree$ practices. Thus' / wou"d argue' the purpose o# accounts o# the 0ma)ons #or their ma"e Aree$ recorders was didactic' to teach both ma"e and #ema"e Aree$s that a""-#ema"e groups' #ormed by withdrawa" #rom traditiona" society' are destructive and dangerous. ?yths about the 0ma)ons were used as arguments #or the ma"e-dominated status +uo' in which groups composed e5c"usive"y o# either se5 were not permitted to segregate themse"ves permanent"y #rom society. &acho#en was thus mis"ed in his re"iance on myths #or in#ormation about the status o# women. The sources that wi"" probab"y te"" contemporary historians most about women in the ancient wor"d are such socia" documents as gravestones' wi""s' and marriage contracts. tudies o# such documents have a"ready begun to show how mista$en we are when we try to derive our picture o# the ancient wor"d e5c"usive"y #rom "iterary sources' especia""y myths.

21. The primary purpose of the passage is to

GRE

.-1

(A) compare competing new approaches to understanding the role of women in ancient societies (B) in'estigate the ramifications of Bachofen4s theory about the dominance of women in ancient societies (C) e$plain the burgeoning interest among historians in determining the actual status of women in 'arious societies ( ) analy!e the nature of Ama!onian society and unco'er similarities between it and the Breek world (#) critici!e the 'alue of ancient myths in determining the status of women in ancient societies 22. All of the following are stated by the author as problems connected with the sources for knowledge of premodern cultures #DC#@TE (A) partial completeness (B) restricted accessibility (C) difficulty of interpretation ( ) limited "uantity (#) tendency toward contradiction 2.. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the myths recorded by the ancient Breeks% 3. 33. They sometimes included portrayals of women holding positions of power. They sometimes contained elaborate e$planations of inheritance customs.

333. They comprise almost all of the material a'ailable to historians about ancient Breece. (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 20. &hich of the following is presented in the passage as e'idence supporting the author4s 'iew of the ancient Breeks4 descriptions of the Ama!ons% (A) The re"uirement that ;auromatae women kill in battle before marrying (B) The failure of historians to 'erify that women were e'er go'ernors of ancient societies (C) The classing of Ama!ons with giants and centaurs ( ) The well(established unreliability of )erodotus as a source of information about ancient societies (#) The recent disco'ery of ancient societies with matrilineal customs

.-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the probable reactions of many males in ancient Breece to the idea of a society ruled by women could best characteri!ed as (A) confused and dismayed (B) wary and hostile (C) cynical and disinterested ( ) curious but fearful (#) e$cited but an$ious 22. The author suggests that the main reason for the persisting influence of Bachofen4s work is that (A) feminists ha'e shown little interest in ancient societies (B) Bachofen4s knowledge of Ama!onian culture is unparalleled (C) reliable information about the ancient world is difficult to ac"uire ( ) ancient societies show the best e'idence of women in positions of power (#) historians ha'e been primarily interested in the modern period 2-. The author4s attitude toward Bachofen4s treatise is best described as one of (A) "ualified appro'al (B) profound ambi'alence (C) studied neutrality ( ) pointed disagreement (#) unmitigated hostility SECTION B
/nitia""y the Binaver theory that ?a"ory3s eight romances' once thought to be #undamenta""y uni#ied' were in #act eight independent wor$s produced both a sense o# re"ie# and an unp"easant shoc$. Binaver3s theory com#ortab"y e5p"ained away the apparent contradictions o# chrono"ogy and made each romance independent"y satis#ying. /t was' however' disagreeab"e to #ind that what had been thought o# as one boo$ was now eight boo$s. 6art o# this response was the natura" reaction to the disturbance o# set ideas. *everthe"ess' even now' a#ter "engthy consideration o# the theory3s re#ined but "egitimate observations' one cannot avoid the conc"usion that the eight romances are on"y one wor$. /t is not +uite a matter o# disagreeing with the theory o# independence' but o# re2ecting its imp"ications> that the romances may be ta$en in any or no particu"ar order' that they have no cumu"ative e##ect' and that they are as separate as the wor$s o# a modern nove"ist.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) discuss the 'alidity of a hypothesis (B) summari!e a system of general principles (C) propose guidelines for future argument

GRE

.--

( ) stipulate conditions for acceptance of an interpretation (#) deny accusations about an apparent contradiction 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following about ?alory4s works% 3. 33. There are meaningful links between and among the romances. The subtleties of the romances are obscured when they are taken as one work.

333. Any contradictions in chronology among the romances are less important than their o'erall unity. (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 1,. The author of the passage concedes which of the following about the Cina'er theory% (A) 3t gi'es a clearer understanding of the unity of ?alory4s romances. (B) 3t demonstrates the irrationality of considering ?alory4s romances to be unified. (C) 3t establishes acceptable links between ?alory4s romances and modern no'els. ( ) 3t unifies earlier and later theories concerning the chronology of ?alory4s romances. (#) 3t makes 'alid and subtle comments about ?alory4s romances. 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in e'aluating the Cina'er theory/ some critics were (A) fre"uently misled by the inconsistencies in ?alory4s work (B) initially biased by pre'ious interpretations of ?alory4s work (C) conceptually displeased by the general interpretation that Cina'er re<ected ( ) generally in agreement with Cina'er4s comparisons between ?alory and modern no'elists (#) originally skeptical about Cina'er4s early conclusions with respect to modern no'els
8e can distinguish three di##erent rea"ms o# matter' three "eve"s on the +uantum "adder. The #irst is the atomic rea"m' which inc"udes the wor"d o# atoms' their interactions' and the structures that are #ormed by them' such as mo"ecu"es' "i+uids and so"ids' and gases and p"asmas. This rea"m inc"udes a"" the phenomena o# atomic physics' chemistry' and' in a certain sense' bio"ogy. The energy e5changes ta$ing p"ace in this rea"m are o# a re"ative"y "ow

.-6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

order. /# these e5changes are be"ow one e"ectron vo"t' such as in the co""isions between mo"ecu"es o# the air in a room' then atoms and mo"ecu"es can be regarded as e"ementary partic"es. That is' they have ;conditiona" e"ementarity< because they $eep their identity and do not change in any co""isions or in other processes at these "ow energy e5changes. /# one goes to higher energy e5changes' say 1.H e"ectron vo"ts' then atoms and mo"ecu"es wi"" decompose into nuc"ei and e"ectrons: at this "eve"' the "atter partic"es must be considered as e"ementary. 8e #ind e5amp"es o# structures and processes o# this #irst rung o# the +uantum "adder on =arth' on p"anets' and on the sur#aces o# stars. The ne5t rung is the nuc"ear rea"m. (ere the energy e5changes are much higher' on the order o# mi""ions o# e"ectron vo"ts. 0s "ong as we are dea"ing with phenomena in the atomic rea"m' such amounts o# energy are unavai"ab"e' and most nuc"ei are inert> they do not change. (owever' i# one app"ies energies o# mi""ions o# e"ectron vo"ts' nuc"ear reactions' #ission and #usion' and the processes o# radioactivity occur: our e"ementary partic"es then are protons' neutrons' and e"ectrons. /n addition' nuc"ear processes produce neutrinos' partic"es that have no detectab"e mass or charge. /n the universe' energies at this "eve" are avai"ab"e in the centers o# stars and in star e5p"osions. /ndeed' the energy radiated by the stars is produced by nuc"ear reactions. The natura" radioactivity we #ind on =arth is the "ong-"ived remnant o# the time when now-earth"y matter was e5pe""ed into space by a ma2or ste""ar e5p"osion. The third rung o# the +uantum "adder is the subnuc"ear rea"m. (ere we are dea"ing with energy e5changes o# many bi""ions o# e"ectron vo"ts. 8e encounter e5cited nuc"eons' new types o# partic"es such as mesons' heavy e"ectrons' +uar$s' and g"uons' and a"so antimatter in "arge +uantities. The g"uons are the +uanta' or sma""est units' o# the #orce (the strong #orce) that $eeps the +uar$s together. 0s "ong as we are dea"ing with the atomic or nuc"ear rea"m' these new types o# partic"es do not occur and the nuc"eons remain inert. &ut at subnuc"ear energy "eve"s' the nuc"eons and mesons appear to be composed o# +uar$s' so that the +uar$s and g"uons #igure as e"ementary partic"es.

21. The primary topic of the passage is which of the following% (A) The interaction of the realms on the "uantum ladder (B) Atomic structures found on #arth/ on other planets/ and on the surfaces of stars (C) Ke'els of energy that are released in nuclear reactions on #arth and in stars ( ) @articles and processes found in the atomic/ nuclear/ and subnuclear realms (#) 9ew types of particles occurring in the atomic realm 22. According to the passage/ radioacti'ity that occurs naturally on #arth is the result of (A) the production of particles that ha'e no detectable mass or electric charge (B) high energy e$changes on the nuclear le'el that occurred in an ancient e$plosion in a star (C) processes that occur in the center of the ;un/ which emits radiation to the

GRE

.-,

#arth ( ) phenomena in the atomic realm that cause atoms and molecules to decompose into nuclei and electrons (#) high('oltage discharges of electricity that took place in the atmosphere of the #arth shortly after the #arth was formed 2.. The author organi!es the passage by (A) making distinctions between two groups of particles/ those that are elementary and those that are composite (B) e$plaining three methods of transferring energy to atoms and to the smaller particles that constitute atoms (C) describing se'eral le'els of processes/ increasing in energy/ and corresponding sets of particles/ generally decreasing in si!e ( ) putting forth an argument concerning energy le'els and then conceding that se'eral "ualifications of that argument are necessary (#) making se'eral successi'e refinements of a definition of elementarity on the basis of se'eral groups of e$perimental results 20. According to the passage/ which of the following can be found in the atomic realm% (A) ?ore than one le'el of energy e$change (B) #$actly one elementary particle (C) #$actly three kinds of atomic structures ( ) Three le'els on the "uantum ladder (#) 9o particles smaller than atoms 21. According to the author/ gluons are not (A) considered to be detectable (B) produced in nuclear reactions (C) encountered in subnuclear energy e$changes ( ) related to the strong force (#) found to be conditionally elementary 22. At a higher energy le'el than the subnuclear le'el described/ if such a higher le'el e$ists/ it can be e$pected on the basis of the information in the passage that there would probably be (A) e$cited nucleons (B) elementary mesons (C) a kind of particle without detectable mass or charge ( ) e$changes of energy on the order of millions of electron 'olts (#) another set of elementary particles

.65

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

2-. The passage speaks of particles as ha'ing conditional elementarity if they (A) remain unchanged at gi'en le'el of energy e$change (B) cannot be decomposed into smaller constituents (C) are mathematically simpler than some other set of particles ( ) release energy at a low le'el in collisions (#) belong to the nuclear le'el on the "uantum ladder No. 5-3 SECTION A
The be"ie# that art originates in intuitive rather than rationa" #acu"ties was wor$ed out historica""y and phi"osophica""y in the somewhat wearisome vo"umes o# &enedetto %roce' who is usua""y considered the originator o# a new aesthetic. %roce was' in #act' e5pressing a very o"d idea. Eong be#ore the Romantics stressed intuition and se"#-e5pression' the #ren)y o# inspiration was regarded as #undamenta" to art' but phi"osophers had a"ways assumed it must be contro""ed by "aw and by the inte""ectua" power o# putting things into harmonious order. This genera" phi"osophic concept o# art was supported by technica" necessities. /t was necessary to master certain "aws and to use inte""ect in order to bui"d Aothic cathedra"s' or set up the stained g"ass windows o# %hartres. 8hen this bracing e"ement o# cra#tsmanship ceased to dominate artists3 out"oo$' new technica" e"ements had to be adopted to maintain the inte""ectua" e"ement in art. uch were "inear perspective and anatomy.

1-. The passage suggests that which of the following would most likely ha'e occurred if linear perspecti'e and anatomy had not come to influence artistic endea'or% (A) The craftsmanship that shaped Bothic architecture would ha'e continued to dominate artists4 outlooks. (B) ;ome other technical elements would ha'e been adopted to discipline artistic inspiration. (C) 3ntellectual control o'er artistic inspiration would not ha'e influenced painting as it did architecture. ( ) The role of intuiti'e inspiration would not ha'e remained fundamental to theories of artistic creation. (#) The assumptions of aesthetic philosophers before Croce would ha'e been in'alidated. 16. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions% (A) oes =omantic art e$hibit the triumph of intuition o'er intellect% (B) id an emphasis on linear perspecti'e and anatomy dominate =omantic art% (C) Are the intellectual and intuiti'e faculties harmoniously balanced in post(

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=omantic art% ( ) Are the effects of the rational control of artistic inspiration e'ident in the great works of pre(=omantic eras% (#) &as the artistic craftsmanship displayed in Bothic cathedrals also an element in paintings of this period% 1,. The passage implies that which of the following was a traditional assumption of aesthetic philosophers% (A) 3ntellectual elements in art e$ert a necessary control o'er artistic inspiration. (B) Architecture has ne'er again reached the artistic greatness of the Bothic cathedrals. (C) Aesthetic philosophy is determined by the technical necessities of art. ( ) Artistic craftsmanship is more important in architectural art than in pictorial art. (#) @aintings lacked the intellectual element before the in'ention of linear perspecti'e and anatomy. 25. The author mentions *linear perspecti'e and anatomy+ in the last sentence in order to do which of the following% (A) #$pand his argument to include painting as well as architecture (B) 3ndicate his disagreement with Croce4s theory of the origins of art (C) ;upport his point that rational order of some kind has often seemed to discipline artistic inspiration ( ) #$plain the rational elements in Bothic painting that corresponded to craftsmanship in Bothic architecture (#) ;how the increasing sophistication of artists after the Bothic period
(The passage be"ow is drawn #rom an artic"e pub"ished in 19G1.) %omputer programmers o#ten remar$ that computing machines' with a per#ect "ac$ o# discrimination' wi"" do any #oo"ish thing they are to"d to do. The reason #or this "ies' o# course' in the narrow #i5ation o# the computing machine3s ;inte""igence< on the detai"s o# its own perceptions!its inabi"ity to be guided by any "arge conte5t. /n a psycho"ogica" description o# the computer inte""igence' three re"ated ad2ectives come to mind> sing"e-minded' "itera"minded' and simp"eminded. Recogni)ing this' we shou"d at the same time recogni)e that this sing"e-mindedness' "itera"-mindedness' and simp"emindedness a"so characteri)es theoretica" mathematics' though to a "esser e5tent. ince science tries to dea" with rea"ity' even the most precise sciences norma""y wor$ with more or "ess imper#ect"y understood appro5imations toward which scientists must maintain an appropriate s$epticism. Thus' #or instance' it may come as a shoc$ to mathematicians to "earn that the chrodinger e+uation #or the hydrogen atom is not a "itera""y correct description o# this atom' but on"y an appro5imation to a somewhat more correct e+uation ta$ing account o# spin' magnetic dipo"e' and re"ativistic e##ects: and that this corrected e+uation is itse"# on"y an

.62

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

imper#ect appro5imation to an in#inite set o# +uantum #ie"d-theoretica" e+uations. 6hysicists' "oo$ing at the origina" chrodinger e+uation' "earn to sense in it the presence o# many invisib"e terms in addition to the di##erentia" terms visib"e' and this sense inspires an entire"y appropriate disregard #or the pure"y technica" #eatures o# the e+uation. This very hea"thy s$epticism is #oreign to the mathematica" approach. ?athematics must dea" with we""-de#ined situations. Thus' mathematicians depend on an inte""ectua" e##ort outside o# mathematics #or the crucia" speci#ication o# the appro5imation that mathematics is to ta$e "itera""y. Aive mathematicians a situation that is the "east bit i""-de#ined' and they wi"" ma$e it we""-de#ined' perhaps appropriate"y' but perhaps inappropriate"y. /n some cases' the mathematicians3 "itera"-mindedness may have un#ortunate conse+uences. The mathematicians turn the scientists3 theoretica" assumptions' that is' their convenient points o# ana"ytica" emphasis' into a5ioms' and then ta$e these a5ioms "itera""y. This brings the danger that they may a"so persuade the scientists to ta$e these a5ioms "itera""y. The +uestion' centra" to the scienti#ic investigation but intense"y disturbing in the mathematica" conte5t!what happens i# the a5ioms are re"a5edC!is thereby ignored. The physicist right"y dreads precise argument' since an argument that is convincing on"y i# it is precise "oses a"" its #orce i# the assumptions on which it is based are s"ight"y changed' whereas an argument that is convincing though imprecise may we"" be stab"e under sma"" perturbations o# its under"ying assumptions.

21. The author discusses computing machines in the first paragraph primarily in order to do which of the following% (A) 3ndicate the dangers inherent in relying to a great e$tent on machines (B) 3llustrate his 'iews about the approach of mathematicians to problem sol'ing (C) Compare the work of mathematicians with that of computer programmers ( ) @ro'ide one definition of intelligence (#) #mphasi!e the importance of computers in modern technological society 22. According to the passage/ scientists are skeptical toward their e"uations because scientists (A) work to e$plain real/ rather than theoretical or simplified/ situations (B) know that well(defined problems are often the most difficult to sol'e (C) are unable to e$press their data in terms of multiple 'ariables ( ) are unwilling to rela$ the a$ioms they ha'e de'eloped (#) are unable to accept mathematical e$planations of natural phenomena 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that scientists make which of the following assumptions about scientific arguments% (A) The literal truth of the arguments can be made clear only in a mathematical conte$t. (B) The arguments necessarily ignore the central "uestion of scientific in'estigation.

GRE

.6.

(C) The arguments probably will be con'incing only to other scientists. ( ) The conclusions of the arguments do not necessarily follow from their premises. (#) The premises on which the arguments are based may change. 20. According to the passage/ mathematicians present a danger to scientists for which of the following reasons% (A) ?athematicians may pro'ide theories that are incompatible with those already de'eloped by scientists. (B) ?athematicians may define situation in a way that is incomprehensible to scientists. (C) ?athematicians may con'ince scientists that theoretical assumptions are facts. ( ) ;cientists may come to belie'e that a$iomatic statements are untrue. (#) ;cientists may begin to pro'ide arguments that are con'incing but imprecise. 21. The author suggests that the approach of physicists to sol'ing scientific problems is which of the following% (A) @ractical for scientific purposes (B) etrimental to scientific progress (C) :nimportant in most situations ( ) #$pedient/ but of little long(term 'alue (#) #ffecti'e/ but rarely recogni!ed as such 22. The author suggests that a mathematician asked to sol'e a problem in an ill( defined situation would first attempt to do which of the following% (A) 3dentify an analogous situation (B) ;implify and define the situation (C) Cary the underlying assumptions of a description of the situation ( ) etermine what use would be made of the solution pro'ided (#) #'aluate the theoretical assumptions that might e$plain the situation 2-. The author implies that scientists de'elop a healthy skepticism because they are aware that (A) mathematicians are better able to sol'e problems than are scientists (B) changes in a$iomatic propositions will ine'itably undermine scientific arguments (C) well(defined situations are necessary for the design of reliable e$periments ( ) mathematical solutions can rarely be applied to real problems (#) some factors in most situations must remain unknown

.60

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

SECTION B
/n eighteenth-century 7rance and =ng"and' re#ormers ra""ied around ega"itarian idea"s' but #ew re#ormers advocated higher education #or women. 0"though the pub"ic decried women3s "ac$ o# education' it did not encourage "earning #or its own sa$e #or women. /n spite o# the genera" pre2udice against "earned women' there was one p"ace where women cou"d e5hibit their erudition> the "iterary sa"on. ?any writers have de#ined the woman3s ro"e in the sa"on as that o# an inte""igent hostess' but the sa"on had more than a socia" #unction #or women. /t was an in#orma" university' too' where women e5changed ideas with educated persons' read their own wor$s and heard those o# others' and received and gave criticism. /n the 17-.3s' when sa"ons were #irm"y estab"ished in 7rance' some =ng"ish women' who ca""ed themse"ves ;&"uestoc$ing'< #o""owed the e5amp"e o# the salonnieres (7rench sa"on hostesses) and #ormed their own sa"ons. ?ost &"uestoc$ings did not wish to mirror the salonnieres: they simp"y desired to adapt a proven #ormu"a to their own purpose!the e"evation o# women3s status through mora" and inte""ectua" training. Fi##erences in socia" orientation and bac$ground can account perhaps #or di##erences in the nature o# 7rench and =ng"ish sa"ons. The 7rench sa"on incorporated aristocratic attitudes that e5a"ted court"y p"easure and emphasi)ed artistic accomp"ishments. The =ng"ish &"uestoc$ings' originating #rom a more modest bac$ground' emphasi)ed "earning and wor$ over p"easure. 0ccustomed to the regimented "i#e o# court circ"es' salonnieres tended toward #orma"ity in their sa"ons. The =ng"ish women' though somewhat puritanica"' were more casua" in their approach. 0t #irst' the &"uestoc$ings did imitate the salonnieres by inc"uding men in their circ"es. (owever' as they gained cohesion' the &"uestoc$ings came to regard themse"ves as a women3s group and to possess a sense o# #ema"e so"idarity "ac$ing in the salonnieres' who remained iso"ated #rom one another by the primacy each he"d in her own sa"on. /n an atmosphere o# mutua" support' the &"uestoc$ings went beyond the sa"on e5perience. They trave"ed' studied' wor$ed' wrote #or pub"ication' and by their activities cha""enged the stereotype o# the passive woman. 0"though the salonnieres were aware o# se5ua" ine+ua"ity' the narrow boundaries o# their wor"d $ept their inte""ectua" pursuits within conventiona" "imits. ?any salonnieres' in #act' camou#"aged their nontraditiona" activities behind the ro"e o# hostess and de#erred to men in pub"ic. Though the &"uestoc$ings were trai"b"a)ers when compared with the salonnieres' they were not #eminists. They were too traditiona"' too hemmed in by their generation to demand socia" and po"itica" rights. *onethe"ess' in their desire #or education' their wi""ingness to go beyond the con#ines o# the sa"on in pursuing their interests' and their championing o# unity among women' the &"uestoc$ings began the process o# +uestioning women3s ro"e in society.

1-. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage% (A) The establishment of literary salons was a response to reformers4 demands for social rights for women. (B) Kiterary salons were originally intended to be a meeting ground for intellectuals of both se$es/ but e'entually became social gatherings with little educational 'alue.

GRE

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(C) 3n #ngland/ as in >rance/ the general pre<udice against higher education for women limited women4s function in literary salons to a primarily social one. ( ) The literary salons pro'ided a sounding board for >rench and #nglish women who called for access to all the educational institutions in their societies on an e"ual basis with men. (#) >or women/ who did not ha'e access to higher education as men did/ literary salons pro'ided an alternate route to learning and a challenge to some of society4s basic assumptions about women. 16. According to the passage/ a significant distinction between the salonnieres and Bluestockings was in the way each group regarded which of the following% (A) The 'alue of ac"uiring knowledge (B) The role of pleasure in the acti'ities of the literary salon (C) The desirability of a complete break with societal traditions ( ) The inclusion of women of different backgrounds in the salons (#) The attainment of full social and political e"uality with men 1,. The author refers to differences in social background between salonnieres and Bluestockings in order to do which of the following% (A) Critici!e the 'iew that their choices of acti'ities were significantly influenced by male salon members (B) iscuss the reasons why literary salons in >rance were established before those in #ngland (C) Nuestion the importance of the Bluestockings in shaping public attitudes toward educated women ( ) =efute the argument that the >rench salons had little influence o'er the direction the #nglish salons took (#) #$plain the differences in atmosphere and style in their salons 25. &hich of the following statements is most compatible with the principles of the salonnieres as described in the passage% (A) &omen should aspire to be not only educated but independent as well. (B) The duty of the educated women is to pro'ide an acti'e political model for less educated women. (C) e'otion to pleasure and art is <ustified in itself. ( ) ;ubstance/ rather than form/ is the most important consideration in holding a literary salon. (#) ?en should be e$cluded from groups of women4s rights supporters. 21. The passage suggests that the Bluestockings might ha'e had a more significant impact on society if it had not been for which of the following% (A) Competiti'eness among their salons

.62

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) Their emphasis on indi'idualism (C) The limited scope of their acti'ities ( ) Their acceptance of the >rench salon as a model for their own salons (#) Their unwillingness to defy aggressi'ely the con'entions of their age 22. &hich of the following could best be considered a twentieth(century counterpart of an eighteenth century literary salon as it is described in the passage% (A) A social sorority (B) A community center (C) A lecture course on art ( ) A humanities study group (#) An association of moral reformers 2.. To an assertion that Bluestockings were feminists/ the author would most probably respond with which of the following% (A) Admitted uncertainty (B) Nualified disagreement (C) :n"uestioning appro'al ( ) Complete indifference (#) ;trong disparagement 20. &hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage% (A) #ighteenth(Century #galitarianism (B) >eminists of the #ighteenth Century (C) #ighteenth(Century @recursors of >eminism ( ) 3ntellectual Kife in the #ighteenth Century (#) >emale #ducation =eform in the #ighteenth Century
8hen the same parameters and +uantitative theory are used to ana"y)e both termite co"onies and troops o# rhesus maca+ues' we wi"" have a uni#ied science o# sociobio"ogy. %an this ever rea""y happenC 0s my own studies have advanced' / have been increasing"y impressed with the #unctiona" simi"arities between insect and vertebrate societies and "ess so with the structura" di##erences that seem' at #irst g"ance' to constitute such an immense gu"# between them. %onsider #or a moment termites and maca+ues. &oth #orm cooperative groups that occupy territories. /n both $inds o# society there is a we""-mar$ed division o# "abor. ?embers o# both groups communicate to each other hunger' a"arm' hosti"ity' caste status or ran$' and reproductive status. 7rom the specia"ist3s point o# view' this comparison may at #irst seem #aci"e!or worse. &ut it is out o# such de"iberate oversimp"i#ication that the beginnings o# a genera" theory are made.

21. &hich of the following best summari!es the author4s main point% (A) 8'ersimplified comparisons of animal societies could diminish the likelihood

GRE

.6-

of de'eloping a unified science of sociobiology. (B) :nderstanding the ways in which animals as different as termites and rhesus maca"ues resemble each other re"uires train in both biology and sociology. (C) ?ost animals organi!e themsel'es into societies that e$hibit patterns of group beha'ior similar to those of human societies. ( ) Animals as different as termites and rhesus maca"ues follow certain similar and predictable patterns of beha'ior. (#) A study of the similarities between insect and 'ertebrate societies could pro'ide the basis for a unified science of sociobiology. 22. The author4s attitude toward the possibility of a unified theory in sociobiology is best described as which of the following% (A) Buarded optimism (B) :n"ualified enthusiasm (C) 8b<ecti'e indifference ( ) =esignation (#) issatisfaction 2-. 3n discussing insect and 'ertebrate societies/ the author suggests which of the following% (A) A distinguishing characteristic of most insect and 'ertebrate societies is a well(marked di'ision of labor. (B) The caste structure of insect societies is similar to that of 'ertebrate societies. (C) ?ost insect and 'ertebrate societies form cooperati'e groups in order to occupy territory. ( ) The means of communication among members of insect societies is similar to that among members of 'ertebrate societies. (#) There are significant structural differences between insect and 'ertebrate societies. No. 6-1 SECTION A
0 mysterious phenomenon is the abi"ity o# over-water migrants to trave" on course. &irds' bees' and other species can $eep trac$ o# time without any sensory cues #rom the outside wor"d' and such ;bio"ogica" c"oc$s< c"ear"y contribute to their ;compass sense.< 7or e5amp"e' they can use the position o# the un or stars' a"ong with the time o# day' to #ind north. &ut compass sense a"one cannot e5p"ain how birds navigate the ocean> a#ter a #"oc$ trave"ing east is b"own #ar south by a storm' it wi"" assume the proper northeaster"y course to compensate. 6erhaps' some scientists thought' migrants determine their geographic position

.66

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

on =arth by ce"estia" navigation' a"most as human navigators use stars and p"anets' but this wou"d demand o# the anima"s a #antastic map sense. Researchers now $now that some species have a magnetic sense' which might a""ow migrants to determine their geographic "ocation by detecting variations in the strength o# the =arth3s magnetic #ie"d.

1-. The main idea of the passage is that (A) migration o'er land re"uires a simpler e$planation than migration o'er water does (B) the means by which animals migrate o'er water are comple$ and only partly understood (C) the ability of migrant animals to keep track of time is related to their magnetic sense ( ) knowledge of geographic location is essential to migrants with little or no compass sense (#) e$planations of how animals migrate tend to replace/ rather than build on/ one another 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if the flock of birds described in lines 6( 12 were na'igating by compass sense alone/ they would/ after the storm/ fly (A) east (B) north (C) northwest ( ) south (#) southeast 1,. 3n maintaining that migrating animals would need *a fantastic map sense+ (line 1-) to determine their geographic position by celestial na'igation/ the author intends to e$press (A) admiration for the ability of the migrants (B) skepticism about celestial na'igation as an e$planation (C) certainly that the phenomenon of migration will remain mysterious ( ) interest in a new method of accounting for o'er(water migration (#) surprise that animals apparently na'igate in much the same way that human beings do 25. 8f the following descriptions of migrating animals/ which most strongly suggests that the animals are depending on magnetic cues to orient themsel'es% (A) @igeons can properly read<ust their course e'en when flying long distances through e$ceedingly dense fogs. (B) Bison are able to reach their destination by passing through a landscape that has been partially altered by a recent fire. (C) #lephants are able to find grounds that some members of the herd ha'e ne'er

GRE

.6,

seen before. ( ) ;wallows are able to return to a gi'en spot at the same time e'ery year. (#) ?onarch butterflies coming from different parts of 9orth America are able to arri'e at the same location each winter.
Roger Rosenb"att3s boo$ Black Fiction' in attempting to app"y "iterary rather than sociopo"itica" criteria to its sub2ect' success#u""y a"ters the approach ta$en by most previous studies. 0s Rosenb"att notes' criticism o# &"ac$ writing has o#ten served as a prete5t #or e5pounding on &"ac$ history. 0ddison Aay"e3s recent wor$' #or e5amp"e' 2udges the va"ue o# &"ac$ #iction by overt"y po"itica" standards' rating each wor$ according to the notions o# &"ac$ identity which it propounds. 0"though #iction assured"y springs #rom po"itica" circumstances' its authors react to those circumstances in ways other than ideo"ogica"' and ta"$ing about nove"s and stories primari"y as instruments o# ideo"ogy circumvents much o# the #ictiona" enterprise. Rosenb"att3s "iterary ana"ysis disc"oses a##inities and connections among wor$s o# &"ac$ #iction which so"e"y po"itica" studies have over"oo$ed or ignored. 8riting acceptab"e criticism o# &"ac$ #iction' however' presupposes giving satis#actory answers to a number o# +uestions. 7irst o# a""' is there a su##icient reason' other than the racia" identity o# the authors' to group together wor$s by &"ac$ authorsC econd' how does &"ac$ #iction ma$e itse"# distinct #rom other modern #iction with which it is "arge"y contemporaneousC Rosenb"att shows that &"ac$ #iction constitutes a distinct body o# writing that has an identi#iab"e' coherent "iterary tradition. Eoo$ing at nove"s written by &"ac$s over the "ast eighty years' he discovers recurring concerns and designs independent o# chrono"ogy. These structures are thematic' and they spring' not surprising"y' #rom the centra" #act that the &"ac$ characters in these nove"s e5ist in a predominant"y 8hite cu"ture' whether they try to con#orm to that cu"ture o# rebe" against it. Black Fiction does "eave some aesthetic +uestions open. Rosenb"att3s thematic ana"ysis permits considerab"e ob2ectivity: he even e5p"icit"y states that it is not his intention to 2udge the merit o# the various wor$s!yet his re"uctance seems misp"aced' especia""y since an attempt to appraise might have "ed to interesting resu"ts. 7or instance' some o# the nove"s appear to be structura""y di##use. /s this a de#ect' or are the authors wor$ing out o#' or trying to #orge' a di##erent $ind o# aestheticC /n addition' the sty"e o# some &"ac$ nove"s' "i$e @ean Toomer3s Cane' verges on e5pressionism or surrea"ism: does this techni+ue provide a counterpoint to the preva"ent theme that portrays the #ate against which &"ac$ heroes are pitted' a theme usua""y conveyed by more natura"istic modes o# e5pressionC /n spite o# such omissions' what Rosenb"att does inc"ude in his discussion ma$es #or an astute and worthwhi"e study. Black Fiction surveys a wide variety o# nove"s' bringing to our attention in the process some #ascinating and "itt"e-$nown wor$s "i$e @ames 8e"don @ohnson3s "uto$iogra#hy of an E3-Colored (an. /ts argument is tight"y constructed' and its #orthright' "ucid sty"e e5emp"i#ies "eve"headed and penetrating criticism.

21. The author of the passage ob<ects to criticism of Black fiction like that by Addison Bayle because it

.,5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) emphasi!es purely literary aspects of such fiction (B) misinterprets the ideological content of such fiction (C) misunderstands the notions of Black identity contained in such fiction ( ) substitutes political for literary criteria in e'aluating such fiction (#) ignores the interplay between Black history and Black identity displayed in such fiction 22. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) e'aluating the soundness of a work of criticism (B) comparing 'arious critical approaches to a sub<ect (C) discussing the limitations of a particular kind of criticism ( ) summari!ing the ma<or points made in a work of criticism (#) e$plaining the theoretical background of a certain kind of criticism 2.. The author of the passage belie'es that %lack Fiction would ha'e been impro'ed had =osenblatt (A) e'aluated more carefully the ideological and historical aspects of Black fiction (B) attempted to be more ob<ecti'e in his approach to no'els and stories by Black authors (C) e$plored in greater detail the recurrent thematic concerns of Black fiction throughout its history ( ) established a basis for placing Black fiction within its own uni"ue literary tradition (#) assessed the relati'e literary merit of the no'els he analy!es thematically 20. The author4s discussion of %lack Fiction can be best described as (A) pedantic and contentious (B) critical but admiring (C) ironic and deprecating ( ) argumentati'e but unfocused (#) stilted and insincere 21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would be K#A;T likely to appro'e of which of the following% (A) An analysis of the influence of political e'ents on the personal ideology of Black writes (B) A critical study that applies sociopolitical criteria to autobiographies by Black authors (C) A literary study of Black poetry that appraises the merits of poems according to the political acceptability of their themes

GRE

.,1

( ) An e$amination of the growth of a distinct Black literary tradition within the conte$t of Black history (#) A literary study that attempts to isolate aesthetic "ualities uni"ue to Black fiction 22. The author of the passage uses all of the following in the discussion of =osenblatt4s book #DC#@T (A) rhetorical "uestions (B) specific e$amples (C) comparison and contrast ( ) definition of terms (#) personal opinion 2-. The author of the passage refers to Aames &eldon Aohnson4s Autobiography o+ an E,-Colored *an most probably in order to (A) point out affinities between =osenblatt4s method of thematic analysis and earlier criticism (B) clarify the point about e$pressionistic style made earlier in the passage (C) "ualify the assessment of =osenblatt4s book made in the first paragraph of the passage ( ) illustrate the affinities among Black no'els disclosed by =osenblatt4s literary analysis (#) gi'e a specific e$ample of one of the accomplishments of =osenblatt4s work SECTION B
The mo"ecu"es o# carbon dio5ide in the =arth3s atmosphere a##ect the heat ba"ance o# the =arth by acting as a one-way screen. 0"though these mo"ecu"es a""ow radiation at visib"e wave"engths' where most o# the energy o# sun"ight is concentrated' to pass through' they absorb some o# the "onger-wave"ength' in#rared emissions radiated #rom the =arth3s sur#ace' radiation that wou"d otherwise be transmitted bac$ into space. 7or the =arth to maintain a constant average temperature' such emissions #rom the p"anet must ba"ance incoming so"ar radiation. /# there were no carbon dio5ide in the atmosphere' heat wou"d escape #rom the =arth much more easi"y. The sur#ace temperature wou"d be so much "ower that the oceans might be a so"id mass o# ice. Today' however' the potentia" prob"em is too much carbon dio5ide. The burning o# #ossi" #ue"s and the c"earing o# #orests have increased atmospheric carbon dio5ide by about 1percent in the "ast hundred years' and we continue to add carbon dio5ide to the atmosphere. %ou"d the increase in carbon dio5ide cause a g"oba" rise in average temperature' and cou"d such a rise have serious conse+uences #or human societyC ?athematica" mode"s that a""ow us to ca"cu"ate the rise in temperature as a #unction o# the increase indicate that the answer is probab"y yes.

.,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

Under present conditions a temperature o#-18 can be observed at an a"titude o# - to G

$i"ometers above the =arth. &e"ow this a"titude (ca""ed the radiating "eve")' the temperature increases by about G per $i"ometer approaching the =arth3s sur#ace' where the average temperature is about 1-. 0n increase in the amount o# carbon dio5ide means that there are more mo"ecu"es o# carbon dio5ide to absorb in#rared radiation. 0s the capacity o# the atmosphere to absorb in#rared radiation increases' the radiating "eve" and the temperature o# the sur#ace must rise. 9ne mathematica" mode" predicts that doub"ing the atmospheric carbon dio5ide wou"d raise the g"oba" mean sur#ace temperature by 1.- . This mode" assumes that the atmosphere3s re"ative humidity remains constant and the temperature decreases with a"titude at a rate o# G.- per $i"ometer. The assumption o# constant re"ative humidity is important' because water vapor in the atmosphere is another e##icient absorber o# radiation at in#rared wave"engths. &ecause warm air can ho"d more moisture than coo" air' the re"ative humidity wi"" be constant on"y i# the amount o# water vapor in the atmosphere increases as the temperature rises. There#ore' more in#rared radiation wou"d be absorbed and reradiated bac$ to the =arth3s sur#ace. The resu"tant warming at the sur#ace cou"d be e5pected to me"t snow and ice' reducing the =arth3s re#"ectivity. ?ore so"ar radiation wou"d then be absorbed' "eading to a #urther increase in temperature.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) warn of the dangers of continued burning of fossil fuels (B) discuss the significance of increasing the amount of carbon dio$ide in the atmosphere (C) e$plain how a constant temperature is maintained on the #arth4s surface ( ) describe the ways in which 'arious atmospheric and climatic conditions contribute to the #arth4s weather (#) demonstrate the usefulness of mathematical models in predicting long(range climatic change 16. According to the passage/ the greatest part of the solar energy that reaches the #arth is (A) concentrated in the infrared spectrum (B) concentrated at 'isible wa'elengths (C) absorbed by carbon dio$ide molecules ( ) absorbed by atmospheric water 'apor (#) reflected back to space by snow and ice 1,. According to the passage/ atmospheric carbon dio$ide performs all of the following functions #DC#@TE (A) absorbing radiation at 'isible wa'elengths (B) absorbing infrared radiation (C) absorbing outgoing radiation from the #arth

GRE

.,.

( ) helping to retain heat near the #arth4s surface (#) helping to maintain a constant a'erage temperature on the #arth4s surface 25. &hich of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward the increasing amount of carbon dio$ide in the atmosphere and its conse"uences% (A) 3ncredulous (B) Completely detached (C) 3nterested but skeptical ( ) Angry yet resigned (#) 8b<ecti'e yet concerned 21. 3t can be concluded from information contained in the passage that the a'erage temperature at an altitude of 1 kilometer abo'e the #arth is about (A) 11 (B) , (C) 2.1 ( ) (12 (#) (16 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the construction of the mathematical model mentioned in the passage in'ol'ed the formulation of which of the following% (A) An assumption that the amount of carbon dio$ide added to the atmosphere would in reality steadily increase (B) An assumption that human acti'ities are the only agencies by which carbon dio$ide is added to the atmosphere (C) Assumptions about the social and political conse"uences of any curtailment of the use of fossil fuels ( ) Assumptions about the physical conditions that are likely to pre'ail during the period for which the model was made (#) Assumptions about the differential beha'ior of carbon dio$ide molecules at the 'arious le'els of temperature calculated in the model 2.. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the last hundred years% (A) >ossil fuels were burned for the first time. (B) Breater amounts of land were cleared than at any time before. (C) The a'erage temperature at the #arth4s surface has become 2 cooler. ( ) The amount of carbon dio$ide in the atmosphere has increased measurably. (#) The amount of farmland worldwide has doubled.
ome modern anthropo"ogists ho"d that bio"ogica" evo"ution has shaped not on"y human

.,0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

morpho"ogy but a"so human behavior. The ro"e those anthropo"ogists ascribe to evo"ution is not o# dictating the detai"s o# human behavior but one o# imposing constraints!ways o# #ee"ing' thin$ing' and acting that ;come natura""y< in archetypa" situations in any cu"ture. 9ur ;#rai"ties<!emotions and motives such as rage' #ear' greed' g"uttony' 2oy' "ust' "ove!may be a very mi5ed assortment' but they share at "east one immediate +ua"ity> we are' as we say' ;in the grip< o# them. 0nd thus they give us our sense o# constraints. Unhappi"y' some o# those #rai"ties!our need #or ever-increasing security among them! are present"y ma"adaptive. Det beneath the over"ay o# cu"tura" detai"' they' too' are said to be bio"ogica" in direction' and there#ore as natura" to us as are our appendi5es. 8e wou"d need to comprehend thorough"y their adaptive origins in order to understand how bad"y they guide us now. 0nd we might then begin to resist their pressure.

20. The primary purpose of the passage is to present (A) a position on the foundations of human beha'ior and on what those foundations imply (B) a theory outlining the parallel de'elopment of human morphology and of human beha'ior (C) a diagnostic test for separating biologically determined beha'ior patterns from culture(specific detail ( ) a practical method for resisting the pressures of biologically determined dri'es (#) an o'er'iew of those human emotions and moti'es that impose constraints on human beha'ior 21. The author implies that control to any e$tent o'er the *frailties+ that constrain our beha'ior is thought to presuppose (A) that those frailties are recogni!ed as currently beneficial and adapti'e (B) that there is little or no o'erlay of cultural detail that masks their true nature (C) that there are cultures in which those frailties do not *come naturally+ and from which such control can be learned ( ) a full understanding of why those frailties e'ol'ed and of how they function now (#) a thorough grasp of the principle that cultural detail in human beha'ior can differ arbitrarily from society to society 22. &hich of the following most probably pro'ides an appropriate analogy from human morphology for the *details+ 'ersus *constraints+ distinction made in the passage in relation to human beha'ior% (A) The ability of most people to see all the colors of the 'isible spectrum as against most people4s inability to name any but the primary colors (B) The ability of e'en the least fortunate people to show compassion as against people4s inability to mask their feelings completely

GRE

.,1

(C) The ability of some people to di'e to great depths as against most people4s inability to swim long distances ( ) The psychological profile of those people who are able to delay gratification as against people4s inability to control their li'es completely (#) The greater lung capacity of mountain peoples that helps them li'e in o$ygen( poor air as against people4s inability to fly without special apparatus 2-. 3t can be inferred that in his discussion of maladapti'e frailties the author assumes that (A) e'olution does not fa'or the emergence of adapti'e characteristics o'er the emergence of maladapti'e ones (B) any structure or beha'ior not positi'ely adapti'e is regarded as transitory in e'olutionary theory (C) maladapti'e characteristics/ once fi$ed/ make the emergence of other maladapti'e characteristics more likely ( ) the designation of a characteristic as being maladapti'e must always remain highly tentati'e (#) changes in the total human en'ironment can outpace e'olutionary change No. 6-2 SECTION A
8hether the "anguages o# the ancient 0merican peop"es were used #or e5pressing abstract universa" concepts can be c"ear"y answered in the case o# *ahuat". *ahuat"' "i$e Aree$ and Aerman' is a "anguage that a""ows the #ormation o# e5tensive compounds. &y the combination o# radica"s or semantic e"ements' sing"e compound words can e5press comp"e5 conceptua" re"ations' o#ten o# an abstract universa" character. The tlamatinime (;those who $now<) were ab"e to use this rich stoc$ o# abstract terms to e5press the nuances o# their thought. They a"so avai"ed themse"ves o# other #orms o# e5pression with metaphorica" meaning' some probab"y origina"' some derived #rom To"tec coinages. 9# these #orms the most characteristic in *ahuat" is the 2u5taposition o# two words that' because they are synonyms' associated terms' or even contraries' comp"ement each other to evo$e one sing"e idea. Used as metaphor' the 2u5taposed terms connote speci#ic or essentia" traits o# the being they re#er to' introducing a mode o# poetry as an a"most habitua" #orm o# e5pression.

1-. A main purpose of the passage is to (A) delineate the function of the tla-atini-e in 9ahuatl society (B) e$plain the abstract philosophy of the 9ahuatl thinkers (C) argue against a theory of poetic e$pression by citing e'idence about the 9ahuatl

.,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) e$plore the rich metaphorical heritage the 9ahuatl recei'ed from the Toltecs (#) describe some conceptual and aesthetic resources of the 9ahuatl language 16. According to the passage/ some abstract uni'ersal ideas can be e$pressed in 9ahuatl by (A) taking away from a word any reference to particular instances (B) remo'ing a word from its associations with other words (C) gi'ing a word a new and opposite meaning ( ) putting 'arious meaningful elements together in one word (#) turning each word of a phrase into a poetic metaphor 1,. 3t can be inferred solely from the information in the passage that (A) there are many languages that/ like Breek or Berman/ allow e$tensi'e compounding (B) all abstract uni'ersal ideas are ideas of comple$ relations (C) some record or e'idence of the thought of the tla-atini-e e$ists ( ) metaphors are always used in 9ahuatl to e$press abstract conceptual relationships (#) the abstract terms of the 9ahuatl language are habitually used in poetry
?any theories have been #ormu"ated to e5p"ain the ro"e o# gra)ers such as )oop"an$ton in contro""ing the amount o# p"an$tonic a"gae (phytop"an$ton) in "a$es. The #irst theories o# such gra)er contro" were mere"y based on observations o# negative corre"ations between a"ga" and )oop"an$ton numbers. 0 "ow number o# a"ga" ce""s in the presence o# a high number o# gra)ers suggested' but did not prove' that the gra)ers had removed most o# the a"gae. The converse observation' o# the absence o# gra)ers in areas o# high phytop"an$ton concentration' "ed (ardy to propose his princip"e o# anima" e5c"usion' which hypothesi)ed that phytop"an$ton produced a repe""ent that e5c"uded gra)ers #rom regions o# high phytop"an$ton concentration. This was the #irst suggestion o# a"ga" de#enses against gra)ing. 6erhaps the #act that many o# these #irst studies considered on"y a"gae o# a si)e that cou"d be co""ected in a net (net phytop"an$ton)' a practice that over"oo$ed the sma""er phytop"an$ton (nannop"an$ton) that we now $now gra)ers are most "i$e"y to #eed on' "ed to a de-emphasis o# the ro"e o# gra)ers in subse+uent research. /ncreasing"y' as in the individua" studies o# Eund' Round' and Reyno"ds' researchers began to stress the importance o# environmenta" #actors such as temperature' "ight' and water movements in contro""ing a"ga" numbers. These environmenta" #actors were amenab"e to #ie"d monitoring and to simu"ation in the "aboratory. Ara)ing was be"ieved to have some e##ect on a"ga" numbers' especia""y a#ter phytop"an$ton growth rates dec"ined at the end o# b"oom periods' but gra)ing was considered a minor component o# mode"s that predicted a"ga" popu"ation dynamics. The potentia" magnitude o# gra)ing pressure on #reshwater phytop"an$ton has on"y recent"y been determined empirica""y. tudies by (argrave and Aeen estimated natura" community gra)ing rates by measuring #eeding rates o# individua" )oop"an$ton species in the "aboratory and then computing community gra)ing rates #or #ie"d conditions using the $nown

GRE
popu"ation density o# gra)ers. The high estimates o# gra)ing pressure postu"ated by these researchers were not #u""y accepted' however' unti" the gra)ing rates o# )oop"an$ton were

.,-

determined direct"y in the #ie"d' by means o# new e5perimenta" techni+ues. Using a specia""y prepared #eeding chamber' (aney was ab"e to record )oop"an$ton gra)ing rates in natura" #ie"d conditions. /n the periods o# pea$ )oop"an$ton abundance' that is' in the "ate spring and in the summer' (aney recorded ma5imum dai"y community gra)ing rates' #or nutrient-poor "a$es and bog "a$es' respective"y' o# G.G percent and 11H percent o# dai"y phytop"an$ton production. %"adocerans had higher gra)ing rates than copepods' usua""y accounting #or 8. percent o# the community gra)ing rate. These rates varied seasona""y' reaching the "owest point in the winter and ear"y spring. (aney3s thorough research provides convincing #ie"d evidence that gra)ers can e5ert signi#icant pressure on phytop"an$ton popu"ation.

25. The author most likely mentions )ardy4s principle of animal e$clusion in order to (A) gi'e an e$ample of one theory about the interaction of gra!ers and phytoplankton (B) defend the first theory of algal defenses against gra!ing (C) support the contention that phytoplankton numbers are controlled primarily by en'ironmental factors ( ) demonstrate the superiority of laboratory studies of !ooplankton feeding rates to other kinds of studies of such rates (#) refute researchers who belie'ed that low numbers of phytoplankton indicated the gra!ing effect of low numbers of !ooplankton 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *first theories+ of gra!er control mentioned in line 0 would ha'e been more con'incing if researchers had been able to (A) obser'e high phytoplankton numbers under natural lake conditions (B) disco'er negati'e correlations between algae and !ooplankton numbers from their field research (C) understand the central importance of en'ironmental factors in controlling the growth rates of phytoplankton ( ) make 'erifiable correlations of cause and effect between !ooplankton and phytoplankton numbers (#) in'ent laboratory techni"ues that would ha'e allowed them to bypass their field research concerning gra!er control 22. &hich of the following/ if true/ would call into "uestion )ardy4s principle of animal e$clusion% (A) Looplankton are not the only organisms that are affected by phytoplankton repellents. (B) Looplankton e$clusion is unrelated to phytoplankton population density. (C) Looplankton population density is higher during some parts of the year than

.,6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

during others. ( ) 9et phytoplankton are more likely to e$clude !ooplankton than are nannoplankton. (#) @hytoplankton numbers can be strongly affected by en'ironmental factors. 2.. The author would be likely to agree with which of the following statements regarding the pressure of gra!ers on phytoplankton numbers% 3. 33. Bra!ing pressure can 'ary according to the indi'idual type of !ooplankton. Bra!ing pressure can be lower in nutrient(poor lakes than in bog lakes.

333. Bra!ing tends to e$ert about the same pressure as does temperature. (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 20. The passage supplies information to indicate that )argra'e and Been4s conclusion regarding the gra!ing pressure e$erted by !ooplankton on phytoplankton numbers was most similar to the conclusion regarding gra!ing pressure reached by which of the following researchers% (A) )ardy (B) Kund (C) =ound ( ) =eynolds (#) )aney 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one way in which many of the early researchers on gra!er control could ha'e impro'ed their data would ha'e been to (A) emphasi!e the effects of temperature/ rather than of light/ on phytoplankton (B) disregard nannoplankton in their analysis of phytoplankton numbers (C) collect phytoplankton of all si!es before analy!ing the e$tent of phytoplankton concentration ( ) recogni!e that phytoplankton other than net phytoplankton could be collected in a net (#) understand the crucial significance of net phytoplankton in the diet of !ooplankton 22. According to the passage/ )argra'e and Been did which of the following in their e$periments% (A) They compared the gra!ing rates of indi'idual !ooplankton species in the laboratory with the natural gra!ing rates of these species.

GRE

.,,

(B) The hypothesi!ed about the population density of gra!ers in natural habitats by using data concerning the population density of gra!ers in the laboratory. (C) They estimated the community gra!ing rates of !ooplankton in the laboratory by using data concerning the natural community gra!ing rates of !ooplankton. ( ) They estimated the natural community gra!ing rates of !ooplankton by using data concerning the known population density of phytoplankton. (#) They estimated the natural community gra!ing rates of !ooplankton by using laboratory data concerning the gra!ing rates of indi'idual !ooplankton species. 2-. &hich of the following is a true statement about the !ooplankton numbers and !ooplankton gra!ing rates obser'ed in )aney4s e$periments% (A) &hile !ooplankton numbers began to decline in August/ !ooplankton gra!ing rates began to increase. (B) Although !ooplankton numbers were high in ?ay/ gra!ing rates did not become high until Aanuary. (C) Both !ooplankton numbers and gra!ing rates were higher in ecember than in 9o'ember. ( ) Both !ooplankton numbers and gra!ing rates were lower in ?arch than in Aune. (#) Both !ooplankton numbers and gra!ing rates were highest in >ebruary. SECTION B
(ydrogeo"ogy is a science dea"ing with the properties' distribution' and circu"ation o# water on the sur#ace o# the "and' in the soi" and under"ying roc$s' and in the atmosphere. The hydro"ogic cyc"e' a ma2or topic in this science' is the comp"ete cyc"e o# phenomena through which water passes' beginning as atmospheric water vapor' passing into "i+uid and so"id #orm as precipitation' thence a"ong and into the ground sur#ace' and #ina""y again returning to the #orm o# atmospheric water vapor by means o# evaporation and transpiration. The term ;geohydro"ogy< is sometimes erroneous"y used as a synonym #or ;hydrogeo"ogy.< Aeohydro"ogy is concerned with underground water. There are many #ormations that contain water but are not part o# the hydro"ogic cyc"e because o# geo"ogic changes that have iso"ated them underground. These systems are proper"y termed geohydro"ogic but not hydrogeo"ogic. 9n"y when a system possesses natura" or arti#icia" boundaries that associate the water within it with the hydro"ogic cyc"e may the entire system proper"y be termed hydrogeo"ogic.

1-. The author4s primary purpose is most probably to (A) present a hypothesis (B) refute an argument

055

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) correct a misconception ( ) predict an occurrence (#) describe an enigma 16. 3t can be inferred that which of the following is most likely to be the sub<ect of study by a geohydrologist% (A) ;oft/ porous rock being worn away by a waterfall (B) &ater depositing minerals on the banks of a gorge through which the water runs (C) The trapping of water in a sealed underground rock ca'ern through the action of an earth"uake ( ) &ater becoming unfit to drink through the release of pollutants into it from a manufacturing plant (#) The changing course of a ri'er channel as the action of the water wears away the rocks past which the ri'er flows 1,. The author refers to *many formations+ (line 12) primarily in order to (A) clarify a distinction (B) introduce a sub<ect (C) draw an analogy ( ) emphasi!e a similarity (#) resol'e a conflict
The historian 7rederic$ @. Turner wrote in the 189.3s that the agrarian discontent that had been deve"oping steadi"y in the United tates since about 187. had been precipitated by the c"osing o# the interna" #rontier!that is' the dep"etion o# avai"ab"e new "and needed #or #urther e5pansion o# the 0merican #arming system. *ot on"y was Turner3s thesis in#"uentia" at the time' it was "ater adopted and e"aborated by other scho"ars' such as @ohn F. (ic$s in The Po#ulist *evolt (1941). 0ctua""y' however' new "ands were ta$en up #or #arming in the United tates throughout and beyond the nineteenth century. /n the 189.3s' when agrarian discontent had become most acute' 1'1..'... new #arms were sett"ed' which was -..'... more than had been sett"ed during the previous decade. 0#ter 189.' under the terms o# the (omestead 0ct and its successors' more new "and was ta$en up #or #arming than had been ta$en up #or this purpose in the United tates up unti" that time. /t is true that a high proportion o# the new"y #armed "and was suitab"e on"y #or gra)ing and dry #arming' but agricu"tura" practices had become su##icient"y advanced to ma$e it possib"e to increase the pro#itabi"ity o# #arming by uti"i)ing even these re"ative"y barren "ands. The emphasis given by both scho"ars and statesmen to the presumed disappearance o# the 0merican #rontier he"ped to obscure the great importance o# changes in the conditions and conse+uences o# internationa" trade that occurred during the second ha"# o# the nineteenth century. /n 18G9 the ue) %ana" was opened and the #irst transcontinenta" rai"road in the United tates was comp"eted. 0n e5tensive networ$ o# te"egraph and te"ephone communications was spun> =urope was connected by submarine cab"e with the United tates

GRE
in 18GG and with outh 0merica in 187H. &y about 187. improvements in agricu"tura"

051

techno"ogy made possib"e the #u"" e5p"oitation o# areas that were most suitab"e #or e5tensive #arming on a mechani)ed basis. (uge tracts o# "and were being sett"ed and #armed in 0rgentina' 0ustra"ia' %anada' and in the 0merican 8est' and these areas were 2oined with one another and with the countries o# =urope into an interdependent mar$et system. 0s a conse+uence' agrarian depressions no "onger were "oca" or nationa" in scope' and they struc$ severa" nations whose interna" #rontiers had not vanished or were not about to vanish. &etween the ear"y 187.3s and the 189.3s' the mounting agrarian discontent in 0merica para""e"ed the a"most uninterrupted dec"ine in the prices o# 0merican agricu"tura" products on #oreign mar$ets. Those stap"e-growing #armers in the United tates who e5hibited the greatest discontent were those who had become most dependent on #oreign mar$ets #or the sa"e o# their products. /nso#ar as 0mericans had been deterred #rom ta$ing up new "and #or #arming' it was because mar$et conditions had made this period a peri"ous time in which to do so.

25. The author is primarily concerned with (A) showing that a certain interpretation is better supported by the e'idence than is an alternati'e e$planation (B) de'eloping an alternati'e interpretation by using sources of e'idence that formerly had been una'ailable (C) "uestioning the accuracy of the e'idence that most scholars ha'e used to counter the author4s own interpretation ( ) re'iewing the e'idence that formerly had been thought to obscure a 'alid interpretation (#) presenting e'idence in support of a contro'ersial 'ersion of an earlier interpretation 21. According to the author/ changes in the conditions of international trade resulted in an (A) underestimation of the amount of new land that was being famed in the :nited ;tates (B) underutili!ation of relati'ely small but rich plots of land (C) o'ere$pansion of the world transportation network for shipping agricultural products ( ) e$tension of agrarian depressions beyond national boundaries (#) emphasis on the importance of market forces in determining the prices of agricultural products 22. The author implies that the change in the state of the American farmer4s morale during the latter part of the nineteenth century was traceable to the American farmer4s increasing perception that the (A) costs of culti'ating the land were prohibiti'e within the :nited ;tates (B) de'elopment of the first transcontinental railroad in the :nited ;tates

052

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

occurred at the e$pense of the American farmer (C) American farming system was about to run out of the new farmland that was re"uired for its e$pansion ( ) prices of American agricultural products were deteriorating especially rapidly on domestic markets (#) proceeds from the sales of American agricultural products on foreign markets were unsatisfactory 2.. According to the passage/ which of the following occurred prior to 16,5% (A) >rederick A. Turner4s thesis regarding the American frontier became influential. (B) The )omestead Act led to an increase in the amount of newly farmed land in the :nited ;tates. (C) The manufacturers of technologically ad'anced agricultural machinery rapidly increased their marketing efforts. ( ) irect lines of communication were constructed between the :nited ;tates and ;outh America. (#) Technological ad'ances made it fruitful to farm e$tensi'ely on a mechani!ed basis. 20. The author implies that/ after certain territories and countries had been <oined into an interdependent market system in the nineteenth century/ agrarian depressions within that system (A) spread to se'eral nations/ e$cluding those in which the internal frontier remained open (B) manifested themsel'es in se'eral nations/ including those in which new land remained a'ailable for farming (C) slowed down the pace of new technological de'elopments in international communications and transportation ( ) affected the local and national prices of the nonagricultural products of se'eral nations (#) encouraged se'eral nations to sell more of their agricultural products on foreign markets 21. The author pro'ides information concerning newly farmed lands in the :nited ;tates (lines 11(2-) as e'idence in direct support of which of the following% (A) A proposal by >rederick A. Turner that was later disputed by Aohn . )icks (B) An elaboration by Aohn . )icks of a thesis that formerly had been "uestioned by >rederick A. Turner (C) The established 'iew that was disputed by those scholars who adopted the thesis of >rederick A. Turner ( ) The thesis that important changes occurred in the nature of international trade

GRE

05.

during the second half of the nineteenth century (#) The 'iew that the American frontier did not become closed during the nineteenth century or soon thereafter 22. The author implies that the cause of the agrarian discontent was (A) masked by the 'agueness of the official records on newly settled farms (B) o'ershadowed by disputes on the reliability of the e$isting historical e'idence (C) misidentified as a result of influential but erroneous theori!ing ( ) o'erlooked because of a preoccupation with market conditions (#) undetected because 'isible indications of the cause occurred so gradually and sporadically 2-. The author4s argument implies that/ compared to the yearly price changes that actually occurred on foreign agricultural markets during the 16654s/ American farmers would ha'e most preferred yearly price changes that were (A) much smaller and in the same direction (B) much smaller but in the opposite direction (C) slightly smaller and in the same direction ( ) similar in si!e but in the opposite direction (#) slightly greater and in the same direction No. 6-3 SECTION A
The use o# heat pumps has been he"d bac$ "arge"y by s$epticism about advertisers3 c"aims that heat pumps can provide as many as two units o# therma" energy #or each unit o# e"ectrica" energy used' thus apparent"y contradicting the princip"e o# energy conservation. (eat pumps circu"ate a #"uid re#rigerant that cyc"es a"ternative"y #rom its "i+uid phase to its vapor phase in a c"osed "oop. The re#rigerant' starting as a "ow-temperature' "ow-pressure vapor' enters a compressor driven by an e"ectric motor. The re#rigerant "eaves the compressor as a hot' dense vapor and #"ows through a heat e5changer ca""ed the condenser' which trans#ers heat #rom the re#rigerant to a body o# air. *ow the re#rigerant' as a high-pressure' coo"ed "i+uid' con#ronts a #"ow restriction which causes the pressure to drop. 0s the pressure #a""s' the re#rigerant e5pands and partia""y vapori)es' becoming chi""ed. /t then passes through a second heat e5changer' the evaporator' which trans#ers heat #rom the air to the re#rigerant' reducing the temperature o# this second body o# air. 9# the two heat e5changers' one is "ocated inside' and the other one outside the house' so each is in contact with a di##erent body o# air> room air and outside air' respective"y. The #"ow direction o# re#rigerant through a heat pump is contro""ed by va"ves. 8hen the re#rigerant #"ow is reversed' the heat e5changers switch #unction. This #"ow-reversa" capabi"ity a""ows heat pumps either to heat or coo" room air. *ow' i# under certain conditions a heat

050

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

pump puts out more therma" energy than it consumes in e"ectrica" energy' has the "aw o# energy conservation been cha""engedC *o' not even remote"y> the additiona" input o# therma" energy into the circu"ating re#rigerant via the evaporator accounts #or the di##erence in the energy e+uation. Un#ortunate"y' there is one rea" prob"em. The heating capacity o# a heat pump decreases as the outdoor temperature #a""s. The drop in capacity is caused by the "essening amount o# re#rigerant mass moved through the compressor at one time. The heating capacity is proportiona" to this mass #"ow rate> the "ess the mass o# re#rigerant being compressed' the "ess the therma" "oad it can trans#er through the heat-pump cyc"e. The vo"ume #"ow rate o# re#rigerant vapor through the sing"e-speed rotary compressor used in heat pumps is appro5imate"y constant. &ut co"d re#rigerant vapor entering a compressor is at "ower pressure than warmer vapor. There#ore' the mass o# co"d re#rigerant!and thus the therma" energy it carries!is "ess than i# the re#rigerant vapor were warmer be#ore compression. (ere' then' "ies a genuine drawbac$ o# heat pumps> in e5treme"y co"d c"imates!where the most heat is needed!heat pumps are "east ab"e to supp"y enough heat.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) e$plain the differences in the working of a heat pump when the outdoor temperature changes (B) contrast the heating and the cooling modes of heat pumps (C) describe heat pumps/ their use/ and factors affecting their use ( ) ad'ocate the more widespread use of heat pumps (#) e$pose e$tra'agant claims about heat pumps as false 16. The author resol'es the "uestion of whether heat pumps run counter to the principle of energy conser'ation by (A) carefully "ualifying the meaning of that principle (B) pointing out a factual error in the statement that gi'es rise to this "uestion (C) supplying additional rele'ant facts ( ) denying the rele'ance of that principle to heat pumps (#) e$plaining that heat pumps can cool/ as well as heat/ room air 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in the course of a heating season/ the heating capacity of a heat pump is greatest when (A) heating is least essential (B) electricity rates are lowest (C) its compressor runs the fastest ( ) outdoor temperatures hold steady (#) the heating demand surges 25. 3f the author4s assessment of the use of heat pumps (lines 1(2) is correct/ which of the following best e$presses the lesson that ad'ertisers should learn from this

GRE

051

case% (A) o not make e$aggerated claims about the products you are trying to promote. (B) >ocus your ad'ertising campaign on 'ague analogies and 'eiled implications instead of on facts. (C) o not use facts in your ad'ertising that will strain the prospecti'e client4s ability to belie'e. ( ) o not assume in your ad'ertising that the prospecti'e clients know e'en the most elementary scientific principles. (#) Concentrate your ad'ertising firmly on financially rele'ant issues such as price discounts and efficiency of operation. 21. The passage suggests that heat pumps would be used more widely if (A) they could also be used as air conditioners (B) they could be mo'ed around to supply heat where it is most needed (C) their heat output could be thermostatically controlled ( ) models with truly superior cooling capacity were ad'ertised more effecti'ely (#) people appreciated the role of the e'aporator in the energy e"uation 22. According to the passage/ the role of the flow restriction (lines 12(1-) in a heat pump is to (A) measure accurately the flow rate of the refrigerant mass at that point (B) compress and heat the refrigerant 'apor (C) bring about the e'aporation and cooling of refrigerant ( ) e$change heat between the refrigerant and the air at that point (#) re'erse the direction of refrigerant flow when needed 2.. The author regards the notion that heat pumps ha'e a genuine drawback as a (A) cause for regret (B) sign of premature defeatism (C) welcome challenge ( ) case of sloppy thinking (#) focus for an educational campaign
0"" o# 7rancoise Fuparc3s surviving paintings b"end portraiture and genre. (er sub2ects appear to be ac+uaintances whom she has as$ed to pose: she has captured both their se"#consciousness and the spontaneity o# their everyday activities' the depiction o# which characteri)es genre painting. &ut genre painting' especia""y when it portrayed members o# the humb"est c"asses' was never popu"ar in eighteenth-century 7rance. The Ee *ain brothers and Aeorges de Ea Tour' who a"so chose such themes' were "arge"y ignored. Their present high standing is due to a di##erent' more democratic po"itica" c"imate and to di##erent aesthetic va"ues> we no "onger re+uire artists to provide idea" images o# humanity #or our mora"

052

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

edi#ication but rather regard such idea"i)ation as a #a"si#ication o# the truth. Fuparc gives no improving message and discreet"y re#rains #rom 2udging her sub2ects. /n brie#' her wor$s neither e"evate nor instruct. This restraint "arge"y e5p"ains her "ac$ o# popu"ar success during her "i#etime' even i# her ta"ent did not go comp"ete"y unrecogni)ed by her eighteenth-century 7rench contemporaries.

20. According to the passage/ modern 'iewers are not likely to 'alue which of the following "ualities in a painting% (A) The technical elements of the painting (B) The spontaneity of the painting (C) The moral lesson imparted by the painting ( ) The degree to which the painting realistically depicts its sub<ect (#) The degree to which the artist4s personality is re'ealed in the painting 21. 3f the history of uparc4s artistic reputation were to follow that of the Ke 9ain brothers and Beorges de Ka Tour/ present(day assessments of her work would be likely to contain which of the following% (A) An e'aluation that accords high status to her work (B) Acknowledgement of her technical e$pertise but dismissal of her sub<ect matter as tri'ial (C) Agreement with assessments made in her own time but acknowledgements of the e$ceptional "uality of a few of her paintings ( ) @lacement of her among the foremost artists of her century (#) A reclassification of her work as portraiture rather than genre painting 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the term *genre painting+ would most likely apply to which of the following% (A) A painting depicting a glorious moment of 'ictory following a battle (B) A painting illustrating a narrati'e from the Bible (C) A portrayal of a mythological Breek goddess ( ) A portrayal of a ser'ant engaged in his work (#) A formal portrait of an eighteenth(century king 2-. The argument of the passage best supports which of the following contentions concerning <udgments of artistic work% (A) Aesthetic <udgments can be influenced by the political beliefs of those making the <udgment. (B) Audgments of the 'alue of an artist4s work made by his or her contemporaries must be discounted before a true <udgment can be made. (C) ?odern aesthetic taste is once again mo'ing in the direction of regarding idealistic painting as the most desirable form of painting. ( ) 3n order to be highly regarded/ an artist cannot be solely identified with one

GRE

05-

particular kind of painting. (#) ;pontaneity is the most 'aluable "uality a portrait painter can ha'e. SECTION B
?ycorrhi)a" #ungi in#ect more p"ants than do any other #ungi and are necessary #or many p"ants to thrive' but they have escaped widespread investigation unti" recent"y #or two reasons. 7irst' the symbiotic association is so we""-ba"anced that the roots o# host p"ants show no damage even when dense"y in#ected. econd' the #ungi cannot as yet be cu"tivated in the absence o# a "iving root. Fespite these di##icu"ties' there has been important new wor$ that suggests that this symbiotic association can be harnessed to achieve more economica" use o# cost"y superphosphate #erti"i)er and to permit better e5p"oitation o# cheaper' "ess so"ub"e roc$ phosphate. ?ycorrhi)a" bene#its are not "imited to improved phosphate upta$e in host p"ants. /n "egumes' mycorrhi)a" inocu"ation has increased nitrogen #i5ation beyond "eve"s achieved by adding phosphate #erti"i)er a"one. %ertain symbiotic associations a"so increase the host p"ant3s resistance to harm#u" root #ungi. 8hether this resistance resu"ts #rom e5c"usion o# harm#u" #ungi through competition #or sites' #rom metabo"ic change invo"ving antibiotic production' or #rom increased vigor is undetermined.

1-. &hich of the following most accurately describes the passage% (A) A description of a replicable e$periment (B) A summary report of new findings (C) A recommendation for abandoning a difficult area of research ( ) A refutation of an earlier hypothesis (#) A confirmation of earlier research 16. The le'el of information in the passage abo'e is suited to the needs of all of the following people #DC#@TE (A) a researcher whose <ob is to identify potentially profitable areas for research and product de'elopment (B) a state official whose position re"uires her to alert farmers about possible inno'ations in farming (C) an official of a research foundation who identifies research pro<ects for potential funding ( ) a biologist attempting to keep up with scientific de'elopments in an area outside of his immediate area of speciali!ation (#) a botanist conducting e$periments to determine the relationship between degree of mycorrhi!al infection and e$pected uptake of phosphate 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following has been a factor influencing the e$tent to which research on mycorrhi!al fungi has progressed% (A) Kack of funding for such research (B) Kack of immediate application of such research

056

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) Kack of a method for identifying mycorrhi!al fungi ( ) ifficulties surrounding laboratory production of specimens for study (#) ifficulties ensuing from the high cost and scarcity of superphosphate fertili!ers 25. The passage suggests which of the following about the increased resistance to harmful root fungi that some plants infected with mycorrhi!al fungi seem to e$hibit% (A) There are at least three hypotheses that might account for the increase. (B) An e$planation lies in the fact that mycorrhi!al fungi increase more rapidly in number than harmful root fungi do. (C) The plants that show increased resistance also e$hibit impro'ed nitrogen fi$ation. ( ) ;uch increases may be independent of mycorrhi!al infection. (#) 3t is unlikely that a satisfactory e$planation can be found to account for the increase.
/n the ear"y 19-.3s' historians who studied preindustria" =urope (which we may de#ine here as =urope in the period #rom rough"y 14.. to 18..) began' #or the #irst time in "arge numbers' to investigate more o# the preindustria" =uropean popu"ation than the 1 or 4 percent who comprised the po"itica" and socia" e"ite> the $ings' genera"s' 2udges' nob"es' bishops' and "oca" magnates who had hitherto usua""y #i""ed history boo$s. 9ne di##icu"ty' however' was that #ew o# the remaining 97 percent recorded their thoughts or had them chronic"ed by contemporaries. 7aced with this situation' many historians based their investigations on the on"y records that seemed to e5ist> birth' marriage' and death records. 0s a resu"t' much o# the ear"y wor$ on the none"ite was arid"y statistica" in nature: reducing the vast ma2ority o# the popu"ation to a set o# numbers was hard"y more en"ightening than ignoring them a"together. (istorians sti"" did not $now what these peop"e thought or #e"t. 9ne way out o# this di"emma was to turn to the records o# "ega" courts' #or here the voices o# the none"ite can most o#ten be heard' as witnesses' p"ainti##s' and de#endants. These documents have acted as ;a point o# entry into the menta" wor"d o# the poor.< (istorians such as Ee Roy Eadurie have used the documents to e5tract case histories' which have i""uminated the attitudes o# di##erent socia" groups (these attitudes inc"ude' but are not con#ined to' attitudes toward crime and the "aw) and have revea"ed how the authorities administered 2ustice. /t has been societies that have had a deve"oped po"ice system and practiced Roman "aw' with its written depositions' whose court records have yie"ded the most data to historians. /n 0ng"o- a5on countries hard"y any o# these bene#its obtain' but it has sti"" been possib"e to g"ean in#ormation #rom the study o# "ega" documents. The e5traction o# case histories is not' however' the on"y use to which court records may be put. (istorians who study preindustria" =urope have used the records to estab"ish a series o# categories o# crime and to +uanti#y indictments that were issued over a given number o# years. This use o# the records does yie"d some in#ormation about the none"ite' but this in#ormation gives us "itt"e insight into the menta" "ives o# the none"ite. 8e a"so $now that the

GRE
number o# indictments in preindustria" =urope bears "itt"e re"ation to the number o# actua" crimina" acts' and we strong"y suspect that the re"ationship has varied wide"y over time. /n

05,

addition' aggregate popu"ation estimates are very sha$y' which ma$es it di##icu"t #or historians to compare rates o# crime per thousand in one decade o# the preindustria" period with rates in another decade. Aiven these inade+uacies' it is c"ear why the case history use o# court records is to be pre#erred.

21. The author suggests that/ before the early 1,154s/ most historians who studied preindustrial #urope did which of the following% (A) >ailed to make distinctions among members of the preindustrial #uropean political and social elite. (B) :sed in'estigatory methods that were almost e$clusi'ely statistical in nature. (C) 3naccurately estimated the influence of the preindustrial #uropean political and social elite. ( ) Confined their work to a narrow range of the preindustrial #uropean population. (#) Tended to rely hea'ily on birth/ marriage/ and death records. 22. According to the passage/ the case histories e$tracted by historians ha'e (A) scarcely illuminated the attitudes of the political and social elite (B) indicated the manner in which those in power apportioned <ustice (C) focused almost entirely on the thoughts and feelings of different social groups toward crime and the law ( ) been considered the first kind of historical writing that utili!ed the records of legal courts (#) been based for the most part on the trial testimony of police and other legal authorities 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that much of the early work by historians on the #uropean nonelite of the preindustrial period might ha'e been more illuminating if these historians had (A) used different methods of statistical analysis to in'estigate the nonelite (B) been more successful in identifying the attitudes of ci'il authorities/ especially those who administered <ustice/ toward the nonelite (C) been able to draw on more accounts/ written by contemporaries of the nonelite/ that described what this nonelite thought ( ) relied more hea'ily on the personal records left by members of the #uropean political and social elite who li'ed during the period in "uestion (#) been more willing to base their research on the birth/ marriage/ and death records of the nonelite 20. The author mentions Ke =oy Kadurie (line 22) in order to

015

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) gi'e an e$ample of a historian who has made one kind of use of court records (B) cite a historian who has based case histories on the birth/ marriage/ and death records of the nonelite (C) identify the author of the "uotation cited in the pre'ious sentence ( ) gain authoritati'e support for the 'iew that the case history approach is the most fruitful approach to court records (#) point out the first historian to reali!e the 'alue of court records in illuminating the beliefs and 'alues of the nonelite 21. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of indictments for crime in #urope in the preindustrial period% (A) They ha'e/ in terms of their numbers/ remained relati'ely constant o'er time. (B) They gi'e the historian important information about the mental li'es of those indicted. (C) They are not a particularly accurate indication of the e$tent of actual criminal acti'ity. ( ) Their importance to historians of the nonelite has been generally o'erestimated. (#) Their problematic relationship to actual crime has not been acknowledged by most historians. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a historian who wished to compare crime rates per thousand in a #uropean city in one decade of the fifteenth century with crime rates in another decade of that century would probably be most aided by better information about which of the following% (A) The causes of unrest in the city during the two decades (B) The aggregate number of indictments in the city nearest to the city under in'estigation during the two decades (C) The number of people who li'ed in the city during each of the decades under in'estigation ( ) The mental attitudes of criminals in the city/ including their feelings about authority/ during each of the decades under in'estigation (#) The possibilities for a member of the city4s nonelite to become a member of the political and social elite during the two decades 2-. The passage would be most likely to appear as part of (A) a book re'iew summari!ing the achie'ements of historians of the #uropean aristocracy (B) an essay describing trends in the practice of writing history (C) a te$tbook on the application of statistical methods in the social sciences ( ) a report to the historical profession on the work of early(twentieth(century

GRE

011

historians (#) an article urging the adoption of historical methods by the legal profession No. 7-1 SECTION A
9ur visua" perception depends on the reception o# energy re#"ecting or radiating #rom that which we wish to perceive. /# our eyes cou"d receive and measure in#inite"y de"icate sensedata' we cou"d perceive the wor"d with in#inite precision. The natura" "imits o# our eyes have' o# course' been e5tended by mechanica" instruments: te"escopes and microscopes' #or e5amp"e' e5pand our capabi"ities great"y. There is' however' an u"timate "imit beyond which no instrument can ta$e us: this "imit is imposed by our inabi"ity to receive sense-data sma""er than those conveyed by an individua" +uantum o# energy. ince these +uanta are be"ieved to be indivisib"e pac$ages o# energy and so cannot be #urther re#ined' we reach a point beyond which #urther reso"ution o# the wor"d is not possib"e. /t is "i$e a drawing a chi"d might ma$e by stic$ing indivisib"e discs o# co"or onto a canvas. 8e might thin$ that we cou"d avoid this "imitation by using +uanta with e5treme"y "ong wave"engths: such +uanta wou"d be su##icient"y sensitive to convey e5treme"y de"icate sensedata. 0nd these +uanta wou"d be use#u"' as "ong as we on"y wanted to measure energy' but a comp"ete"y accurate perception o# the wor"d wi"" depend a"so on the e5act measurement o# the "engths and positions o# what we wish to perceive. 7or this' +uanta o# e5treme"y "ong wave"engths are use"ess. To measure a "ength accurate"y to within a mi""ionth o# an inch' we must have a measure graduated in mi""ionths o# an inch: a yardstic$ graduated in inches in use"ess. Ouanta with a wave"ength o# one inch wou"d be' in a sense' measures that are graduated in inches. Ouanta o# e5treme"y "ong wave"ength are use"ess in measuring anything e5cept e5treme"y "arge dimensions. Fespite these di##icu"ties' +uanta have important theoretica" imp"ications #or physics. /t used to be supposed that' in the observation o# nature' the universe cou"d be divided into two distinct parts' a perceiving sub2ect and a perceived ob2ect. /n physics' sub2ect and ob2ect were supposed to be entire"y distinct' so that a description o# any part o# the universe wou"d be independent o# the observer. The +uantum theory' however' suggests otherwise' #or every observation invo"ves the passage o# a comp"ete +uantum #rom the ob2ect to the sub2ect' and it now appears that this passage constitutes an important coup"ing between observer and observed. 8e can no "onger ma$e a sharp division between the two in an e##ort to observe nature ob2ective"y. uch an attempt at ob2ectivity wou"d distort the crucia" interre"atioship o# observer and observed as parts o# a sing"e who"e. &ut' even #or scientists' it is on"y in the wor"d o# atoms that this new deve"opment ma$es any appreciab"e di##erence in the e5p"anation o# observations.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) discuss a problem that hinders precise perception of the world (B) point out the inade"uacies of accepted units of measurement

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(C) critici!e attempts to distinguish between percei'ing sub<ects and percei'ed ob<ects ( ) compare and contrast ri'al scientific hypotheses about how the world should be measured and obser'ed (#) suggest the limited function of sensory obser'ation 16. According to the passage/ "uanta with an e$tremely long wa'elength cannot be used to gi'e complete information about the physical world because they (A) e$ist independently of sense(data (B) are graduated only in inches (C) ha'e an insignificant amount of energy ( ) cannot/ with present(day instruments/ be isolated from "uanta of shorter wa'elength (#) pro'ide an insufficiently precise means of measuring length and position 1,. &hich of the following describes a situation most analogous to the situation discussed in lines ,(1.% (A) A mathematician can only sol'e problems the solution of which can be deduced from known a$iom. (B) An animal can respond to no command that is more complicated syntactically than any it has pre'iously recei'ed. (C) A 'iewer who has not learned/ at least intuiti'ely/ the con'entions of painting/ cannot understand perspecti'e in a drawing. ( ) A sensiti!ed film will record no detail on a scale that is smaller than the grain of the film. (#) A shadow cast on a screen by an opa"ue ob<ect will ha'e sharp edge only if the light source is small or 'ery distant. 25. The author uses the analogy of the child4s drawing (lines 1-(1,) primarily in order to (A) illustrate the ultimate limitation in the precision of sense(data con'eyed by "uanta (B) show the sense of helplessness scientists feel in the face of significant obser'ational problems (C) anticipate the ob<ections of the those scientists who belie'e that no instrumental aid to obser'ation is entirely reliable ( ) e$emplify the similarities between packages of energy and 'arieties of color (#) disparage those scientists who belie'e that measurement by means of "uanta offers an accurate picture of the world 21. The author implies that making a sharp di'ision between sub<ect and ob<ect in physics is

GRE

01.

(A) possible in a measurement o ob<ect4s length and position/ but not in a measurement of its energy (B) still theoretically possible in the small(scale world of atoms and electrons (C) possible in the case of obser'ations in'ol'ing the passage of a complete "uantum ( ) no longer an entirely accurate way to describe obser'ation of the uni'erse (#) a goal at which scientists still aim 22. The author4s use of the phrase *in a sense+ (line .0) implies which of the following% (A) Nuanta of e$tremely long wa'elength are essentially graduated in inches. (B) "uanta of one(inch wa'elength are not precisely analogous to yardsticks graduated in inches. (C) Nuanta of e$tremely long wa'elength/ in at least on e respect/ resemble "uanta of shorter wa'elength. ( ) "uanta of on(inch wa'elength and "uanta of e$tremely long wa'elength do not differ only in their wa'elengths. (#) "uanta of one(inch wa'elength must be measured by different standards than "uanta of e$tremely long wa'elength. 2.. According to the passage/ the "uantum theory can be distinguished from pre'ious theories of physics by its (A) insistence on scrupulously precise mathematical formulations (B) understanding of the inherent interrelationship of percei'er and percei'ed (C) recognition of the need for sophisticated instruments of measurement ( ) emphasis on small(scale rather than on large(scale phenomena (#) regard for philosophical issues as well as for strictly scientific ones
Ti""ie 9"sen3s #iction and essays have been wide"y and right"y ac$now"edged as ma2or contributions to 0merican "iterature. (er wor$ has been particu"ar"y va"ued by contemporary #eminists. Det #ew o# 9"sen3s readers rea"i)e the e5tent to which her vision and choice o# sub2ect are rooted in an ear"ier "iterary heritage!the tradition o# radica" po"itica" thought' most"y socia"ist and anarchist' o# the 191.3s and 191.3s' and the 9"d Ee#t tradition o# the 194.3s. / do not mean that one can ade+uate"y e5p"ain the e"o+uence o# her wor$ in terms o# its po"itica" origins' or that "e#t-wing po"itics were the sing"e most important in#"uence on it. ?y point is that its centra" consciousness!its pro#ound understanding o# c"ass and gender as shaping in#"uences on peop"e3s "ives!owes much to that ear"ier "iterary heritage' a heritage that' in genera"' has not been su##icient"y va"ued by most contemporary "iterary critics.

20. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) argue that 8lsen4s understanding of class and gender is her greatest gift as a writer (B) acknowledge 8lsen4s importance as the leading spokesperson for a radical

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literary heritage (C) point out a literary heritage to which 8lsen4s work is related ( ) urge literary critics to in'estigate the origins of a literary heritage (#) suggest that 8lsen4s work has been placed in a literary heritage to which it does not belong 21. According to the author/ which of the following is true of the heritage mentioned in the passage% (A) 3t emphasi!es gender as the determinate influence on people4s li'es. (B) 3t has been the most important influence on 8lsen4s work. (C) 3t includes political traditions that span three decades of the twentieth century. ( ) 3t e$plains the elo"uence but not the sub<ect matter of 8lsen4s work. (#) 3t reflects primarily the de'elopment of socialist political thought in the early twentieth century. 22. 3n the sentence *3 do not R influence on it+ (lines 15(10)/ the author dos which of the following% (A) Broadens an e$isting classification. (B) Contradicts the passage4s central thesis. (C) Nualifies a commonly accepted point of 'iew. ( ) @resents conflicting e$planations for a phenomenon. (#) enies possible interpretations of an earlier assertion. 2-. According to the author/ 8lsen4s work has been (A) rightly acknowledged for its contribution to political thought (B) thought to represent the beginning of new literary tradition (C) a needed impetus for social change ( ) most clearly influenced by feminism (#) deser'edly admired by readers SECTION B
%urrent"y' the paramount prob"em in the #ie"d o# biomateria"s' the science o# rep"acing diseased tissue with human-made imp"ants' is contro" over the inter#ace' or sur#ace' between imp"anted biomateria"s and "iving tissues. The physica" properties o# most tissues can be matched by care#u" se"ection o# raw materia"s> meta"s' ceramics' or severa" varieties o# po"ymer materia"s. =ven the re+uirement that biomateria"s processed #rom these materia"s be nonto5ic to host tissue can be met by techni+ues derived #rom studying the reactions o# tissue cu"tures to biomateria"s or #rom short-term imp"ants. &ut achieving necessary matches in physica" properties across inter#aces between "iving and non-"iving matter re+uires $now"edge o# which mo"ecu"es contro" the bonding o# ce""s to each other!an area that we have not yet e5p"ored thorough"y. 0"though recent research has a""owed us to stabi"i)e the tissue-

GRE

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biomateria" inter#ace by contro""ing either the chemica" reactions or the microstructure o# the biomateria"' our #undamenta" understanding o# how imp"ant devices adhere to tissues remains woe#u""y incomp"ete.

1-. According to the passage/ the ma<or problem currently facing scientists in the field of biomaterials is (A) assessing and regulating the bonding between host tissue and implants (B) controlling the transfer of potentially to$ic materials across the interface of tissue and implant (C) disco'ering new materials from which to construct implant de'ices ( ) deciding in what situations implants are needed (#) determining the importance of short(term implants to long(term stability of tissue(implant interfaces 16. The passage suggests which of the following about the recent research mentioned in lines 1,(21% (A) 3t has sol'ed one set of problems but has created another. (B) 3t has concentrated on secondary concerns but has ignored primary concerns. (C) 3t has impro'ed practical applications of biomaterial technology without pro'iding a complete theoretical e$planation of that impro'ement. ( ) 3t has thoroughly in'estigated properties of biomaterials but has paid little attention to rele'ant characteristics of human tissue. (#) 3t has pro'ided considerable information on short(term implant technology but little on long(term implant technology. 1,. The author4s primary purpose is to (A) answer a theoretical "uestion in the field of biomaterials (B) discuss the current state of technology in the field of biomaterials (C) resol'e a research dispute in the field of biomaterial ( ) predict an ethical crisis for biomaterials researchers (#) suggest some practical benefits of biomaterial implants
/s"amic "aw is a particu"ar"y instructive e5amp"e o# ;sacred "aw.< /s"amic "aw is a phenomenon so di##erent #rom a"" other #orms o# "aw!notwithstanding' o# course' a considerab"e and inevitab"e number o# coincidences with one or the other o# them as #ar as sub2ect matter and positive enactments are concerned!that its study is indispensab"e in order to appreciate ade+uate"y the #u"" range o# possib"e "ega" phenomena. =ven the two other representatives o# sacred "aw that are historica""y and geographica""y nearest to it' @ewish "aw and Roman %atho"ic canon "aw' are perceptib"y di##erent. &oth @ewish "aw and canon "aw are more uni#orm than /s"amic "aw. Though historica""y there is a discernib"e brea$ between @ewish "aw o# the sovereign state o# ancient /srae" and o# the Fiaspora (the dispersion o# @ewish peop"e a#ter the con+uest o# /srae")' the spirit o# the "ega" matter in "ater parts o# the 9"d Testament is very c"ose to that o# the Ta"mud' one o# the

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primary codi#ications o# @ewish "aw in the Fiaspora. /s"am' on the other hand' represented a radica" brea$away #rom the 0rab paganism that preceded it: /s"amic "aw is the resu"t o# an e5amination' #rom a re"igious ang"e' o# "ega" sub2ect matter that was #ar #rom uni#orm' comprising as it did the various components o# the "aws o# pre-/s"amic 0rabia and numerous "ega" e"ements ta$en over #rom the non-0rab peop"es o# the con+uered territories. 0"" this was uni#ied by being sub2ected to the same $ind o# re"igious scrutiny' the impact o# which varied great"y' being a"most none5istent in some #ie"ds' and in others originating nove" institutions. This centra" dua"ity o# "ega" sub2ect matter and re"igious norm is additiona" to the variety o# "ega"' ethica"' and ritua" ru"es that is typica" o# sacred "aw. /n its re"ation to the secu"ar state' /s"amic "aw di##ered #rom both @ewish and canon "aw. @ewish "aw was buttressed by the cohesion o# the community' rein#orced by pressure #rom outside: its ru"es are the direct e5pression o# this #ee"ing o# cohesion' tending toward the accommodation o# dissent. %anon and /s"amic aw' on the contrary' were dominated by the dua"ism o# re"igion and state' where the state was not' in contrast with @udaism' an a"ien power but the po"itica" e5pression o# the same re"igion. &ut the con#"ict between state and re"igion too$ di##erent #orms: in %hristianity it appeared as the strugg"e #or po"itica" power on the part o# a tight"y organi)ed ecc"esiastica" hierarchy' and canon "aw was one o# its po"itica" weapons. /s"amic "aw' on the other hand' was never supported by an organi)ed institution: conse+uent"y' there never deve"oped an overt tria" o# strength. There mere"y e5isted discordance between app"ication o# the sacred "aw and many o# the regu"ations #ramed by /s"amic states: this antagonism varied according to p"ace and time.

25. The author4s purpose in comparing 3slamic law to Aewish law and canon law is most probably to (A) contend that traditional legal sub<ect matter does not play a large role in 3slamic law (B) support his argument that 3slamic law is a uni"ue kind of legal phenomenon (C) emphasi!e the 'ariety of forms that can all be considered sacred law ( ) pro'ide an e$ample of how he belie'es comparati'e institutional study should be undertaken (#) argue that geographical and historical pro$imity does not necessarily lead to parallel institutional de'elopment 21. The passage pro'ides information to answer which of the following "uestions% (A) oes 3slamic law depend on sources other than Arab legal principles% (B) &hat secular practices of 3slamic states conflicted with 3slamic law% (C) Are Aewish law and canon law the most typical e$amples of sacred law% ( ) 3s Aewish law more uniform than canon law% (#) &hat characteri!ed Arab law of the pre(3slamic era% 22. According to the passage/ which of the following statements about sacred law is correct% (A) The 'arious systems of sacred law originated in a limited geographical area.

GRE

01-

(B) The 'arious systems of sacred law ha'e had marked influence on one another. (C) ;ystems of sacred law usually rely on a wide 'ariety of precedents. ( ) ;ystems of sacred law generally contain prescriptions go'erning di'erse aspects of human acti'ity. (#) ;ystems of sacred law function most effecti'ely in communities with relati'ely small populations. 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the application of 3slamic law in 3slamic states has (A) systematically been opposed by groups who belie'e it is contrary to their interests (B) suffered irreparably from the lack of firm institutional backing (C) fre"uently been at odds with the legal acti'ity of go'ernment institutions ( ) remained unaffected by the political forces operating alongside it (#) benefited from the fact that it ne'er e$perienced a direct confrontation with the state 20. &hich of the following most accurately describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A uni'ersal principle is ad'anced and then discussed in relation to a particular historical phenomenon. (B) A methodological inno'ation is suggested and then e$amples of its efficacy are pro'ided. (C) A traditional interpretation is "uestioned and then modified to include new data. ( ) A general opinion is e$pressed and then supporti'e illustrations are ad'anced. (#) A contro'ersial 'iewpoint is presented and then both supporti'e e'idence and contradictory e'idence are cited. 21. The passage implies that the relationship of 3slamic/ Aewish/ and canon law is correctly described by which of the following statements% 3. 33. Because each constitutes an e$ample of sacred law/ they necessarily share some features. They each de'eloped in reaction to the interference of secular political institutions.

333. The differences among them result partly from their differing emphasis on purely ethical rules. (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only

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(#) 3/ 33/ and 333 22. The passage suggests that canon law differs from 3slamic law in that only canon law (A) contains prescriptions that nonsacred legal systems might regard as properly legal (B) concerns itself with the duties of a person in regard to the community as a whole (C) was affected by the tension of the conflict between religion and state ( ) de'eloped in a political en'ironment that did not challenge its fundamental e$istence (#) played a role in the direct confrontation between institutions 'ying for power 2-. All of the following statements about the de'elopment of 3slamic law are implied in the passage #DC#@TE (A) @re(3slamic legal principles were incorporated into 3slamic law with widely differing degrees of change. (B) i'erse legal elements were <oined together through the application of a purely religious criterion. (C) Although some of the sources of 3slamic law were pagan/ its integrity as a sacred law was not compromised by their incorporation. ( ) There was a fundamental shared characteristic in all pre(3slamic legal matter taken o'er by 3slamic law. (#) Although 3slam emerged among the Arabs/ 3slamic law was influenced by ethnically di'erse elements. No. 7-2 SECTION A
=ight percent o# the =arth3s crust is a"uminum' and there are hundreds o# a"uminumbearing minera"s and vast +uantities o# the roc$s that contain them. The best a"uminum ore is bau5ite' de#ined as aggregates o# a"uminous minera"s' more or "ess impure' in which a"uminum is present as hydrated o5ides. &au5ite is the richest o# a"" those a"uminous roc$s that occur in "arge +uantities' and it yie"ds a"umina' the intermediate product re+uired #or the production o# a"uminum. 0"umina a"so occurs natura""y as the minera" corundum' but corundum is not #ound in "arge deposits o# high purity' and there#ore it is an impractica" source #or ma$ing a"uminum. ?ost o# the many abundant nonbau5ite a"uminous minera"s are si"icates' and' "i$e a"" si"icate minera"s' they are re#ractory' resistant to ana"ysis' and e5treme"y di##icu"t to process. The a"uminum si"icates are there#ore genera""y unsuitab"e a"ternatives to bau5ite because considerab"y more energy is re+uired to e5tract a"umina #rom them.

1-. The author implies that a mineral must either be or readily supply which of the

GRE

01,

following in order to be classified as an aluminum ore% (A) An aggregate (B) Bau$ite (C) Alumina ( ) Corundum (#) An aluminum silicate 16. The passage supplies information for answering all of the following "uestions regarding aluminous minerals #DC#@TE (A) &hat percentage of the aluminum in the #arth4s crust is in the form of bau$ite% (B) Are aluminum(bearing nonbau$ite minerals plentiful% (C) o the aluminous minerals found in bau$ite contain hydrated o$ides% ( ) Are aluminous hydrated o$ides found in rocks% (#) o large "uantities of bau$ite e$ist% 1,. The author implies that corundum would be used to produce aluminum if (A) corundum could be found that is not contaminated by silicates (B) the production of alumina could be eliminated as an intermediate step in manufacturing aluminum (C) many large deposits of 'ery high "uality corundum were to be disco'ered ( ) new technologies were to make it possible to con'ert corundum to a silicate (#) manufacturers were to reali!e that the world4s supply of bau$ite is not unlimited
Traditiona""y' the study o# history has had #i5ed boundaries and #oca" points!periods' countries' dramatic events' and great "eaders. /t a"so has had c"ear and #irm notions o# scho"ar"y procedure> how one in+uires into a historica" prob"em' how one presents and documents one3s #indings' what constitutes admissib"e and ade+uate proo#. 0nyone who has #o""owed recent historica" "iterature can testi#y to the revo"ution that is ta$ing p"ace in historica" studies. The current"y #ashionab"e sub2ects come direct"y #rom the socio"ogy cata"og> chi"dhood' wor$' "eisure. The new sub2ects are accompanied by new methods. 8here history once was primari"y narrative' it is now entire"y ana"ytic. The o"d +uestions ;8hat happenedC< and ;(ow did it happenC< have given way to the +uestion ;8hy did it happenC< 6rominent among the methods used to answer the +uestion ;8hy< is psychoana"ysis' and its use has given rise to psychohistory. 6sychohistory does not mere"y use psycho"ogica" e5p"anations in historica" conte5ts. (istorians have a"ways used such e5p"anations when they were appropriate and when there was su##icient evidence #or them. &ut this pragmatic use o# psycho"ogy is not what psychohistorians intend. They are committed' not 2ust to psycho"ogy in genera"' but to 7reudian psychoana"ysis. This commitment prec"udes a commitment to history as historians have a"ways understood it. 6sychohistory derives its ;#acts< not #rom history' the detai"ed

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records o# events and their conse+uences' but #rom psychoana"ysis o# the individua"s who made history' and deduces its theories not #rom this or that instance in their "ives' but #rom a view o# human nature that transcends history. /t denies the basic criterion o# historica" evidence> that evidence be pub"ic"y accessib"e to' and there#ore assessab"e by' a"" historians. 0nd it vio"ates the basic tenet o# historica" method> that historians be a"ert to the negative instances that wou"d re#ute their theses. 6sychohistorians' convinced o# the abso"ute rightness o# their own theories' are a"so convinced that theirs is the ;deepest< e5p"anation o# any event' that other e5p"anations #a"" short o# the truth. 6sychohistory is not content to vio"ate the discip"ine o# history (in the sense o# the proper mode o# studying and writing about the past): it a"so vio"ates the past itse"#. /t denies to the past an integrity and wi"" o# its own' in which peop"e acted out o# a variety o# motives and in which events had a mu"tip"icity o# causes and e##ects. /t imposes upon the past the same determinism that it imposes upon the present' thus robbing peop"e and events o# their individua"ity and o# their comp"e5ity. /nstead o# respecting the particu"arity o# the past' it assimi"ates a"" events' past and present' into a sing"e deterministic schema that is presumed to be true at a"" times and in a"" circumstances.

25. &hich of the following best states the main point of the passage% (A) The approach of psychohistorians to historical study is currently in 'ogue e'en though it lacks the rigor and 'erifiability of traditional historical method. (B) Traditional historians can benefit from studying the techni"ues and findings of psychohistorians. (C) Areas of sociological study such as childhood and work are of little interest to traditional historians. ( ) The psychological assessment of an indi'idual4s beha'ior and attitudes is more informati'e than the details of his or her daily life. (#) )istory is composed of uni"ue and nonrepeating e'ents that must be indi'idually analy!ed on the basis of publicly 'erifiable e'idence. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one way in which traditional history can be distinguished from psychohistory is that traditional history usually (A) 'iews past e'ents as comple$ and ha'ing their own indi'iduality (B) relies on a single interpretation of human beha'ior to e$plain historical e'ents (C) interprets historical e'ents in such a way that their specific nature is transcended ( ) turns to psychological e$planations in historical conte$ts to account for e'ents (#) relies strictly on data that are concrete and "uantifiable 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the methods used by psychohistorians probably pre'ent them from (A) presenting their material in chronological order

GRE

021

(B) producing a one(sided picture of an indi'idual4s personality and moti'ations (C) unco'ering alternati'e e$planations that might cause them to "uestion their own conclusions ( ) offering a consistent interpretation of the impact of personality on historical e'ents (#) recogni!ing connections between a go'ernment4s political actions and the aspirations of go'ernment leaders 2.. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions% (A) &hat are some specific e$amples of the use of psychohistory in historical interpretation% (B) &hen were the con'entions go'erning the practice of traditional history first established% (C) &hen do traditional historians consider psychological e$planations of historical de'elopments appropriate% ( ) &hat sort of historical figure is best suited for psychohistorical analysis% (#) &hat is the basic criterion of historical e'idence re"uired by traditional historians% 20. The author mentions which of the following as a characteristic of the practice of psychohistorians% (A) The li'es of historical figures are presented in episodic rather than narrati'e form. (B) Archi'es used by psychohistorians to gather material are not accessible to other scholars. (C) @ast and current e'ents are all placed within the same deterministic schema. ( ) #'ents in the adult life of a historical figure are seen to be more conse"uential than are those in the childhood of the figure. (#) Analysis is focused on group beha'ior rather than on particular e'ents in an indi'idual4s life. 21. The author of the passage suggests that psychohistorians 'iew history primarily as (A) a report of e'ents/ causes/ and effects that is generally accepted by historians but which is/ for the most part/ un'erifiable (B) an episodic account that lacks cohesion because records of the role of childhood/ work/ and leisure in the li'es of historical figures are rare (C) an uncharted sea of seemingly une$plainable e'ents that ha'e meaning only when e$amined as discrete units ( ) a record of the way in which a closed set of immutable psychological laws seems to ha'e shaped e'ents

022

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(#) a proof of the e$istence of intricate causal interrelationships between past and present e'ents 22. The author of the passage puts the word *deepest+ (line 00) in "uotation marks most probably in order to (A) signal her reser'ations about the accuracy of psychohistorians4 claims for their work (B) draw attention to a contradiction in the psychohistorians4 method (C) emphasi!e the ma<or difference between the traditional historians4 method and that of psychohistorians ( ) disassociate her opinion of the psychohistorians4 claims from her opinion of their method (#) "uestion the usefulness of psychohistorians4 insights into traditional historical scholarship 2-. 3n presenting her analysis/ the author does all of the following #DC#@TE (A) ?ake general statement without reference to specific e$amples. (B) escribe some of the criteria employed by traditional historians. (C) Nuestion the ade"uacy of the psychohistorians4 interpretation of e'ents. ( ) @oint out inconsistencies in the psychohistorians4 application of their methods. (#) Contrast the underlying assumptions of psychohistorians with those of traditional historians. SECTION B
@ean 8agner3s most enduring contribution to the study o# 0#ro-0merican poetry is his insistence that it be ana"y)ed in a re"igious' as we"" as secu"ar' #rame o# re#erence. The appropriateness o# such an approach may seem se"#-evident #or a tradition commencing with spiritua"s and owing its ear"y #orms' rhythms' vocabu"ary' and evange"ica" #ervor to 8es"eyan hymna"s. &ut be#ore 8agner a secu"ar out"oo$ that ana"y)ed &"ac$ poetry so"e"y within the conte5t o# po"itica" and socia" protest was dominant in the #ie"d. /t is 8agner who #irst demonstrated the essentia" #usion o# racia" and re"igious #ee"ing in 0#ro-0merican poetry. The two' he argued' #orm a symbiotic union in which re"igious #ee"ings are o#ten app"ied to racia" issues and racia" prob"ems are o#ten pro2ected onto a metaphysica" p"ane. 8agner #ound this most e"o+uent"y i""ustrated in the &"ac$ spiritua"' where the desire #or #reedom in this wor"d and the hope #or sa"vation in the ne5t are ine5tricab"y intertwined.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) contrast the theories of Aean &agner with those of other contemporary critics (B) document the influence of Aean &agner on the de'elopment of Afro( American poetry

GRE

02.

(C) e$plain the rele'ance of Aean &agner4s work to the study of Afro(American religion ( ) indicate the importance of Aean &agner4s analysis of Afro(American poetry (#) present the contributions of Aean &agner to the study of Black spirituals 16. All of the following aspects of Afro(American poetry are referred to in the passage as ha'ing been influenced by &esleyan hymnals #DC#@TE (A) sub<ect matter (B) word choice (C) rhythm ( ) structure (#) tone 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ before &agner/ most students of Afro( American poetry did which of the following% (A) Contributed appreciably to the transfer of political protest from Afro( American poetry to direct political action. (B) 3gnored at least some of the historical roots of Afro(American poetry. (C) Analy!ed fully the aspects of social protest to be found in such traditional forms of Afro(American poetry as the Black spiritual. ( ) =egarded as unimportant the de'elopment of fer'ent emotionalism in a portion of Afro(American poetry. (#) Concentrated on the comple$ relations between the technical elements in Afro(American poetry and its political content.
Two re"ative"y recent independent deve"opments stand behind the current ma2or research e##ort on nitrogen #i5ation' the process by which bacteria symbiotica""y render "eguminous p"ants independent o# nitrogen #erti"i)er. The one deve"opment has been the rapid' sustained increase in the price o# nitrogen #erti"i)er. The other deve"opment has been the rapid growth o# $now"edge o# and technica" sophistication in genetic engineering. 7erti"i)er prices' "arge"y tied to the price o# natura" gas' huge amounts o# which go into the manu#acture o# #erti"i)er' wi"" continue to represent an enormous and esca"ating economic burden on modern agricu"ture' spurring the search #or a"ternatives to synthetic #erti"i)ers. 0nd genetic engineering is 2ust the sort o# #undamenta" brea$through that opens up prospects o# who""y nove" a"ternatives. 9ne such nove" idea is that o# inserting into the chromosomes o# p"ants discrete genes that are not a part o# the p"ants3 natura" constitution> speci#ica""y' the idea o# inserting into non"eguminous p"ants the genes' i# they can be identi#ied and iso"ated' that #it the "eguminous p"ants to be hosts #or nitrogen-#i5ing bacteria. (ence' the intensi#ied research on "egumes. *itrogen #i5ation is a process in which certain bacteria use atmospheric nitrogen gas' which green p"ants cannot direct"y uti"i)e' to produce ammonia' a nitrogen compound p"ants can use. /t is one o# nature3s great ironies that the avai"abi"ity o# nitrogen in the soi" #re+uent"y sets an upper "imit on p"ant growth even though the p"ants3 "eaves are bathed in a sea o# nitrogen gas. The "eguminous p"ants!among them crop p"ants such as soybeans' peas'

020

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

a"#a"#a' and c"over!have so"ved the nitrogen supp"y prob"em by entering into a symbiotic re"ationship with the bacteria" genus *hi1o$ium: as a matter o# #act' there is a speci#ic strain o# *hi1o$ium #or each species o# "egume. The host p"ant supp"ies the bacteria with #ood and a protected habitat and receives surp"us ammonia in e5change. (ence' "egumes can thrive in nitrogen-dep"eted soi". Un#ortunate"y' most o# the ma2or #ood crops!inc"uding mai)e' wheat' rice' and potatoes !cannot. 9n the contrary' many o# the high-yie"ding hybrid varieties o# these #ood crops bred during the Areen Revo"ution o# the 19G.3s were se"ected speci#ica""y to give high yie"ds in response to generous app"ications o# nitrogen #erti"i)er. This poses an additiona"' #ormidab"e cha""enge to p"ant geneticists> they must wor$ on enhancing #i5ation within the e5isting symbioses. Un"ess they succeed' the yie"d gains o# the Areen Revo"ution wi"" be "arge"y "ost even i# the genes in "egumes that e+uip those p"ants to enter into a symbiosis with nitrogen #i5ers are identi#ied and iso"ated' and even i# the trans#er o# those gene comp"e5es' once they are #ound' becomes possib"e. The overa"" tas$ "oo$s #orbidding' but the sta$es are too high not to underta$e it.

25. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) e$pose the fragile nature of the foundations on which the high yields of modern agriculture rest (B) argue that genetic engineering promises to lead to e'en higher yields than are achie'able with synthetic fertili!ers (C) argue that the capacity for nitrogen(fi$ing symbioses is transferable to nonleguminous plants ( ) e$plain the reasons for and the ob<ecti'es of current research on nitrogen( fi$ing symbioses (#) describe the nature of the genes that regulate the symbiosis between legumes and certain bacteria 21. According to the passage/ there is currently no strain of "hi.obiu- that can enter into a symbiosis with (A) alfalfa (B) clo'er (C) mai!e ( ) peas (#) soybeans 22. The passage implies that which of the following is true of the bacterial genus "hi.obiu-% (A) "hi.obiu- bacteria are found primarily in nitrogen(depleted soils. (B) ;ome strains of "hi.obiu- are not capable of entering into a symbiosis with any plant. (C) 9ewly bred 'arieties of legumes cannot be hosts to any strain of "hi.obiu-.

GRE

021

( ) "hi.obiu- bacteria cannot sur'i'e outside the protected habitat pro'ided by host plants. (#) "hi.obiu- bacteria produce some ammonia for their own purposes. 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following was the most influential factor in bringing about intensified research on nitrogen fi$ation% (A) The high yields of the Breen =e'olution (B) The persistent upward surge in natural gas prices (C) The 'ariety of "hi.obiu- strains ( ) The mechani!ation of modern agriculture (#) The en'ironmental ill effects of synthetic fertili!ers 20. &hich of the following situations is most closely analogous to the situation described by the author as one of nature4s great ironies (lines 26(.2)% (A) That of a farmer whose crops ha'e failed because the normal midseason rains did not materiali!e and no preparations for irrigation had been made (B) That of a long(distance runner who loses a marathon race because of a wrong turn that cost him twenty seconds (C) That of shipwrecked sailors at sea in a lifeboat/ with one flask of drinking water to share among them ( ) That of a motorist who runs out of gas a mere fi'e miles from the nearest gas station (#) That of tra'elers who want to reach their destination as fast and as cheaply as possible/ but find that cost increases as tra'el speed increases 21. According to the passage/ the ultimate goal of the current research on nitrogen fi$ation is to de'elop (A) strains of "hi.obiu- that can enter into symbioses with e$isting 'arieties of wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes (B) strains of "hi.obiu- that produce more ammonia for leguminous host plants than do any of the strains presently known (C) 'arieties of wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes that yield as much as do e$isting 'arieties/ but re"uire less nitrogen ( ) 'arieties of wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes that maintain an ade"uate symbiotic relationship with nitrogen(fi$ing bacteria and produce high yields (#) high(yielding 'arieties of wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes that are genetically e"uipped to fi$ nitrogen from the air without the aid of bacteria 22. The author regards the research program under discussion as (A) original and e$tensi'e but ill(defined as to method (B) necessary and ambitious but 'ulnerable to failure (C) cogent and worthwhile but se'erely under(funded

022

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) prohibiti'ely e$pensi'e but conceptually elegant (#) theoretically fascinating but practically useless 2-. ?ost nearly parallel/ in its fundamental approach/ to the research program described in the passage would be a program designed to (A) achie'e greater frost resistance in frost(tender food plants by means of selecti'e breeding/ thereby e$panding those plants4 area of culti'ation (B) achie'e greater yields from food plants by interplanting crop plants that are mutually beneficial (C) find ine$pensi'e and abundant natural substances that could/ without reducing yields/ be substituted for e$pensi'e synthetic fertili!ers ( ) change the genetic makeup of food plants that cannot li'e in water with high salinity/ using genes from plants adapted to salt water (#) de'elop/ through genetic engineering/ a genetic configuration for the ma<or food plants that impro'es the storage characteristics of the edible portion of the plants No. 7-3 SECTION A
9# (omer3s two epic poems' the 4dyssey has a"ways been more popu"ar than the )liad' perhaps because it inc"udes more #eatures o# mytho"ogy that are accessib"e to readers. /ts sub2ect (to use ?aynard ?ac$3s categories) is ;"i#e-as-spectac"e'< #or readers' diverted by its various incidents' observe its hero 9dysseus primari"y #rom without: the tragic )liad' however' presents ;"i#e-as-e5perience<> readers are as$ed to identi#y with the mind o# 0chi""es' whose motivations render him a not particu"ar"y "i$ab"e hero. /n addition' the )liad' more than the 4dyssey' suggests the comp"e5ity o# the gods3 invo"vement in human actions' and to the e5tent that modern readers #ind this comp"e5ity a need"ess comp"ication' the )liad is "ess satis#ying than the 4dyssey' with its simp"er scheme o# divine 2ustice. 7ina""y' since the )liad presents a historica""y veri#iab"e action' Troy3s siege' the poem raises historica" +uestions that are absent #rom the 4dysseys b"ithe"y imaginative wor"d.

1-. The author uses ?ack4s *categories+ (lines 0(1) most probably in order to (A) argue that the /liad should replace the 0dyssey as the more popular poem (B) indicate ?ack4s importance as a commentator on the /liad and the 0dyssey (C) suggest one way in which the /liad and the 0dyssey can be distinguished ( ) point out some of the difficulties faced by readers of the /liad and the 0dyssey (#) demonstrate that the /liad and the 0dyssey can best be distinguished by comparing their respecti'e heroes 16. The author suggests that the 'ariety of incidents in the 0dyssey is likely to deter

GRE

02-

the reader from (A) concentrating on the poem4s mythological features (B) concentrating on the psychological states of the poem4s central character (C) accepting the e$planation that ha'e been offered for the poem4s popularity ( ) accepting the poem4s scheme of di'ine <ustice (#) accepting ?aynard ?ack4s theory that the poem4s sub<ect is *life(as( spectacle+ 1,. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) distinguishing arguments (B) applying classifications (C) initiating a debate ( ) resol'ing a dispute (#) de'eloping a contrast 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a reader of the /liad is likely to ha'e trouble identifying with the poem4s hero for which of the following reasons% (A) The hero is e'entually re'ealed to be unheroic. (B) The hero can be obser'ed by the reader only from without. (C) The hero4s psychology is not historically 'erifiable. ( ) The hero4s emotions often do not seem appealing to the reader. (#) The hero4s emotions are not sufficiently 'arious to engage the reader4s attention.
7"at#ish' such as the #"ounder' are among the #ew vertebrates that "ac$ appro5imate bi"atera" symmetry (symmetry in which structures to the "e#t and right o# the body3s mid"ine are mirror images). ?ost stri$ing among the many asymmetries evident in an adu"t #"at#ish is eye p"acement> be#ore maturity one eye migrates' so that in an adu"t #"at#ish both eyes are on the same side o# the head. 8hi"e in most species with asymmetries virtua""y a"" adu"ts share the same asymmetry' members o# the starry #"ounder species can be either "e#t-eyed (both eyes on the "e#t side o# head) or right-eyed. /n the waters between the United tates and @apan' the starry #"ounder popu"ations vary #rom about -. percent "e#t-eyed o## the United tates 8est %oast' through about 7. percent "e#t-eyed ha"#way between the United tates and @apan' to near"y 1.. percent "e#t-eyed o## the @apanese coast. &io"ogists ca"" this $ind o# gradua" variation over a certain geographic range a ;c"ine< and interpret c"ines as strong indications that the variation is adaptive' a response to environmenta" di##erences. 7or the starry #"ounder this interpretation imp"ies that a geometric di##erence (between #ish that are mirror images o# one another) is adaptive' that "e#t-eyedness in the @apanese starry #"ounder has been se"ected #or' which provo$es a perp"e5ing +uestions> what is the se"ective advantage in having both eyes on one side rather than on the otherC The ease with which a #ish can reverse the e##ect o# the sidedness o# its eye asymmetry simp"y by turning around has caused bio"ogists to study interna" anatomy' especia""y the optic

026

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

nerves' #or the answer. /n a"" #"at#ish the optic nerves cross' so that the right optic nerve is 2oined to the brain3s "e#t side and vice versa. This crossing introduces an asymmetry' as one optic nerve must cross above or be"ow the other. A. (. 6ar$er reasoned that i#' #or e5amp"e' a #"at#ish3s "e#t eye migrated when the right optic nerve was on top' there wou"d be a twisting o# nerves' which might be mechanica""y disadvantageous. 7or starry #"ounders' then' the "e#teyed variety wou"d be se"ected against' since in a starry #"ounder the "e#t optic nerve is uppermost. The prob"em with the above e5p"anation is that the @apanese starry #"ounder popu"ation is a"most e5c"usive"y "e#t-eyed' an natura" se"ection never promotes a pure"y "ess advantageous variation. 0s other e5p"anations proved e+ua""y untenab"e' bio"ogists conc"uded that there is no important adaptive di##erence between "e#t-eyedness and right-eyedness' and that the two characteristics are genetica""y associated with some other adaptive"y signi#icant characteristic. This situation is one common"y encountered by evo"utionary bio"ogists' who must o#ten decide whether a characteristic is adaptive or se"ective"y neutra". 0s #or the "e#t-eyed and right-eyed #"at#ish' their di##erence' however stri$ing' appears to be an evo"utionary red herring.

21. According to the passage/ starry flounder differ from most other species of flatfish in that starry flounder (A) are not basically bilaterally symmetric (B) do not become asymmetric until adulthood (C) do not all share the same asymmetry ( ) ha'e both eyes on the same side of the head (#) tend to cluster in only certain geographic regions 22. The author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about left(eyedness and right(eyedness in the starry flounder% 3. 33. They are adapti'e 'ariations by the starry flounder to en'ironmental differences. They do not seem to gi'e ob'ious selecti'e ad'antages to the starry flounder.

333. They occur in different proportions in different locations. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 2.. According to the passage/ a possible disad'antage associated with eye migration in flatfish is that the optic ner'es can (A) adhere to one another (B) detach from the eyes (C) cross

GRE

02,

( ) stretch (#) twist 20. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage as a whole% (A) A phenomenon is described and an interpretation presented and re<ected. (B) A generali!ation is made and supporting e'idence is supplied and weighed. (C) A contradiction is noted and a resolution is suggested and then modified. ( ) A series of obser'ations is presented and e$plained in terms of the dominant theory. (#) A hypothesis is introduced and corroborated in the light of new e'idence. 21. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions% (A) &hy are Aapanese starry flounder mostly left(eyed% (B) &hy should the eye(sidedness in starry flounder be considered selecti'ely neutral% (C) &hy ha'e biologists recently become interested in whether a characteristic is adapti'e or selecti'ely neutral% ( ) )ow do the eyes in flatfish migrate% (#) )ow did @arker make his disco'eries about the anatomy of optic ner'es in flatfish% 22. &hich of the following is most clearly similar to a cline as it is described in the second paragraph of the passage% (A) A 'egetable market in which the 'arious items are grouped according to place of origin (B) A wheat field in which different 'arieties of wheat are planted to yield a crop that will bring the ma$imum profit (C) A flower stall in which the 'arious species of flowers are arranged according to their price ( ) A housing de'elopment in which the length of the front struts supporting the porch of each house increases as houses are built up the hill (#) A national park in which the ranger stations are placed so as to be inconspicuous/ and yet as easily accessible as possible 2-. &hich of the following phrases from the passage best e$presses the author4s conclusion about the meaning of the difference between left(eyed and right(eyed flatfish% (A) *?ost striking+ (line 0) (B) *'ariation is adapti'e+ (line 1,) (C) *mechanically disad'antageous+ (lines .-.6) ( ) *adapti'ely significant+ (lines 06(0,)

0.5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) *e'olutionary red herring+ (line 10) SECTION B

/# a supernova (the e5p"osion o# a massive star) triggered star #ormation #rom dense c"ouds o# gas and dust' and i# the most massive star to be #ormed #rom the c"oud evo"ved into a supernova and triggered a new round o# star #ormation' and so on' then a chain o# star#orming regions wou"d resu"t. /# many such chains were created in a di##erentia""y rotating ga"a5y' the distribution o# stars wou"d resemb"e the observed distribution in a spira" ga"a5y. This "ine o# reasoning under"ies an e5citing new theory o# spira"-ga"a5y structure. 0 computer simu"ation based on this theory has reproduced the appearance o# many spira" ga"a5ies without assuming an under"ying density wave' the ha""mar$ o# the most wide"y accepted theory o# the "arge-sca"e structure o# spira" ga"a5ies. That theory maintains that a density wave o# spira" #orm sweeps through the centra" p"ane o# a ga"a5y' compressing c"ouds o# gas and dust' which co""apse into stars that #orm a spira" pattern.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) describe what results when a superno'a triggers the creation of chains of star( forming regions (B) propose a modification in the most widely accepted theory of spiral(gala$y structure (C) compare and contrast the roles of clouds of gas and dust in two theories of spiral(gala$y structure ( ) describe a new theory of spiral(gala$y structure and contrast it with the most widely accepted theory (#) describe a new theory of spiral(gala$y structure and discuss a reason why it is inferior to the most widely accepted theory 16. The passage implies that/ according to the new theory of spiral(gala$y structure/ a spiral gala$y can be created by superno'as when the superno'as are (A) producing an underlying density wa'e (B) affected by a density wa'e of spiral form (C) distributed in a spiral pattern ( ) located in the central plane of a gala$y (#) located in a differentially rotating gala$y 1,. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most discredit the new theory as described in the passage% (A) The e$act mechanism by which a star becomes a superno'a is not yet completely known and may e'en differ for different stars. (B) Chains of star(forming regions like those postulated in the new theory ha'e been obser'ed in the 'icinity of dense clouds of gas and dust.

GRE

0.1

(C) The most massi'e stars formed from superno'a e$plosions are unlikely to e'ol'e into superno'as. ( ) Computer simulations of superno'as pro'ide a poor picture of what occurs <ust before a superno'a e$plosion. (#) A density wa'e cannot compress clouds of gas and dust to a density high enough to create a star. 25. The author4s attitude toward the new theory of spiral(gala$y structure can best be described as (A) euphoric (B) enthusiastic (C) concerned ( ) critical (#) disputatious
The #irst mention o# s"avery in the statutes o# the =ng"ish co"onies o# *orth 0merica does not occur unti" a#ter 1GG.!some #orty years a#ter the importation o# the #irst &"ac$ peop"e. Eest we thin$ that s"avery e5isted in #act be#ore it did in "aw' 9scar and ?ary (and"in assure us that the status o# &"ac$ peop"e down to the 1GG.3s was that o# servants. 0 criti+ue o# the (and"ins3 interpretation o# why "ega" s"avery did not appear unti" the 1GG.3s suggests that assumptions about the re"ation between s"avery and racia" pre2udice shou"d be ree5amined' and that e5p"anations #or the di##erent treatment o# &"ac$ s"aves in *orth and outh 0merica shou"d be e5panded. The (and"ins e5p"ain the appearance o# "ega" s"avery by arguing that' during the 1GG.3s' the position o# 8hite servants was improving re"ative to that o# &"ac$ servants. Thus' the (and"ins contend' &"ac$ and 8hite servants' hereto#ore treated a"i$e' each attained a di##erent status. There are' however' important ob2ections to this argument. 7irst' the (and"ins cannot ade+uate"y demonstrate that the 8hite servant3s position was improving during and a#ter the 1GG.3s: severa" acts o# the ?ary"and and Birginia "egis"atures indicate otherwise. 0nother #"aw in the (and"ins3 interpretation is their assumption that prior to the estab"ishment o# "ega" s"avery there was no discrimination against &"ac$ peop"e. /t is true that be#ore the 1GG.3s &"ac$ peop"e were rare"y ca""ed s"aves. &ut this shou"d not overshadow evidence #rom the 1G4.3s on that points to racia" discrimination without using the term s"avery. uch discrimination sometimes stopped short o# "i#etime servitude or inherited status!the two attributes o# true s"avery!yet in other cases it inc"uded both. The (and"ins3 argument e5c"udes the rea" possibi"ity that &"ac$ peop"e in the =ng"ish co"onies were never treated as the e+ua"s o# 8hite peop"e. This possibi"ity has important rami#ications. /# #rom the outset &"ac$ peop"e were discriminated against' then "ega" s"avery shou"d be viewed as a re#"ection and an e5tension o# racia" pre2udice rather than' as many historians inc"uding the (and"ins have argued' the cause o# pre2udice. /n addition' the e5istence o# discrimination be#ore the advent o# "ega" s"avery o##ers a #urther e5p"anation #or the harsher treatment o# &"ac$ s"aves in *orth than in outh 0merica. 7reyre and Tannenbaum have right"y argued that the "ac$ o# certain traditions in

0.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

*orth 0merica!such as a Roman conception o# s"avery and a Roman %atho"ic emphasis on e+ua"ity!e5p"ains why the treatment o# &"ac$ s"aves was more severe there than in the panish and 6ortuguese co"onies o# outh 0merica. &ut this cannot be the who"e e5p"anation since it is mere"y negative' based on"y on a "ac$ o# something. 0 more compe""ing e5p"anation is that the ear"y and sometimes e5treme racia" discrimination in the =ng"ish co"onies he"ped determine the particu"ar nature o# the s"avery that #o""owed.

21. &hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of lines 1(6 of the passage% (A) A historical trend is sketched and an e$ception to that trend is cited. (B) #'idence for a historical irregularity is mentioned and a generali!ation from that e'idence is ad'anced. (C) A parado$ about the origins of an institution is pointed out and the author4s e$planation of the parado$ is e$pounded. ( ) A statement about a historical phenomenon is offered and a possible misinterpretation of that statement is addressed. (#) An interpretation of the rise of an institution is stated and e'idence for that interpretation is pro'ided. 22. &hich of the following is the most logical inference to be drawn from the passage about the effects of *se'eral acts of the ?aryland and Cirginia legislatures+ (lines 22(2.) passed during and after the 12254s% (A) The acts negati'ely affected the pre(12254s position of Black as well as of &hite ser'ants. (B) The acts had the effect of impairing rather than impro'ing the position of &hite ser'ants relati'e to what it had been before the 12254s. (C) The acts had a different effect o n the position of &hite ser'ants than did many of the acts passed during this time by the legislatures of other colonies. ( ) The acts/ at the 'ery least/ caused the position of &hite ser'ants to remain no better than it had been before the 12254s. (#) The acts/ at the 'ery least/ tended to reflect the attitudes toward Black ser'ants that already e$isted before the 12254s. 2.. &ith which of the following statements regarding the status of Black people in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America before the 12254s would the author be K#A;T likely to agree% (A) Although Black people were not legally considered to be sla'es/ they were often called sla'es. (B) Although sub<ect to some discrimination/ Black people had a higher legal status than they did after the 12254s. (C) Although sometimes sub<ect to lifetime ser'itude/ Black people were not legally considered to be sla'es.

GRE

0..

( ) Although often not treated the same as &hite people/ Black people/ like many &hite people/ possessed the legal status of ser'ants. (#) Although apparently sub<ect to more discrimination after 12.5 than before 12.5/ Black people from 1225 to the 12254s were legally considered to be ser'ants. 20. According to the passage/ the )andlins ha'e argued which of the following about the relationship between racial pre<udice and the institution of legal sla'ery in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America% (A) =acial pre<udice and the institution of sla'ery arose simultaneously. (B) =acial pre<udice most often took the form of the imposition of inherited status/ one of the attributes of sla'ery. (C) The source of racial pre<udice was the institution of sla'ery. ( ) Because of the influence of the =oman Catholic church/ racial pre<udice sometimes did not result in sla'ery. (#) Although e$isting in a lesser form before the 12254s/ racial pre<udice increased sharply after sla'ery was legali!ed. 21. The passage suggests that the e$istence of a =oman conception of sla'ery in ;panish and @ortuguese colonies had the effect of (A) e$tending rather than causing racial pre<udice in these colonies (B) hastening the legali!ation of sla'ery in these colonies (C) mitigating some of the conditions of sla'ery for Black people in these colonies ( ) delaying the introduction of sla'ery into the #nglish colonies (#) bringing about an impro'ement in the treatment of Black sla'es in the #nglish colonies 22. The author considers the e$planation put forward by >reyre and Tannenbaum for the treatment accorded Black sla'es in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America to be (A) ambitious but misguided (B) 'alid but limited (C) popular but suspect ( ) anachronistic and contro'ersial (#) premature and illogical 2-. &ith which of the following statements regarding the reason for the introduction of legal sla'ery in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America would the author be most likely to agree% (A) The introduction is partly to be e$plained by reference to the origins of sla'ery/ before the 12254s/ in the ;panish and @ortuguese colonies.

0.0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) The introduction is to be e$plained by reference to a growing consensus beginning in the 12.54s about what were the attributes of true sla'ery. (C) The introduction is more likely to be e$plained by reference to a decline than to an impro'ement in the position of &hite ser'ants in the colonies during and after the 12254s. ( ) The introduction is more likely to be e$plained by reference to the position of Black ser'ants in the colonies in the 12.54s than by reference to their position in the 12054s and 12154s. (#) The introduction is more likely to be e$plained by reference to the history of Black people in the colonies before 1225 than by reference to the impro'ing position of &hite ser'ants during and after the 12254s. No. 8-1 SECTION A
Aeo"ogists have "ong $nown that the =arth3s mant"e is heterogeneous' but its spatia" arrangement remains unreso"ved!is the mant"e essentia""y "ayered or irregu"ar"y heterogeneousC The best evidence #or the "ayered mant"e thesis is the we""-estab"ished #act that vo"canic roc$s #ound on oceanic is"ands' is"ands be"ieved to resu"t #rom mant"e p"umes arising #rom the "ower mant"e' are composed o# materia" #undamenta""y di##erent #rom that o# the midocean ridge system' whose source' most geo"ogists contend' is the upper mant"e. ome geo"ogists' however' on the basis o# observations concerning mant"e 5eno"iths' argue that the mant"e is not "ayered' but that heterogeneity is created by #"uids rich in ;incompatib"e e"ements< (e"ements tending toward "i+uid rather than so"id state) perco"ating upward and trans#orming portions o# the upper mant"e irregu"ar"y' according to the vagaries o# the #"uids3 pathways. 8e be"ieve' perhaps unimaginative"y' that this debate can be reso"ved through #urther study' and that the undere5p"ored midocean ridge system is the $ey.

1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) Current theories regarding the structure of the #arth4s mantle cannot account for new disco'eries regarding the composition of mantle $enoliths. (B) There are conflicting hypotheses about the heterogeneity of the #arth4s mantle because few mantle elements ha'e been thoroughly studied. (C) >urther research is needed to resol'e the debate among geologists o'er the composition of the midocean ridge system. ( ) There is clear(cut disagreement within the geological community o'er the structure of the #arth4s mantle. (#) There has recently been a strong and e$citing challenge to geologists4 long( standing belief in the heterogeneity of the #arth4s mantle. 16. According to the passage/ it is belie'ed that oceanic islands are formed from

GRE

0.1

(A) the same material as mantle $enoliths (B) the same material as the midocean ridge system (C) 'olcanic rocks from the upper mantle ( ) incompatible elements percolating up from the lower mantle (#) mantle plumes arising from the lower mantle 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the supporters of the *layered(mantle+ theory belie'e which of the following% 3. 33. The 'olcanic rocks on oceanic islands are composed of material deri'ed from the lower part of the mantle. The materials of which 'olcanic rocks on oceanic islands and midocean ridges are composed are typical of the layers from which they are thought to originate.

333. The differences in composition between 'olcanic rocks on oceanic islands and the midocean ridges are a result of different concentrations of incompatible elements. (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 25. The authors suggest that their proposal for determining the nature of the mantle4s heterogeneity might be considered by many to be (A) pedestrian (B) contro'ersial (C) unrealistic ( ) no'el (#) parado$ical
?any "iterary detectives have pored over a great pu))"e concerning the writer ?arce" 6roust> what happened in 19.9C (ow did Contre aint-Beuve' an essay attac$ing the methods o# the critic aint &euve' turn into the start o# the nove" *emem$rance of Things PastC 0 recent"y pub"ished "etter #rom 6roust to the editor Ba""ette con#irms that 7a""ois' the editor o# the 19-H edition o# Contre aint-Beuve' made an essentia""y correct guess about the re"ationship o# the essay to the nove". 7a""ois proposed that 6roust had tried to begin a nove" in 19.8' abandoned it #or what was to be a "ong demonstration o# aint-&euve3s b"indness to the rea" nature o# great writing' #ound the essay giving rise to persona" memories and #ictiona" deve"opments' and a""owed these to ta$e over in a steadi"y deve"oping nove". Fra#t passages in 6roust3s 19.9 noteboo$s indicate that the transition #rom essay to nove" began in Contre aint-Beuve' when 6roust introduced severa" e5amp"es to show the power#u" in#"uence that invo"untary memory e5erts over the creative imagination. /n e##ect' in

0.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

trying to demonstrate that the imagination is more pro#ound and "ess submissive to the inte""ect than aint-&euve assumed' 6roust e"icited vita" memories o# his own and' #inding subt"e connections between them' began to amass the materia" #or *emem$rance. &y 0ugust' 6roust was writing to Ba""ette' in#orming him o# his intention to deve"op the materia" as a nove". ?aurice &ardeche' in (arcel Proust& romancier' has shown the importance in the dra#ts o# *emem$rance o# spontaneous and apparent"y random associations o# 6roust3s subconscious. 0s incidents and re#"ections occurred to 6roust' he continua""y inserted new passages a"tering and e5panding his narrative. &ut he #ound it di##icu"t to contro" the dri#t o# his inspiration. The very richness and comp"e5ity o# the meaning#u" re"ationships that $ept presenting and rearranging themse"ves on a"" "eve"s' #rom abstract inte""igence to pro#ound dreamy #ee"ings' made it di##icu"t #or 6roust to set them out coherent"y. The beginning o# contro" came when he saw how to connect the beginning and the end o# his nove". /ntrigued by 6roust3s c"aim that he had ;begun and #inished< *emem$rance at the same time' (enri &onnet discovered that parts o# *emem$rances "ast boo$ were actua""y started in 19.9. 0"ready in that year' 6roust had dra#ted descriptions o# his nove"3s characters in their o"d age that wou"d appear in the #ina" boo$ o# *emem$rance' where the permanence o# art is set against the ravages o# time. The "etter to Ba""ette' dra#ts o# the essay and nove"' and &onnet3s researches estab"ish in broad out"ine the process by which 6roust generated his nove" out o# the ruins o# his essay. &ut those o# us who hoped' with No"b' that No"b3s new"y pub"ished comp"ete edition o# 6roust3s correspondence #or 19.9 wou"d document the process in greater detai" are disappointed. 7or unti" 6roust was con#ident that he was at "ast in sight o# a viab"e structure #or *emem$rance' he to"d #ew correspondents that he was producing anything more ambitious than Contre aint-Beuve.

21. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) the role of in'oluntary memory in @roust4s writing (B) e'idence concerning the genesis of @roust4s no'el "e-e-brance o+ Things Past (C) conflicting scholarly opinions about the 'alue of studying the drafts of "e-e-brance o+ Things Past ( ) @roust4s correspondence and what it re'eals about "e-e-brance o+ Things Past (#) the influence of ;aint(Beu'e4s criticism on @roust4s no'el "e-e-brance o+ Things Past 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that all of the following are literary detecti'es who ha'e tried/ by means of either scholarship or criticism/ to help sol'e the *great pu!!le+ mentioned in lines 1(2 #DC#@TE (A) Bardeche (B) Bonnet (C) >allois ( ) Molb

GRE

0.-

(#) Callette 2.. According to the passage/ in drafts of Contre Saint %eu$e @roust set out to show that ;aint(Beu'e made which of the following mistakes as a critic% 3. 33. ;aint(Beu'e made no effort to study the de'elopment of a no'el through its drafts and re'isions. ;aint(Beu'e assigned too great a role in the creati'e process to a writer4s conscious intellect.

333. ;aint(Beu'e concentrated too much on plots and not enough on imagery and other elements of style. (A) 33 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 20. &hich of the following best states the author4s attitude toward the information that scholars ha'e gathered about @roust4s writing in 1,5,% (A) The author is disappointed that no new documents ha'e come to light since >allois4s speculations. (B) The author is dissatisfied because there are too many gaps and inconsistencies in the drafts. (C) The author is confident that >allois4s 1,10 guess has been pro'ed largely correct/ but regrets that still more detailed documentation concerning @roust4s transition from the essay to the no'el has not emerged. ( ) The author is satisfied that >allois4s <udgment was largely correct/ but feels that @roust4s early work in designing and writing the no'el was probably far more deliberate than >allois4s description of the process would suggest. (#) The author is satisfied that the facts of @roust4s life in 1,5, ha'e been thoroughly established/ but belie'es such documents as drafts and correspondence are only of limited 'alue in a critical assessment of @roust4s writing. 21. The author of the passage implies that which of the following would be the K#A;T useful source of information about @roust4s transition from working on Contre Saint-%eu$e to ha'ing a 'iable structure for "e-e-brance o+ Things Past% (A) >allois4s comments in the 1,10 edition of Contre Saint-%eu$e (B) @roust4s 1,5, notebooks/ including the drafts of "e-e-brance o+ Things Past (C) @roust4s 1,5, correspondence/ e$cluding the letter to Callette ( ) Bardeche4s ?arcel @roust/ romancier (#) Bonnet4s researches concerning @roust4s drafts of the final book of "e-e-brance o+ Things Past

0.6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

22. The passage offers information to answer which of the following "uestions% (A) @recisely when in 1,5, did @roust decide to abandon Contre Saint-%eu$e% (B) @recisely when in 1,5, did @roust decide to connect the beginning and the end of "e-e-brance o+ Things Past% (C) &hat was the sub<ect of the no'el that @roust attempted in 1,56% ( ) &hat specific criticisms of ;aint(Beu'e appear/ in fictional form/ in "e-e-brance o+ Things Past% (#) &hat is a theme concerning art that appears in the final book of "e-e-brance o+ Things Past% 2-. &hich of the following best describes the relationship between Contre Saint%eu$e and "e-e-brance o+ Things Past as it is e$plained in the passage% (A) 3mmediately after abandoning Contre Saint-%eu$e/ at Callette4s suggestion/ @roust started "e-e-brance as a fictional demonstration that ;aint(Beu'e was wrong about the imagination. (B) 3mmediately after abandoning Contre Saint-%eu$e/ at Callette4s suggestion/ @roust turned his attention to "e-e-brance/ starting with incidents that had occurred to him while planning the essay. (C) espondent that he could not find a coherent structure for Contre Saint%eu$e/ an essay about the role of memory in fiction/ @roust began instead to write "e-e-brance/ a no'el de'oted to important early memories. ( ) &hile de'eloping his argument about the imagination in Contre Saint-%eu$e/ @roust described and began to link together personal memories that became a foundation for "e-e-brance. (#) &hile de'eloping his argument about memory and imagination in Contre Saint-%eu$e1 @roust created fictional characters to embody the abstract themes in his essay. SECTION B
Traditiona" research has con#ronted on"y ?e5ican and United tates interpretations o# ?e5ican-0merican cu"ture. *ow we must a"so e5amine the cu"ture as we ?e5ican 0mericans have e5perienced it' passing #rom a sovereign peop"e to compatriots with new"y arriving sett"ers to' #ina""y' a con+uered peop"e!a charter minority on our own "and. 8hen the panish #irst came to ?e5ico' they intermarried with and absorbed the cu"ture o# the indigenous /ndians. This po"icy o# co"oni)ation through accu"turation was continued when ?e5ico ac+uired Te5as in the ear"y 18..3s and brought the indigenous /ndians into ?e5ican "i#e and government. /n the 181.3s' United tates citi)ens migrated to Te5as' attracted by "and suitab"e #or cotton. 0s their numbers became more substantia"' their po"icy o# ac+uiring "and by subduing native popu"ations began to dominate. The two ideo"ogies c"ashed repeated"y' cu"minating in a mi"itary con#"ict that "ed to victory #or the United tates. Thus' sudden"y deprived o# our parent cu"ture' we had to evo"ve uni+ue"y ?e5ican-0merican modes

GRE
o# thought and action in order to survive.

0.,

1-. The author4s purpose in writing this passage is primarily to (A) suggest the moti'es behind ?e$ican and :nited ;tates inter'ention in Te$as (B) document certain early ob<ecti'es of ?e$ican(American society (C) pro'ide a historical perspecti'e for a new analysis of ?e$ican(American culture ( ) appeal to both ?e$ican and :nited ;tates scholars to gi'e greater consideration to economic interpretations of history (#) bring to light pre'iously o'erlooked research on ?e$ican Americans 16. The author most probably uses the phrase *charter minority+ (lines 2(-) to reinforce the idea that ?e$ican Americans (A) are a nati'e rather than an immigrant group in the :nited ;tates (B) played an acti'e political role when Te$as first became part of the :nited ;tates (C) recogni!ed 'ery early in the nineteenth century the need for official confirmation of their rights of citi!enship ( ) ha'e been misunderstood by scholars trying to interpret their culture (#) identify more closely with their 3ndian heritage than with their ;panish heritage 1,. According to the passage/ a ma<or difference between the coloni!ation policy of the :nited ;tates and that of ?e$ico in Te$as in the 16554s was the (A) degree to which policies were based on tradition (B) form of economic interdependency between different cultural groups (C) number of people who came to settle new areas ( ) treatment of the nati'e inhabitants (#) relationship between the military and the settlers 25. &hich of the following statements most clearly contradicts the information in this passage% (A) 3n the early 16554s/ the ;panish committed more resources to settling California than to de'eloping Te$as. (B) &hile Te$as was under ?e$ican control/ the population of Te$as "uadrupled/ in spite of the fact that ?e$ico discouraged immigration from the :nited ;tates. (C) By the time ?e$ico ac"uired Te$as/ many 3ndians had already married people of ;panish heritage. ( ) ?any ?e$icans li'ing in Te$as returned to ?e$ico after Te$as was anne$ed by the :nited ;tates. (#) ?ost 3ndians li'ing in Te$as resisted ;panish acculturation and were either

005

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

killed or ensla'ed.
This passage was adapted #rom an artic"e pub"ished in 1981. Unti" about #ive years ago' the very idea that peptide hormones might be made anywhere in the brain besides the hypotha"amus was astounding. 6eptide hormones' scientists thought' were made by endocrine g"ands and the hypotha"amus was thought to be the brains3 on"y endocrine g"and. 8hat is more' because peptide hormones cannot cross the b"ood-brain barrier' researchers be"ieved that they never got to any part o# the brain other than the hypotha"amus' where they were simp"y produced and then re"eased into the b"oodstream. &ut these be"ie#s about peptide hormones were +uestioned as "aboratory a#ter "aboratory #ound that antiserums to peptide hormones' when in2ected into the brain' bind in p"aces other than the hypotha"amus' indicating that either the hormones or substances that cross-react with the antiserums are present. The immuno"ogica" method o# detecting peptide hormones by means o# antiserums' however' is imprecise. %ross-reactions are possib"e and this method cannot determine whether the substances detected by the antiserums rea""y are the hormones' or mere"y c"ose re"atives. 7urthermore' this method cannot be used to determine the "ocation in the body where the detected substances are actua""y produced. *ew techni+ues o# mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy' however' provide a way to answer these +uestions. /t is possib"e to ma$e speci#ic comp"ementary F*03s (cF*03s) that can serve as mo"ecu"ar probes to see$ out the messenger R*03s (mR*03s) o# the peptide hormones. /# brain ce""s are ma$ing the hormones' the ce""s wi"" contain these mR*03s. /# the products the brain ce""s ma$e resemb"e the hormones but are not identica" to them' then the cF*03s shou"d sti"" bind to these mR*03s' but shou"d not bind as tight"y as they wou"d to mR*03s #or the true hormones. The ce""s containing these mR*03s can then be iso"ated and their mR*03s decoded to determine 2ust what their protein products are and how c"ose"y the products resemb"e the true peptide hormones. The mo"ecu"ar approach to detecting peptide hormones using cF*0 probes shou"d a"so be much #aster than the immuno"ogica" method because it can ta$e years o# tedious puri#ications to iso"ate peptide hormones and then deve"op antiserums to them. Roberts' e5pressing the sentiment o# many researchers' states> ;/ was trained as an endocrino"ogist. &ut it became c"ear to me that the #ie"d o# endocrino"ogy needed mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy input. The process o# grinding out protein puri#ications is 2ust too s"ow.< /#' as the initia" tests with cF*0 probes suggest' peptide hormones rea""y are made in the brain in areas other than the hypotha"amus' a theory must be deve"oped that e5p"ains their #unction in the brain. ome have suggested that the hormones are a"" growth regu"ators' but Rosen3s wor$ on rat brains indicates that this cannot be true. 0 number o# other researchers propose that they might be used #or interce""u"ar communication in the brain.

21. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the passage% (A) 3s ?olecular Biology the Mey to :nderstanding 3ntercellular Communication in the Brain% (B) ?olecular BiologyE Can =esearchers #$ploit 3ts Techni"ues to ;ynthesi!e @eptide )ormones%

GRE

001

(C) The Ad'antages and isad'antages of the 3mmunological Approach to etecting @eptide )ormones ( ) @eptide )ormonesE )ow ;cientists Are Attempting to ;ol'e @roblems of Their etection and to :nderstand Their >unction (#) @eptide )ormonesE The =ole @layed by ?essenger =9A4s in Their etection 22. The passage suggests that a substance detected in the brain by use of antiserums to peptide hormones may (A) ha'e been stored in the brain for a long period of time (B) play no role in the functioning of the brain (C) ha'e been produced in some part of the body other than the brain ( ) ha'e escaped detection by molecular methods (#) play an important role in the functioning of the hypothalamus 2.. According to the passage/ confirmation of the belief that peptide hormones are made in the brain in areas other than the hypothalamus would force scientists to (A) re<ect the theory that peptide hormones are made by endocrine glands (B) re'ise their beliefs about the ability of antiserums to detect peptide hormones (C) in'ent techni"ues that would allow them to locate accurately brain cells that produce peptide hormones ( ) search for techni"ues that would enable them to distinguish peptide hormones from their close relati'es (#) de'elop a theory that e$plains the role played by peptide hormones in the brain 20. &hich of the following is mentioned in the passage as a drawback of the immunological method of detecting peptide hormones% (A) 3t cannot be used to detect the presence of growth regulators in the brain. (B) 3t cannot distinguish between the peptide hormones and substances that are 'ery similar to them. (C) 3t uses antiserums that are unable to cross the blood(brain barrier. ( ) 3t in'ol'es a purification process that re"uires e$tensi'e training in endocrinology. (#) 3t in'ol'es in<ecting foreign substances directly into the bloodstream. 21. The passage implies that/ in doing research on rat brains/ =osen disco'ered that (A) peptide hormones are used for intercellular communication (B) complementary 9A4s do not bind to cells producing peptide hormones (C) products closely resembling peptide hormones are not identical to peptide hormones ( ) some peptide hormones do not function as growth regulators

002

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) antiserums cross(react with substances that are not peptide hormones 22. &hich of the following is a way in which the immunological method of detecting peptide hormones differs from the molecular method% (A) The immunological method uses substances that react with products of hormone(producing cells/ whereas the molecular method uses substances that react with a specific component of the cells themsel'es. (B) The immunological method has produced results consistent with long(held beliefs about peptide hormones/ whereas the molecular method has produced results that upset these beliefs. (C) The immunological method re"uires a great deal of e$pertise/ whereas the molecular method has been used successfully by nonspecialists. ( ) The immunological method can only be used to test for the presence of peptide hormones within the hypothalamus/ whereas the molecular method can be used throughout the brain. (#) The immunological method uses probes that can only bind with peptide hormones/ whereas the molecular method uses probes that bind with peptide hormones and substances similar to them. 2-. The idea that the field of endocrinology can gain from de'elopments in molecular biology is regarded by =oberts with (A) incredulity (B) derision (C) indifference ( ) pride (#) enthusiasm No. 8-2 SECTION A
Ragtime is a musica" #orm that synthesi)es #o"$ me"odies and musica" techni+ues into a brie# +uadri""e-"i$e structure' designed to be p"ayed!e5act"y as written!on the piano. 0 strong ana"ogy e5ists between =uropean composers "i$e Ra"ph Baughan 8i""iams' =dvard Arieg' and 0nton Fvora$ who combined #o"$ tunes and their own origina" materia"s in "arger compositions and the pioneer ragtime composers in the United tates. %omposers "i$e cott @op"in and @ames cott were in a sense co""ectors or musico"ogists' co""ecting dance and #o"$ music in &"ac$ communities and conscious"y shaping it into brie# suites or antho"ogies ca""ed piano rags. /t has sometimes been charged that ragtime is mechanica". 7or instance' 8i"#red ?e""ers comments' ;rags were trans#erred to the piano"a ro"" and' even i# not p"ayed by a machine' shou"d be p"ayed "i$e a machine' with meticu"ous precision.< (owever' there is no reason to

GRE
assume that ragtime is inherent"y mechanica" simp"y because commercia" manu#acturers

00.

app"ied a mechanica" recording method to ragtime' the on"y way to record pianos at that date. Ragtime3s is not a mechanica" precision' and it is not precision "imited to the sty"e o# per#ormance. /t arises #rom ragtime3s #o""owing a we""-de#ined #orm and obeying simp"e ru"es within that #orm. The c"assic #ormu"a #or the piano rag disposes three to #ive themes in si5teen-bar strains' o#ten organi)ed with repeats. The rag opens with a bright' memorab"e strain or theme' #o""owed by a simi"ar theme' "eading to a trio o# mar$ed "yrica" character' with the structure conc"uded by a "yrica" strain that para""e"s the rhythmic deve"opments o# the ear"ier themes. The aim o# the structure is to rise #rom one theme to another in a stair-step manner' ending on a note o# triumph or e5hi"aration. Typica""y' each strain is divided into two 8-bar segments that are essentia""y a"i$e' so the rhythmic-me"odic unit o# ragtime is on"y eight bars o# 1KH measure. There#ore' themes must be brie# with c"ear' sharp me"odic #igures. *ot concerned with deve"opment o# musica" themes' the ragtime composer instead sets a theme down intact' in #inished #orm' and "in$s it to various re"ated themes. Tension in ragtime compositions arises #rom a po"arity between two basic ingredients> a continuous bass!ca""ed by 2a)) musicians a boom-chic$ bass!in the pianist3s "e#t hand' and its me"odic' syncopated counterpart in the right hand. Ragtime remains distinct #rom 2a)) both as an instrumenta" sty"e and as a genre. Ragtime sty"e stresses a pattern o# repeated rhythms' not the constant inventions and variations o# 2a)). 0s a genre' ragtime re+uires strict attention to structure' not inventiveness or virtuosity. /t e5ists as a tradition' a set o# conventions' a body o# written scores' separate #rom the individua" p"ayers associated with it. /n this sense ragtime is more a$in to #o"$ music o# the nineteenth century than to 2a)).

1-. &hich of the following best describes the main purpose of the passage% (A) To contrast ragtime music and <a!! (B) To acknowledge and counter significant ad'erse criticisms of ragtime music (C) To define ragtime music as an art form and describe its structural characteristics ( ) To re'iew the history of ragtime music and analy!e ragtime4s effect on listeners (#) To e$plore the similarities between ragtime music and certain #uropean musical compositions 16. According to the passage/ each of the following is a characteristic of ragtime compositions that follow the classic ragtime formula #DC#@TE (A) syncopation (B) well(defined melodic figures (C) rising rhythmic(melodic intensity ( ) full de'elopment of musical themes (#) a bass line distinct from the melodic line

000

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

1,. According to the passage/ =alph Caughan &illiams/ Anton 'orak/ and ;cott Aoplin are similar in that they all (A) conducted research into musicological history (B) wrote original compositions based on folk tunes (C) collected and recorded abbre'iated piano suites ( ) created intricate sonata(like musical structures (#) e$plored the relations between Black music and continental folk music 25. The author re<ects the argument that ragtime is a mechanical music because that argument (A) o'erlooks the precision re"uired of the ragtime player (B) does not accurately describe the sound of ragtime pianola music (C) confuses the means of recording and the essential character of the music ( ) e$aggerates the influence of the performance style of professional ragtime players on the reputation of the genre (#) improperly identifies commercial ragtime music with the subtler classic ragtime style 21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage belie'es that the most important feature of ragtime music is its (A) commercial success (B) formal structure (C) emotional range ( ) impro'isational opportunities (#) role as a forerunner of <a!! 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the essential nature of ragtime has been obscured by commentaries based on (A) the way ragtime music was first recorded (B) interpretations of ragtime by <a!! musicians (C) the dance fashions that were contemporary with ragtime ( ) early re'iewers4 accounts of characteristic structure (#) the musical sources used by ;cott Aoplin and Aames ;cott 2.. &hich of the following is most nearly analogous in source and artistic character to a ragtime composition as described in the passage% (A) ;ymphonic music deri'ed from comple$ <a!! motifs (B) An e$perimental no'el based on well(known cartoon characters (C) A dramatic production in which actors in'ent scenes and impro'ise lines ( ) A ballet whose disciplined choreography is based on folk(dance steps (#) A painting whose abstract shapes e'oke familiar ob<ects in a natural landscape

GRE

001

=cho"ocating bats emit sounds in patterns!characteristic o# each species!that contain both #re+uency-modu"ated (7?) and constant-#re+uency (%7) signa"s. The broadband 7? signa"s and the narrowband %7 signa"s trave" out to a target' re#"ect #rom it' and return to the hunting bat. /n this process o# transmission and re#"ection' the sounds are changed' and the changes in the echoes enab"e the bat to perceive #eatures o# the target. The 7? signa"s report in#ormation about target characteristics that modi#y the timing and the #ine #re+uency structure' or spectrum' o# echoes!#or e5amp"e' the target3s si)e' shape' te5ture' sur#ace structure' and direction in space. &ecause o# their narrow bandwidth' %7 signa"s portray on"y the target3s presence and' in the case o# some bat species' its motion re"ative to the bat3s. Responding to changes in the %7 echo3s #re+uency' bats o# some species correct in #"ight #or the direction and ve"ocity o# their moving prey.

20. According to the passage/ the information pro'ided to the bat by C> echoes differs from that pro'ided by >? echoes in which of the following ways% (A) 8nly C> echoes alert the bat to mo'ing targets. (B) 8nly C> echoes identify the range of widely spaced targets. (C) 8nly C> echoes report the target4s presence to the bat. ( ) 3n some species/ C> echoes enable the bat to <udge whether it is closing in on its target. (#) 3n some species/ C> echoes enable the bat to discriminate the si!e of its target and the direction in which the target is mo'ing. 21. According to the passage/ the configuration of the target is reported to the echolocating bat by changes in the (A) echo spectrum of C> signals (B) echo spectrum of >? signals (C) direction and 'elocity of the >? echoes ( ) delay between transmission and reflection of the C> signals (#) relati'e fre"uencies of the >? and the C> echoes 22. The author presents the information concerning bat sonar in a manner that could be best described as (A) argumentati'e (B) commendatory (C) critical ( ) disbelie'ing (#) ob<ecti'e 2-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A fact is stated/ a process is outlined/ and specific details of the process are described. (B) A fact is stated/ and e$amples suggesting that a distinction needs correction

002

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

are considered. (C) A fact is stated/ a theory is presented to e$plain that fact/ and additional facts are introduced to 'alidate the theory. ( ) A fact is stated/ and two theories are compared in light of their e$planations of this fact. (#) A fact is stated/ a process is described/ and e$amples of still another process are illustrated in detail. SECTION B
The socia" sciences are "ess "i$e"y than other inte""ectua" enterprises to get credit #or their accomp"ishments. 0rguab"y' this is so because the theories and conceptua" constructs o# the socia" sciences are especia""y accessib"e> human inte""igence apprehends truths about human a##airs with particu"ar #aci"ity. 0nd the discoveries o# the socia" sciences' once iso"ated and "abe"ed' are +uic$"y absorbed into conventiona" wisdom' whereupon they "ose their distinctiveness as scienti#ic advances. This underappreciation o# the socia" sciences contrasts odd"y with what many see as their overuti"i)ation. Aame theory is pressed into service in studies o# shi#ting internationa" a""iances. =va"uation research is ca""ed upon to demonstrate successes or #ai"ures o# socia" programs. ?ode"s #rom economics and demography become the de#initive too"s #or e5amining the #inancia" base o# socia" security. Det this rush into practica" app"ications is itse"# +uite understandab"e> pub"ic po"icy must continua""y be made' and po"icyma$ers right"y #ee" that even tentative #indings and untested theories are better guides to decision-ma$ing than no #indings and no theories at a"".

1-. The author is primarily concerned with (A) ad'ocating a more modest 'iew/ and less widespread utili!ation/ of the social sciences (B) analy!ing the mechanisms for translating disco'eries into applications in the social sciences (C) dissol'ing the air of parado$ inherent in human beings studying themsel'es ( ) e$plaining a peculiar dilemma that the social sciences are in (#) maintaining a strict separation between pure and applied social science 16. &hich of the following is a social science discipline that the author mentions as being possibly o'erutili!ed% (A) Con'entional theories of social change (B) Bame theory (C) ecision(making theory ( ) #conomic theories of international alliances (#) ;ystems analysis

GRE

00-

1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ when speaking of the *o'erutili!ation+ (line 11) of the social sciences/ the author is referring to the (A) premature practical application of social science ad'ances (B) habitual reliance on the social sciences e'en where common sense would ser'e e"ually well (C) practice of bringing a greater 'ariety of social science disciplines to bear on a problem than the nature of the problem warrants ( ) use of social science constructs by people who do not fully understand them (#) tendency on the part of social scientists to recast e'eryday truths in social science <argon 25. The author confronts the claim that the social sciences are being o'erutili!ed with (A) proof that o'ere$tensions of social science results are self(correcting (B) e'idence that some public policy is made without any recourse to social science findings or theories (C) a long list of social science applications that are perfectly appropriate and e$tremely fruitful ( ) the argument that o'erutili!ation is by and large the e$ception rather than the rule (#) the obser'ation that this practice represents the lesser of two e'ils under e$isting circumstances
The term ;/ce 0ge< may give a wrong impression. The epoch that geo"ogists $now as the 6"eistocene and that spanned the 1.- to 1.. mi""ion years prior to the current geo"ogic epoch was not one "ong continuous g"aciation' but a period o# osci""ating c"imate with ice advances punctuated by times o# interg"acia" c"imate not very di##erent #rom the c"imate e5perienced now. /ce sheets that derived #rom an ice cap centered on northern candinavia reached southward to %entra" =urope. 0nd &eyond the margins o# the ice sheets' c"imatic osci""ations a##ected most o# the rest o# the wor"d: #or e5amp"e' in the deserts' periods o# wetter conditions (p"uvia"s) contrasted with drier' interp"uvia" periods. 0"though the time invo"ved is so short' about ...H percent o# the tota" age o# the =arth' the amount o# attention devoted to the 6"eistocene has been incredib"y "arge' probab"y because o# its immediacy' and because the epoch "arge"y coincides with the appearance on =arth o# humans and their immediate ancestors. There is no re"iab"e way o# dating much o# the /ce 0ge. Aeo"ogica" dates are usua""y obtained by using the rates o# decay o# various radioactive e"ements #ound in minera"s. ome o# these rates are suitab"e #or very o"d roc$s but invo"ve increasing errors when used #or young roc$s: others are suitab"e #or very young roc$s and errors increase rapid"y in o"der roc$s. ?ost o# the /ce 0ge spans a period o# time #or which no e"ement has an appropriate decay rate. *everthe"ess' researchers o# the 6"eistocene epoch have deve"oped a"" sorts o# more or "ess #anci#u" mode" schemes o# how they wou"d have arranged the /ce 0ge had they been in

006

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

charge o# events. 7or e5amp"e' an ear"y c"assi#ication o# 0"pine g"aciation suggested the e5istence there o# #our g"aciations' named the Aun)' ?inde"' Riss' and 8urm. This succession was based primari"y on a series o# deposits and events not direct"y re"ated to g"acia" and interg"acia" periods' rather than on the more usua" modern method o# studying bio"ogica" remains #ound in interg"acia" beds themse"ves interstrati#ied within g"acia" deposits. Det this succession was #orced wi""y-ni""y onto the g"aciated parts o# *orthern =urope' where there are partia" successions o# true g"acia" ground moraines and interg"acia" deposits' with hopes o# u"timate"y piecing them together to provide a comp"ete 6"eistocene succession. =radication o# the 0"pine nomenc"ature is sti"" proving a (ercu"ean tas$. There is no conc"usive evidence about the re"ative "ength' comp"e5ity' and temperatures o# the various g"acia" and interg"acia" periods. 8e do not $now whether we "ive in a postg"acia" period or an interg"acia" period. The chi"" truth seems to be that we are a"ready past the optimum c"imate o# postg"acia" time. tudies o# certain #ossi" distributions and o# the po""en o# certain temperate p"ants suggest decreases o# a degree or two in both summer and winter temperatures and' there#ore' that we may be in the dec"ining c"imatic phase "eading to g"aciation and e5tinction.

21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) searching for an accurate method of dating the @leistocene epoch (B) discussing problems in'ol'ed in pro'iding an accurate picture of the @leistocene epoch (C) declaring opposition to the use of the term *3ce Age+ for the @leistocene epoch ( ) critici!ing fanciful schemes about what happened in the @leistocene epoch (#) refuting the idea that there is no way to tell if we are now li'ing in an 3ce Age 22. The *wrong impression+ (line 1) to which the author refers is the idea that the (A) climate of the @leistocene epoch was not 'ery different from the climate we are now e$periencing (B) climate of the @leistocene epoch was composed of periods of 'iolent storms (C) @leistocene epoch consisted of 'ery wet/ cold periods mi$ed with 'ery day/ hot periods ( ) @leistocene epoch comprised one period of continuous glaciation during which 9orthern #urope was co'ered with ice sheets (#) @leistocene epoch had no long periods during which much of the #arth was co'ered by ice 2.. According to the passage/ one of the reasons for the deficiencies of the *early classification of Alpine glaciation+ (lines .2(..) is that it was (A) deri'ed from e'idence that was only tangentially related to times of actual glaciation (B) based primarily on fossil remains rather than on actual li'ing organisms

GRE

00,

(C) an abstract/ imaginati'e scheme of how the period might ha'e been structured ( ) based on unmethodical e$aminations of randomly chosen glacial biological remains (#) deri'ed from e'idence that had been hapha!ardly gathered from glacial deposits and inaccurately e'aluated 20. &hich of the following does the passage imply about the *early classification of Alpine glaciation+ (lines .2(..)% (A) 3t should not ha'e been applied as widely as it was. (B) 3t represents the best possible scientific practice/ gi'en the tools a'ailable at the time. (C) 3t was a 'aluable tool/ in its time/ for measuring the length of the four periods of glaciation. ( ) 3t could be useful/ but only as a general guide to the e'ents of the @leistocene epoch. (#) 3t does not shed any light on the methods used at the time for in'estigating periods of glaciation. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that an important result of producing an accurate chronology of e'ents of the @leistocene epoch would be a (A) clearer idea of the origin of the #arth (B) clearer picture of the #arth during the time that humans de'eloped (C) clearer understanding of the reasons for the e$istence of deserts ( ) more detailed understanding of how radioacti'e dating of minerals works (#) firmer understanding of how the northern polar ice cap de'eloped 22. The author refers to deserts primarily in order to (A) illustrate the idea that an interglacial climate is marked by oscillations of wet and dry periods (B) illustrate the idea that what happened in the deserts during the 3ce Age had far(reaching effects e'en on the ice sheets of Central and 9orthern #urope (C) illustrate the idea that the effects of the 3ce Age4s climatic 'ariations e$tended beyond the areas of ice ( ) support the 'iew that during the 3ce Age sheets of ice co'ered some of the deserts of the world (#) support the 'iew that we are probably li'ing in a postglacial period 2-. The author would regard the idea that we are li'ing in an interglacial period as (A) unimportant (B) unscientific (C) self(e'ident

015

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) plausible (#) absurd No. 8-3 SECTION A

(This passage is e5cerpted #rom an artic"e that was pub"ished in 1981.) The deep sea typica""y has a sparse #auna dominated by tiny worms and crustaceans' with an even sparser distribution o# "arger anima"s. (owever' near hydrotherma" vents' areas o# the ocean where warm water emerges #rom subterranean sources' "ive remar$ab"e densities o# huge c"ams' b"ind crabs' and #ish. ?ost deep-sea #aunas re"y #or #ood on particu"ate matter' u"timate"y derived #rom photosynthesis' #a""ing #rom above. The #ood supp"ies necessary to sustain the "arge vent communities' however' must be many times the ordinary #a""out. The #irst reports describing vent #aunas proposed two possib"e sources o# nutrition> bacteria" chemosynthesis' production o# #ood by bacteria using energy derived #rom chemica" changes' and advection' the dri#ting o# #ood materia"s #rom surrounding regions. Eater' evidence in support o# the idea o# intense "oca" chemosynthesis was accumu"ated> hydrogen su"#ide was #ound in vent water: many vent-site bacteria were #ound to be capab"e o# chemosynthesis: and e5treme"y "arge concentrations o# bacteria were #ound in samp"es o# vent water thought to be pure. This #ina" observation seemed decisive. /# such astonishing concentrations o# bacteria were typica" o# vent out#"ow' then #ood within the vent wou"d dwar# any contribution #rom advection. (ence' the wide"y +uoted conc"usion was reached that bacteria" chemosynthesis provides the #oundation #or hydrotherma"-vent #ood chains!an e5citing prospect because no other communities on =arth are independent o# photosynthesis. There are' however' certain di##icu"ties with this interpretation. 7or e5amp"e' some o# the "arge sedentary organisms associated with vents are a"so #ound at ordinary deep-sea temperatures many meters #rom the nearest hydrotherma" sources. This suggests that bacteria" chemosynthesis is not a su##icient source o# nutrition #or these creatures. 0nother di##icu"ty is that simi"ar"y dense popu"ations o# "arge deep-sea anima"s have been #ound in the pro5imity o# ;smo$ers<!vents where water emerges at temperatures up to 4-. . *o bacteria can survive such heat' and no bacteria were #ound there. Un"ess smo$ers are consistent"y "ocated near more hospitab"e warm-water vents' chemosynthesis can account #or on"y a #raction o# the vent #aunas. /t is conceivab"e' however' that these "arge' sedentary organisms do in #act #eed on bacteria that grow in warm-water vents' rise in the vent water' and then rain in periphera" areas to nourish anima"s "iving some distance #rom the warm-water vents. *onethe"ess advection is a more "i$e"y a"ternative #ood source. Research has demonstrated that advective #"ow' which originates near the sur#ace o# the ocean where suspended particu"ate matter accumu"ates' transports some o# that matter and water to the vents. =stimates suggest that #or every cubic meter o# vent discharge' 4-. mi""igrams o# particu"ate organic materia" wou"d be advected into the vent area. Thus' #or an average-si)ed

GRE

011

vent' advection cou"d provide more than 4. $i"ograms o# potentia" #ood per day. /n addition' it is "i$e"y that sma"" "ive anima"s in the advected water might be $i""ed or stunned by therma" andKor chemica" shoc$' thereby contributing to the #ood supp"y o# vents.

12. The passage pro'ides information for answering which of the following "uestions% (A) &hat causes warm(water 'ents to form% (B) o 'ent faunas consume more than do deep(sea faunas of similar si!e% (C) o bacteria li'e in the 'ent water of smokers% ( ) &hat role does hydrogen sulfide play in chemosynthesis% (#) &hat accounts for the locations of deep(sea smokers% 1-. The information in the passage suggests that the ma<ority of deep(sea faunas that li'e in non'ent habitats ha'e which of the following characteristics% (A) They do not normally feed on particles of food in the water. (B) They are smaller than many 'ent faunas. (C) They are predators. ( ) They deri'e nutrition from a chemosynthetic food source. (#) They congregate around a single main food source. 16. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) describe a pre'iously unknown natural phenomenon (B) reconstruct the e'olution of a natural phenomenon (C) establish une"ui'ocally the accuracy of a hypothesis ( ) sur'ey e$planations for a natural phenomenon and determine which is best supported by e'idence (#) entertain criticism of the author4s research and pro'ide an effecti'e response 1,. &hich of the following does the author cite as a weakness in the argument that bacterial chemosynthesis pro'ides the foundation for the food chains at deep(sea 'ents% (A) Cents are coloni!ed by some of the same animals found in other areas of the ocean floor. (B) Cent water does not contain sufficient "uantities of hydrogen sulfide. (C) Bacteria cannot produce large "uantities of food "uickly enough. ( ) Karge concentrations of minerals are found in 'ent water. (#) ;ome bacteria found in the 'ents are incapable of chemosynthesis. 25. &hich of the following is information supplied in the passage that would support the statement that the food supplies necessary to sustain 'ent communities must be many times that of ordinary fallout% 3. Karge 'ent faunas mo'e from 'ent to 'ent in search of food.

012

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

33.

Cent faunas are not able to consume food produced by photosynthesis.

333. Cents are more densely populated than are other deep(sea areas. (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 21. The author refers to *smokers+ (line .6) most probably in order to (A) show how thermal shock can pro'ide food for some 'ent faunas by stunning small animals (B) pro'e that the habitat of most deep(sea animals is limited to warm(water 'ents (C) e$plain how bacteria carry out chemosynthesis ( ) demonstrate how ad'ection compensates for the lack of food sources on the seafloor (#) present e'idence that bacterial chemosynthesis may be an inade"uate source of food for some 'ent faunas 22. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the particulate matter that is carried down from the surface of the ocean% (A) 3t is the basis of bacterial chemosynthesis in the 'ents. (B) 3t may pro'ide an important source of nutrition for 'ent faunas. (C) 3t may cause the internal temperature of the 'ents to change significantly. ( ) 3t is transported as large aggregates of particles. (#) 3t contains hydrogen sulfide.
Throughout human history there have been many stringent taboos concerning watching other peop"e eat or eating in the presence o# others. There have been attempts to e5p"ain these taboos in terms o# inappropriate socia" re"ationships either between those who are invo"ved and those who are not simu"taneous"y invo"ved in the satis#action o# a bodi"y need' or between those a"ready satiated and those who appear to be shame"ess"y gorging. Undoubted"y such e"ements e5ist in the taboos' but there is an additiona" e"ement with a much more #undamenta" importance. /n prehistoric times' when #ood was so precious and the on-"oo$ers so hungry' not to o##er ha"# o# the "itt"e #ood one had was unthin$ab"e' since every g"ance was a p"ea #or "i#e. 7urther' during those times' peop"e e5isted in nuc"ear or e5tended #ami"y groups' and the sharing o# #ood was +uite "itera""y supporting one3s #ami"y or' by e5tension' preserving one3s se"#.

2.. 3f the argument in the passage is 'alid/ taboos against eating in the presence of others who are not also eating would be K#A;T likely in a society that (A) had always had a plentiful supply of food

GRE

01.

(B) emphasi!ed the need to share worldly goods (C) had a nomadic rather than an agricultural way of life ( ) emphasi!ed the 'alue of pri'acy (#) discouraged o'erindulgence 20. The author4s hypothesis concerning the origin of taboos against watching other people eat emphasi!es the (A) general palatability of food (B) religious significance of food (C) limited a'ailability of food ( ) 'arious sources of food (#) nutritional 'alue of food 21. According to the passage/ the author belie'es that past attempts to e$plain some taboos concerning eating are (A) unimaginati'e (B) implausible (C) inelegant ( ) incomplete (#) unclear 22. 3n de'eloping the main idea of the passage/ the author does which of the following% (A) ownplays earlier attempts to e$plain the origins of a social prohibition. (B) Adapts a scientific theory and applies it to a spiritual relationship. (C) ;implifies a comple$ biological phenomenon by e$plaining it in terms of social needs. ( ) =eorgani!es a system designed to guide personal beha'ior. (#) Codifies earlier/ unsystemati!ed con<ectures about family life. SECTION B
(This passage is #rom a boo$ pub"ished in 197-.) That Eouise *eve"son is be"ieved by many critics to be the greatest twentieth-century scu"ptor is a"" the more remar$ab"e because the greatest resistance to women artists has been' unti" recent"y' in the #ie"d o# scu"pture. ince *eo"ithic times' scu"pture has been considered the prerogative o# men' part"y' perhaps' #or pure"y physica" reasons> it was erroneous"y assumed that women were not suited #or the hard manua" "abor re+uired in scu"pting stone' carving wood' or wor$ing in meta". /t has been on"y during the twentieth century that women scu"ptors have been recogni)ed as ma2or artists' and it has been in the United tates' especia""y since the decades o# the #i#ties and si5ties' that women scu"ptors

010

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

have shown the greatest origina"ity and creative power. Their rise to prominence para""e"s the deve"opment o# scu"pture itse"# in the United tates> whi"e there had been a #ew ta"ented scu"ptors in the United tates be#ore the 19H.3s' it was on"y a#ter 19H-!when *ew Dor$ was rapid"y becoming the art capita" o# the wor"d!that ma2or scu"pture was produced in the United tates. ome o# the best was the wor$ o# women. &y #ar the most outstanding o# these women is Eouise *eve"son' who in the eyes o# many critics is the most origina" #ema"e artist a"ive today. 9ne #amous and in#"uentia" critic' (i"ton Nramer' said o# her wor$' ;7or myse"#' / thin$ ?s. *eve"son succeeds where the painters o#ten #ai".< (er wor$s have been compared to the %ubist constructions o# 6icasso' the urrea"istic ob2ects o# ?iro' and the ?er)bau o# chwitters. *eve"son wou"d be the #irst to admit that she has been in#"uenced by a"" o# these' as we"" as by 0#rican scu"pture' and by *ative 0merican and pre-%o"umbian art' but she has absorbed a"" these in#"uences and sti"" created a distinctive art that e5presses the urban "andscape and the aesthetic sensibi"ity o# the twentieth century. *eve"son says' ;/ have a"ways wanted to show the wor"d that art is everywhere' e5cept that it has to pass through a creative mind.< Using most"y discarded wooden ob2ects "i$e pac$ing crates' bro$en pieces o# #urniture' and abandoned architectura" ornaments' a"" o# which she has hoarded #or years' she assemb"es architectura" constructions o# great beauty and power. %reating very #ree"y with no s$etches' she g"ues and nai"s ob2ects together' paints them b"ac$' or more rare"y white or go"d' and p"aces them in bo5es. These assemb"ages' wa""s' even entire environments create a mysterious' a"most awe-inspiring atmosphere. 0"though she has denied any symbo"ic or re"igious intent in her wor$s' their three-dimensiona" grandeur and even their tit"es' such as ky Cathedral and +ight Cathedral' suggest such connotations. /n some ways' her most ambitious wor$s are c"oser to architecture than to traditiona" scu"pture' but then neither Eouise *eve"son nor her art #its into any neat category.

1-. The passage focuses primarily on which of the following% (A) A general tendency in twentieth(century art (B) The work of a particular artist (C) The artistic influences on women sculptors ( ) Critical responses to twentieth(century sculpture (#) ?aterials used by twentieth(century sculptors 16. &hich of the following statements is supported by information gi'en in the passage% (A) ;ince 1,01 women sculptors in the :nited ;tates ha'e produced more sculpture than ha'e men sculptors. (B) ;ince 1,15 sculpture produced in the :nited ;tates has been the most original and creati'e sculpture produced anywhere. (C) >rom 1,55 to 1,15 women sculptors in #urope en<oyed more recognition for their work than did women sculptors in the :nited ;tates.

GRE

011

( ) @rior to 1,01 there were many women sculptors whose work was ignored by critics. (#) @rior to 1,01 there was little ma<or sculpture produced by men or women sculptors working in the :nited ;tates. 1,. The author "uotes )ilton Mramer in lines 21(2- most probably in order to illustrate which of the following% (A) The realism of 9e'elson4s work (B) The uni"ue "ualities of 9e'elson4s style (C) The e$tent of critical appro'al of 9e'elson4s work ( ) A distinction between sculpture and painting (#) A reason for the prominence of women sculptors since the 1,154s 25. &hich of the following is one way in which 9e'elson4s art illustrates her theory as it is e$pressed in lines .2(.6% (A) ;he sculpts in wood rather than in metal or stone. (B) ;he paints her sculptures and frames them in bo$es. (C) ;he makes no preliminary sketches but rather allows the sculpture to de'elop as she works. ( ) ;he puts together pieces of ordinary ob<ects once used for different purposes to make her sculptures. (#) ;he does not deliberately attempt to con'ey symbolic or religious meanings through her sculpture. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following about 9e'elson4s sculptures% (A) They suggest religious and symbolic meanings. (B) They do not ha'e "ualities characteristic of sculpture. (C) They are mysterious and awe(inspiring/ but not beautiful. ( ) They are uni"uely American in style and sensibility. (#) They show the influence of twentieth(century architecture. 22. The author regards 9e'elson4s stature in the art world as *remarkable+ (line .) in part because of which of the following% (A) )er work is currently o'errated. (B) &omen sculptors ha'e found it especially difficult to be accepted and recogni!ed as ma<or artists. (C) 9e'elson4s sculptures are difficult to understand. ( ) ?any art critics ha'e fa'ored painting o'er sculpture in writing about de'elopments in the art world. (#) >ew of the artists prominent in the twentieth century ha'e been sculptors.

012

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

2.. &hich of the following statements about 9e'elson4s sculptures can be inferred from the passage% (A) They are meant for display outdoors. (B) They are often painted in se'eral colors. (C) They are sometimes 'ery large. ( ) They are hand car'ed by 9e'elson. (#) They are built around a central wooden ob<ect.
Bo"canic roc$ that #orms as #"uid "ava chi""s rapid"y is ca""ed pi""ow "ava. This rapid chi""ing occurs when "ava erupts direct"y into water (or beneath ice) or when it #"ows across a shore"ine and into a body o# water. 8hi"e the term ;pi""ow "ava< suggests a de#inite shape' in #act geo"ogists disagree. ome geo"ogists argue that pi""ow "ava is characteri)ed by discrete' e""ipsoida" masses. 9thers describe pi""ow "ava as a tang"ed mass o# cy"indrica"' interconnected #"ow "obes. ?uch o# this controversy probab"y resu"ts #rom unwarranted e5trapo"ations o# the origina" con#iguration o# pi""ow #"ows #rom two-dimensiona" cross sections o# eroded pi""ows in "and outcroppings. Birtua""y any cross section cut through a tang"ed mass o# interconnected #"ow "obes wou"d give the appearance o# a pi"e o# discrete e""ipsoida" masses. 0de+uate three-dimensiona" images o# intact pi""ows are essentia" #or de#ining the true geometry o# pi""owed #"ows and thus ascertaining their mode o# origin. /ndeed' the term ;pi""ow'< itse"# suggestive o# discrete masses' is probab"y a misnomer.

20. &hich of the following is a fact presented in the passage% (A) The shape of the connections between the separate/ sacklike masses in pillow la'a is unknown. (B) ?ore accurate cross sections of pillow la'a would re'eal the mode of origin. (C) &ater or ice is necessary for the formation of pillow la'a. ( ) 9o three(dimensional e$amples of intact pillows currently e$ist. (#) The origin of pillow la'a is not yet known. 21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily interested in (A) analy!ing the source of a scientific contro'ersy (B) critici!ing some geologists4 methodology (C) pointing out the flaws in a geological study ( ) proposing a new theory to e$plain e$isting scientific e'idence (#) describing a physical phenomenon 22. The author of the passage would most probably agree that the geologists mentioned in line 2 (*;ome geologists+) ha'e made which of the following errors in reasoning% 3. 33. Benerali!ed un<ustifiably from a'ailable e'idence. eliberately ignored e$isting countere'idence.

333. =epeatedly failed to take new e'idence into account.

GRE

01-

(A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 33 only (#) 33 and 333 only 2-. The author implies that the *contro'ersy+ (line ,) might be resol'ed if (A) geologists did not persist in using the term *pillow+ (B) geologists did not rely on potentially misleading information (C) geologists were more willing to confer directly with one another ( ) two(dimensional cross sections of eroded pillows were a'ailable (#) e$isting pillows in land outcroppings were not so badly eroded No. 9-1 SECTION A
?any critics o# =mi"y &ronte3s nove" ,uthering %eights see its second part as a counterpoint that comments on' i# it does not reverse' the #irst part' where a ;romantic< reading receives more con#irmation. eeing the two parts as a who"e is encouraged by the nove"3s sophisticated structure' revea"ed in its comp"e5 use o# narrators and time shi#ts. Aranted that the presence o# these e"ements need not argue an authoria" awareness o# nove"istic construction comparab"e to that o# (enry @ames' their presence does encourage attempts to uni#y the nove"3s heterogeneous parts. (owever' any interpretation that see$s to uni#y a"" o# the nove"3s diverse e"ements is bound to be somewhat unconvincing. This is not because such an interpretation necessari"y sti##ens into a thesis (a"though rigidity in any interpretation o# this or o# any nove" is a"ways a danger)' but because ,uthering %eights has reca"citrant e"ements o# undeniab"e power that' u"timate"y' resist inc"usion in an a""encompassing interpretation. /n this respect' ,uthering %eights shares a #eature o# %amlet.

1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about the first and second parts of Wuthering &eights% (A) The second part has recei'ed more attention from critics. (B) The second part has little relation to the first part. (C) The second part annuls the force of the first part. ( ) The second part pro'ides less substantiation for a *romantic+ reading. (#) The second part is better because it is more realistic. 16. &hich of the following inferences about )enry Aames4s awareness of no'elistic construction is best supported by the passage% (A) Aames/ more than any other no'elist/ was aware of the difficulties of no'elistic construction.

016

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) Aames was 'ery aware of the details of no'elistic construction. (C) Aames4s awareness of no'elistic construction deri'ed from his reading of Bronte. ( ) Aames4s awareness of no'elistic construction has led most commentators to see unity in his indi'idual no'els. (#) Aames4s awareness of no'elistic construction precluded him from 'iolating the unity of his no'els. 1,. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree that an interpretation of a no'el should (A) not try to unite heterogeneous elements in the no'el (B) not be infle$ible in its treatment of the elements in the no'el (C) not argue that the comple$ use of narrators or of time shifts indicates a sophisticated structure ( ) concentrate on those recalcitrant elements of the no'el that are outside the no'el4s main structure (#) primarily consider those elements of no'elistic construction of which the author of the no'el was aware 25. The author of the passage suggests which of the following about &a-let% 3. 33. &a-let has usually attracted critical interpretations that tend to stiffen into theses. &a-let has elements that are not amenable to an all(encompassing critical interpretation.

333. &a-let is less open to an all(encompassing critical interpretation than is Wuthering &eights. 3C. &a-let has not recei'ed a critical interpretation that has been widely accepted by readers. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 3C only ( ) 333 and 3C only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 only
The determination o# the sources o# copper ore used in the manu#acture o# copper and bron)e arti#acts o# &ron)e 0ge civi"i)ations wou"d add great"y to our $now"edge o# cu"tura" contacts and trade in that era. Researchers have ana"y)ed arti#acts and ores #or their concentrations o# e"ements' but #or a variety o# reasons' these studies have genera""y #ai"ed to provide evidence o# the sources o# the copper used in the ob2ects. ="ementa" composition can vary within the same copper-ore "ode' usua""y because o# varying admi5tures o# other e"ements' especia""y iron' "ead' )inc' and arsenic. 0nd high concentrations o# coba"t or )inc' noticed in some arti#acts' appear in a variety o# copper-ore sources. ?oreover' the processing

GRE
o# ores introduced poor"y contro""ed changes in the concentrations o# minor and trace e"ements in the resu"ting meta". ome e"ements evaporate during sme"ting and roasting:

01,

di##erent temperatures and processes produce di##erent degrees o# "oss. 7ina""y' #"u5' which is sometimes added during sme"ting to remove waste materia" #rom the ore' cou"d add +uantities o# e"ements to the #ina" product. 0n e"ementa" property that is unchanged through these chemica" processes is the isotopic composition o# each meta""ic e"ement in the ore. /sotopic composition' the percentages o# the di##erent isotopes o# an e"ement in a given samp"e o# the e"ement' is there#ore particu"ar"y suitab"e as an indicator o# the sources o# the ore. 9# course' #or this purpose it is necessary to #ind an e"ement whose isotopic composition is more or "ess constant throughout a given ore body' but varies #rom one copper ore body to another or' at "east' #rom one geographic region to another. The idea" choice' when isotopic composition is used to investigate the source o# copper ore' wou"d seem to be copper itse"#. /t has been shown that sma"" but measurab"e variations occur natura""y in the isotopic composition o# copper. (owever' the variations are "arge enough on"y in rare ores: between samp"es o# the common ore minera"s o# copper' isotopic variations greater than the measurement error have not been #ound. 0n a"ternative choice is "ead' which occurs in most copper and bron)e arti#acts o# the &ron)e 0ge in amounts consistent with the "ead being derived #rom the copper ores and possib"y #rom the #"u5es. The isotopic composition o# "ead o#ten varies #rom one source o# common copper ore to another' with variations e5ceeding the measurement error: and pre"iminary studies indicate virtua""y uni#orm isotopic composition o# the "ead #rom a sing"e copper-ore source. 8hi"e some o# the "ead #ound in an arti#act may have been introduced #rom #"u5 or when other meta"s were added to the copper ore' "ead so added in &ron)e 0ge processing wou"d usua""y have the same isotopic composition as the "ead in the copper ore. Eead isotope studies may thus prove use#u" #or interpreting the archaeo"ogica" record o# the &ron)e 0ge.

21. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) discuss the techni"ues of analy!ing lead isotope composition (B) propose a way to determine the origin of the copper in certain artifacts (C) resol'e a dispute concerning the analysis of copper ore ( ) describe the deficiencies of a currently used method of chemical analysis of certain metals (#) offer an interpretation of the archaeological record of the Bron!e Age 22. The author first mentions the addition of flu$ during smelting (lines 16(21) in order to (A) gi'e a reason for the failure of elemental composition studies to determine ore sources (B) illustrate differences between 'arious Bron!e Age ci'ili!ations (C) show the need for using high smelting temperatures ( ) illustrate the uniformity of lead isotope composition

025

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) e$plain the success of copper isotope composition analysis 2.. The author suggests which of the following about a Bron!e Age artifact containing high concentrations of cobalt or !inc% (A) 3t could not be reliably tested for its elemental composition. (B) 3t could not be reliably tested for its copper isotope composition. (C) 3t could not be reliably tested for its lead isotope composition. ( ) 3t could ha'e been manufactured from ore from any one of a 'ariety of sources. (#) 3t could ha'e been produced by the addition of other metals during the processing of the copper ore. 20. According to the passage/ possible sources of the lead found in a copper or bron!e artifact include which of the following% 3. 33. The copper ore used to manufacture the artifact >lu$ added during processing of the copper ore

333. 8ther metal added during processing of the copper ore (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 21. The author re<ects copper as the *ideal choice+ mentioned in line .. because (A) the concentration of copper in Bron!e Age artifacts 'aries (B) elements other than copper may be introduced during smelting (C) the isotopic composition of copper changes during smelting ( ) among common copper ores/ differences in copper isotope composition are too small (#) within a single source of copper ore/ copper isotope composition can 'ary substantially 22. The author makes which of the following statements about lead isotope composition% (A) 3t often 'aries from one copper(ore source to another. (B) 3t sometimes 'aries o'er short distances in a single copper(ore source. (C) 3t can 'ary during the testing of artifacts/ producing a measurement error. ( ) 3t fre"uently changes during smelting and roasting. (#) 3t may change when artifacts are buried for thousands of years. 2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the use of flu$ in processing copper ore can alter the lead isotope composition of the resulting metal #DC#@T when

GRE

021

(A) there is a smaller concentration of lead in the flu$ than in the copper ore (B) the concentration of lead in the flu$ is e"ui'alent to that of the lead in the ore (C) some of the lead in the flu$ e'aporates during processing ( ) any lead in the flu$ has the same isotopic composition as the lead in the ore (#) other metals are added during processing SECTION B
ince the (awaiian /s"ands have never been connected to other "and masses' the great variety o# p"ants in (awaii must be a resu"t o# the "ong-distance dispersa" o# seeds' a process that re+uires both a method o# transport and an e+uiva"ence between the eco"ogy o# the source area and that o# the recipient area. There is some dispute about the method o# transport invo"ved. ome bio"ogists argue that ocean and air currents are responsib"e #or the transport o# p"ant seeds to (awaii. Det the resu"ts o# #"otation e5periments and the "ow temperatures o# air currents cast doubt on these hypotheses. ?ore probab"e is bird transport' either e5terna""y' by accidenta" attachment o# the seeds to #eathers' or interna""y' by the swa""owing o# #ruit and subse+uent e5cretion o# the seeds. 8hi"e it is "i$e"y that #ewer varieties o# p"ant seeds have reached (awaii e5terna""y than interna""y' more varieties are $nown to be adapted to e5terna" than to interna" transport.

1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) discussing different approaches biologists ha'e taken to testing theories about the distribution of plants in )awaii (B) discussing different theories about the transport of plant seeds to )awaii (C) discussing the e$tent to which air currents are responsible for the dispersal of plant seeds to )awaii ( ) resol'ing a dispute about the adaptability of plant seeds to bird transport (#) resol'ing a dispute about the ability of birds to carry plant seeds long distances 16. The author mentions the results of flotation e$periments on plant seeds (lines 15( 12) most probably in order to (A) support the claim that the distribution of plants in )awaii is the result of the long(distance dispersal of seeds (B) lend credibility to the thesis that air currents pro'ide a method of transport for plant seeds to )awaii (C) suggest that the long(distance dispersal of seeds is a process that re"uires long periods of time ( ) challenge the claim that ocean currents are responsible for the transport of plant seeds to )awaii (#) refute the claim that )awaiian flora e'ol'ed independently from flora in other parts of the world

022

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

1,. 3t can be inferred from information in the passage that the e$istence in alpine regions of )awaii of a plant species that also grows in the southwestern :nited ;tates would <ustify which of the following conclusions% (A) The ecology of the southwestern :nited ;tates is similar in important respects to the ecology of alpine regions of )awaii. (B) There are ocean currents that flow from the southwestern :nited ;tates to )awaii. (C) The plant species disco'ered in )awaii must ha'e tra'eled from the southwestern :nited ;tates only 'ery recently. ( ) The plant species disco'ered in )awaii reached there by attaching to the feathers of birds migrating from the southwestern :nited ;tates. (#) The plant species disco'ered in )awaii is especially well adapted to transport o'er long distances. 25. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions% (A) &hy does successful long(distance dispersal of plant seeds re"uire an e"ui'alence between the ecology of the source area and that of the recipient area% (B) &hy are more 'arieties of plant seeds adapted to e$ternal rather than to internal bird transport% (C) &hat 'arieties of plant seeds are birds that fly long distances most likely to swallow% ( ) &hat is a reason for accepting the long(distance dispersal of plant seeds as an e$planation for the origin of )awaiian flora% (#) &hat e'idence do biologists cite to argue that ocean and air currents are responsible for the transport of plant seeds to )awaii%
0 "ong-he"d view o# the history o# the =ng"ish co"onies that became the United tates has been that =ng"and3s po"icy toward these co"onies be#ore 17G4 was dictated by commercia" interests and that a change to a more imperia" po"icy' dominated by e5pansionist mi"itarist ob2ectives' generated the tensions that u"timate"y "ed to the 0merican Revo"ution. /n a recent study' tephen aunders 8ebb has presented a #ormidab"e cha""enge to this view. 0ccording to 8ebb' =ng"and a"ready had a mi"itary imperia" po"icy #or more than a century be#ore the 0merican Revo"ution. (e sees %har"es //' the =ng"ish monarch between 1GG. and 1G8-' as the proper successor o# the Tudor monarchs o# the si5teenth century and o# 9"iver %romwe""' a"" o# whom were bent on e5tending centra"i)ed e5ecutive power over =ng"and3s possessions through the use o# what 8ebb ca""s ;garrison government.< Aarrison government a""owed the co"onists a "egis"ative assemb"y' but rea" authority' in 8ebb3s view' be"onged to the co"onia" governor' who was appointed by the $ing and supported by the ;garrison'< that is' by the "oca" contingent o# =ng"ish troops under the co"onia" governor3s command. 0ccording to 8ebb' the purpose o# garrison government was to provide mi"itary support #or a roya" po"icy designed to "imit the power o# the upper c"asses in the 0merican co"onies.

GRE
8ebb argues that the co"onia" "egis"ative assemb"ies represented the interests not o# the common peop"e but o# the co"onia" upper c"asses' a coa"ition o# merchants and nobi"ity who

02.

#avored se"#-ru"e and sought to e"evate "egis"ative authority at the e5pense o# the e5ecutive. /t was' according to 8ebb' the co"onia" governors who #avored the sma"" #armer' opposed the p"antation system' and tried through ta5ation to brea$ up "arge ho"dings o# "and. &ac$ed by the mi"itary presence o# the garrison' these governors tried to prevent the gentry and merchants' a""ied in the co"onia" assemb"ies' #rom trans#orming co"onia" 0merica into a capita"istic o"igarchy. 8ebb3s study i""uminates the po"itica" a"ignments that e5isted in the co"onies in the century prior to the 0merican Revo"ution' but his view o# the crown3s use o# the mi"itary as an instrument o# co"onia" po"icy is not entire"y convincing. =ng"and during the seventeenth century was not noted #or its mi"itary achievements. %romwe"" did mount =ng"and3s most ambitious overseas mi"itary e5pedition in more than a century' but it proved to be an utter #ai"ure. Under %har"es //' the =ng"ish army was too sma"" to be a ma2or instrument o# government. *ot unti" the war with 7rance in 1G97 did 8i""iam /// persuade 6ar"iament to create a pro#essiona" standing army' and 6ar"iaments price #or doing so was to $eep the army under tight "egis"ative contro". 8hi"e it may be true that the crown attempted to curtai" the power o# the co"onia" upper c"asses' it is hard to imagine how the =ng"ish army during the seventeenth century cou"d have provided signi#icant mi"itary support #or such a po"icy.

21. The passage can best be described as a (A) sur'ey of the inade"uacies of a con'entional 'iewpoint (B) reconciliation of opposing points of 'iew (C) summary and e'aluation of a recent study ( ) defense of a new thesis from anticipated ob<ections (#) re'iew of the subtle distinctions between apparently similar 'iews 22. The passage suggests that the 'iew referred to in lines 1(- argued that (A) the colonial go'ernors were sympathetic to the demands of the common people (B) Charles 33 was a pi'otal figure in the shift of #nglish monarchs toward a more imperial policy in their go'ernorship of the American colonies (C) the American =e'olution was generated largely out of a conflict between the colonial upper classes and an alliance of merchants and small farmers ( ) the military did not play a ma<or role as an instrument of colonial policy until 1-2. (#) the colonial legislati'e assemblies in the colonies had little influence o'er the colonial go'ernors 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &ebb would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements regarding garrison go'ernment% (A) Barrison go'ernment ga'e legislati'e assemblies in the colonies relati'ely little authority/ compared to the authority that it ga'e the colonial go'ernors.

020

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) Barrison go'ernment pro'ed relati'ely ineffecti'e until it was used by Charles 33 to curb the power of colonial legislatures. (C) Barrison go'ernment became a less 'iable colonial policy as the #nglish @arliament began to e$ert tighter legislati'e control o'er the #nglish military. ( ) 8li'er Cromwell was the first #nglish ruler to make use of garrison go'ernment on a large scale. (#) The creation of a professional standing army in #ngland in 12,- actually weakened garrison go'ernment by di'erting troops from the garrisons stationed in the American colonies. 20. According to the passage/ &ebb 'iews Charles 33 as the *proper successor+ (line 1.) of the Tudor monarchs and Cromwell because Charles 33 (A) used colonial ta$ re'enues to fund o'erseas military e$peditions (B) used the military to e$tend e$ecuti'e power o'er the #nglish colonies (C) wished to transform the American colonies into capitalistic oligarchies ( ) resisted the #nglish @arliament4s efforts to e$ert control o'er the military (#) allowed the American colonists to use legislati'e assemblies as a forum for resol'ing grie'ances against the crown 21. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most seriously weaken the author4s assertion in lines 10(16% (A) Because they were poorly administered/ Cromwell4s o'erseas military e$peditions were doomed to failure. (B) Because it relied primarily on the symbolic presence of the military/ garrison go'ernment could be effecti'ely administered with a relati'ely small number of troops. (C) :ntil early in the se'enteenth century/ no professional standing army in #urope had performed effecti'ely in o'erseas military e$peditions. ( ) ?any of the colonial go'ernors appointed by the crown were also commissioned army officers. (#) ?any of the #nglish troops stationed in the American colonies were 'eterans of other o'erseas military e$peditions. 22. According to &ebb4s 'iew of colonial history/ which of the following was (were) true of the merchants and nobility mentioned in line .5% 3. 33. They were opposed to policies formulated by Charles 33 that would ha'e transformed the colonies into capitalistic oligarchies. They were opposed to attempts by the #nglish crown to limit the power of the legislati'e assemblies.

333. They were united with small farmers in their opposition to the stationing of #nglish troops in the colonies.

GRE

021

(A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 2-. The author suggests that if &illiam 333 had wanted to make use of the standing army mentioned in line 12 to administer garrison go'ernment in the American colonies/ he would ha'e had to. (A) make peace with >rance (B) abolish the colonial legislati'e assemblies (C) seek appro'al from the #nglish @arliament ( ) appoint colonial go'ernors who were more sympathetic to royal policy (#) raise additional re'enues by increasing ta$ation of large landholdings in the colonies No. 9-2 SECTION A
0 serious critic has to comprehend the particu"ar content' uni+ue structure' and specia" meaning o# a wor$ o# art. 0nd here she #aces a di"emma. The critic must recogni)e the artistic e"ement o# uni+ueness that re+uires sub2ective reaction: yet she must not be undu"y pre2udiced by such reactions. (er "i$es and dis"i$es are "ess important than what the wor$ itse"# communicates' and her pre#erences may b"ind her to certain +ua"ities o# the wor$ and thereby prevent an ade+uate understanding o# it. (ence' it is necessary that a critic deve"op a sensibi"ity in#ormed by #ami"iarity with the history o# art and aesthetic theory. 9n the other hand' it is insu##icient to treat the artwor$ so"e"y historica""y' in re"ation to a #i5ed set o# ideas or va"ues. The critic3s $now"edge and training are' rather' a preparation o# the cognitive and emotiona" abi"ities needed #or an ade+uate persona" response to an artwor$3s own particu"ar +ua"ities.

1-. According to the author/ a serious art critic may a'oid being pre<udiced by her sub<ecti'e reactions if she (A) treats an artwork in relation to a fi$ed set of ideas and 'alues (B) brings to her obser'ation a knowledge of art history and aesthetic theory (C) allows more time for the obser'ation of each artwork ( ) takes into account the preferences of other art critics (#) limits herself to that art with which she has ade"uate familiarity 16. The author implies that it is insufficient to treat a work of art solely historically because

022

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) doing so would lead the critic into a dilemma (B) doing so can blind the critic to some of the artwork4s uni"ue "ualities (C) doing so can insulate the critic from personally held beliefs ( ) sub<ecti'e reactions can produce a biased response (#) critics are not sufficiently familiar with art history 1,. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements% (A) Art speaks to the passions as well as to the intellect. (B) ?ost works of art e$press unconscious wishes or desires. (C) The best art is accessible to the greatest number of people. ( ) The art produced in the last few decades is of inferior "uality. (#) The meaning of art is a function of the social conditions in which it was produced. 25. The author4s argument is de'eloped primarily by the use of (A) an attack on sentimentality (B) an e$ample of successful art criticism (C) a criti"ue of artists training ( ) a warning against e$tremes in art criticism (#) an analogy between art criticism and art production
Biruses' in#ectious partic"es consisting o# nuc"eic acid pac$aged in a protein coat (the capsid)' are di##icu"t to resist. Unab"e to reproduce outside a "iving ce""' viruses reproduce on"y by subverting the genetic mechanisms o# a host ce"". /n one $ind o# vira" "i#e cyc"e' the virus #irst binds to the ce""3s sur#ace' then penetrates the ce"" and sheds its capsid. The e5posed vira" nuc"eic acid produces new viruses #rom the contents o# the ce"". 7ina""y' the ce"" re"eases the vira" progeny' and a new ce"" cyc"e o# in#ection begins. The human body responds to a vira" in#ection by producing antibodies> comp"e5' high"y speci#ic proteins that se"ective"y bind to #oreign mo"ecu"es such as viruses. 0n antibody can either inter#ere with a virus3s abi"ity to bind to a ce""' or can prevent it #rom re"easing its nuc"eic acid. Un#ortunate"y' the common co"d' produced most o#ten by rhinoviruses' is intractab"e to antivira" de#ense. (umans have di##icu"ty resisting co"ds because rhinoviruses are so diverse' inc"uding at "east 1.. strains. The strains di##er most in the mo"ecu"ar structure o# the proteins in their capsids. ince disease-#ighting antibodies bind to the capsid' an antibody deve"oped to protect against one rhinovirus strain is use"ess against other strains. Fi##erent antibodies must be produced #or each strain. 0 de#ense against rhinoviruses might nonethe"ess succeed by e5p"oiting hidden simi"arities among the rhinovirus strains. 7or e5amp"e' most rhinovirus strains bind to the same $ind o# mo"ecu"e (de"ta-receptors) on a ce""3s sur#ace when they attac$ human ce""s. %o"onno' ta$ing advantage o# these common receptors' devised a strategy #or b"oc$ing the attachment o# rhinoviruses to their appropriate receptors. Rather than #ruit"ess"y searching #or

GRE

02-

an antibody that wou"d bind to a"" rhinoviruses' %o"onno rea"i)ed that an antibody binding to the common receptors o# a human ce"" wou"d prevent rhinoviruses #rom initiating an in#ection. &ecause human ce""s norma""y do not deve"op antibodies to components o# their own ce""s' %o"onno in2ected human ce""s into mice' which did produce an antibody to the common receptor. /n iso"ated human ce""s' this antibody proved to be e5traordinari"y e##ective at thwarting the rhinovirus. ?oreover' when the antibody was given to chimpan)ees' it inhibited rhinovira" growth' and in humans it "essened both the severity and duration o# co"d symptoms. 0nother possib"e de#ense against rhinoviruses was proposed by Rossman' who described rhinoviruses3 detai"ed mo"ecu"ar structure. Rossman showed that protein se+uences common to a"" rhinovirus strains "ie at the base o# a deep ;canyon< scoring each #ace o# the capsid. The narrow opening o# this canyon possib"y prevents the re"ative"y "arge antibody mo"ecu"es #rom binding to the common se+uence' but sma""er mo"ecu"es might reach it. 0mong these sma""er' nonantibody mo"ecu"es' some might bind to the common se+uence' "oc$ the nuc"eic acid in its coat' and thereby prevent the virus #rom reproducing.

21. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) discuss 'iral mechanisms and possible ways of circum'enting certain kinds of those mechanisms (B) challenge recent research on how rhino'iruses bind to receptors on the surfaces of cells (C) suggest future research on rhino'iral growth in chimpan!ees ( ) defend a contro'ersial research program whose purpose is to disco'er the molecular structure of rhino'irus capsids (#) e'aluate a dispute between ad'ocates of two theories about the rhino'irus life cycle 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the protein se"uences of the capsid that 'ary most among strains of rhino'irus are those (A) at the base of the *canyon+ (B) outside of the *canyon+ (C) responsible for producing nucleic acid ( ) responsible for pre'enting the formation of delta(receptors (#) pre'enting the capsid from releasing its nucleic acid 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a cell lacking delta(receptors will be (A) unable to pre'ent the rhino'iral nucleic acid from shedding its capsid (B) defenseless against most strains of rhino'irus (C) unable to release the 'iral progeny it de'elops after infection ( ) protected from new infections by antibodies to the rhino'irus (#) resistant to infection by most strains of rhino'irus 20. &hich of the following research strategies for de'eloping a defense against the

026

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

common cold would the author be likely to find most promising% (A) Continuing to look for a general antirhino'iral antibody (B) ;earching for common cell(surface receptors in humans and mice (C) Continuing to look for similarities among the 'arious strains of rhino'irus ( ) isco'ering how the human body produces antibodies in response to a rhino'iral infection (#) etermining the detailed molecular structure of the nucleic acid of a rhino'irus 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the purpose of Colonno4s e$periments was to determine whether (A) chimpan!ees and humans can both be infected by rhino'iruses (B) chimpan!ees can produce antibodies to human cell(surface receptors (C) a rhino'irus4 nucleic acid might be locked in its protein coat ( ) binding antibodies to common receptors could produce a possible defense against rhino'iruses (#) rhino'iruses are 'ulnerable to human antibodies 22. According to the passage/ =ossman4s research suggests that (A) a defense against rhino'iruses might e$ploit structural similarities among the strains of rhino'irus (B) human cells normally do not de'elop antibodies to components of their own cells (C) the 'arious strains of rhino'irus differ in their ability to bind to the surface of a host cell ( ) rhino'irus 'ersatility can work to the benefit of researchers trying to find a useful antibody (#) Colonno4s research findings are probably in'alid 2-. According to the passage/ in order for a gi'en antibody to bind to a gi'en rhino'iral capsid/ which of the following must be true% (A) The capsid must ha'e a deep *canyon+ on each of its faces. (B) The antibody must be specific to the molecular structure of the particular capsid. (C) The capsid must separate from its nucleic acid before binding to an antibody. ( ) The antibody must bind to a particular cell(surface receptor before it can bind to a rhino'irus. (#) The antibody must first enter a cell containing the particular rhino'irus. SECTION B

GRE
Fiamonds' an occasiona" component o# rare igneous roc$s ca""ed "amproites and $imber"ites' have never been dated satis#actori"y. (owever' some diamonds contain minute

02,

inc"usions o# si"icate minera"s' common"y o"ivine' pyro5ene' and garnet. These minera"s can be dated by radioactive decay techni+ues because o# the very sma"" +uantities o# radioactive trace e"ements they' in turn' contain. Usua""y' it is possib"e to conc"ude that the inc"usions are o"der than their diamond hosts' but with "itt"e indication o# the time interva" invo"ved. ometimes' however' the crysta" #orm o# the si"icate inc"usions is observed to resemb"e more c"ose"y the interna" structure o# diamond than that o# other si"icate minera"s. /t is not $nown how rare this resemb"ance is' or whether it is most o#ten seen in inc"usions o# si"icates such as garnet' whose crysta""ography is genera""y somewhat simi"ar to that o# diamond: but when present' the resemb"ance is regarded as compe""ing evidence that the diamonds and inc"usions are tru"y cogenetic.

1-. The author implies that silicate inclusions were most often formed (A) with small diamonds inside of them (B) with trace elements deri'ed from their host minerals (C) by the radioacti'e decay of rare igneous rocks ( ) at an earlier period than were their host minerals (#) from the crystalli!ation of rare igneous material 16. According to the passage/ the age of silicate minerals included in diamonds can be determined due to a feature of the (A) trace elements in the diamond hosts (B) trace elements in the rock surrounding the diamonds (C) trace elements in the silicate minerals ( ) silicate minerals4 crystal structure (#) host diamonds4 crystal structure 1,. The author states that which of the following generally has a crystal structure similar to that of diamond% (A) Kamproite (B) Mimberlite (C) 8li'ine ( ) @yro$ene (#) Barnet 25. The main purpose of the passage is to (A) e$plain why it has not been possible to determine the age of diamonds (B) e$plain how it might be possible to date some diamonds (C) compare two alternati'e approaches to determining the age of diamonds ( ) compare a method of dating diamonds with a method used to date certain silicate minerals

0-5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) compare the age of diamonds with that of certain silicate minerals contained within them
Fiscussion o# the assimi"ation o# 6uerto Ricans in the United tates has #ocused on two #actors> socia" standing and the "oss o# nationa" cu"ture. /n genera"' e5cessive stress is p"aced on one #actor or the other' depending on whether the commentator is *orth 0merican or 6uerto Rican. ?any *orth 0merican socia" scientists' such as 9scar (and"in' @oseph 7it)patric$' and 9scar Eewis' consider 6uerto Ricans as the most recent in a "ong "ine o# ethnic entrants to occupy the "owest rung on the socia" "adder. uch a ;sociodemographic< approach tends to regard assimi"ation as a benign process' ta$ing #or granted increased economic advantage and inevitab"e cu"tura" integration' in a supposed"y ega"itarian conte5t. (owever' this approach #ai"s to ta$e into account the co"onia" nature o# the 6uerto Rican case' with this group' un"i$e their =uropean predecessors' coming #rom a nation po"itica""y subordinated to the United tates. =ven the ;radica"< criti+ues o# this mainstream research mode"' such as the criti+ue deve"oped in -ivided ociety' attach the issue o# ethnic assimi"ation too mechanica""y to #actors o# economic and socia" mobi"ity and are thus unab"e to i""uminate the cu"tura" subordination o# 6uerto Ricans as a co"onia" minority. /n contrast' the ;co"onia"ist< approach o# is"and-based writers such as =duardo eda&oni""a' ?anue" ?a"donado-Fenis' and Euis *ieves-7a"con tends to view assimi"ation as the #orced "oss o# nationa" cu"ture in an une+ua" contest with imposed #oreign va"ues. There is' o# course' a strong tradition o# cu"tura" accommodation among other 6uerto Rican thin$ers. The writings o# =ugenio 7ernande) ?ende) c"ear"y e5emp"i#y this tradition' and many supporters o# 6uerto Rico3s commonwea"th status share the same universa"i)ing orientation. &ut the 6uerto Rican inte""ectua"s who have written most about the assimi"ation process in the United tates a"" advance cu"tura" nationa"ist views' advocating the preservation o# minority cu"tura" distinctions and re2ecting what they see as the sub2ugation o# co"onia" nationa"ities. This cu"tura" and po"itica" emphasis is appropriate' but the co"onia"ist thin$ers misdirect it' over"oo$ing the c"ass re"ations at wor$ in both 6uerto Rican and *orth 0merican history. They pose the c"ash o# nationa" cu"tures as an abso"ute po"arity' with each cu"ture understood as static and undi##erentiated. Det both the 6uerto Rican and *orth 0merican traditions have been sub2ect to constant cha""enge #rom cu"tura" #orces within their own societies' #orces that may move toward each other in ways that cannot be written o## as mere ;assimi"ation.< %onsider' #or e5amp"e' the indigenous and 0#ro-%aribbean traditions in 6uerto Rican cu"ture and how they in#"uence and are in#"uenced by other %aribbean cu"tures and &"ac$ cu"tures in the United tates. The e"ements o# coercion and ine+ua"ity' so centra" to cu"tura" contact according to the co"onia"ist #ramewor$ p"ay no ro"e in this $ind o# convergence o# racia""y and ethnica""y di##erent e"ements o# the same socia" c"ass.

21. The author4s main purpose is to (A) critici!e the emphasis on social standing in discussions of the assimilation of @uerto =icans in the :nited ;tates (B) support the thesis that assimilation has not been a benign process for @uerto =icans (C) defend a 'iew of the assimilation of @uerto =icans that emphasi!es the

GRE

0-1

preser'ation of national culture ( ) indicate deficiencies in two schools of thought on the assimilation of @uerto =icans in the :nited ;tates (#) re<ect the attempt to formulate a general framework for discussion of the assimilation of @uerto =icans in the :nited ;tates 22. According to the passage/ cultural accommodation is promoted by (A) #duardo ;eda(Bonilla (B) ?anuel ?aldonado( enis (C) the author of !i$ided Society ( ) the ma<ority of social scientists writing on immigration (#) many supporters of @uerto =ico4s commonwealth status 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a writer such as #ugenio >ernande! ?ende! would most likely agree with which of the following statements concerning members of minority ethnic groups% (A) 3t is necessary for the members of such groups to adapt to the culture of the ma<ority. (B) The members of such groups generally encounter a culture that is static and undifferentiated. (C) ;ocial mobility is the most important feature of the e$perience of members of such groups. ( ) ;ocial scientists should emphasi!e the cultural and political aspects of the e$perience of members of such groups. (#) The assimilation of members of such groups re"uires the forced abandonment of their authentic national roots. 20. The author implies that the @uerto =ican writers who ha'e written most about assimilation do 98T do which of the following% (A) =egard assimilation as benign. (B) =esist cultural integration. (C) escribe in detail the process of assimilation. ( ) Take into account the colonial nature of the @uerto =ican case. (#) Critici!e supporters of @uerto =ico4s commonwealth status. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *colonialist+ approach is so called because its practitioners (A) support @uerto =ico4s commonwealth status (B) ha'e a strong tradition of cultural accommodation (C) emphasi!e the class relations at work in both @uerto =ican and 9orth American history

0-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) pose the clash of national cultures as an absolute polarity in which each culture is understood as static and undifferentiated (#) regard the political relation of @uerto =ico to the :nited ;tates as a significant factor in the e$perience of @uerto =icans 22. The author regards the emphasis by island(based writers on the cultural and political dimensions of assimilation as (A) ironic (B) dangerous (C) fitting but misdirected ( ) illuminating but easily misunderstood (#) peculiar but benign 2-. The e$ample discussed in lines 11(10 is intended by the author to illustrate a (A) strength of the sociodemographic approach (B) strength of the *colonialist+ approach (C) weakness of the sociodemographic approach ( ) weakness of the *colonialist+ approach (#) weakness of the cultural(accommodationist approach No. 9-3 SECTION A
%"assica" physics de#ines the vacuum as a state o# absence> a vacuum is said to e5ist in a region o# space i# there is nothing in it. /n the +uantum #ie"d theories that describe the physics o# e"ementary partic"es' the vacuum becomes somewhat more comp"icated. =ven in empty space' partic"es can appear spontaneous"y as a resu"t o# #"uctuations o# the vacuum. 7or e5amp"e' an e"ectron and a positron' or antie"ectron' can be created out o# the void. 6artic"es created in this way have on"y a #"eeting e5istence: they are annihi"ated a"most as soon as they appear' and their presence can never be detected direct"y. They are ca""ed virtua" partic"es in order to distinguish them #rom rea" partic"es' whose "i#etimes are not constrained in the same way' and which can be detected. Thus it is sti"" possib"e to de#ine that vacuum as a space that has no rea" partic"es in it. 9ne might e5pect that the vacuum wou"d a"ways be the state o# "owest possib"e energy #or a given region o# space. /# an area is initia""y empty and a rea" partic"e is put into it' the tota" energy' it seems' shou"d be raised by at "east the energy e+uiva"ent o# the mass o# the added partic"e. 0 surprising resu"t o# some recent theoretica" investigations is that this assumption is not invariab"y true. There are conditions under which the introduction o# a rea" partic"e o# #inite mass into an empty region o# space can reduce the tota" energy. /# the reduction in energy is great enough' an e"ectron and a positron wi"" be spontaneous"y created. Under these conditions the e"ectron and positron are not a resu"t o# vacuum #"uctuations but are rea"

GRE

0-.

partic"es' which e5ist inde#inite"y and can be detected. /n other words' under these conditions the vacuum is an unstab"e state and can decay into a state o# "ower energy: i.e.' one in which rea" partic"es are created. The essentia" condition #or the decay o# the vacuum is the presence o# an intense e"ectric #ie"d. 0s a resu"t o# the decay o# the vacuum' the space permeated by such a #ie"d can be said to ac+uire an e"ectric charge' and it can be ca""ed a charged vacuum. The partic"es that materia"i)e in the space ma$e the charge mani#est. 0n e"ectric #ie"d o# su##icient intensity to create a charged vacuum is "i$e"y to be #ound in on"y one p"ace> in the immediate vicinity o# a superheavy atomic nuc"eus' one with about twice as many protons as the heaviest natura" nuc"ei $nown. 0 nuc"eus that "arge cannot be stab"e' but it might be possib"e to assemb"e one ne5t to a vacuum #or "ong enough to observe the decay o# the vacuum. =5periments attempting to achieve this are now under way.

1-. &hich of the following titles best describes the passage as a whole% (A) The CacuumE 3ts >luctuations and ecay (B) The CacuumE 3ts Creation and 3nstability (C) The CacuumE A ;tate of Absence ( ) @articles That ?ateriali!e in the Cacuum (#) Classical @hysics and the Cacuum 16. According to the passage/ the assumption that the introduction of a real particle into a 'acuum raises the total energy of that region of space has been cast into doubt by which of the following% (A) >indings from laboratory e$periments (B) >indings from obser'ational field e$periments (C) Accidental obser'ations made during other e$periments ( ) isco'ery of se'eral erroneous propositions in accepted theories (#) @redictions based on theoretical work 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that scientists are currently making efforts to obser'e which of the following e'ents% (A) The decay of a 'acuum in the presence of 'irtual particles (B) The decay of a 'acuum ne$t to a superhea'y atomic nucleus (C) The creation of a superhea'y atomic nucleus ne$t to an intense electric field ( ) The creation of a 'irtual electron and a 'irtual positron as a result of fluctuations of a 'acuum (#) The creation of a charged 'acuum in which only real electrons can be created in the 'acuum4s region of space 25. @hysicists4 recent in'estigations of the decay of the 'acuum/ as described in the passage/ most closely resemble which of the following hypothetical e'ents in other disciplines%

0-0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) 8n the basis of data gathered in a carefully controlled laboratory e$periment/ a chemist predicts and then demonstrates the physical properties of a newly synthesi!ed polymer. (B) 8n the basis of manipulations of macroeconomic theory/ an economist predicts that/ contrary to accepted economic theory/ inflation and unemployment will both decline under conditions of rapid economic growth. (C) 8n the basis of a rereading of the te$ts of Aane Austen4s no'els/ a literary critic suggests that/ contrary to accepted literary interpretations. Austen4s plots were actually metaphors for political e'ents in early nineteenth(century #ngland. ( ) 8n the basis of data gathered in carefully planned obser'ations of se'eral species of birds/ a biologist proposes a modification in the accepted theory of interspecies competition. (#) 8n the basis of a study of obser'ations incidentally recorded in ethnographers4 descriptions of non(&estern societies/ an anthropologist proposes a new theory of kinship relations. 21. According to the passage/ the author considers the reduction of energy in an empty region of space to which a real particle has been added to be (A) a well(known process (B) a fre"uent occurrence (C) a fleeting aberration ( ) an unimportant e'ent (#) an une$pected outcome 22. According to the passage/ 'irtual particles differ from real particles in which of the following ways% 3. 33. Cirtual particles ha'e e$tremely short lifetimes. Cirtual particles are created in an intense electric field.

333. Cirtual particles cannot be detected directly. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 33 only (#) 3 and 333 only 2.. The author4s assertions concerning the conditions that lead to the decay of the 'acuum would be most weakened if which of the following occurred% (A) ;cientists created an electric field ne$t to a 'acuum/ but found that the electric field was not intense enough to create a charged 'acuum. (B) ;cientists assembled a superhea'y atomic nucleus ne$t to a 'acuum/ but

GRE

0-1

found that no 'irtual particles were created in the 'acuum4s region of space. (C) ;cientists assembled a superhea'y atomic nucleus ne$t to a 'acuum/ but found that they could not then detect any real particles in the 'acuum4s region of space. ( ) ;cientists introduced a 'irtual electron and a 'irtual positron into a 'acuum4s region of space/ but found that the 'acuum did not then fluctuate. (#) ;cientists introduced a real electron and a real positron into a 'acuum4s region of space/ but found that the total energy of the space increased by the energy e"ui'alent of the mass of the particles.
imone de &eauvoir3s wor$ great"y in#"uenced &etty 7riedan3s!/ndeed' made it possib"e. 8hy' then' was it 7riedan who became the prophet o# women3s emancipation in the United tatesC 6o"itica" conditions' as we"" as a certain anti-inte""ectua" bias' prepared 0mericans and the 0merican media to better receive 7riedan3s deradica"i)ed and high"y pragmatic The Feminine (ystique' pub"ished in 19G4' than &eauvoir3s theoretica" reading o# women3s situation in The econd e3. /n 19-4 when The econd e3 #irst appeared in trans"ation in the United tates' the country had entered the si"ent' #ear#u" #ortress o# the anticommunist ?c%arthy years (19-.-19-H)' and &eauvoir was suspected o# ?ar5ist sympathies. =ven The +ation' a genera""y "ibera" maga)ine' warned its readers against ;certain po"itica" "eanings< o# the author. 9pen ac$now"edgement o# the e5istence o# women3s oppression was too radica" #or the United tates in the #i#ties' and &eauvoir3s conc"usion' that change in women3s economic condition' though insu##icient by itse"#' ;remains the basic #actor< in improving women3s situation' was particu"ar"y unacceptab"e.

20. According to the passage/ one difference between The Fe-inine *ystique and The Second Se, is that >riedan4s book (A) re<ects the idea that women are oppressed (B) pro'ides a primarily theoretical analysis of women4s li'es (C) does not reflect the political beliefs of its author ( ) suggests that women4s economic condition has no impact on their status (#) concentrates on the practical aspects of the "uestions of women4s emancipation 21. The author "uotes from The Nation most probably in order to (A) modify an earlier assertion (B) point out a possible e$ception to her argument (C) illustrate her central point ( ) clarify the meaning of a term (#) cite an e$pert opinion 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is not a factor in the e$planation of why The Fe-inine *ystique was recei'ed more positi'ely in the :nited ;tates than was The Second Se,%

0-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(A) By 1,2. political conditions in the :nited ;tates had changed. (B) >riedan4s book was less intellectual and abstract than Beau'oir4s. (C) =eaders did not recogni!e the powerful influence of Beau'oir4s book on >riedan4s ideas. ( ) >riedan4s approach to the issue of women4s emancipation was less radical than Beau'oir4s. (#) American readers were more willing to consider the problem of the oppression of women in the si$ties than they had been in the fifties. 2-. According to the passage/ Beau'oir4s book asserted that the status of women (A) is the outcome of political oppression (B) is inherently tied to their economic condition (C) can be best impro'ed under a communist go'ernment ( ) is a theoretical/ rather than a pragmatic/ issue (#) is a critical area of discussion in ?ar$ist economic theory SECTION B
9ne o# the +uestions o# interest in the study o# the evo"ution o# spiders is whether the weaving o# orb webs evo"ved on"y once or severa" times. 0bout ha"# the 4-'... $nown $inds o# spiders ma$e webs: a third o# the web weavers ma$e orb webs. ince most orb weavers be"ong either to the 0raneidae or the U"oboridae #ami"ies' the origin o# the orb web can be determined on"y by ascertaining whether the #ami"ies are re"ated. Recent ta5onomic ana"ysis o# individua"s #rom both #ami"ies indicates that the #ami"ies evo"ved #rom di##erent ancestors' thereby contradicting 8ieh"e3s theory. This theory postu"ates that the #ami"ies must be re"ated' based on the assumption that comp"e5 behavior' such as web bui"ding' cou"d evo"ve on"y once. 0ccording to Nu""man' web structure is the on"y characteristic that suggests a re"ationship between #ami"ies. The #ami"ies di##er in appearance' structure o# body hair' and arrangement o# eyes. 9n"y U"oborids "ac$ venom g"ands. 7urther identi#ication and study o# characteristic #eatures wi"" undoubted"y answer the +uestion o# the evo"ution o# the orb web.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) settle the "uestion of whether orb webs e'ol'ed once or more than once (B) describe scientific speculation concerning an issue related to the e'olution of orb webs (C) analy!e the differences between the characteristic features of spiders in the Araneidae and :loboridae families ( ) "uestion the methods used by earlier in'estigators of the habits of spiders (#) demonstrate that Araneidae spiders are not related to :loboridae spiders 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that all orb(wea'ing spiders belong to types of

GRE

0--

spiders that (A) lack 'enom glands (B) are included either in the :loboridae or Araneidae families (C) share few characteristic features with other spider types ( ) comprise less than a third of all known types of spiders (#) are more recently e'ol'ed than other types of spiders 1,. According to the passage/ members of the Araneidae family can be distinguished from members of the :loboridae family by all of the following #DC#@TE (A) the presence of 'enom glands (B) the type of web they spin (C) the structure of their body hair ( ) the arrangement of their eyes (#) their appearance 25. &hich of the following statements/ if true/ most weakens &iehle4s theory that comple$ beha'ior could e'ol'e only once% (A) )orses/ introduced to the 9ew &orld by the ;paniards/ thri'ed under di'erse climatic conditions. (B) @lants of the @almaceae family/ descendants of a common ancestor/ e'ol'ed uni"ue seed forms e'en though the plants occupy similar habitats throughout the world. (C) All mammals are descended from a small/ rodentlike animal whose physical characteristics in some form are found in all its descendants. ( ) @lants in the Cactaceae and #uphorbiaceae families/ although they often look alike and ha'e de'eloped similar mechanisms to meet the rigors of the desert/ e'ol'ed independently. (#) The Cuban anole/ which was recently introduced in the >lorida wilds/ is "uickly replacing the nati'e >lorida chameleon because the anole has no competitors.
;6opu"ar art< has a number o# meanings' impossib"e to de#ine with any precision' which range #rom #o"$"ore to 2un$. The po"es are c"ear enough' but the midd"e tends to b"ur. The (o""ywood 8estern o# the 194.3s' #or e5amp"e' has e"ements o# #o"$"ore' but is c"oser to 2un$ than to high art or #o"$ art. There can be great trash' 2ust as there is bad high art. The musica"s o# Aeorge Aershwin are great popu"ar art' never aspiring to high art. chubert and &rahms' however' used e"ements o# popu"ar music!#o"$ themes!in wor$s c"ear"y intended as high art. The case o# Berdi is a di##erent one> he too$ a popu"ar genre!bourgeois me"odrama set to music (an accurate de#inition o# nineteenth-century opera)!and' without a"tering its #undamenta" nature' transmuted it into high art. This remains one o# the greatest achievements in music' and one that cannot be #u""y appreciated without recogni)ing the essentia" trashiness o# the genre.

0-6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

0s an e5amp"e o# such a transmutation' consider what Berdi made o# the typica" po"itica"

e"ements o# nineteenth-century opera. Aenera""y in the p"ots o# these operas' a hero or heroine!usua""y portrayed on"y as an individua"' un#ettered by c"ass!is caught between the immora" corruption o# the aristocracy and the doctrinaire rigidity or secret greed o# the "eaders o# the pro"etariat. Berdi trans#orms this naive and un"i$e"y #ormu"ation with music o# e5traordinary energy and rhythmic vita"ity' music more subt"e than it seems at #irst hearing. There are scenes and arias that sti"" sound "i$e ca""s to arms and were c"ear"y understood as such when they were #irst per#ormed. uch pieces "end an immediacy to the otherwise vei"ed po"itica" message o# these operas and ca"" up #ee"ings beyond those o# the opera itse"#. 9r consider Berdi3s treatment o# character. &e#ore Berdi' there were rare"y any characters at a"" in musica" drama' on"y a series o# situations which a""owed the singers to e5press a series o# emotiona" states. 0ny attempt to #ind coherent psycho"ogica" portraya" in these operas is misp"aced ingenuity. The on"y coherence was the singer3s voca" techni+ue> when the cast changed' new arias were a"most a"ways substituted' genera""y adapted #rom other operas. Berdi3s characters' on the other hand' have genuine consistency and integrity' even i#' in many cases' the consistency is that o# pasteboard me"odrama. The integrity o# the character is achieved through the music> once he had become estab"ished' Berdi did not rewrite his music #or di##erent singers or countenance a"terations or substitutions o# somebody e"se3s arias in one o# his operas' as every eighteenth-century composer had done. 8hen he revised an opera' it was on"y #or dramatic economy and e##ectiveness.

21. The author refers to ;chubert and Brahms in order to suggest (A) that their achie'ements are no less substantial than those of Cerdi (B) that their works are e$amples of great trash (C) the e$tent to which ;chubert and Brahms influenced the later compositions of Cerdi ( ) a contrast between the con'entions of nineteenth(century opera and those of other musical forms (#) that popular music could be employed in compositions intended as high art 22. According to the passage/ the immediacy of the political message in Cerdi4s operas stems from the (A) 'itality and subtlety of the music (B) audience4s familiarity with earlier operas (C) portrayal of heightened emotional states ( ) indi'idual talents of the singers (#) 'erisimilitude of the characters 2.. According to the passage/ all of the following characteri!e musical drama before Cerdi #DC#@TE (A) arias tailored to a particular singer4s ability (B) adaptation of music from other operas

GRE

0-,

(C) psychological inconsistency in the portrayal of characters ( ) e$pression of emotional states in a series of dramatic situations (#) music used for the purpose of defining a character 20. 3t can be inferred that the author regards Cerdi4s re'isions to his operas with (A) regret that the original music and te$ts were altered (B) concern that many of the re'isions altered the plots of the original work (C) appro'al for the intentions that moti'ated the re'isions ( ) pu!!lement/ since the re'isions seem largely insignificant (#) enthusiasm/ since the re'isions were aimed at reducing the con'entionality of the operas4 plots 21. According to the passage/ one of Cerdi4s achie'ements within the framework of nineteenth(century opera and its con'entions was to (A) limit the e$tent to which singers influenced the musical compositions and performance of his operas (B) use his operas primarily as forums to protest both the moral corruption and dogmatic rigidity of the political leaders of his time (C) portray psychologically comple$ characters shaped by the political en'ironment surrounding them ( ) incorporate elements of folklore into both the music and plots of his operas (#) introduce political elements into an art form that had traditionally a'oided political content 22. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the first paragraph of the passage to the passage as a whole% (A) 3t pro'ides a group of specific e$amples from which generali!ations are drawn later in the passage. (B) 3t leads to an assertion that is supported by e$amples later in the passage. (C) 3t defines terms and relationships that are challenged in an argument later in the passage. ( ) 3t briefly compares and contrasts se'eral achie'ements that are e$amined in detail later in the passage. (#) 3t e$plains a method of <udging a work of art/ a method that is used later in the passage. 2-. 3t can be inferred that the author regards the independence from social class of the heroes and heroines of nineteenth(century opera as (A) an ideali!ed but fundamentally accurate portrayal of bourgeois life (B) a plot con'ention with no real connection to political reality (C) a plot refinement uni"ue to Cerdi

065

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) a symbolic representation of the position of the bourgeoisie relati'e to the aristocracy and the proletariat (#) a con'ention largely seen as irrele'ant by audiences No. 9-4 SECTION A
(The artic"e #rom which the passage was ta$en appeared in 1981.) Theorists are divided concerning the origin o# the ?oon. ome hypothesi)e that the ?oon was #ormed in the same way as were the p"anets in the inner so"ar system (?ercury' Benus' ?ars' and =arth)!#rom p"anet-#orming materia"s in the preso"ar nebu"a. &ut' un"i$e the cores o# the inner p"anets' the ?oon3s core contains "itt"e or no iron' whi"e the typica" p"anet-#orming materia"s were +uite rich in iron. 9ther theorists propose that the ?oon was ripped out o# the =arth3s roc$y mant"e by the =arth3s co""ision with another "arge ce"estia" body a#ter much o# the =arth3s iron #e"" to its core. 9ne prob"em with the co""ision hypothesis is the +uestion o# how a sate""ite #ormed in this way cou"d have sett"ed into the near"y circu"ar orbit that the ?oon has today. 7ortunate"y' the co""ision hypothesis is testab"e. /# it is true' the mant"eroc$s o# the ?oon and the =arth shou"d be the same geochemica""y.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) present two hypotheses concerning the origin of the ?oon (B) discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the collision hypothesis concerning the origin of the ?oon (C) propose that hypotheses concerning the ?oon4s origin be tested ( ) argue that the ?oon could not ha'e been formed out of the typical planet( forming materials of the presolar nebula (#) describe one reason why the ?oon4s geochemical makeup should resemble that of the #arth 16. According to the passage/ ?ars and the #arth are similar in which of the following ways% 3. 33. Their satellites were formed by collisions with other celestial bodies. Their cores contain iron.

333. They were formed from the presolar nebula. (A) 333 only (B) 3 and 33 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 1,. The author implies that a nearly circular orbit is unlikely for a satellite that

GRE

061

(A) circles one of the inner planets (B) is deficient in iron (C) is different from its planet geochemically ( ) was formed by a collision between two celestial bodies (#) was formed out of the planet(forming materials in the presolar nebula 25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would be most likely to make it difficult to 'erify the collision hypothesis in the manner suggested by the author% (A) The ?oon4s core and mantlerock are almost inacti'e geologically. (B) The mantlerock of the #arth has changed in composition since the formation of the ?oon/ while the mantlerock of the ?oon has remained chemically inert. (C) ?uch of the #arth4s iron fell to the #arth4s core long before the formation of the ?oon/ after which the #arth4s mantlerock remained unchanged. ( ) Certain of the #arth4s elements/ such as platinum/ gold/ and iridium/ followed iron to the #arth4s core. (#) The mantlerock of the ?oon contains elements such as platinum/ gold/ and iridium.
urprising"y enough' modern historians have rare"y interested themse"ves in the history o# the 0merican outh in the period be#ore the outh began to become se"#-conscious"y and distinctive"y ; outhern<!the decades a#ter 181-. %onse+uent"y' the cu"tura" history o# &ritain3s *orth 0merican empire in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries has been written a"most as i# the outhern co"onies had never e5isted. The 0merican cu"ture that emerged during the %o"onia" and Revo"utionary eras has been depicted as having been simp"y an e5tension o# *ew =ng"and 6uritan cu"ture. (owever' 6ro#essor Favis has recent"y argued that the outh stood apart #rom the rest o# 0merican society during this ear"y period' #o""owing its own uni+ue pattern o# cu"tura" deve"opment. The case #or outhern distinctiveness rests upon two re"ated premises> #irst' that the cu"tura" simi"arities among the #ive outhern co"onies were #ar more impressive than the di##erences' and second' that what made those co"onies a"i$e a"so made them di##erent #rom the other co"onies. The #irst' #or which Favis o##ers an enormous amount o# evidence' can be accepted without ma2or reservations: the second is #ar more prob"ematic. 8hat ma$es the second premise prob"ematic is the use o# the 6uritan co"onies as a basis #or comparison. Ouite proper"y' Favis decries the e5cessive in#"uence ascribed by historians to the 6uritans in the #ormation o# 0merican cu"ture. Det Favis inadvertent"y adds weight to such ascriptions by using the 6uritans as the standard against which to assess the achievements and contributions o# outhern co"onia"s. Throughout' Favis #ocuses on the important' and undeniab"e' di##erences between the outhern and 6uritan co"onies in motives #or and patterns o# ear"y sett"ement' in attitudes toward nature and *ative 0mericans' and in the degree o# receptivity to metropo"itan cu"tura" in#"uences. (owever' recent scho"arship has strong"y suggested that those aspects o# ear"y *ew =ng"and cu"ture that seem to have been most distinct"y 6uritan' such as the strong re"igious

062

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

orientation and the communa" impu"se' were not even typica" o# *ew =ng"and as a who"e' but were "arge"y con#ined to the two co"onies o# ?assachusetts and %onnecticut. Thus' what in contrast to the 6uritan co"onies appears to Favis to be pecu"iar"y outhern!ac+uisitiveness' a strong interest in po"itics and the "aw' and a tendency to cu"tivate metropo"itan cu"tura" mode"s!was not on"y more typica""y =ng"ish than the cu"tura" patterns e5hibited by 6uritan ?assachusetts and %onnecticut' but a"so a"most certain"y characteristic o# most other ear"y modern &ritish co"onies #rom &arbados north to Rhode /s"and and *ew (ampshire. 8ithin the "arger #ramewor$ o# 0merican co"onia" "i#e' then' not the outhern but the 6uritan co"onies appear to have been distinctive' and even they seem to have been rapid"y assimi"ating to the dominant cu"tura" patterns by the "ate %o"onia" period.

21. The author is primarily concerned with (A) refuting a claim about the influence of @uritan culture on the early American ;outh (B) refuting a thesis about the distincti'eness of the culture of the early American ;outh (C) refuting the two premises that underlie a'is4 discussion of the culture of the American ;outh in the period before 1611 ( ) challenging the hypothesis that early American culture was homogeneous in nature (#) challenging the contention that the American ;outh made greater contributions to early American culture than @uritan 9ew #ngland did 22. The passage implies that the attitudes toward 9ati'e Americans that pre'ailed in the ;outhern colonies (A) were in conflict with the cosmopolitan outlook of the ;outh (B) deri'ed from ;outherners4 strong interest in the law (C) were modeled after those that pre'ailed in the 9orth ( ) differed from those that pre'ailed in the @uritan colonies (#) de'eloped as a response to attitudes that pre'ailed in ?assachusetts and Connecticut 2.. According to the author/ the depiction of American culture during the Colonial and =e'olutionary eras as an e$tension of 9ew #ngland @uritan culture reflects the (A) fact that historians ha'e o'erestimated the importance of the @uritans in the de'elopment of American culture (B) fact that early American culture was deeply influenced by the strong religious orientation of the colonists (C) failure to recogni!e important and undeniable cultural differences between 9ew )ampshire and =hode 3sland on the one hand and the ;outhern colonies on the other

GRE

06.

( ) e$tent to which ?assachusetts and Connecticut ser'ed as cultural models for the other American colonies (#) e$tent to which colonial America resisted assimilating cultural patterns that were typically #nglish 20. The author of the passage is in agreement with which of the following elements of a'is4 book% 3. 33. 333. a'is4 claim that ac"uisiti'eness was a characteristic uni"ue to the ;outh during the Colonial period a'is4 argument that there were significant differences between @uritan and ;outhern culture during the Colonial period a'is4 thesis that the ;outhern colonies shared a common culture

(A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 33 only (#) 33 and 333 only 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would find a'is4 second premise (lines 16(25) more plausible if it were true that (A) @uritan culture had displayed the tendency characteristic of the ;outh to culti'ate metropolitan cultural models (B) @uritan culture had been dominant in all the non(;outhern colonies during the se'enteenth and eighteen centuries (C) the communal impulse and a strong religious orientation had been more pre'alent in the ;outh ( ) the 'arious cultural patterns of the ;outhern colonies had more closely resembled each other (#) the cultural patterns characteristic of most early modern British colonies had also been characteristic of the @uritan colonies 22. The passage suggests that by the late Colonial period the tendency to culti'ate metropolitan cultural models was a cultural pattern that was (A) dying out as @uritan influence began to grow (B) self(consciously and distincti'ely ;outhern (C) spreading to ?assachusetts and Connecticut ( ) more characteristic of the ;outhern colonies than of #ngland (#) beginning to spread to =hode 3sland and 9ew )ampshire 2-. &hich of the following statements could most logically follow the last sentence of the passage% (A) Thus/ had more attention been paid to the e'idence/ a'is would not ha'e

060

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

been tempted to argue that the culture of the ;outh di'erged greatly from @uritan culture in the se'enteenth century. (B) Thus/ con'ergence/ not di'ergence/ seems to ha'e characteri!ed the cultural de'elopment of the American colonies in the eighteenth century. (C) Thus/ without the cultural di'ersity represented by the America ;outh/ the culture of colonial America would certainly ha'e been homogeneous in nature. ( ) Thus/ the contribution of ;outhern colonials to American culture was certainly o'ershadowed by that of the @uritans. (#) Thus/ the culture of America during the Colonial period was far more sensiti'e to outside influences than historians are accustomed to acknowledge. SECTION B
7or some time scientists have be"ieved that cho"estero" p"ays a ma2or ro"e in heart disease because peop"e with #ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia' a genetic de#ect' have si5 to eight times the norma" "eve" o# cho"estero" in their b"ood and they invariab"y deve"op heart disease. These peop"e "ac$ ce""-sur#ace receptors #or "ow-density "ipoproteins (EFE3s)' which are the #undamenta" carriers o# b"ood cho"estero" to the body ce""s that use cho"estero". 8ithout an ade+uate number o# ce""-sur#ace receptors to remove EFE3s #rom the b"ood' the cho"estero"carrying EFE3s remain in the b"ood' increasing b"ood cho"estero" "eve"s. cientists a"so noticed that peop"e with #ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia appear to produce more EFE3s than norma" individua"s. (ow' scientists wondered' cou"d a genetic mutation that causes a s"owdown in the remova" o# EFE3s #rom the b"ood a"so resu"t in an increase in the synthesis o# this cho"estero"carrying proteinC ince scientists cou"d not e5periment on human body tissue' their $now"edge o# #ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia was severe"y "imited. (owever' a brea$through came in the "aboratories o# Doshio 8atanabe o# Nobe University in @apan in 198.. 8atanabe noticed that a ma"e rabbit in his co"ony had ten times the norma" concentration o# cho"estero" in its b"ood. &y appropriate breeding' 8atanabe obtained a strain o# rabbits that had very high cho"estero" "eve"s. These rabbits spontaneous"y deve"oped heart disease. To his surprise' 8atanabe #urther #ound that the rabbits' "i$e humans with #ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia' "ac$ed EFE receptors. Thus' scientists cou"d study these 8atanabe rabbits to gain a better understanding o# #ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia in humans. 6rior to the brea$through at Nobe University' it was $nown that EFE3s are secreted #rom the "iver in the #orm o# a precursor' ca""ed very "ow-density "ipoproteins (BEFE3s)' which carry trig"ycerides as we"" as re"ative"y sma"" amounts o# cho"estero". The trig"ycerides are removed #rom the BEFE3s by #atty and other tissues. 8hat remains is a remnant partic"e that must be removed #rom the b"ood. 8hat scientists "earned by studying the 8atanabe rabbits is that the remova" o# the BEFE remnant re+uires the EFE receptor. *orma""y' the ma2ority o# the BEFE remnants go to the "iver where they bind to EFE receptors and are degraded. /n the 8atanabe

GRE
rabbit' due to a "ac$ o# EFE receptors on "iver ce""s' the BEFE remnants remain in the b"ood and are eventua""y converted to EFE3s. The EFE receptors thus have a dua" e##ect in contro""ing EFE "eve"s. They are necessary to prevent oversynthesis o# EFE3s #rom BEFE remnants and they are necessary #or the norma" remova" o# EFE3s #rom the b"ood. 8ith this $now"edge' scientists are now we"" on the way toward deve"oping drugs that dramatica""y

061

"ower cho"estero" "eve"s in peop"e a##"icted with certain #orms o# #ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia.

1-. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) presenting a hypothesis and describing compelling e'idence in support of it (B) raising a "uestion and describing an important disco'ery that led to an answer (C) showing that a certain genetically caused disease can be treated effecti'ely with drugs ( ) e$plaining what causes the genetic mutation that leads to heart disease (#) discussing the importance of research on animals for the study of human disease 16. &hich of the following drugs/ if de'eloped/ would most likely be an e$ample of the kind of drug mentioned in line 1.% (A) A drug that stimulates the production of CK K remnants (B) A drug that stimulates the production of K K receptors on the li'er (C) A drug that stimulates the production of an en!yme needed for cholesterol production ( ) A drug that suppresses the production of body cells that use cholesterol (#) A drug that pre'ents triglycerides from attaching to CK K4s 1,. The passage supplies information to answer which of the following "uestions% (A) &hich body cells are the primary users of cholesterol% (B) )ow did scientists disco'er that K K4s are secreted from the li'er in the form of a precursor% (C) &here in the body are CK K remnants degraded% ( ) &hich body tissues produce triglycerides% (#) &hat techni"ues are used to determine the presence or absence of cell(surface receptors% 25. According to the passage/ by studying the &atanabe rabbits scientists learned that (A) CK K remnants are remo'ed from the blood by K K receptors in the li'er (B) K K4s are secreted from the li'er in the form of precursors called CK K4s (C) CK K remnant particles contain small amounts of cholesterol ( ) triglycerides are remo'ed from CK K4s by fatty tissues (#) K K receptors remo'e K K4s from the blood 21. The de'elopment of drug treatments for some forms of familial

062

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

hypercholesterolemia is regarded by the author as (A) possible/ but not 'ery important (B) interesting/ but too costly to be practical (C) promising/ but many years off ( ) e$tremely unlikely (#) highly probable 22. The passage implies that if the &atanabe rabbits had had as many K K receptors on their li'ers as do normal rabbits/ the &atanabe rabbits would ha'e been (A) less likely than normal rabbits to de'elop heart disease (B) less likely than normal rabbits to de'elop high concentrations of cholesterol in their blood (C) less useful than they actually were to scientists in the study of familial hypercholesterolemia in humans ( ) unable to secrete CK K4s from their li'ers (#) immune to drugs that lower cholesterol le'els in people with certain forms of familial hypercholesterolemia 2.. The passage implies that &atanabe rabbits differ from normal rabbits in which of the following ways% (A) &atanabe rabbits ha'e more K K receptors than do normal rabbits. (B) The blood of &atanabe rabbits contains more CK K remnants than does the blood of normal rabbits. (C) &atanabe rabbits ha'e fewer fatty tissues than do normal rabbits. ( ) &atanabe rabbits secrete lower le'els of CK K4s than do normal rabbits. (#) The blood of &atanabe rabbits contains fewer K K4s than does the blood of normal rabbits.
(The artic"e #rom which this passage was ta$en appeared in 1981.) 8hen spea$ing o# Romare &earden' one is tempted to say' ;0 great &"ac$ 0merican artist.< The sub2ect matter o# &earden3s co""ages is certain"y &"ac$. 6ortraya"s o# the #o"$ o# ?ec$"enburg %ounty' *orth %aro"ina' whom he remembers #rom ear"y chi"dhood' o# the 2a)) musicians and tenement roo#s o# his (ar"em days' o# 6ittsburgh stee"wor$ers' and his reconstruction o# c"assica" Aree$ myths in the guise o# the ancient &"ac$ $ingdom o# &enin' attest to this. /n natura" harmony with this choice o# sub2ect matter are the socia" sensibi"ities o# the artist' who remains active today with the %in+ue Aa""ery in ?anhattan' which he he"ped #ound and which is devoted to showing the wor$ o# minority artists. Then why not ca"" &earden a &"ac$ 0merican artistC &ecause u"timate"y this categori)ation is too narrow. ;8hat stands up in the end is structure'< &earden says. ;8hat / try to do is amp"i#y. /# / were 2ust creating a picture o# a #arm woman #rom bac$ home' it wou"d have meaning to her and peop"e there. &ut art amp"i#ies itse"# to something universa".<

GRE

06-

20. According to the passage/ all of the following are depicted in Bearden4s collages #DC#@TE (A) workers in @ittsburgh4s steel mills (B) scenes set in the ancient kingdom of Benin (C) people Bearden knew as a child ( ) traditional representations of the classical heroes of Breek mythology (#) the <a!! musicians of the )arlem Bearden used to know 21. The author suggests that Bearden should not be called a Black American artist because (A) there are many collages by Bearden in which the sub<ect matter is not Black (B) Bearden4s work reflects the Black American e$perience in a highly indi'idual style (C) through the structure of Bearden4s art his Black sub<ects come to represent all of humankind ( ) Bearden4s true significance lies not so much in his own work as in his efforts to help other minority artists (#) much of Bearden4s work uses the ancient Black kingdom of Benin for its setting 22. Bearden4s social sensibilities and the sub<ect matter of his collages are mentioned by the author in order to e$plain (A) why one might be tempted to call Bearden a Black American artist (B) why Bearden cannot be readily categori!ed (C) why Bearden4s appeal is thought by many to be ultimately uni'ersal ( ) how deeply an artist4s artistic creations are influenced by he artist4s social conscience (#) what makes Bearden uni"ue among contemporary Black American artists 2-. The author of the passage is chiefly concerned with (A) discussing Bearden4s philosophy of art (B) assessing the significance of the ethnic element in Bearden4s work (C) acknowledging Bearden4s success in gi'ing artistic e$pression to the Black American e$perience ( ) pointing out Bearden4s helpfulness to other minority artists (#) tracing Bearden4s progress toward artistic maturity No. 9-5 SECTION A

066

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

Loop"an$ton' tiny anima"s adapted to an e5istence in the ocean' have evo"ved c"ever

mechanisms #or obtaining their #ood' miniscu"e phytop"an$ton (p"ant p"an$ton). 0 very specia"i)ed #eeding adaptation in )oop"an$ton is that o# the tadpo"e"i$e appendicu"arian who "ives in a wa"nut-si)ed (or sma""er) ba""oon o# mucus e+uipped with #i"ters that capture and concentrate phytop"an$ton. The ba""oon' a transparent structure that varies in design according to the type o# appendicu"arian in habiting it' a"so protects the anima" and he"ps to $eep it a#"oat. 8ater containing phytop"an$ton is pumped by the appendicu"arian3s muscu"ar tai" into the ba""oon3s incurrent #i"ters' passes through the #eeding #i"ter where the appendicu"arian suc$s the #ood into its mouth' and then goes through an e5it passage. 7ound in a"" the oceans o# the wor"d' inc"uding the 0rctic 9cean' appendicu"arians tend to remain near the water3s sur#ace where the density o# phytop"an$ton is greatest.

1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of appendicularians% (A) They are e$clusi'ely carni'orous. (B) They ha'e more than one method of obtaining food. (C) They can tolerate frigid water. ( ) They can disguise themsel'es by secreting mucus. (#) They are more sensiti'e to light than are other !ooplankton. 16. The author is primarily concerned with (A) e$plaining how appendicularians obtain food (B) e$amining the flotation methods of appendicularians (C) mapping the distribution of appendicularians around the world ( ) describing how appendicularians differ from other !ooplankton (#) comparing the 'arious types of balloons formed by appendicularians 1,. According to the passage/ all of the following are descripti'e of appendicularians #DC#@TE (A) tailed (B) 'egetarian (C) small(si!ed ( ) single(celled (#) ocean(dwelling 25. The passage suggests that appendicularians tend to remain in surface waters because they (A) prefer the warmer water near the surface (B) are unable to secrete mucus at the lower le'els of the ocean (C) use the contrast of light and shadow at the surface to hide from predators ( ) li'e in balloons that cannot withstand he water pressure deeper in the ocean (#) eat food that grows more profusely near the surface

GRE

06,

tudents o# United tates history' see$ing to identi#y the circumstances that encouraged the emergence o# #eminist movements' have thorough"y investigated the mid-nineteenthcentury 0merican economic and socia" conditions that a##ected the status o# women. These historians' however' have ana"y)ed "ess #u""y the deve"opment o# speci#ica""y #eminist ideas and activities during the same period. 7urthermore' the ideo"ogica" origins o# #eminism in the United tates have been obscured because' even when historians did ta$e into account those #eminist ideas and activities occurring within the United tates' they #ai"ed to recogni)e that #eminism was then a tru"y internationa" movement actua""y centered in =urope. 0merican #eminist activists who have been described as ;so"itary< and ;individua" theorists< were in rea"ity connected to a movement!utopian socia"ism!which was a"ready popu"ari)ing #eminist ideas in =urope during the two decades that cu"minated in the #irst women3s rights con#erence he"d at eneca 7a""s' *ew Dor$' in 18H8. Thus' a comp"ete understanding o# the origins and deve"opment o# nineteenth-century #eminism in the United tates re+uires that the geographica" #ocus be widened to inc"ude =urope and that the detai"ed study a"ready made o# socia" conditions be e5panded to inc"ude the ideo"ogica" deve"opment o# #eminism. The ear"iest and most popu"ar o# the utopian socia"ists were the aint- imonians. The speci#ica""y #eminist part o# aint- imonianism has' however' been "ess studied than the group3s contribution to ear"y socia"ism. This is regrettab"e on two counts. &y 1841 #eminism was the centra" concern o# aint- imonianism and entire"y absorbed its adherents3 energy: hence' by ignoring its #eminism' =uropean historians have misunderstood aint- imonianism. ?oreover' since many #eminist ideas can be traced to aint- imonianism' =uropean historians3 appreciation o# "ater #eminism in 7rance and the United tates remained "imited. aint- imon3s #o""owers' many o# whom were women' based their #eminism on an interpretation o# his pro2ect to reorgani)e the g"obe by rep"acing brute #orce with the ru"e o# spiritua" powers. The new wor"d order wou"d be ru"ed together by a ma"e' to represent re#"ection' and a #ema"e' to represent sentiment. This comp"ementarity re#"ects the #act that' whi"e the aint- imonians did not re2ect the be"ie# that there were innate di##erences between men and women' they neverthe"ess #oresaw an e+ua""y important socia" and po"itica" ro"e #or both se5es in their utopia. 9n"y a #ew aint- imonians opposed a de#inition o# se5ua" e+ua"ity based on gender distinction. This minority be"ieved that individua"s o# both se5es were born simi"ar in capacity and character' and they ascribed ma"e-#ema"e di##erences to socia"i)ation and education. The envisioned resu"t o# both currents o# thought' however' was that women wou"d enter pub"ic "i#e in the new age and that se5ua" e+ua"ity wou"d reward men as we"" as women with an improved way o# "i#e.

21. 3t can be inferred that the author considers those historians who describe early feminists in the :nited ;tates as *solitary+ to be (A) insufficiently familiar with the international origins of nineteenth(century American feminist thought (B) o'erly concerned with the regional di'ersity of feminist ideas in the period before 1606 (C) not focused narrowly enough in their geographical scope

0,5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) insufficiently aware of the ideological conse"uences of the ;eneca >alls conference (#) insufficiently concerned with the social conditions out of which feminism de'eloped 22. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the ;eneca >alls conference on women4s rights% (A) 3t was primarily a product of nineteenth(century ;aint(;imonian feminist thought. (B) 3t was the work of American acti'ists who were independent of feminists abroad. (C) 3t was the culminating achie'ement of the utopian socialist mo'ement. ( ) 3t was a manifestation of an international mo'ement for social change and feminism. (#) 3t was the final manifestation of the women4s rights mo'ement in the :nited ;tates in the nineteenth century. 2.. The author4s attitude toward most #uropean historians who ha'e studied the ;aint(;imonians is primarily one of (A) appro'al of the specific focus of their research (B) disappro'al of their lack of attention to the issue that absorbed most of the ;aint(;imonians4 energy after 16.2 (C) appro'al of their general focus on social conditions ( ) disappro'al of their lack of attention to links between the ;aint(;imonians and their American counterparts (#) disagreement with their interpretation of the ;aint(;imonian belief in se$ual e"uality 20. The author mentions all of the following as characteristic of the ;aint(;imonians #DC#@TE (A) The group included many women among its members. (B) The group belie'ed in a world that would be characteri!ed by se$ual e"uality. (C) The group was among the earliest #uropean socialist groups. ( ) ?ost members belie'ed that women should enter public life. (#) ?ost members belie'ed that women and men were inherently similar in ability and character. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the ;aint(;imonians en'isioned a utopian society ha'ing which of the following characteristics% (A) 3t would be worldwide. (B) 3t would emphasi!e dogmatic religious principles. (C) 3t would most influence the :nited ;tates.

GRE

0,1

( ) 3t would ha'e armies composed of women rather than of men. (#) 3t would continue to de'elop new feminist ideas. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that study of ;aint( ;imonianism is necessary for historians of American feminism because such study (A) would clarify the ideological origins of those feminist ideas that influenced American feminism (B) would increase understanding of a mo'ement that deeply influenced the utopian socialism of early American feminists (C) would focus attention on the most important aspect of ;aint(;imonian thought before 16.2 ( ) promises to offer insight into a mo'ement that was a direct outgrowth of the ;eneca >alls conference of 1606 (#) could increase understanding of those ideals that absorbed most of the energy of the earliest American feminists 2-. According to the passage/ which of the following would be the most accurate description of the society en'isioned by most ;aint(;imonians% (A) A society in which women were highly regarded for their e$tensi'e education (B) A society in which the two genders played complementary roles and had e"ual status (C) A society in which women did not enter public life ( ) A social order in which a body of men and women would rule together on the basis of their spiritual power (#) A social order in which distinctions between male and female would not e$ist and all would share e"ually in political power SECTION B
(istorica""y' a cornerstone o# c"assica" empiricism has been the notion that every true genera"i)ation must be con#irmab"e by speci#ic observations. /n c"assica" empiricism' the truth o# ;0"" ba""s are red'< #or e5amp"e' is assessed by inspecting ba""s: any observation o# a non red ba"" re#utes une+uivoca""y the proposed genera"i)ation. 7or 8. B. 9. Ouine' however' this constitutes an over"y ;narrow< conception o# empiricism. ;0"" ba""s are red'< he maintains' #orms one strand within an entire web o# statements (our $now"edge): individua" observations can be re#erred on"y to this web as a who"e. 0s new observations are co""ected' he e5p"ains' they must be integrated into the web. 6rob"ems occur on"y i# a contradiction deve"ops between a new observation' say' ;That ba"" is b"ue'< and the pree5isting statements. /n that case' he argues' any statement or combination o# statements (not mere"y the ;o##ending< genera"i)ation' as in c"assica" empiricism) can be a"tered to achieve the #undamenta" re+uirement' a system #ree o# contradictions' even i#' in

0,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

some cases' the a"teration consists o# "abe"ing the new observation a ;ha""ucination.<

1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with presenting (A) criticisms of Nuine4s 'iews on the proper conceptuali!ation of empiricism (B) e'idence to support Nuine4s claims about the problems inherent in classical empiricism (C) an account of Nuine4s counterproposal to one of the traditional assumptions of classical empiricism ( ) an o'er'iew of classical empiricism and its contributions to Nuine4s alternate understanding of empiricism (#) a history of classical empiricism and Nuine4s reser'ations about it 16. According to Nuine4s conception of empiricism/ if a new obser'ation were to contradict some statement already within our system of knowledge/ which of the following would be true% (A) The new obser'ation would be re<ected as untrue. (B) Both the obser'ation and the statement in our system that it contradicted would be discarded. (C) 9ew obser'ations would be added to our web of statements in order to e$pand our system of knowledge. ( ) The obser'ation or some part of our web of statements would need to be ad<usted to resol'e the contradiction. (#) An entirely new field of knowledge would be created. 1,. As described in the passage/ Nuine4s specific argument against classical empiricism would be most strengthened if he did which of the following% (A) @ro'ided e'idence that many obser'ations are actually hallucinations. (B) #$plained why new obser'ations often in'alidate pree$isting generali!ations. (C) Challenged the mechanism by which specific generali!ations are deri'ed from collections of particular obser'ations. ( ) ?entioned other critics of classical empiricism and the substance of their approaches. (#) Ba'e an e$ample of a specific generali!ation that has not been in'alidated despite a contrary obser'ation. 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Nuine considers classical empiricism to be *o'erly Fnarrow4 + (lines -(6) for which of the following reasons% 3. 33. Classical empiricism re"uires that our system of generali!ations be free of contradictions. Classical empiricism demands that in the case of a contradiction between an indi'idual obser'ation and a generali!ation/ the generali!ation must be abandoned.

GRE

0,.

333. Classical empiricism asserts that e'ery obser'ation will either confirm an e$isting generali!ation or initiate a new generali!ation. (A) 33 only (B) 3 and 33 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333
Unti" recent"y astronomers have been pu))"ed by the #ate o# red giant and supergiant stars. 8hen the core o# a giant star whose mass surpasses 1.H times the present mass o# our un (?) e5hausts its nuc"ear #ue"' it is unab"e to support its own weight and co""apses into a tiny neutron star. The gravitationa" energy re"eased during this imp"osion o# the core b"ows o## the remainder o# the star in a gigantic e5p"osion' or a supernova. ince around -. percent o# a"" stars are be"ieved to begin their "ives with masses greater than 1.H? ' we might e5pect that one out o# every two stars wou"d die as a supernova. &ut in #act' on"y one star in thirty dies such a vio"ent death. The rest e5pire much more peace#u""y as p"anetary nebu"as. 0pparent"y most massive stars manage to "ose su##icient materia" that their masses drop be"ow the critica" va"ue o# 1.H ? be#ore they e5haust their nuc"ear #ue". =vidence supporting this view comes #rom observations o# /R%W1.11G' a pu"sating giant star "ocated 7.. "ight-years away #rom =arth. 0 huge rate o# mass "oss (1 ? every 1.'... years) has been deduced #rom in#rared observations o# ammonia (*( 4) mo"ecu"es "ocated in the circumste""ar c"oud around /R%W1.11G. Recent microwave observations o# carbon mono5ide (%9) mo"ecu"es indicate a simi"ar rate o# mass "oss and demonstrate that the escaping materia" e5tends outward #rom the star #or a distance o# at "east one "ight-year. &ecause we $now the si)e o# the c"oud around /R%W1.11G and can use our observations o# either *(4 or %9 to measure the out#"ow ve"ocity' we can ca"cu"ate an age #or the circumste""ar c"oud. /R%W1.11G has apparent"y e5pe""ed' in the #orm o# mo"ecu"es and dust grains' a mass e+ua" to that o# our entire un within the past ten thousand years. This imp"ies that some stars can shed huge amounts o# matter very +uic$"y and thus may never e5pire as supernovas. Theoretica" mode"s as we"" as statistics on supernovas and p"anetary nebu"as suggest that stars that begin their "ives with masses around G ? shed su##icient materia" to drop be"ow the critica" va"ue o# 1.H ?. /R%W1.11G' #or e5amp"e' shou"d do this in a mere -.'... years #rom its birth' on"y an instant in the "i#e o# a star. &ut what p"ace does /R%W1.11G have in ste""ar evo"utionC 0stronomers suggest that stars "i$e /R%W1.11G are actua""y ;protop"anetary nebu"as<!o"d giant stars whose dense cores have a"most but not +uite rid themse"ves o# the #"u##y enve"opes o# gas around them. 9nce the star has "ost the entire enve"ope' its e5posed core becomes the centra" star o# the p"anetary nebu"a and heats and ioni)es the "ast vestiges o# the enve"ope as it #"ows away into space. This con#iguration is a #u""-#"edged p"anetary nebu"a' "ong #ami"iar to optica" astronomers.

21. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) offer a method of calculating the age of circumstellar clouds

0,0

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(B) describe the conditions that result in a star4s e$piring as a superno'a (C) discuss new e'idence concerning the composition of planetary nebulas ( ) e$plain why fewer stars than predicted e$pire as superno'as (#) sur'ey conflicting theories concerning the composition of circumstellar clouds 22. The passage implies that at the beginning of the life of 3=CS15212/ its mass was appro$imately (A) -.5 ? (B) 2.5 ? (C) 1.5 ? ( ) 1.0 ? (#) 1.5 ? 2.. The 'iew to which line 16 refers ser'es to (A) reconcile seemingly contradictory facts (B) undermine a pre'iously held theory (C) take into account data pre'iously held to be insignificant ( ) resol'e a contro'ersy (#) "uestion new methods of gathering data 20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author assumes which of the following in the discussion of the rate at which 3=CS15212 loses mass% (A) The circumstellar cloud surrounding 3=CS15212 consists only of C8 and 9). molecules. (B) The circumstellar cloud surrounding 3=CS15212 consists of material e$pelled from that star. (C) The age of a star is e"ual to that of its circumstellar cloud. ( ) The rate at which 3=CS15212 loses mass 'aries significantly from year to year. (#) ;tars with a mass greater than 2 ? lose mass at a rate faster than stars with a mass less than 2 ? do. 21. According to information pro'ided by the passage/ which of the following stars would astronomers most likely describe as a planetary nebula% (A) A star that began its life with a mass of 1.1 ?/ has e$hausted its nuclear fuel/ and has a core that is 'isible to astronomers (B) A star that began its life with a mass of 2 ?/ lost mass at a rate of 1 ? per 15/555 years/ and e$hausted its nuclear fuel in 05/555 years (C) A star that has e$hausted its nuclear fuel/ has a mass of 1.2 ?/ and is surrounded by a circumstellar cloud that obscures its core from 'iew

GRE

0,1

( ) A star that began its life with a mass greater than 2 ?/ has <ust recently e$hausted its nuclear fuel/ and is in the process of releasing massi'e amounts of gra'itational energy (#) A star that began its life with a mass of 1.1 ?/ has yet to e$haust its nuclear fuel/ and e$hibits a rate of mass loss similar to that of 3=CS15212 22. &hich of the following statements would be most likely to follow the last sentence of the passage% (A) ;uperno'as are not necessarily the most spectacular e'ents that astronomers ha'e occasion to obser'e. (B) Apparently/ stars that ha'e a mass of greater than 2 ? are somewhat rare. (C) =ecent studies of C8 and 9). in the circumstellar clouds of stars similar to 3=CS15212 ha'e led astronomers to belie'e that the formation of planetary nebulas precedes the de'elopment of superno'as. ( ) 3t appears/ then/ that 3=CS15212 actually represents an intermediate step in the e'olution of a giant star into a planetary nebula. (#) Astronomers ha'e yet to de'elop a consistently accurate method for measuring the rate at which a star e$hausts its nuclear fuel. 2-. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the content of the passage% (A) 9ew ?ethods of Calculating the Age of Circumstellar Clouds (B) 9ew #'idence Concerning the Composition of @lanetary 9ebulas (C) @rotoplanetary 9ebulaE A =arely 8bser'ed @henomenon ( ) @lanetary 9ebulasE An #nigma to Astronomers (#) The iminution of a ;tar4s ?assE A Crucial >actor in ;tellar #'olution No. 9-6 SECTION A
(This passage is #rom an artic"e pub"ished in 1974) The recent change to a""-vo"unteer armed #orces in the United tates wi"" eventua""y produce a gradua" increase in the proportion o# women in the armed #orces and in the variety o# women3s assignments' but probab"y not the dramatic gains #or women that might have been e5pected. This is so even though the armed #orces operate in an ethos o# institutiona" change oriented toward occupationa" e+ua"ity and under the #edera" sanction o# e+ua" pay #or e+ua" wor$. The di##icu"ty is that women are un"i$e"y to be trained #or any direct combat operations. 0 signi#icant portion o# the "arger society remains uncom#ortab"e as yet with e5tending e+ua"ity in this direction. There#ore' #or women in the mi"itary' the search #or e+ua"ity wi"" sti"" be based on #unctiona" e+uiva"ence' not identity or even simi"arity o# tas$. 9pportunities seem certain to arise. The growing emphasis on deterrence is bound to o##er increasing scope #or women to become invo"ved in nove" types o# noncombat mi"itary

0,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

assignments.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) present an o'er'iew of the different types of assignments a'ailable to women in the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces (B) present a reasoned prognosis of the status of women in the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces (C) present the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces as a model case of e"ual employment policies in action ( ) analy!e reforms in the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces necessitated by the increasing number of women in the military (#) analy!e the use of functional e"ui'alence as a substitute for occupational e"uality in the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces 16. According to the passage/ despite the :nited ;tates armed forces4 commitment to occupational e"uality for women in the military/ certain other factors preclude women4s (A) recei'ing e"ual pay for e"ual work (B) ha'ing access to positions of responsibility at most le'els (C) drawing assignments from a wider range of assignments than before ( ) benefiting from opportunities arising from new noncombat functions (#) being assigned all of the military tasks that are assigned to men 1,. The passage implies that which of the following is a factor conduci'e to a more e"uitable representation of women in the :nited ;tates armed forces than has e$isted in the past% (A) The all('olunteer character of the present armed forces (B) The past ser'ice records of women who had assignments functionally e"ui'alent to men4s assignments (C) The le'el of awareness on the part of the larger society of military issues ( ) A decline in the proportion of deterrence oriented noncombat assignments (#) =estricti'e past policies go'erning the military assignments open to women 25. The *dramatic gains for women+ (line 1) and the attitude/ as described in lines 11(12/ of a *significant portion of the larger society+ are logically related to each other inasmuch as the author puts forward the latter as (A) a public response to achie'ement of the former (B) the ma<or reason for absence of the former (C) a precondition for any prospect of achie'ing the former ( ) a catalyst for a further e$tension of the former (#) a reason for some of the former being lost again

GRE

0,-

9# the thousands o# specimens o# meteorites #ound on =arth and $nown to science' on"y about 1.. are igneous: that is' they have undergone me"ting by vo"canic action at some time since the p"anets were #irst #ormed. These igneous meteorites are $nown as achondrites because they "ac$ chondru"es!sma"" stony spheru"es #ound in the thousands o# meteorites (ca""ed ;chondrites<) composed primari"y o# una"tered minera"s that condensed #rom dust and gas at the origin o# the so"ar system. 0chondrites are the on"y $nown samp"es o# vo"canic roc$s originating outside the =arth-?oon system. ?ost are thought to have been dis"odged by interbody impact #rom asteroids' with diameters o# #rom 1. to -.. $i"ometers' in so"ar orbit between ?ars and @upiter. hergottites' the name given to three anoma"ous achondrites so #ar discovered on =arth' present scientists with a genuine enigma. hergottites crysta""i)ed #rom mo"ten roc$ "ess than 1.1 bi""ion years ago (some 4.- bi""ion years "ater than typica" achondrites) and were presumab"y e2ected into space when an ob2ect impacted on a body simi"ar in chemica" composition to =arth. 8hi"e most meteorites appear to derive #rom comparative"y sma"" bodies' shergottites e5hibit properties that indicate that their source was a "arge p"anet' conceivab"y ?ars. /n order to account #or such an un"i$e"y source' some unusua" #actor must be invo$ed' because the impact needed to acce"erate a #ragment o# roc$ to escape the gravitationa" #ie"d o# a body even as sma"" as the ?oon is so great that no meteorites o# "unar origin have been discovered. 8hi"e some scientists specu"ate that shergottites derive #rom /o (a vo"canica""y active moon o# @upiter)' recent measurements suggest that since /o3s sur#ace is rich in su"#ur and sodium' the chemica" composition o# its vo"canic products wou"d probab"y be un"i$e that o# the shergottites. ?oreover' any #ragments dis"odged #rom /o by interbody impact wou"d be un"i$e"y to escape the gravitationa" pu"" o# @upiter. The on"y other "ogica" source o# shergottites is ?ars. pace-probe photographs indicate the e5istence o# giant vo"canoes on the ?artian sur#ace. 7rom the sma"" number o# impact craters that appear on ?artian "ava #"ows' one can estimate that the p"anet was vo"canica""y active as recent"y as a ha"#-bi""ion years ago!and may be active today. The great ob2ection to the ?artian origin o# shergottites is the absence o# "unar meteorites on =arth. 0n impact capab"e o# e2ecting a #ragment o# the ?artian sur#ace into an =arth-intersecting orbit is even "ess probab"e than such an event on the ?oon' in view o# the ?oon3s sma""er si)e and c"oser pro5imity to =arth. 0 recent study suggests' however' that perma#rost ices be"ow the sur#ace o# ?ars may have a"tered the e##ects o# impact on it. /# the ices had been rapid"y vapori)ed by an impacting ob2ect' the e5panding gases might have he"ped the e2ected #ragments reach escape ve"ocity. 7ina""y' ana"yses per#ormed by space probes show a remar$ab"e chemica" simi"arity between ?artian soi" and the shergottites.

21. The passage implies which of the following about shergottites% 3. 33. They are products of 'olcanic acti'ity. They deri'e from a planet larger than #arth.

333. They come from a planetary body with a chemical composition similar to

0,6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

that of 3o. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 22. According to the passage/ a meteorite disco'ered on #arth is unlikely to ha'e come from a large planet for which of the following reasons% (A) There are fewer large planets in the solar system than there are asteroids. (B) ?ost large planets ha'e been 'olcanically inacti'e for more than a billion years. (C) The gra'itational pull of a large planet would probably prohibit fragments from escaping its orbit. ( ) There are no chondrites occurring naturally on #arth and probably none on other large planets. (#) 3nterbody impact is much rarer on large than on small planets because of the density of the atmosphere on large planets. 2.. The passage suggests that the age of shergottites is probably (A) still entirely undetermined (B) less than that of most other achondrites (C) about ..1 billion years ( ) the same as that of typical achondrites (#) greater than that of the #arth 20. According to the passage/ the presence of chondrules in a meteorite indicates that the meteorite (A) has probably come from ?ars (B) is older than the solar system itself (C) has not been melted since the solar system formed ( ) is certainly less than 0 billion years old (#) is a small fragment of an asteroid 21. The passage pro'ides information to answer which of the following "uestions% (A) &hat is the precise age of the solar system% (B) )ow did shergottites get their name% (C) &hat are the chemical properties shared by shergottites and ?artian soils% ( ) )ow 'olcanically acti'e is the planet Aupiter% (#) &hat is a ma<or feature of the ?artian surface%

GRE

0,,

22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that each of the following is a consideration in determining whether a particular planet is a possible source of shergottites that ha'e been disco'ered on #arth #DC#@T the (A) planet4s si!e (B) planet4s distance from #arth (C) strength of the planet4s field of gra'ity ( ) pro$imity of the planet to its moons (#) chemical composition of the planet4s surface 2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that most meteorites found on #arth contain which of the following% (A) Crystals (B) Chondrules (C) ?etals ( ) ;odium (#) ;ulfur SECTION B
The transp"antation o# organs #rom one individua" to another norma""y invo"ves two ma2or prob"ems> (1) organ re2ection is "i$e"y un"ess the transp"antation antigens o# both individua"s are near"y identica"' and (1) the introduction o# any unmatched transp"antation antigens induces the deve"opment by the recipient o# donor-speci#ic "ymphocytes that wi"" produce vio"ent re2ection o# #urther transp"antations #rom that donor. (owever' we have #ound that among many strains o# rats these ;norma"< ru"es o# transp"antation are not obeyed by "iver transp"ants. *ot on"y are "iver transp"ants never re2ected' but they even induce a state o# donor-speci#ic unresponsiveness in which subse+uent transp"ants o# other organs' such as s$in' #rom that donor are accepted permanent"y. 9ur hypothesis is that (1) many strains o# rats simp"y cannot mount a su##icient"y vigorous destructive immune-response (using "ymphocytes) to outstrip the "iver3s re"ative"y great capacity to protect itse"# #rom immuneresponse damage and that (1) the systemic unresponsiveness observed is due to concentration o# the recipient3s donor-speci#ic "ymphocytes at the site o# the "iver transp"ant.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to treat the accepted generali!ations about organ transplantation in which of the following ways% (A) #$plicate their main features (B) ;uggest an alternati'e to them (C) #$amine their 'irtues and limitations ( ) Critici!e the ma<or e'idence used to support them (#) @resent findings that "ualify them 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that an important

155

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difference among strains of rats is the (A) si!e of their li'ers (B) constitution of their skin (C) strength of their immune(response reactions ( ) sensiti'ity of their antigens (#) adaptability of their lymphocytes 1,. According to the hypothesis of the author/ after a successful li'er transplant/ the reason that rats do not re<ect further transplants of other organs from the same donor is that the (A) transplantation antigens of the donor and the recipient become matched (B) lymphocytes of the recipient are weakened by the acti'ity of the transplanted li'er (C) subse"uently transplanted organ is able to repair the damage caused by the recipient4s immune(response reaction ( ) transplanted li'er continues to be the primary locus for the recipient4s immune(response reaction (#) recipient is unable to manufacture the lymphocytes necessary for the immune( response reaction 25. &hich of the following new findings about strains of rats that do not normally re<ect li'er transplants/ if true/ would support the authors4 hypothesis% 3. 33. ;tomach transplants are accepted by the recipients in all cases. 3ncreasing the strength of the recipient4s immune(response reaction can induce li'er(transplant re<ection.

333. 8rgans from any other donor can be transplanted without re<ection after li'er transplantation. 3C. @re'enting lymphocytes from being concentrated at the li'er transplant produces acceptance of skin transplants. (A) 33 only (B) 3 and 333 only (C) 33 and 3C only ( ) 3/ 33/ and 333 only (#) 3/ 333/ and 3C only
6ractica""y spea$ing' the artistic maturing o# the cinema was the sing"e-handed achievement o# Favid 8. Ari##ith (187--19H8). &e#ore Ari##ith' photography in dramatic #i"ms consisted o# "itt"e more than p"acing the actors be#ore a stationary camera and showing them in #u"" "ength as they wou"d have appeared on stage. 7rom the beginning o# his career as a director' however' Ari##ith' because o# his "ove o# Bictorian painting' emp"oyed composition. (e conceived o# the camera image as having a #oreground and a rear ground' as we"" as the midd"e distance pre#erred by most directors. &y 191. he was using c"ose-ups to revea"

GRE

151

signi#icant detai"s o# the scene or o# the acting and e5treme "ong shots to achieve a sense o# spectac"e and distance. (is appreciation o# the camera3s possibi"ities produced nove" dramatic e##ects. &y sp"itting an event into #ragments and recording each #rom the most suitab"e camera position' he cou"d signi#icant"y vary the emphasis #rom camera shot to camera shot. Ari##ith a"so achieved dramatic e##ects by means o# creative editing. &y 2u5taposing images and varying the speed and rhythm o# their presentation' he cou"d contro" the dramatic intensity o# the events as the story progressed. Fespite the re"uctance o# his producers' who #eared that the pub"ic wou"d not be ab"e to #o""ow a p"ot that was made up o# such 2u5taposed images' Ari##ith persisted' and e5perimented as we"" with other e"ements o# cinematic synta5 that have become standard ever since. These inc"uded the #"ashbac$' permitting broad psycho"ogica" and emotiona" e5p"oration as we"" as narrative that was not chrono"ogica"' and the crosscut between two para""e" actions to heighten suspense and e5citement. /n thus e5p"oiting #u""y the possibi"ities o# editing' Ari##ith transposed devices o# the Bictorian nove" to #i"m and gave #i"m mastery o# time as we"" as space. &esides deve"oping the cinema3s "anguage' Ari##ith immense"y broadened its range and treatment o# sub2ects. (is ear"y output was remar$ab"y ec"ectic> it inc"uded not on"y the standard comedies' me"odramas' westerns' and thri""ers' but a"so such nove"ties as adaptations #rom &rowning and Tennyson' and treatments o# socia" issues. 0s his successes mounted' his ambitions grew' and with them the who"e o# 0merican cinema. 8hen he remade Enoch "rden in 1911' he insisted that a sub2ect o# such importance cou"d not be treated in the then conventiona" "ength o# one ree". Ari##ith3s introduction o# the 0merican-made mu"tiree" picture began an immense revo"ution. Two years "ater' !udith of Bethulia' an e"aborate historicophi"osophica" spectac"e' reached the unprecedented "ength o# #our ree"s' or one hour3s running time. 7rom our contemporary viewpoint' the pretensions o# this #i"m may seem a tri#"e "udicrous' but at the time it provo$ed end"ess debate and discussion and gave a new inte""ectua" respectabi"ity to the cinema.

21. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) discuss the importance of Briffith to the de'elopment of the cinema (B) describe the impact on cinema of the flashback and other editing inno'ations (C) deplore the state of American cinema before the ad'ent of Briffith ( ) analy!e the changes in the cinema wrought by the introduction of the multireel film (#) document Briffith4s impact on the choice of sub<ect matter in American films 22. The author suggests that Briffith4s film inno'ations had a direct effect on all of the following #DC#@TE (A) film editing (B) camera work (C) scene composing ( ) sound editing

152

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(#) directing 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that before 1,15 the normal running time of a film was (A) 11 minutes or less (B) between 11 and .5 minutes (C) between .5 and 01 minutes ( ) between 01 minutes and 1 hour (#) 1 hour or more 20. The author asserts that Briffith introduced all of the following into American cinema #DC#@TE (A) consideration of social issues (B) adaptations from Tennyson (C) the flashback and other editing techni"ues ( ) photographic approaches inspired by Cictorian painting (#) dramatic plots suggested by Cictorian theater 21. The author suggests that Briffith4s contributions to the cinema had which of the following results% 3. 33. Kiterary works/ especially Cictorian no'els/ became popular sources for film sub<ects. Audience appreciation of other film directors4 e$perimentations with cinematic synta$ was increased.

333. ?any of the artistic limitations thought to be inherent in filmmaking were shown to be really none$istent. (A) 33 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Briffith would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements% (A) The good director will attempt to e$plore new ideas as "uickly as possible. (B) The most important element contributing to a film4s success is the ability of the actors. (C) The camera must be considered an integral and acti'e element in the creation of a film. ( ) The cinema should emphasi!e serious and sober e$aminations of fundamental human problems.

GRE

15.

(#) The proper composition of scenes in a film is more important than the details of their editing. 2-. The author4s attitude toward photography in the cinema before Briffith can best be described as (A) sympathetic (B) nostalgic (C) amused ( ) condescending (#) hostile GRE RC 1990 04 SECTION A
&ecause o# its accuracy in out"ining the =arth3s subsur#ace' the seismic-re#"ection method remains the most important too" in the search #or petro"eum reserves. /n #ie"d practice' a subsur#ace is mapped by arranging a series o# wave-train sources' such as sma"" dynamite e5p"osions' in a grid pattern. 0s each source is activated' it generates a wave train that moves downward at a speed determined uni+ue"y by the roc$3s e"astic characteristics. 0s roc$ inter#aces are crossed' the e"astic characteristics encountered genera""y change abrupt"y' which causes part o# the energy to be re#"ected bac$ to the sur#ace' where it is recorded by seismic instruments. The seismic records must be processed to correct #or positiona" di##erences between the source and the receiver' #or unre"ated wave trains' and #or mu"tip"e re#"ections #rom the roc$ inter#aces. Then the data ac+uired at each o# the speci#ic source "ocations are combined to generate a physica" pro#i"e o# the subsur#ace' which can eventua""y be used to se"ect targets #or dri""ing.

1-. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) describing an important techni"ue (B) discussing a new method (C) in'estigating a contro'ersial procedure ( ) announcing a significant disco'ery (#) promoting a no'el application 16. According to the passage/ in the seismic(reflection method all of the following ha'e a significant effect on the signal detected by the seismic instruments #DC#@T the (A) presence of unrelated wa'e trains (B) placement of the seismic instruments

150

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(C) number of sources in the grid pattern ( ) nature of the reflecti'ity of the rock interfaces (#) properties of rocks through which the wa'e train has tra'eled 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the seismic(reflection method would be likely to yield an inaccurate physical profile of the subsurface in which of the following circumstances% (A) 3f the speed at which the wa'e train mo'ed downward changed (B) 3f the recei'er were not positioned directly at the wa'e(train source (C) 3f the rock on one side of a rock interface had similar elastic characteristics to those of the rock on the other side ( ) 3f the seismic records obtained for the different sources in a grid were highly similar to each other (#) 3f there were no petroleum deposits beneath the area defined by the grid of wa'e(train sources 25. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A method is critici!ed/ and an alternati'e is suggested. (B) An illustration is e$amined/ and some errors are e$posed. (C) An assertion is made/ and a procedure is outlined. ( ) A series of e$amples is presented/ and a conclusion is drawn. (#) A hypothesis is ad'anced/ and supporting e'idence is supplied.
?odern archaeo"ogica" #inds can sti"" contribute much to the study o# ancient "iterature. 7or e5amp"e' #orty years ago a survey o# the ear"y Aree$ dramatist 0eschy"us3 p"ays wou"d have started with The u##liant ,omen. ?any #actors interna" to the p"ay' but perhaps most especia""y the prominence o# the chorus (which in this p"ay has the main ro"e)' "ed scho"ars to consider it one o# 0eschy"us3 ear"ier wor$s. The consensus was that here was a drama tru"y re#"ecting an ear"y stage in the evo"ution o# tragedy out o# chora" "yric. The p"ay was dated as ear"y as the H9.3s &.%.' in any event' we"" be#ore 0eschy"us3 p"ay The Persians o# H71 &.%. Then' in 19-1' a #ragment o# papyrus #ound at 95yrhynchus was pub"ished stating the o##icia" circumstances and resu"ts o# a dramatic contest. The #ragment announced that 0eschy"us won #irst pri)e with his Fanaid tetra"ogy' o# which The u##liant ,omen is the opening p"ay' and de#eated ophoc"es in the process. ophoc"es did not compete in any dramatic contest be#ore HG8 &.%.' when he won his #irst victory. (ence' e5cept by specia" p"eading (e. g.' that the tetra"ogy was composed ear"y in 0eschy"us3 career but not produced unti" the HG.3s &.%.)' the Fanaid tetra"ogy must be put a#ter HG8 &.%. /n addition' a #ew "etters in the #ragment suggest the name 0rchedemides' archon in HG4 &.%.' thus perhaps tying the p"ays to that precise date' a"most e5act"y ha"#way between 0eschy"us3 even "gainst The$es o# HG7 &.%. and his 4resteia. The imp"ication o# the papyrus administered a severe shoc$ to the vast ma2ority o# c"assica" scho"ars' who had con#ident"y asserted that not on"y the ro"e o# the chorus but a"so "anguage' metrics' and characteri)ation a"" pointed to an ear"y date. The discovery has

GRE
resu"ted in no "ess than a tota" reeva"uation o# every chrono"ogica" criterion that has been

151

app"ied to or derived #rom 0eschy"us3 p"ays. The activity has been bris$' and a new creed has now spread. The prominence o# the chorus in The u##liant ,omen now is seen not as a sign o# primitivism but as ana"ogous to the massive chora" songs o# the 4resteia. tatistics have been #ormu"ated' or re#ormu"ated' to show that sty"istica""y The u##liant ,omen does actua""y occupy a position a#ter The Persians and even "gainst The$es& which now become the ;primitive< p"ays' and be#ore the 4resteia. 8hi"e the new doctrine seems a"most certain"y correct' the one papyrus #ragment raises the specter that another may be unearthed' showing' #or instance' that it was a posthumous production o# the Fanaid tetra"ogy which bested ophoc"es' and throwing the date once more into utter con#usion. This is un"i$e"y to happen' but it warns us that perhaps the most sa"utary #eature o# the papyrus scrap is its message o# the e5treme di##icu"ty o# c"assi#ying and categori)ing rigid"y the deve"opment o# a creative artist.

21. The author of the passage focuses primarily on (A) discussing a series of modern archaeological finds and their impact on the study of Breek literature (B) recounting the effect of one archaeological find on modern ideas concerning a particular author4s work (C) gi'ing a definiti'e and coherent account of the chronology of a particular author4s work ( ) illustrating the many 'arieties of difficulties in'ol'ed in establishing facts concerning ancient literature (#) determining the e$act 'alue of archaeological finds in relation to the history of ancient literature 22. &ith respect to the study of ancient literature/ which of the following statements best e$presses the author4s main point concerning modern archaeological finds% (A) They can profoundly alter accepted 'iews of ancient literary works/ and can encourage fle$ibility in the way scholars look at the creati'e de'elopment of any artist. (B) They can be se'erely shocking and can ha'e a re'i'ifying effect on the study of ancient literature/ which has recently suffered from a lack of interest on the part of scholars. (C) They can raise more "uestions than they answer and can be unreliable sources of information. ( ) They generally confirm scholars4 ideas about ancient literary works and allow them to dispense with inferences drawn from the works4 internal structure. (#) They often undermine scholarly consensus in certain areas and create utter confusion concerning an author4s work. 2.. According to the passage/ in the absence of definite knowledge concerning the dates of composition of ancient literary works/ literary historians do which of the

152

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

following when trying to establish the chronology of an author4s work% (A) ?ake assumptions about a single work4s date of composition if such assumptions would not seriously affect interpretations of other works by the same author. (B) raw inferences concerning the date of a work4s composition based on e'idence internal to that work and on the author4s other works. (C) 3gnore the date of a work4s composition which is supplied by archaeological research when literary factors internal to the work contradict that date. ( ) =efrain from speculation concerning a work4s date of composition unless archaeological finds produce information concerning it. (#) #stimate the date of a work4s composition without attempting to relate it to the author4s de'elopment as an artist. 20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following plays or groups of plays is considered the latest in the date of its composition% (A) The @ersians (B) The anaid tetralogy (C) The 0resteia ( ) ;e'en Against Thebes (#) The ;uppliant &omen 21. &ith which of the following statements regarding the chronological criteria mentioned in line ..(.0 would the author be most likely to agree% (A) ;uch criteria/ whether applied to or deri'ed from the plays/ should only be used to confirm already e$isting knowledge. (B) ;uch criteria/ although deri'ed from reliable e$ternal and internal e'idence/ should be changed continually to a'oid rigidity in thinking. (C) ;uch criteria/ based on statistical analysis/ are inherently more reliable than those of forty years ago. ( ) ;uch criteria/ e'en when unsupported by e$ternal e'idence/ can resol'e most "uestions. (#) ;uch criteria/ based on often ambiguous internal e'idence/ can lead to erroneous reconstructions of the chronology of an author4s work. 22. The author4s attitude toward the *acti'ity+ mentioned in line .1 and its conse"uences can best be described as one of (A) amused tolerance (B) mocking en'y (C) gra'e doubt ( ) angry disappro'al (#) unrestrained enthusiasm

GRE

15-

2-. The allusion to the hypothetical papyrus fragment in line 01(0, does which of the following% (A) ;upports an argument concerning the date of The Suppliant Wo-en. (B) =efutes the 'iews of the ma<ority of scholars concerning the 8$yrhynchus papyrus find. (C) @redicts the future results of archaeological research proposed in the passage. ( ) :ndermines the 'alidity of the currently accepted chronology of Aeschylus4 works. (#) Nualifies the author4s agreement with the *new creed+ de'eloped since the 8$yrhynchus papyrus find. SECTION B
cho"ars o#ten #ai" to see that music p"ayed an important ro"e in the preservation o# 0#rican cu"ture in the United tates. They correct"y note that s"avery stripped some cu"tura" e"ements #rom &"ac$ peop"e!their po"itica" and economic systems!but they underestimate the signi#icance o# music in sustaining other 0#rican cu"tura" va"ues. 0#rican music' un"i$e the music o# some other cu"tures' was based on a tota" vision o# "i#e in which music was not an iso"ated socia" domain. /n 0#rican cu"ture music was pervasive' serving not on"y re"igion' but a"" phases o# "i#e' inc"uding birth' death' wor$' and p"ay. The methods that a community devises to perpetuate itse"# come into being to preserve aspects o# the cu"tura" "egacy that that community perceives as essentia". ?usic' "i$e art in genera"' was so ine5tricab"y a part o# 0#rican cu"ture that it became a crucia" means o# preserving the cu"ture during and a#ter the dis"ocations o# s"avery.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) analy!e the impact that sla'ery had on African political and economic systems (B) re'iew the attempt of recent scholarship to study the influence of African music on other music (C) correct the failure of some scholars to appreciate the significance of music in African culture ( ) sur'ey the ways by which people attempt to preser'e their culture against the effects of oppression (#) compare the relati'e importance of music with that of other art forms in culture 16. 3n line ,/ the phrase *isolated social domain+ refers to (A) African music in relation to contemporary culture as a whole (B) music as it may be percei'ed in non(African cultures (C) a feature of African music that aided in transmitting African cultural 'alues ( ) an aspect of the African cultural legacy

156

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(#) the influence of music on contemporary culture 1,. &hich of the following statements concerning the function of African music can be inferred from the passage% (A) 3t preser'ed cultural 'alues because it was thoroughly integrated into the li'es of the people. (B) 3t was more important in the de'elopment of African religious life than in other areas of culture. (C) 3t was de'eloped in response to the loss of political and economic systems. ( ) 3ts per'asi'eness in African culture hindered its effecti'eness in minimi!ing the impact of sla'ery. (#) 3ts isolation from the economic domains of life enabled it to sur'i'e the destructi'e impact of sla'ery. 25. According to the author/ scholars would err in drawing which of the following conclusions% 3. 33. ;la'ery stripped the sla'es of their political and economic systems. African music was similar to all other traditions of music in that it originated in a total 'ision of life.

333. ?usic was a crucial part of the African cultural legacy. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333
Traditiona""y' po""ination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process mar$ed by random events in which the vagaries o# the wind are compensated #or by the generation o# vast +uantities o# po""en' so that the u"timate production o# new seeds is assured at the e5pense o# producing much more po""en than is actua""y used. &ecause the potentia" ha)ards po""en grains are sub2ect to as they are transported over "ong distances are enormous' windpo""inated p"ants have' in the view above' compensated #or the ensuing "oss o# po""en through happenstance by virtue o# producing an amount o# po""en that is one to three orders o# magnitude greater than the amount produced by species po""inated by insects. (owever' a number o# #eatures that are characteristic o# wind-po""inated p"ants reduce po""en waste. 7or e5amp"e' many wind-po""inated species #ai" to re"ease po""en when wind speeds are "ow or when humid conditions prevai". Recent studies suggest another way in which species compensate #or the ine##iciency o# wind po""ination. These studies suggest that species #re+uent"y ta$e advantage o# the physics o# po""en motion by generating speci#ic aerodynamic environments within the immediate vicinity o# their #ema"e reproductive organs. /t is the morpho"ogy o# these organs that dictates the pattern o# air#"ow disturbances through which po""en must trave". The speed and direction o# the air#"ow disturbances can combine with the physica" properties o# a species3 po""en to produce a species-speci#ic pattern o# po""en

GRE
co""ision on the sur#aces o# #ema"e reproductive organs. 6rovided that these sur#aces are strategica""y "ocated' the conse+uences o# this combination can signi#icant"y increase the po""en-capture e##iciency o# a #ema"e reproductive organ.

15,

0 critica" +uestion that remains to be answered is whether the morpho"ogica" attributes o# the #ema"e reproductive organs o# wind-po""inated species are evo"utionary adaptations to wind po""ination or are mere"y #ortuitous. 0 comp"ete reso"ution o# the +uestion is as yet impossib"e since adaptation must be eva"uated #or each species within its own uni+ue #unctiona" conte5t. (owever' it must be said that' whi"e evidence o# such evo"utionary adaptations does e5ist in some species' one must be care#u" about attributing morpho"ogy to adaptation. 7or e5amp"e' the spira" arrangement o# sca"e-bract comp"e5es on ovu"e-bearing pine cones' where the #ema"e reproductive organs o# coni#ers are "ocated' is important to the production o# air#"ow patterns that spira" over the cone3s sur#aces' thereby passing airborne po""en #rom one sca"e to the ne5t. (owever' these patterns cannot be viewed as an adaptation to wind po""ination because the spira" arrangement occurs in a number o# non-wind-po""inated p"ant "ineages and is regarded as a characteristic o# vascu"ar p"ants' o# which coni#ers are on"y one $ind' as a who"e. There#ore' the spira" arrangement is not "i$e"y to be the resu"t o# a direct adaptation to wind po""ination.

21. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing (A) the current debate on whether the morphological attributes of wind(pollinated plants are e'olutionary adaptations (B) the kinds of airflow patterns that permit wind(pollinated plants to capture pollen most efficiently (C) the ways in which the reproducti'e processes of wind(pollinated plants are controlled by random e'ents ( ) a recently proposed e$planation of a way in which wind(pollinated plants reduce pollen waste (#) a specific morphological attribute that permits one species of wind(pollinated plant to capture pollen 22. The author suggests that e$planations of wind pollination that emphasi!e the production of 'ast "uantities of pollen to compensate for the randomness of the pollination process are (A) debatable and misleading (B) ingenious and con'incing (C) accurate but incomplete ( ) intriguing but contro'ersial (#) plausible but un'erifiable 2.. According to the passage/ the *aerodynamic en'ironments+ mentioned in line 2./ when they are produced/ are primarily determined by the (A) presence of insects near the plant

115

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) physical properties of the plant4s pollen (C) shape of the plant4s female reproducti'e organs ( ) amount of pollen generated by the plant (#) number of seeds produced by the plant 20. According to the passage/ true statements about the release of pollen by wind( pollinated plants include which of the following% 3. 33. The release can be affected by certain en'ironmental factors. The amount of pollen released increases on a rainy day.

333. @ollen is sometimes not released by plants when there is little wind. (A) 33 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 21. The passage suggests that the recent studies cited in lines 1,(21 ha'e not done which of the following% (A) ?ade any distinctions between different species of wind(pollinated plants. (B) Considered the physical properties of the pollen that is produced by wind( pollinated plants. (C) 3ndicated the general range within which plant(generated airflow disturbances are apt to occur. ( ) 3ncluded in'estigations of the physics of pollen motion and its relationship to the efficient capture of pollen by the female reproducti'e organs of wind( pollinated plants. (#) emonstrated that the morphological attributes of the female reproducti'e organs of wind(pollinated plants are usually e'olutionary adaptations to wind pollination. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the claim that the spiral arrangement of scale(bract comple$es on an o'ule(bearing pine cone is an adaptation to wind pollination would be more con'incing if which of the following were true% (A) ;uch an arrangement occurred only in wind(pollinated plants. (B) ;uch an arrangement occurred in 'ascular plants as a whole. (C) ;uch an arrangement could be shown to be beneficial to pollen release. ( ) The number of bracts could be shown to ha'e increased o'er time. (#) The airflow patterns o'er the cone4s surfaces could be shown to be produced by such arrangements. 2-. &hich of the following/ if known/ is likely to ha'e been the kind of e'idence

GRE

111

used to support the 'iew described in the first paragraph% (A) &ind speeds need not be 'ery low for wind(pollinated plants to fail to release pollen. (B) The female reproducti'e organs of plants often ha'e a sticky surface that allows them to trap airborne pollen systematically. (C) Brasses/ as well as conifers/ generate specific aerodynamic en'ironments within the immediate 'icinity of their reproducti'e organs. ( ) =ain showers often wash airborne pollen out of the air before it e'er reaches an appropriate plant. (#) The density and si!e of an airborne pollen grain are of e"ual importance in determining whether that grain will be captured by a plant. 1990 10 SECTION A
/t has been $nown #or many decades that the appearance o# sunspots is rough"y periodic' with an average cyc"e o# e"even years. ?oreover' the incidence o# so"ar #"ares and the #"u5 o# so"ar cosmic rays' u"travio"et radiation' and 5-radiation a"" vary direct"y with the sunspot cyc"e. &ut a#ter more than a century o# investigation' the re"ation o# these and other phenomena' $nown co""ective"y as the so"ar-activity cyc"e' to terrestria" weather and c"imate remains unc"ear. 7or e5amp"e' the sunspot cyc"e and the a""ied magnetic-po"arity cyc"e have been "in$ed to periodicities discerned in records o# such variab"es as rain#a""' temperature' and winds. /nvariab"y' however' the re"ation is wea$' and common"y o# dubious statistica" signi#icance. =##ects o# so"ar variabi"ity over "onger terms have a"so been sought. The absence o# recorded sunspot activity in the notes $ept by =uropean observers in the "ate seventeenth and ear"y eighteenth centuries has "ed some scho"ars to postu"ate a brie# cessation o# sunspot activity at that time (a period ca""ed the ?aunder minimum). The ?aunder minimum has been "in$ed to a span o# unusua" co"d in =urope e5tending #rom the si5teenth to the ear"y nineteenth centuries. The rea"ity o# the ?aunder minimum has yet to be estab"ished' however' especia""y since the records that %hinese na$ed-eye observers o# so"ar activity made at that time appear to contradict it. cientists have a"so sought evidence o# "ong-term so"ar periodicities by e5amining indirect c"imato"ogica" data' such as #ossi" records o# the thic$ness o# ancient tree rings. These studies' however' #ai"ed to "in$ une+uivoca""y terrestria" c"imate and the so"ar-activity cyc"e' or even to con#irm the cyc"e3s past e5istence. /# consistent and re"iab"e geo"ogica" or archaeo"ogica" evidence tracing the so"ar-activity cyc"e in the distant past cou"d be #ound' it might a"so reso"ve an important issue in so"ar physics> how to mode" so"ar activity. %urrent"y' there are two mode"s o# so"ar activity. The #irst supposes that the un3s interna" motions (caused by rotation and convection) interact with its "arge-sca"e magnetic #ie"d to produce a dynamo' a device in which mechanica" energy is converted into the energy o# a magnetic #ie"d. /n short' the un3s "arge-sca"e magnetic #ie"d is

112

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ta$en to be se"#-sustaining' so that the so"ar-activity cyc"e it drives wou"d be maintained with "itt"e overa"" change #or perhaps bi""ions o# years. The a"ternative e5p"anation supposes that the un3s "arge-sca"e magnetic #ie"d is a remnant o# the #ie"d the un ac+uired when it #ormed' and is not sustained against decay. /n this mode"' the so"ar mechanism dependent on the un3s magnetic #ie"d runs down more +uic$"y. Thus' the characteristics o# the so"ar-activity cyc"e cou"d be e5pected to change over a "ong period o# time. ?odern so"ar observations span too short a time to revea" whether present cyc"ica" so"ar activity is a "ong-"ived #eature o# the un' or mere"y a transient phenomenon.

1-. The author focuses primarily on (A) presenting two competing scientific theories concerning solar acti'ity and e'aluating geological e'idence often cited to support them (B) gi'ing a brief o'er'iew of some recent scientific de'elopments in solar physics and assessing their impact on future climatological research (C) discussing the difficulties in'ol'ed in linking terrestrial phenomena with solar acti'ity and indicating how resol'ing that issue could ha'e an impact on our understanding of solar physics ( ) pointing out the futility of a certain line of scientific in"uiry into the terrestrial effects of solar acti'ity and recommending its abandonment in fa'or of purely physics(oriented research (#) outlining the specific reasons why a problem in solar physics has not yet been sol'ed and faulting the o'erly theoretical approach of modern physicists 16. &hich of the following statements about the two models of solar acti'ity/ as they are described in lines .-(11/ is accurate% (A) 3n both models cyclical solar acti'ity is regarded as a long(li'ed feature of the ;un/ persisting with little change o'er billions of years. (B) 3n both models the solar(acti'ity cycle is hypothesi!ed as being dependent on the large(scale solar magnetic field. (C) 3n one model the ;un4s magnetic field is thought to play a role in causing solar acti'ity/ whereas in the other model it is not. ( ) 3n one model solar acti'ity is presumed to be unrelated to terrestrial phenomena/ whereas in the other model solar acti'ity is thought to ha'e obser'able effects on the #arth. (#) 3n one model cycles of solar acti'ity with periodicities longer than a few decades are considered to be impossible/ whereas in the other model such cycles are predicted. 1,. According to the passage/ late se'enteenth and early eighteenth(century Chinese records are important for which of the following reasons% (A) They suggest that the data on which the ?aunder minimum was predicated were incorrect. (B) They suggest that the ?aunder minimum cannot be related to climate.

GRE

11.

(C) They suggest that the ?aunder minimum might be 'alid only for #urope. ( ) They establish the e$istence of a span of unusually cold weather worldwide at the time of the ?aunder minimum. (#) They establish that solar acti'ity at the time of the ?aunder minimum did not significantly 'ary from its present pattern. 25. The author implies which of the following about currently a'ailable geological and archaeological e'idence concerning the solar(acti'ity cycle% (A) 3t best supports the model of solar acti'ity described in lines .-(01. (B) 3t best supports the model of solar acti'ity described in lines 01(12. (C) 3t is insufficient to confirm either model of solar acti'ity described in the third paragraph. ( ) 3t contradicts both models of solar acti'ity as they are presented in the third paragraph. (#) 3t dispro'es the theory that terrestrial weather and solar acti'ity are linked in some way. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the argument in fa'or of the model described in lines .-(01 would be strengthened if which of the following were found to be true% (A) #pisodes of intense 'olcanic eruptions in the distant past occurred in cycles ha'ing 'ery long periodicities. (B) At the present time the global le'el of thunderstorm acti'ity increases and decreases in cycles with periodicities of appro$imately 11 years. (C) 3n the distant past cyclical climatic changes had periodicities of longer than 255 years. ( ) 3n the last century the length of the sunspot cycle has been known to 'ary by as much as 2 years from its a'erage periodicity of 11 years. (#) )undreds of millions of years ago/ solar(acti'ity cycles displayed the same periodicities as do present(day solar(acti'ity cycles. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Chinese obser'ations of the ;un during the late se'enteenth and early eighteenth centuries (A) are ambiguous because most sunspots cannot be seen with the naked eye (B) probably were made under the same weather conditions as those made in #urope (C) are more reliable than #uropean obser'ations made during this period ( ) record some sunspot acti'ity during this period (#) ha'e been employed by scientists seeking to argue that a change in solar acti'ity occurred during this period 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that studies attempting to use tree(ring

110

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thickness to locate possible links between solar periodicity and terrestrial climate are based on which of the following assumptions% (A) The solar(acti'ity cycle e$isted in its present form during the time period in which the tree rings grew. (B) The biological mechanisms causing tree growth are unaffected by short(term weather patterns. (C) A'erage tree(ring thickness 'aries from species to species. ( ) Tree(ring thicknesses reflect changes in terrestrial climate. (#) Both terrestrial climate and the solar(acti'ity cycle randomly affect tree(ring thickness.
The common be"ie# o# some "inguists that each "anguage is a per#ect vehic"e #or the thoughts o# the nation spea$ing it is in some ways the e5act counterpart o# the conviction o# the ?anchester schoo" o# economics that supp"y and demand wi"" regu"ate everything #or the best. @ust as economists were b"ind to the numerous cases in which the "aw o# supp"y and demand "e#t actua" wants unsatis#ied' so a"so many "inguists are dea# to those instances in which the very nature o# a "anguage ca""s #orth misunderstandings in everyday conversation' and in which' conse+uent"y' a word has to be modi#ied or de#ined in order to present the idea intended by the spea$er> ;(e too$ his stic$!no' not @ohn3s' but his own.< *o "anguage is per#ect' and i# we admit this truth' we must a"so admit that it is not unreasonab"e to investigate the re"ative merits o# di##erent "anguages or o# di##erent detai"s in "anguages.

20. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) analy!e an interesting feature of the #nglish language (B) refute a belief held by some linguists (C) show that economic theory is rele'ant to linguistic study ( ) illustrate the confusion that can result from the improper use of language (#) suggest a way in which languages can be made more nearly perfect 21. The misunderstanding presented by the author in lines 1.(10 is similar to which of the following% 3. 33. D uses the word *you+ to refer to a group/ but H thinks that D is referring to one person only. D mistakenly uses the word *anomaly+ to refer to a typical e$ample/ but H knows that *anomaly+ means *e$ception.+

333. D uses the word *bachelor+ to mean *unmarried man/+ but H mistakenly thinks that bachelor means *unmarried woman.+ (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 33 only (#) 33 and 333 only

GRE

111

22. 3n presenting the argument/ the author does all of the following #DC#@TE (A) gi'e an e$ample (B) draw a conclusion (C) make a generali!ation ( ) make a comparison (#) present a parado$ 2-. &hich of the following contributes to the misunderstanding described by the author in lines 1.(10% (A) 3t is unclear whom the speaker of the sentence is addressing. (B) 3t is unclear to whom the word *his+ refers the first time it is used. (C) 3t is unclear to whom the word *his+ refers the second time it is used. ( ) The meaning of *took+ is ambiguous. (#) 3t is unclear to whom *)e+ refers. SECTION B
/t is #re+uent"y assumed that the mechani)ation o# wor$ has a revo"utionary e##ect on the "ives o# the peop"e who operate the new machines and on the society into which the machines have been introduced. 7or e5amp"e' it has been suggested that the emp"oyment o# women in industry too$ them out o# the househo"d' their traditiona" sphere' and #undamenta""y a"tered their position in society. /n the nineteenth century' when women began to enter #actories' @u"es imon' a 7rench po"itician' warned that by doing so' women wou"d give up their #emininity. 7riedrich =nge"s' however' predicted that women wou"d be "iberated #rom the ;socia"' "ega"' and economic subordination< o# the #ami"y by techno"ogica" deve"opments that made possib"e the recruitment o# ;the who"e #ema"e se5 into pub"ic industry.< 9bservers thus di##ered concerning the socia" desirabi"ity o# mechani)ation3s e##ects' but they agreed that it wou"d trans#orm women3s "ives. (istorians' particu"ar"y those investigating the history o# women' now serious"y +uestion this assumption o# trans#orming power. They conc"ude that such dramatic techno"ogica" innovations as the spinning 2enny' the sewing machine' the typewriter' and the vacuum c"eaner have not resu"ted in e+ua""y dramatic socia" changes in women3s economic position or in the prevai"ing eva"uation o# women3s wor$. The emp"oyment o# young women in te5ti"e mi""s during the /ndustria" Revo"ution was "arge"y an e5tension o# an o"der pattern o# emp"oyment o# young' sing"e women as domestics. /t was not the change in o##ice techno"ogy' but rather the separation o# secretaria" wor$' previous"y seen as an apprenticeship #or beginning managers' #rom administrative wor$ that in the 188.3s created a new c"ass o# ;dead-end< 2obs' thence#orth considered ;women3s wor$.< The increase in the numbers o# married women emp"oyed outside the home in the twentieth century had "ess to do with the mechani)ation o# housewor$ and an increase in "eisure time #or these women than it did with their own economic necessity and with high marriage rates that shran$ the avai"ab"e poo" o# sing"e women wor$ers' previous"y' in many cases' the on"y women emp"oyers wou"d hire.

112

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

8omen3s wor$ has changed considerab"y in the past 1.. years' moving #rom the

househo"d to the o##ice or the #actory' and "ater becoming most"y white-co""ar instead o# b"ueco""ar wor$. 7undamenta""y' however' the conditions under which women wor$ have changed "itt"e since be#ore the /ndustria" Revo"ution> the segregation o# occupations by gender' "ower pay #or women as a group' 2obs that re+uire re"ative"y "ow "eve"s o# s$i"" and o##er women "itt"e opportunity #or advancement a"" persist' whi"e women3s househo"d "abor remains demanding. Recent historica" investigation has "ed to a ma2or revision o# the notion that techno"ogy is a"ways inherent"y revo"utionary in its e##ects on society. ?echani)ation may even have s"owed any change in the traditiona" position o# women both in the "abor mar$et and in the home.

1-. &hich of the following statements best summari!es the main idea of the passage% (A) The effects of the mechani!ation of women4s work ha'e not borne out the fre"uently held assumption that new technology is inherently re'olutionary. (B) =ecent studies ha'e shown that mechani!ation re'olutioni!es a society4s traditional 'alues and the customary roles of its members. (C) ?echani!ation has caused the nature of women4s work to change since the 3ndustrial =e'olution. ( ) The mechani!ation of work creates whole new classes of <obs that did not pre'iously e$ist. (#) The mechani!ation of women4s work/ while e$tremely re'olutionary it its effects/ has not/ on the whole/ had the deleterious effects that some critics had feared. 16. The author mentions all of the following in'entions as e$amples of dramatic technological inno'ations #DC#@T the (A) sewing machine (B) 'acuum cleaner (C) typewriter ( ) telephone (#) spinning <enny 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ before the 3ndustrial =e'olution/ the ma<ority of women4s work was done in which of the following settings% (A) Te$tile mills (B) @ri'ate households (C) 8ffices ( ) >actories (#) ;mall shops 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would consider which of the following to be an indication of a fundamental alteration in the conditions of women4s work%

GRE

11-

(A) ;tatistics showing that the ma<ority of women now occupy white(collar positions (B) 3nter'iews with married men indicating that they are now doing some household tasks (C) ;ur'eys of the labor market documenting the recent creation of a new class of <obs in electronics in which women workers outnumber men four to one ( ) Census results showing that working women4s wages and salaries are/ on the a'erage/ as high as those of working men (#) #nrollment figures from uni'ersities demonstrating that increasing numbers of young women are choosing to continue their education beyond the undergraduate le'el 21. The passage states that/ before the twentieth century/ which of the following was true of many employers% (A) They did not employ women in factories. (B) They tended to employ single rather than married women. (C) They employed women in only those <obs that were related to women4s traditional household work. ( ) They resisted technological inno'ations that would radically change women4s roles in the family. (#) They hired women only when "ualified men were not a'ailable to fill the open positions. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably belie'es which of the following to be true concerning those historians who study the history of women% (A) Their work pro'ides insights important to those e$amining social phenomena affecting the li'es of both se$es. (B) Their work can only be used cautiously by scholars in other disciplines. (C) Because they concentrate only on the role of women in the workplace/ they draw more reliable conclusions than do other historians. ( ) &hile highly interesting/ their work has not had an impact on most historians4 current assumptions concerning the re'olutionary effect of technology in the workplace. (#) They oppose the further mechani!ation of work/ which/ according to their findings/ tends to perpetuate e$isting ine"ualities in society. 2.. &hich of the following best describes the function of the concluding sentence of the passage% (A) 3t sums up the general points concerning the mechani!ation of work made in the passage as a whole. (B) 3t draws a conclusion concerning the effects of the mechani!ation of work

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which goes beyond the e'idence presented in the passage as a whole. (C) 3t restates the point concerning technology made in the sentence immediately preceding it. ( ) 3t "ualifies the author4s agreement with scholars who argue for a ma<or re'ision in the assessment of the impact of mechani!ation on society. (#) 3t suggests a compromise between two seemingly contradictory 'iews concerning the effects of mechani!ation on society.
(This passage is e5cerpted #rom an artic"e that was pub"ished in 1981.) 8arm-b"ooded anima"s have e"aborate physio"ogica" contro"s to maintain constant body temperature (in humans' 47). 8hy then during sic$ness shou"d temperature rise' apparent"y increasing stress on the in#ected organismC /t has "ong been $nown that the "eve" o# serum iron in anima"s #a""s during in#ection. Aariba"di #irst suggested a re"ationship between #ever and iron. (e #ound that microbia" synthesis o# siderophores!substances that bind iron !in bacteria o# the genus almonella dec"ined at environmenta" temperatures above 47 and stopped at H..4. Thus' #ever wou"d ma$e it more di##icu"t #or an in#ecting bacterium to ac+uire iron and thus to mu"tip"y. %o"d-b"ooded anima"s were used to test this hypothesis because their body temperature can be contro""ed in the "aboratory. N"uger reported that o# iguanas in#ected with the potentia""y "etha" bacterium ". hydro#hilia' more survived at temperatures o# H1 than at 47' even though hea"thy anima"s pre#er the "ower temperature. 8hen anima"s at H1 were in2ected with an iron so"ution' however' morta"ity rates increased signi#icant"y. Research to determine whether simi"ar phenomena occur in warm-b"ooded anima"s is sore"y needed.

20. The passage is primarily concerned with attempts to determine (A) the role of siderophores in the synthesis of serum iron (B) new treatments for infections that are caused by A2 hydrophilia (C) the function of fe'er in warm(blooded animals ( ) the mechanisms that ensure constant body temperature (#) iron utili!ation in cold(blooded animals 21. According to the passage/ Baribaldi determined which of the following% (A) That serum iron is produced through microbial synthesis. (B) That microbial synthesis of siderophores in warm(blooded animals is more efficient at higher temperatures. (C) That only iron bound to other substances can be used by bacteria. ( ) That there is a relationship between the synthesis of siderophores in bacteria of the genus Sal-onella and en'ironmental temperature. (#) That bacteria of the genus Sal-onella re"uire iron as a nutrient. 22. &hich of the following can be inferred about warm(blooded animals solely on the basis of information in the passage% (A) The body temperatures of warm(blooded animals cannot be easily controlled

GRE

11,

in the laboratory. (B) &arm(blooded animals re"uire more iron in periods of stress than they do at other times. (C) &arm(blooded animals are more comfortable at an en'ironmental temperature of .- than they are at a temperature of 02. ( ) 3n warm(blooded animals/ bacteria are responsible for the production of siderophores/ which/ in turn/ make iron a'ailable to the animal. (#) 3n warm(blooded animals/ infections that lead to fe'er are usually traceable to bacteria. 2-. 3f it were to be determined that *similar phenomena occur in warm(blooded animals+ (lines 21(22)/ which of the following/ assuming each is possible/ is likely to be the most effecti'e treatment for warm(blooded animals with bacterial infections% (A) Administering a medication that lowers the animals4 body temperature (B) 3n<ecting the animals with an iron solution (C) Administering a medication that makes serum iron una'ailable to bacteria ( ) @ro'iding the animals with reduced(iron diets (#) Meeping the animals in an en'ironment with temperatures higher than .- 1991 02 SECTION A
0s Ai"bert 8hite' Farwin' and others observed "ong ago' a"" species appear to have the innate capacity to increase their numbers #rom generation to generation. The tas$ #or eco"ogists is to untang"e the environmenta" and bio"ogica" #actors that ho"d this intrinsic capacity #or popu"ation growth in chec$ over the "ong run. The great variety o# dynamic behaviors e5hibited by di##erent popu"ations ma$es this tas$ more di##icu"t> some popu"ations remain rough"y constant #rom year to year: others e5hibit regu"ar cyc"es o# abundance and scarcity: sti"" others vary wi"d"y' with outbrea$s and crashes that are in some cases p"ain"y corre"ated with the weather' and in other cases not. To impose some order on this $a"eidoscope o# patterns' one schoo" o# thought proposes dividing popu"ations into two groups. These eco"ogists posit that the re"ative"y steady popu"ations have ;density-dependent< growth parameters: that is' rates o# birth' death' and migration which depend strong"y on popu"ation density. The high"y varying popu"ations have ;density-independent< growth parameters' with vita" rates bu##eted by environmenta" events: these rates #"uctuate in a way that is who""y independent o# popu"ation density. This dichotomy has its uses' but it can cause prob"ems i# ta$en too "itera""y. 7or one thing' no popu"ation can be driven entire"y by density-independent #actors a"" the time. *o matter how severe"y or unpredictab"y birth' death and migration rates may be #"uctuating around their

125

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"ong-term averages' i# there were no density-dependent e##ects' the popu"ation wou"d' in the "ong run' either increase or decrease without bound (barring a mirac"e by which gains and "osses cance"ed e5act"y). 6ut another way' it may be that on average 99 percent o# a"" deaths in a popu"ation arise #rom density-independent causes' and on"y one percent #rom #actors varying with density. The #actors ma$ing up the one percent may seem unimportant' and their cause may be corresponding"y hard to determine. Det' whether recogni)ed or not' they wi"" usua""y determine the "ong-term average popu"ation density. /n order to understand the nature o# the eco"ogist3s investigation' we may thin$ o# the density-dependent e##ects on growth parameters as the ;signa"< eco"ogists are trying to iso"ate and interpret' one that tends to ma$e the popu"ation increase #rom re"ative"y "ow va"ues or decrease #rom re"ative"y high ones' whi"e the density-independent e##ects act to produce ;noise< in the popu"ation dynamics. 7or popu"ations that remain re"ative"y constant' or that osci""ate around repeated cyc"es' the signa" can be #air"y easi"y characteri)ed and its e##ects described' even though the causative bio"ogica" mechanism may remain un$nown. 7or irregu"ar"y #"uctuating popu"ations' we are "i$e"y to have too #ew observations to have any hope o# e5tracting the signa" #rom the overwhe"ming noise. &ut it now seems c"ear that a"" popu"ations are regu"ated by a mi5ture o# density-dependent and density-independent e##ects in varying proportions.

1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) discussing two categories of factors that control population growth and assessing their relati'e importance (B) describing how growth rates in natural populations fluctuate o'er time and e$plaining why these changes occur (C) proposing a hypothesis concerning population si!es and suggesting ways to test it ( ) posing a fundamental "uestion about en'ironmental factors in population growth and presenting some currently accepted answers (#) refuting a commonly accepted theory about population density and offering a new alternati'e 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers the dichotomy discussed in the second paragraph to be (A) applicable only to erratically fluctuating populations (B) useful/ but only if its limitations are recogni!ed (C) dangerously misleading in most circumstances ( ) a complete and sufficient way to account for obser'ed phenomena (#) conceptually 'alid/ but too confusing to apply on a practical basis 1,. &hich of the following statements can be inferred from the last paragraph% (A) >or irregularly fluctuating populations/ doubling the number of obser'ations made will probably result in the isolation of density(dependent effects.

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(B) ensity(dependent effects on population dynamics do not occur as fre"uently as do density(independent effects. (C) At present/ ecologists do not understand any of the underlying causes of the density(dependent effects they obser'e in population dynamics. ( ) ensity(dependent effects on growth parameters are thought to be caused by some sort of biochemical *signaling+ that ecologists hope e'entually to understand. (#) 3t is sometimes possible to infer the e$istence of a density(dependent factor controlling population growth without understanding its causati'e mechanism. 25. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about density(dependent factors in population growth% (A) They ultimately account for long(term population le'els. (B) They ha'e little to do with long(term population dynamics. (C) They are always more easily isolated and described than those that are density(independent. ( ) They include random en'ironmental e'ents. (#) They contradict current ecological assumptions about population dynamics. 21. According to the passage/ all of the following beha'iors ha'e been e$hibited by different populations #DC#@TE (A) roughly constant population le'els from year to year (B) regular cycles of increases and decreases in numbers (C) erratic increases in numbers correlated with the weather ( ) unchecked increases in numbers o'er many generations (#) sudden declines in numbers from time to time 22. The discussion concerning population in lines 20(05 ser'es primarily to (A) demonstrate the difficulties ecologists face in studying density(dependent factors limiting population growth (B) ad'ocate more rigorous study of density(dependent factors in population growth (C) pro'e that the death rates of any population are ne'er entirely density( independent ( ) gi'e an e$ample of how death rates function to limit population densities in typical populations (#) underline the importance of e'en small density(dependent factors in regulating long(term population densities 2.. 3n the passage/ the author does all of the following #DC#@TE (A) cite the 'iews of other biologists

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(B) define a basic problem that the passage addresses (C) present conceptual categories used by other biologists ( ) describe the results of a particular study (#) draw a conclusion
/n *aisin in the un' Eorraine (ansberry does not re2ect integration or the economic and mora" promise o# the 0merican dream: rather' she remains "oya" to this dream whi"e "oo$ing' rea"istica""y' at its incomp"ete rea"i)ation. 9nce we recogni)e this dua" vision' we can accept the p"ay3s ironic nuances as de"iberate socia" commentaries by (ansberry rather than as the ;unintentiona"< irony that &igsby attributes to the wor$. /ndeed a curious"y persistent re#usa" to credit (ansberry with a capacity #or intentiona" irony has "ed some critics to interpret the p"ay3s thematic con#"icts as mere con#usion' contradiction' or ec"ecticism. /saacs' #or e5amp"e' cannot easi"y reconci"e (ansberry3s intense concern #or her race with her idea" o# human reconci"iation. &ut the p"ay3s comp"e5 view o# &"ac$ se"#-esteem and human so"idarity as compatib"e is no more ;contradictory< than Fu &ois3 #amous' we""-considered idea" o# ethnic se"#-awareness coe5isting with human unity' or 7anon3s emphasis on an idea" internationa"ism that a"so accommodates nationa" identities and ro"es.

20. The author4s primary purpose in this passage is to (A) e$plain some critics4 refusal to consider "aisin in the Sun a deliberately ironic play (B) suggest that ironic nuances ally "aisin in the Sun with u Bois4 and >anon4s writings (C) analy!e the fundamental dramatic conflicts in "aisin in the Sun ( ) <ustify the inclusion of contradictory elements in "aisin in the Sun (#) affirm the thematic coherence underlying "aisin in the Sun 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following about )ansberry4s use of irony in "aisin in the Sun% (A) 3t deri'es from )ansberry4s eclectic approach to dramatic structure. (B) 3t is <ustified by )ansberry4s loyalty to a fa'orable depiction of American life. (C) 3t is influenced by the themes of works by u Bois and >anon. ( ) 3t is more consistent with )ansberry4s concern for Black Americans than with her ideal of human reconciliation. (#) 3t reflects )ansberry4s reser'ations about the e$tent to which the American dream has been reali!ed. 22. 3n which of the following does the author of the passage reinforce his criticism of responses such as 3saacs4 to "aisin in the Sun% (A) The statement that )ansberry is *loyal+ (line .) to the American dream (B) The description of )ansberry4s concern for Black Americans as *intense+ (line 1.) (C) The assertion that )ansberry is concerned with *human solidarity+ (line 11)

GRE

12.

( ) The description of u Bois4 ideal as *well(considered+ (line 1-) (#) The description of >anon4s internationalism as *ideal+ (line 1,) 2-. The author of the passage would probably consider which of the following <udgments to be most similar to the reasoning of critics described in lines 6(12% (A) The world is certainly flatI therefore/ the person proposing to sail around it is un"uestionably foolhardy. (B) =adioacti'ity cannot be directly percei'edI therefore/ a scientist could not possibly control it in a laboratory. (C) The painter of this picture could not intend it to be funny/ therefore/ its humor must result from a lack of skill. ( ) Traditional social mores are beneficial to cultureI therefore/ anyone who de'iates from them acts destructi'ely. (#) >ilmmakers who produce documentaries deal e$clusi'ely with factsI therefore/ a filmmaker who reinterprets particular e'ents is misleading us. SECTION B
ome recent historians have argued that "i#e in the &ritish co"onies in 0merica #rom appro5imate"y 17G4 to 1789 was mar$ed by interna" con#"icts among co"onists. /nheritors o# some o# the viewpoints o# ear"y twentieth-century 6rogressive historians such as &eard and &ec$er' these recent historians have put #orward arguments that deserve eva"uation. The $ind o# con#"ict most emphasi)ed by these historians is c"ass con#"ict. Det with the Revo"utionary 8ar dominating these years' how does one distinguish c"ass con#"ict within that "arger con#"ictC %ertain"y not by the side a person supported. 0"though many o# these historians have accepted the ear"ier assumption that Eoya"ists represented an upper c"ass' new evidence indicates that Eoya"ists' "i$e rebe"s' were drawn #rom a"" socioeconomic c"asses. (/t is nonethe"ess probab"y true that a "arger percentage o# the we""-to-do 2oined the Eoya"ists than 2oined the rebe"s.) Eoo$ing at the rebe" side' we #ind "itt"e evidence #or the contention that "ower-c"ass rebe"s were in con#"ict with upper-c"ass rebe"s. /ndeed' the war e##ort against &ritain tended to suppress c"ass con#"icts. 8here it did not' the disputing rebe"s o# one or another c"ass usua""y became Eoya"ists. Eoya"ism thus operated as a sa#ety va"ve to remove socioeconomic discontent that e5isted among the rebe"s. Fisputes occurred' o# course' among those who remained on the rebe" side' but the e5traordinary socia" mobi"ity o# eighteenth-century 0merican society (with the obvious e5ception o# s"aves) usua""y prevented such disputes #rom hardening a"ong c"ass "ines. ocia" structure was in #act so #"uid!though recent statistics suggest a narrowing o# economic opportunity as the "atter ha"# o# the century progressed!that to ta"$ about socia" c"asses at a"" re+uires the use o# "oose economic categories such as rich' poor' and midd"e c"ass' or eighteenth-century designations "i$e ;the better sort.< Fespite these vague categories' one shou"d not c"aim une+uivoca""y that hosti"ity between recogni)ab"e c"asses cannot be "egitimate"y observed. 9utside o# *ew Dor$' however' there were very #ew instances o# open"y e5pressed c"ass antagonism. (aving said this' however' one must add that there is much evidence to support the

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#urther c"aim o# recent historians that sectiona" con#"icts were common between 17G4 and 1789. The ;6a5ton &oys< incident and the Regu"ator movement are representative e5amp"es o# the widespread' and 2usti#ied' discontent o# western sett"ers against co"onia" or state governments dominated by eastern interests. 0"though undertones o# c"ass con#"ict e5isted beneath such hosti"ity' the opposition was primari"y geographica". ectiona" con#"ict!which a"so e5isted between *orth and outh!deserves #urther investigation. /n summary' historians must be care#u" about the $ind o# con#"ict they emphasi)e in eighteenth-century 0merica. Det those who stress the achievement o# a genera" consensus among the co"onists cannot #u""y understand that consensus without understanding the con#"icts that had to be overcome or repressed in order to reach it.

1-. The author considers the contentions made by the recent historians discussed in the passage to be (A) potentially 'erifiable (B) partially <ustified (C) logically contradictory ( ) ingenious but flawed (#) capricious and unsupported 16. The author most likely refers to *historians such as Beard and Becker+ (lines 1(2) in order to (A) isolate the two historians whose work is most representati'e of the 'iewpoints of @rogressi'e historians (B) emphasi!e the need to find connections between recent historical writing and the work of earlier historians (C) make a case for the importance of the 'iews of the @rogressi'e historians concerning eighteenth(century American life ( ) suggest that @rogressi'e historians were the first to disco'er the particular internal conflicts in eighteenth(century American life mentioned in the passage (#) point out historians whose 'iews of history anticipated some of the 'iews of the recent historians mentioned in the passage 1,. According to the passage/ Koyalism during the American =e'olutionary &ar ser'ed the function of (A) eliminating the disputes that e$isted among those colonists who supported the rebel cause (B) drawing upper/ as opposed to lower/ socioeconomic classes away from the rebel cause (C) tolerating the kinds of socioeconomic discontent that were not allowed to e$ist on the rebel side ( ) channeling conflict that e$isted within a socioeconomic class into the war

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effort against the rebel cause (#) absorbing members of socioeconomic groups on the rebel side who felt themsel'es in contention with members of other socioeconomic groups 25. The passage suggests that the author would be likely to agree with which of the following statements about the social structure of eighteenth(century American society% 3. 33. 3t allowed greater economic opportunity than it did social mobility. 3t permitted greater economic opportunity prior to 1-15 than after 1-15.

333. 3t did not contain rigidly defined socioeconomic di'isions. 3C. 3t pre'ented economic disputes from arising among members of the society. (A) 3 and 3C only (B) 33 and 333 only (C) 333 and 3C only ( ) 3/ 33/ and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ 333/ and 3C 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements regarding socioeconomic class and support for the rebel and Koyalist causes during the American =e'olutionary &ar% (A) 3dentifying a person4s socioeconomic class is the least accurate method of ascertaining which side that person supported. (B) 3dentifying a person as a member of the rebel or of the Koyalist side does not necessarily re'eal that person4s particular socioeconomic class. (C) Both the rebel and the Koyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic classes/ although there were fewer disputes among socioeconomic classes on the Koyalist side. ( ) Both the rebel and the Koyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic classes/ although the Koyalist side was made up primarily of members of the upper classes. (#) Both the rebel and the Koyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic classes/ although many upper(class rebels e'entually <oined the Koyalists. 22. The author suggests which of the following about the representati'eness of colonial or state go'ernments in America from 1-2. to 1-6,% (A) The go'ernments inade"uately represented the interests of people in western regions. (B) The go'ernments more often represented class interests than sectional interests. (C) The go'ernments were less representati'e than they had been before 1-2..

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( ) The go'ernments were dominated by the interests of people of an upper socioeconomic class. (#) The go'ernments of the northern colonies were less representati'e than were the go'ernments of the southern colonies. 2.. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about sectional conflicts in America between 1-2. and 1-6,% (A) These conflicts were instigated by eastern interests against western settlers. (B) These conflicts were the most serious kind of conflict in America. (C) The conflicts e'entually led to openly e$pressed class antagonism. ( ) These conflicts contained an element of class hostility. (#) These conflicts were moti'ated by class conflicts.
ince 19-4' many e5perimenta" attempts to synthesi)e the chemica" constituents o# "i#e under ;primitive =arth conditions< have been per#ormed' but none o# these e5periments has produced anything approaching the comp"e5ity o# the simp"est organism. They have demonstrated' however' that a variety o# the comp"e5 mo"ecu"es current"y ma$ing up "iving organisms cou"d have been present in the ear"y ocean and atmosphere' with on"y one "imitation> such mo"ecu"es are synthesi)ed #ar "ess readi"y when o5ygen-containing compounds dominate the atmosphere. There#ore some scientists postu"ate that the =arth3s ear"iest atmosphere' un"i$e that o# today' was dominated by hydrogen' methane' and ammonia. 7rom these studies' scientists have conc"uded that the sur#ace o# the primitive =arth was covered with oceans containing the mo"ecu"es #undamenta" to "i#e. 0"though' at present' scientists cannot e5p"ain how these re"ative"y sma"" mo"ecu"es combined to produce "arger' more comp"e5 mo"ecu"es' some scientists have precipitous"y ventured hypotheses that attempt to e5p"ain the deve"opment' #rom "ager mo"ecu"es' o# the ear"iest se"#-dup"icating organisms.

20. According to the passage/ which of the following can be inferred about the process by which the chemical constituents of life were synthesi!ed under primiti'e #arth conditions% (A) The synthesis is unlikely to occur under current atmospheric conditions. (B) The synthesis is common in modern laboratories. (C) The synthesis occurs more readily in the atmosphere than in the ocean. ( ) The synthesis easily produces the most comple$ organic molecules. (#) The synthesis is accelerated by the presence of o$ygen(containing compounds. 21. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) point out that theories about how life de'eloped on #arth ha'e changed little since 1,1. (B) warn of increasing le'els of hydrogen/ methane/ and ammonia in the #arth4s

GRE

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atmosphere (C) describe the de'elopment since 1,1. of some scientists4 understanding of how life began on #arth ( ) demonstrate that the synthesis of life in the laboratory is too difficult for modern technology (#) describe how primiti'e atmospheric conditions produced the comple$ molecules of li'ing organisms 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *some scientists+ assume which of the following concerning *larger/ more comple$ molecules+ (line 25)% (A) The earliest atmosphere was formed primarily of these molecules. (B) Chemical processes in'ol'ing these molecules proceeded much more slowly under primiti'e #arth conditions. (C) The presence of these molecules would necessarily precede the e$istence of simple organisms. ( ) #$perimental techni"ues will ne'er be sufficiently sophisticated to produce in the laboratory simple organisms from these chemical constituents. (#) #$planations could easily be de'eloped to e$plain how simple molecules combined to form these more comple$ ones. 2-. The author4s reaction to the attempts that ha'e been made to e$plain the de'elopment of the first self(duplication organisms can best be described as one of (A) enthusiasm (B) e$pectation (C) dismay ( ) skepticism (#) antipathy 1991 04 SECTION A
/sadora Funcan3s master"y writings on the dance revea" the depth o# her determination to create a "yric #orm o# the art which was #ree o# characteri)ation' storyte""ing' and the theatrica" e5hibition o# s$i""s. he wished to discard the traditiona" methods and estab"ished vocabu"aries o# such dance #orms as ba""et and to e5p"ore the interna" sources o# human e5pressiveness. he shunned bodi"y ornamentation and strove to use on"y the natura" movements o# her body' undistorted by acrobatic e5aggeration and stimu"ated on"y by interna" compu"sion. /n her recita"s Funcan danced to the music o# &eethoven' 8agner' and A"uc$' among others' but' contrary to popu"ar be"ie#' she made no attempt to visua"i)e or to interpret the music: rather' she simp"y re"ied on it to provide the inspiration #or e5pressing inner #ee"ings

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT

through movement. he did not regard this use o# music as idea"' however' be"ieving that she wou"d someday dispense with music entire"y. That day never came.

1-. The author is primarily concerned with uncan4s (A) masterful lyricism as e$pressed in her writings on the dance (B) concerted efforts to subdue the natural mo'ements of the dance (C) belated recognition that she could not actually fulfill all of her ideals for the dance ( ) basic standards for the dance form that she wished to create and perform (#) continuous responsi'eness to a popular misconception about the nature of her new art form 16. The author implies that uncan relied on music in her recitals in order to (A) interpret musical works solely by means of natural body mo'ements (B) foster the illusion that music ser'es as an inspiration for the dance (C) inspire the e$pression of inner feeling when she danced ( ) 'alidate the public belief that music inspires the e$pression of feeling through mo'ement (#) counter the public belief that she made no attempt to 'isuali!e music 1,. According to the passage/ uncan intended to de'elop an art form that would do all of the following #DC#@T (A) a'oid the use of standard ballet techni"ues (B) re'itali!e an earlier established 'ocabulary (C) draw on internal sources of human e$pressi'eness ( ) create intended effects without the use of acrobatic e$aggeration (#) deri'e inspiration solely from inner feelings 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following endea'ors is K#A;T compatible with uncan4s ideals for the dance% (A) :sing music to stimulate the inspiration to dance (B) Attempting to free an art form of both characteri!ation and storytelling (C) ?inimi!ing the theatrical e$hibition of skills ( ) Being inspired to e$press inner feeling through mo'ement (#) Creating a lyric art form by drawing on inner personal resources
The recent' apparent"y success#u"' prediction by mathematica" mode"s o# an appearance o# =" *ino!the warm ocean current that periodica""y deve"ops a"ong the 6aci#ic coast o# outh 0merica!has e5cited researchers. @acob &2er$nes pointed out over 1. years ago how winds might create either abnorma""y warm or abnorma""y co"d water in the eastern e+uatoria" 6aci#ic. *onethe"ess' unti" the deve"opment o# the mode"s no one cou"d e5p"ain why conditions shou"d regu"ar"y shi#t #rom one to the other' as happens in the periodic osci""ations

GRE

12,

between appearances o# the warm =" *ino and the co"d so-ca""ed anti-=" *ino. The answer' at "east i# the current mode" that "in$s the behavior o# the ocean to that o# the atmosphere is correct' is to be #ound in the ocean. /t has "ong been $nown that during an =" *ino' two conditions e5ist> (1) unusua""y warm water e5tends a"ong the eastern 6aci#ic' principa""y a"ong the coasts o# =cuador and 6eru' and (1) winds b"ow #rom the west into the warmer air rising over the warm water in the east. These winds tend to create a #eedbac$ mechanism by driving the warmer sur#ace water into a ;pi"e< that b"oc$s the norma" upwe""ing o# deeper' co"d water in the east and #urther warms the eastern water' thus strengthening the wind sti"" more. The contribution o# the mode" is to show that the winds o# an =" *ino' which raise sea "eve" in the east' simu"taneous"y send a signa" to the west "owering sea "eve". 0ccording to the mode"' that signa" is generated as a negative Rossby wave' a wave o# depressed' or negative' sea "eve"' that moves westward para""e" to the e+uator at 1- to 8- $i"ometers per day. Ta$ing months to traverse the 6aci#ic' Rossby waves march to the western boundary o# the 6aci#ic basin' which is mode"ed as a smooth wa"" but in rea"ity consists o# +uite irregu"ar is"and chains' such as the 6hi"ippines and /ndonesia. 8hen the waves meet the western boundary' they are re#"ected' and the mode" predicts that Rossby waves wi"" be bro$en into numerous coasta" Ne"vin waves carrying the same negative sea-"eve" signa". These eventua""y shoot toward the e+uator' and then head eastward a"ong the e+uator prope""ed by the rotation o# the =arth at a speed o# about 1-. $i"ometers per day. 8hen enough Ne"vin waves o# su##icient amp"itude arrive #rom the western 6aci#ic' their negative sea-"eve" signa" overcomes the #eedbac$ mechanism tending to raise the sea "eve"' and they begin to drive the system into the opposite co"d mode. This produces a gradua" shi#t in winds' one that wi"" eventua""y send positive sea-"eve" Rossby waves westward' waves that wi"" eventua""y return as co"d cyc"e-ending positive Ne"vin waves' beginning another warming cyc"e.

21. The primary function of the passage as a whole is to (A) introduce a new e$planation of a physical phenomenon (B) e$plain the difference between two related physical phenomena (C) illustrate the limitations of applying mathematics to complicated physical phenomena ( ) indicate the direction that research into a particular physical phenomenon should take (#) clarify the differences between an old e$planation of a physical phenomenon and a new model of it 22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph% (A) A theory is presented and critici!ed. (B) A model is described and e'aluated. (C) A result is reported and its importance e$plained. ( ) A phenomenon is noted and its significance debated. (#) A hypothesis is introduced and contrary e'idence presented.

1.5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

2.. According to the passage/ which of the following features is characteristic of an #l 9ino% (A) Cold coastal water near @eru (B) &inds blowing from the west (C) =andom occurrence ( ) &orldwide effects (#) ;hort duration 20. According to the model presented in the passage/ which of the following normally signals the disappearance of an #l 9ino% (A) The arri'al in the eastern @acific of negati'e sea(le'el Mel'in wa'es. (B) A shift in the direction of the winds produced by the start of an anti(#l 9ino elsewhere in the @acific. (C) The reflection of Mel'in wa'es after they reach the eastern boundary of the @acific/ along #cuador and @eru. ( ) An increase in the speed at which negati'e =ossby wa'es cross the @acific. (#) The creation of a reser'oir of colder/ deep ocean water trapped under the pile of warmer/ surface ocean water. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would result fairly immediately from the cessation of the winds of an #l 9ino% 3. 33. 9egati'e =ossby wa'es would cease to be generated in the eastern @acific. The sea le'el in the eastern @acific would fall.

333. The surface water in the eastern @acific would again be cooled by being mi$ed with deep water. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 22. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the 'alidity of the model of #l 9ino that is presented in the passage% (A) uring some years #l 9ino e$tends significantly farther along the coasts of #cuador and @eru than during other years. (B) uring periods of unusually cool temperatures along the eastern @acific/ an #l 9ino is much colder than normal. (C) The normal upwelling of cold water in the eastern @acific depends much more on the local characteristics of the ocean than on atmospheric conditions. ( ) The 'ariations in the time it takes =ossby wa'es to cross the @acific depend

GRE

1.1

on the power of the winds that the wa'es encounter. (#) The western boundary of the @acific basin is so irregular that it impedes most coastal Mel'in wa'es from heading eastward. 2-. The passage best supports the conclusion that during an anti(#l 9ino the fastest( mo'ing signal wa'es are (A) negati'e =ossby wa'es mo'ing east along the e"uator (B) positi'e =ossby wa'es mo'ing west along the e"uator (C) negati'e Mel'in wa'es mo'ing west along the e"uator ( ) positi'e Mel'in wa'es mo'ing west along the e"uator (#) positi'e Mel'in wa'es mo'ing east along the e"uator SECTION B
(istorians have on"y recent"y begun to note the increase in demand #or "u5ury goods and services that too$ p"ace in eighteenth-century =ng"and. ?cNendric$ has e5p"ored the 8edgwood #irm3s remar$ab"e success in mar$eting "u5ury pottery: 6"umb has written about the pro"i#eration o# provincia" theaters' musica" #estiva"s' and chi"dren3s toys and boo$s. 8hi"e the #act o# this consumer revo"ution is hard"y in doubt' three $ey +uestions remain> 8ho were the consumersC 8hat were their motivesC 0nd what were the e##ects o# the new demand #or "u5uriesC 0n answer to the #irst o# these has been di##icu"t to obtain. 0"though it has been possib"e to in#er #rom the goods and services actua""y produced what manu#actures and servicing trades thought their customers wanted' on"y a study o# re"evant persona" documents written by actua" consumers wi"" provide a precise picture o# who wanted what. 8e sti"" need to $now how "arge this consumer mar$et was and how #ar down the socia" sca"e the consumer demand #or "u5ury goods penetrated. 8ith regard to this "ast +uestion' we might note in passing that Thompson' whi"e right"y restoring "aboring peop"e to the stage o# eighteenthcentury =ng"ish history' has probab"y e5aggerated the opposition o# these peop"e to the inroads o# capita"ist consumerism in genera": #or e5amp"e' "aboring peop"e in eighteenthcentury =ng"and readi"y shi#ted #rom home-brewed beer to standardi)ed beer produced by huge' heavi"y capita"i)ed urban breweries. To answer the +uestion o# why consumers became so eager to buy' some historians have pointed to the abi"ity o# manu#acturers to advertise in a re"ative"y uncensored press. This' however' hard"y seems a su##icient answer. ?cNendric$ #avors a Beb"en mode" o# conspicuous consumption stimu"ated by competition #or status. The ;midd"ing sort< bought goods and services because they wanted to #o""ow #ashions set by the rich. 0gain' we may wonder whether this e5p"anation is su##icient. Fo not peop"e en2oy buying things as a #orm o# se"#-grati#icationC /# so' consumerism cou"d be seen as a product o# the rise o# new concepts o# individua"ism and materia"ism' but not necessari"y o# the #ren)y #or conspicuous competition. 7ina""y' what were the conse+uences o# this consumer demand #or "u5uriesC ?cNendric$

1.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

c"aims that it goes a "ong way toward e5p"aining the coming o# the /ndustria" Revo"ution. &ut does itC 8hat' #or e5amp"e' does the production o# high-+ua"ity pottery and toys have to do with the deve"opment o# iron manu#acture or te5ti"e mi""sC /t is per#ect"y possib"e to have the psycho"ogy and rea"ity o# a consumer society without a heavy industria" sector. That #uture e5p"oration o# these $ey +uestions is undoubted"y necessary shou"d not' however' diminish the #orce o# the conc"usion o# recent studies> the insatiab"e demand in eighteenth-century =ng"and #or #rivo"ous as we"" as use#u" goods and services #oreshadows our own wor"d.

1-. 3n the first paragraph/ the author mentions ?cMendrick and @lumb most probably in order to (A) contrast their 'iews on the sub<ect of lu$ury consumerism in eighteenth( century #ngland (B) indicate the inade"uacy of historiographical approaches to eighteenth(century #nglish history (C) gi'e e$amples of historians who ha'e helped to establish the fact of growing consumerism in eighteenth(century #ngland ( ) support the contention that key "uestions about eighteenth(century consumerism remain to be answered (#) compare one historian4s interest in lu$ury goods such as pottery to another historian4s interest in lu$ury ser'ices such as musical festi'als 16. &hich of the following items/ if preser'ed from eighteenth(century #ngland/ would pro'ide an e$ample of the kind of documents mentioned in lines 12(1-% (A) A written agreement between a supplier of raw materials and a supplier of lu$ury goods (B) A diary that mentions lu$ury goods and ser'ices purchased by its author (C) A theater ticket stamped with the date and name of a particular play ( ) A payroll record from a company that produced lu$ury goods such as pottery (#) A newspaper ad'ertisement describing lu$ury goods and ser'ices a'ailable at a seaside resort 1,. According to the passage/ Thompson attributes to laboring people in eighteenth( century #ngland which of the following attitudes toward capitalist consumerism% (A) #nthusiasm (B) Curiosity (C) Ambi'alence ( ) ;tubbornness (#) )ostility 25. 3n the third paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) contrasting two theses and offering a compromise

GRE

1..

(B) "uestioning two e$planations and proposing a possible alternati'e to them (C) paraphrasing the work of two historians and "uestioning their assumptions ( ) e$amining two theories and endorsing one o'er the other (#) raising se'eral "uestions but implying that they cannot be answered 21. According to the passage/ a Ceblen model of conspicuous consumption has been used to (A) in'estigate the e$tent of the demand for lu$ury goods among social classes in eighteenth(century #ngland (B) classify the kinds of lu$ury goods desired by eighteenth(century consumers (C) e$plain the moti'ation of eighteenth(century consumers to buy lu$ury goods ( ) establish the e$tent to which the tastes of rich consumers were shaped by the middle classes in eighteenth(century #ngland (#) compare lu$ury consumerism in eighteenth(century #ngland with such consumerism in the twentieth century 22. According to the passage/ eighteenth(century #ngland and the contemporary world of the passage4s readers are (A) dissimilar in the e$tent to which lu$ury consumerism could be said to be widespread among the social classes (B) dissimilar in their definitions of lu$ury goods and ser'ices (C) dissimilar in the e$tent to which lu$ury goods could be said to be a stimulant of industrial de'elopment ( ) similar in their strong demand for a 'ariety of goods and ser'ices (#) similar in the e$tent to which a middle class could be identified as imitating the habits of a wealthier class 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most probably agree with which of the following statements about the relationship between the 3ndustrial =e'olution and the demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices in eighteenth(century #ngland% (A) The growing demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices was a ma<or factor in the coming of the 3ndustrial =e'olution. (B) The 3ndustrial =e'olution e$ploited the already e$isting demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices. (C) Although the demand for lu$ury goods may ha'e helped bring about the 3ndustrial =e'olution/ the demand for lu$ury ser'ices did not. ( ) There is no reason to belie'e that the 3ndustrial =e'olution was directly dri'en by a growing demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices. (#) The increasing demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices was a cultural phenomenon that has been conclusi'ely demonstrated to ha'e been separate

1.0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

from the coming of the 3ndustrial =e'olution.

Researchers are #inding that in many ways an individua" bacterium is more ana"ogous to a component ce"" o# a mu"tice""u"ar organism than it is to a #ree-"iving' autonomous organism. "na$aena' a #reshwater bacteria' is a case in point. 0mong photosynthetic bacteria' "na$aena is unusua"> it is capab"e o# both photosynthesis and nitrogen #i5ation. 8ithin a sing"e ce""' these two biochemica" processes are incompatib"e> o5ygen produced during photosynthesis' inactivates the nitrogenase re+uired #or nitrogen #i5ation. /n "na$aena communities' however' these processes can coe5ist. 8hen #i5ed nitrogen compounds are abundant' "na$aena is strict"y photosynthetic and its ce""s are a"" a"i$e. 8hen nitrogen "eve"s are "ow' however' specia"i)ed ce""s ca""ed heterocysts are produced which "ac$ ch"orophy"" (necessary #or photosynthesis) but which can #i5 nitrogen by converting nitrogen gas into a usab"e #orm. ubmicroscopic channe"s deve"op which connect the heterocyst ce""s with the photosynthetic ones and which are used #or trans#erring ce""u"ar products between the two $inds o# "na$aena ce""s.

20. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of bacteria that engage in photosynthesis% (A) They e'entually become two autonomous cells. (B) They cannot normally also engage in nitrogen fi$ation. (C) 8$ygen normally inacti'ates them. ( ) Cellular products are constantly transferred between such bacteria. (#) They normally lack chlorophyll. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that cell differentiation within Anabaena is regulated by the (A) amount of o$ygen Anabaena cells produce (B) season of the year (C) amount of fi$ed nitrogen compounds a'ailable ( ) number of microscopic channels uniting Anabaena cells (#) amount of chlorophyll in Anabaena cells 22. The passage supports which of the following inferences about heterocysts% (A) )eterocysts do not produce o$ygen. (B) 9itrogen gas inacti'ates heterocysts. (C) Chlorophyll increases the producti'ity of heterocysts. ( ) )eterocysts allow nitrogen fi$ation and photosynthesis to occur in the same cell. (#) )eterocysts are more important for Anabaenas functioning than are photosynthetic cells. 2-. The author uses the e$ample of Anabaena to illustrate the (A) uni"ueness of bacteria among unicellular organisms

GRE

1.1

(B) inade"uacy of an e$isting 'iew of bacteria (C) ability of unicellular organisms to engage in photosynthesis ( ) 'ariability of a freshwater bacteria (#) difficulty of in'estigating e'en the simplest unicellular organisms 1991 10 SECTION A
0ided by the recent abi"ity to ana"y)e samp"es o# air trapped in g"aciers' scientists now have a c"earer idea o# the re"ationship between atmospheric composition and g"oba" temperature change over the past 1G.'... years. /n particu"ar' determination o# atmospheric composition during periods o# g"acia" e5pansion and retreat (coo"ing and warming) is possib"e using data #rom the 1'... meter Bosto$ ice core dri""ed in 0ntarctica. The techni+ue invo"ved is simi"ar to that used in ana"y)ing cores o# marine sediments' where the ratio o# the two common isotopes o# o5ygen' 189 and 1G9' accurate"y re#"ects past temperature changes. /sotopic ana"ysis o# o5ygen in the Bosto$ core suggests mean g"oba" temperature #"uctuations o# up to 1. degrees centigrade over the past 1G.'... years. Fata #rom the Bosto$ core a"so indicate that the amount o# carbon dio5ide has #"uctuated with temperature over the same period> the higher the temperature' the higher the concentration o# carbon dio5ide and the "ower the temperature' the "ower the concentration. 0"though change in carbon dio5ide content c"ose"y #o""ows change in temperature during periods o# deg"aciation' it apparent"y "ags behind temperature during periods o# coo"ing. The corre"ation o# carbon dio5ide with temperature' o# course' does not estab"ish whether changes in atmospheric composition caused the warming and coo"ing trends or were caused by their. The corre"ation between carbon dio5ide and temperature throughout the Bosto$ record is consistent and predictab"e. The abso"ute temperature changes' however' are #rom - to 1H times greater than wou"d be e5pected on the basis o# carbon dio5ide3s own abi"ity to absorb in#rared radiation' or radiant heat. This reaction suggests that' +uite aside #rom changes in heat-trapping gases' common"y $nown as greenhouse gases' certain positive #eedbac$s are a"so amp"i#ying the temperature change. uch #eedbac$s might invo"ve ice on "and and sea' c"ouds' or water vapor' which a"so absorb radiant heat. 9ther data #rom the Bosto$ core show that methane gas a"so corre"ates c"ose"y with temperature and carbon dio5ide. The methane concentration near"y doub"ed' #or e5amp"e' between the pea$ o# the penu"timate g"acia" period and the #o""owing interg"acia" period. 8ithin the present interg"acia" period it has more than doub"ed in 2ust the past 4.. years and is rising rapid"y. 0"though the concentration o# atmospheric methane is more than two orders o# magnitude "ower than that o# carbon dio5ide' it cannot be ignored> the radiative properties o# methane ma$e it 1. times more e##ective' mo"ecu"e #or mo"ecu"e' than carbon dio5ide in absorbing radiant heat. 9n the basis o# a simu"ation mode" that c"imato"ogica" researchers have deve"oped' methane appears to have been about 1- percent as important as carbon dio5ide in the warming that too$ p"ace during the most recent g"acia" retreat 8'... to 1.'...

1.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

years ago.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) interpret data (B) e$plain research methodology (C) e'aluate a conclusion ( ) suggest a new techni"ue (#) attack a theory 16. According to the passage/ which of the following statements about methane is true% (A) ?ethane is found in marine sediments. (B) ?ethane is more effecti'e than carbon dio$ide in absorbing radiant heat. (C) The #arth4s atmosphere now contains more than twice as much methane as it does carbon dio$ide. ( ) The higher the concentration of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere/ the lower the concentration of methane. (#) ?ost of the global warming that has occurred during the past 15 years has been associated with increased methane concentration. 1,. According to the passage/ which of the following statements best describes the relationship between carbon dio$ide and global temperature% (A) Carbon dio$ide le'els change immediately in response to changes in temperature. (B) Carbon dio$ide le'els correlate with global temperature during cooling periods only. (C) 8nce carbon dio$ide le'els increase/ they remain high regardless of changes in global temperature. ( ) Carbon dio$ide le'els increase more "uickly than global temperature does. (#) uring cooling periods/ carbon dio$ide le'els initially remain high and then decline. 25. The author mentions *certain positi'e feedbacks+ (lines .1(.2) in order to indicate that (A) increased concentration of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere is responsible for global temperature increase (B) some climate simulation models ha'e produced useful information (C) greenhouse gases alone do not account for global temperature increase ( ) 'ariables that benefit life are causing global temperature to increase (#) beneficial substances that are not heat(trapping gases and that contribute to global temperature increase ha'e been found in the Costok ice core

GRE

1.-

21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a long(term decrease in the concentration of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere would (A) increase methane concentration in the #arth4s atmosphere (B) accompany a period of glaciation (C) encourage the formation of more o$ygen isotopes in the #arth4s atmosphere ( ) promote the formation of more water in the #arth4s global en'ironment (#) increase the amount of infrared radiation absorbed by the #arth4s atmosphere 22. The passage suggests that when the methane concentration in the #arth4s atmosphere decreases/ which of the following also happens% (A) Blaciers melt faster. (B) The concentration of carbon dio$ide increases. (C) The mean global temperature decreases. ( ) Carbon dio$ide absorbs more radiant beat. (#) ?ore clouds form in the #arth4s atmosphere. 2.. 3n the fourth paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) restating the main idea of the passage (B) using research findings to de'elop a simulation model (C) outlining the direction of future reser'es ( ) pro'iding an additional e$ample of a phenomenon (#) introducing a conflicting hypothesis
/n The ,omen of (e3ico City& 5678-59:6' y"via ?arina 0rrom argues that the status o# women in ?e5ico %ity improved during the nineteenth century. 0ccording to 0rrom' househo"ds headed by #ema"es and instances o# women wor$ing outside the home were much more common than scho"ars have estimated: e##orts by the ?e5ican government to encourage #ema"e education resu"ted in increased #ema"e "iteracy: and in#"uentia" ma"e writers wrote pieces advocating education' emp"oyment' and increased #ami"y responsibi"ities #or women' whi"e dep"oring women3s po"itica" and marita" ine+ua"ity. ?ention o# the #act that the civi" codes o# 187. and 188H signi#icant"y advanced women3s rights wou"d have #urther strengthened 0rrom3s argument. 0rrom does not discuss whether women3s improved status counteracted the e##ects on women o# instabi"ity in the ?e5ican economy during the nineteenth century. (owever' this is not so much a wea$ness in her wor$ as it is the inevitab"e resu"t o# scho"ars3 neg"ect o# this period. /ndeed' such gaps in ?e5ican history are precise"y what ma$e 0rrom3s pioneering study an important addition to Eatin 0merican women3s history.

20. The passage is primarily concerned with doing which of the following% (A) =e'iewing a historical study of the status of women in ?e$ico City during the nineteenth century (B) Analy!ing the effects of economic instability on the status of women in

1.6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

?e$ico during the nineteenth century (C) Ad'ancing a thesis e$plaining why women4s status in ?e$ico City impro'ed during the nineteenth century ( ) =e<ecting the thesis that the status of women in ?e$ico City during the nineteenth century actually impro'ed (#) @raising an author for a pioneering attempt to bridge significant gaps in ?e$ico4s economic history prior to 1-,5 21. According to the author of the passage/ Arrom4s study can be characteri!ed as *an important addition to Katin American women4s history+ (lines 21(22) because it (A) offers a radical thesis concerning the status of women4s ci'il rights in ?e$ican society during the nineteenth century (B) relies on a new method of historical analysis that has not pre'iously been applied to Katin American history (C) focuses only on the status of women in ?e$ican society ( ) addresses a period in ?e$ican history that scholars ha'e to some e$tent neglected (#) is the first study to recogni!e the role of the ?e$ican go'ernment in encouraging women4s education 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Arrom would agree with which of the following assertions% (A) #fforts by the ?e$ican go'ernment to encourage education for women during the nineteenth century were hampered by the economic instability of that period. (B) The most significant ad'ances in the rights of ?e$ican women during the nineteenth century occurred prior to 161-. (C) 3mpro'ements in the status of women in ?e$ico City during the nineteenth century were accompanied by similar impro'ements in the status of women in other large Katin American cities. ( ) ;cholars ha'e in the past accorded the most significance to nineteenth( century ?e$ican literature that supported the status "uo in women4s political and marital rights. (#) ;cholars ha'e in the past underestimated the number of households headed by females in ?e$ico City. 2-. &hich of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward Arrom4s work% (A) :ncritical appro'al (B) #nthusiasm tempered by minor reser'ations (C) @raise for her thesis/ despite skepticism regarding the sources of her e'idence ( ) =eluctant acceptance/ despite lingering doubts regarding the accuracy of her thesis

GRE

1.,

(#) =e<ection/ despite admiration for her attempt to break new ground in a hitherto neglected field SECTION B
6resent-day phi"osophers usua""y envision their discip"ine as an endeavor that has been' since anti+uity' distinct #rom and superior to any particu"ar inte""ectua" discip"ine' such as theo"ogy or science. uch phi"osophica" concerns as the mind-body prob"em or' more genera""y' the nature o# human $now"edge' they be"ieve' are basic human +uestions whose tentative phi"osophica" so"utions have served as the necessary #oundations on which a"" other inte""ectua" specu"ation has rested. The basis #or this view' however' "ies in a serious misinterpretation o# the past' a pro2ection o# modern concerns onto past events. The idea o# an autonomous discip"ine ca""ed ;phi"osophy'< distinct #rom and sitting in 2udgment on such pursuits as theo"ogy and science turns out' on c"ose e5amination' to be o# +uite recent origin. 8hen' in the seventeenth century' Fescartes and (obbes re2ected medieva" phi"osophy' they did not thin$ o# themse"ves' as modern phi"osophers do' as proposing a new and better phi"osophy' but rather as #urthering ;the war#are between science and theo"ogy.< They were #ighting' a"beit discreet"y' to open the inte""ectua" wor"d to the new science and to "iberate inte""ectua" "i#e #rom ecc"esiastica" phi"osophy and envisioned their wor$ as contributing to the growth' not o# phi"osophy' but o# research in mathematics and physics. This "in$ between phi"osophica" interests and scienti#ic practice persisted unti" the nineteenth century' when dec"ine in ecc"esiastica" power over scho"arship and changes in the nature o# science provo$ed the #ina" separation o# phi"osophy #rom both. The demarcation o# phi"osophy #rom science was #aci"itated by the deve"opment in the ear"y nineteenth century o# a new notion' that phi"osophy3s core interest shou"d be epistemo"ogy' the genera" e5p"anation o# what it means to $now something. ?odern phi"osophers now trace that notion bac$ at "east to Fescartes and pino)a' but it was not e5p"icit"y articu"ated unti" the "ate eighteenth century' by Nant' and did not become bui"t into the structure o# academic institutions and the standard se"#-descriptions o# phi"osophy pro#essors unti" the "ate nineteenth century. 8ithout the idea o# epistemo"ogy' the surviva" o# phi"osophy in an age o# modern science is hard to imagine. ?etaphysics' phi"osophy3s traditiona" core!considered as the most genera" description o# how the heavens and the earth are put together!had been rendered a"most comp"ete"y meaning"ess by the spectacu"ar progress o# physics. Nant' however' by #ocusing phi"osophy on the prob"em o# $now"edge' managed to rep"ace metaphysics with epistemo"ogy' and thus to trans#orm the notion o# phi"osophy as ;+ueen o# sciences< into the new notion o# phi"osophy as a separate' #oundationa" discip"ine. 6hi"osophy became ;primary< no "onger in the sense o# ;highest< but in the sense o# ;under"ying<. 0#ter Nant' phi"osophers were ab"e to reinterpret seventeenth-and eighteenth-century thin$ers as attempting to discover ;(ow is our $now"edge possib"eC< and to pro2ect this +uestion bac$ even on the ancients.

1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the author4s main point% (A) @hilosophy4s o'erriding interest in basic human "uestions is a legacy

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primarily of the work of Mant. (B) @hilosophy was deeply in'ol'ed in the se'enteenth(century warfare between science and religion. (C) The set of problems of primary importance to philosophers has remained relati'ely constant since anti"uity. ( ) The status of philosophy as an independent intellectual pursuit is a relati'ely recent de'elopment. (#) The role of philosophy in guiding intellectual speculation has gradually been usurped by science. 16. According to the passage/ present(day philosophers belie'e that the mind(body problem is an issue that (A) has implications primarily for philosophers (B) may be affected by recent ad'ances in science (C) has shaped recent work in epistemology ( ) has little rele'ance to present(day philosophy (#) has ser'ed as a basis for intellectual speculation since anti"uity 1,. According to the author/ philosophy became distinct from science and theology during the (A) ancient period (B) medie'al period (C) se'enteenth century ( ) nineteenth century (#) twentieth century 25. The author suggests that escartes4 support for the new science of the se'enteenth century can be characteri!ed as (A) pragmatic and hypocritical (B) cautious and inconsistent (C) daring and opportunistic ( ) intense but fleeting (#) strong but prudent 21. The author of the passage implies which of the following in discussing the de'elopment of philosophy during the nineteenth century% (A) 9ineteenth(century philosophy took science as its model for understanding the bases of knowledge. (B) The role of academic institutions in shaping metaphysical philosophy grew enormously during the nineteenth century. (C) 9ineteenth(century philosophers carried out a program of in'estigation

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e$plicitly laid out by escartes and ;pino!a. ( ) Mant had an o'erwhelming impact on the direction of nineteenth(century philosophy. (#) 9ineteenth(century philosophy made ma<or ad'ances in understanding the nature of knowledge. 22. &ith which of the following statements concerning the writing of history would the author of the passage be most likely to agree% (A) )istory should not emphasi!e the role played by ideas o'er the role played by indi'iduals. (B) )istory should not be distorted by attributing present(day consciousness to historical figures. (C) )istory should not be focused primarily on those past e'ents most rele'ant to the present. ( ) )istory should be concerned with describing those aspects of the past that differ most from those of the present. (#) )istory should be e$amined for the lessons it can pro'ide in understanding current problems. 2.. The primary function of the passage as a whole is to (A) compare two competing models (B) analy!e a difficult theory (C) present new e'idence for a theory ( ) correct an erroneous belief by describing its origins (#) resol'e a long(standing theoretical contro'ersy
&io"ogists have "ong maintained that two groups o# pinnipeds' sea "ions and wa"ruses' are descended #rom a terrestria" bear"i$e anima"' whereas the remaining group' sea"s' shares an ancestor with wease"s. &ut the recent discovery o# detai"ed simi"arities in the s$e"eta" structure o# the #"ippers in a"" three groups undermines the attempt to e5p"ain away super#icia" resemb"ance as due to convergent evo"ution!the independent deve"opment o# simi"arities between unre"ated groups in response to simi"ar environmenta" pressures. 7"ippers may indeed be a necessary response to a+uatic "i#e: turt"es' wha"es' and dugongs a"so have them. &ut the common detai"ed design #ound among the pinnipeds probab"y indicates a common ancestor. ?oreover' wa"ruses and sea"s drive themse"ves through the water with thrusts o# their hind #"ippers' but sea "ions use their #ront #"ippers. /# anatomica" simi"arity in the #"ippers resu"ted #rom simi"ar environmenta" pressures' as posited by the convergent evo"ution theory' one wou"d e5pect wa"ruses and sea"s' but not sea"s and sea "ions' to have simi"ar #"ippers.

20. According to the passage/ it has been recently disco'ered that (A) there are detailed skeletal similarities in the flippers of pinnipeds (B) sea lions/ seals/ and walruses are all pinnipeds (C) pinnipeds are descended from animals that once li'ed on land

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( ) animals without common ancestors sometimes e'ol'e in similar ways (#) animals that ha'e flippers do not all use them in the same way 21. The author implies that which of the following was part of the long(standing 'iew concerning pinnipeds% (A) @innipeds are all descended from a terrestrial bearlike animal. (B) @innipeds share a common ancestor with turtles/ whales/ and dugongs. (C) ;imilarities among pinnipeds are due to their all ha'ing had to adapt to a"uatic life. ( ) There are detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the flippers in all pinnipeds. (#) Con'ergent e'olution cannot account for the similarities among pinnipeds. 22. The author implies which of the following about the fact that turtles/ whales/ and dugongs all ha'e flippers% (A) 3t can be e$plained by the hypothesis that turtles/ whales/ and dugongs are 'ery closely related. (B) 3t can be e$plained by the idea of con'ergent e'olution. (C) 3t suggests that turtles/ whales/ and dugongs e'ol'ed in separate parts of the world. ( ) 3t undermines the 'iew that turtles/ whales/ and dugongs are all descended from terrestrial ancestors. (#) 3t is the primary difference between turtles/ whales/ and dugongs/ on the one hand/ and pinnipeds/ on the other. 2-. 3n presenting the argument in the passage/ the author does which of the following% (A) Contends that key terms in an opposing 'iew ha'e been improperly used. (B) Contends that opponents ha'e purposely obscured important e'idence. (C) ;hows that two theories thought to be in conflict are actually complementary. ( ) ;hows that ad'ocates of a theory ha'e not always stated their 'iew in the same manner. (#) ;hows that an implication of a theory is contradicted by the facts. 1992 02 SECTION A
The more that is discovered about the intricate organi)ation o# the nervous system' the more it seems remar$ab"e that genes can success#u""y speci#y the deve"opment o# that system. (uman genes contain too "itt"e in#ormation even to speci#y which hemisphere o# the brain each o# a human3s 1.11 neurons shou"d occupy' "et a"one the hundreds o# connections

GRE

10.

that each neuron ma$es. 7or such reasons' we can assume that there must be an important random #actor in neura" deve"opment' and in particu"ar' that errors must and do occur in the deve"opment o# a"" norma" brains. The most vivid e5pression o# such errors occurs in genetica""y identica" (isogenic) organisms. =ven when reared under the same conditions' isogenic organisms are rare"y e5act copies o# one another' and their di##erences have revea"ed much about the random variations that resu"t #rom an organism3s "imited supp"y o# genetic in#ormation. /n isogenic Faphniae' #or e5amp"e' even though the position' si)e' and branching pattern o# each optic neuron are remar$ab"y constant' there is some variabi"ity in connectivity' and the number o# synapses varies great"y. This variabi"ity is probab"y the resu"t o# random scatter beyond the reso"ution o# genetic contro" and is best termed ;imprecision'< since its converse' the degree o# c"ustering about a mean' is conventiona""y' ca""ed ;precision.< /mprecision shou"d be distinguished #rom deve"opmenta" mista$es> wrong"y migrated neurons' incorrect connections' and the "i$e. To use a computer ana"ogy' minor rounding-o## errors occur universa""y and are ana"ogous to imprecision' but occasiona""y a binary digit is incorrect"y transmitted' perhaps ruining a ca"cu"ation' and this incorrect transmission is ana"ogous to a deve"opmenta" mista$e. Thus' imprecision is a #orm o# inaccuracy inherent within the "imits o# design' but mista$es are #orms o# gross #a""ibi"ity. &oth imprecision and gross #a""ibi"ity can p"ausib"y be b"amed on the insu##iciency o# genetic in#ormation' since either cou"d be reduced by adding more in#ormation. /t is universa""y accepted among in#ormation theorists that codes and "anguages can be made mista$e-resistant by incorporating redundancy. (owever' since the amount o# space avai"ab"e in any in#ormation system is "imited' increased redundancy resu"ts in decreased precision. 7or e5amp"e' X when written incorrect"y in =ng"ish' ;three point oen #our two' ;can be understood correct"y even though a typographica" error has occurred. ?ore precision cou"d be gained' however' i# those 1H spaces were #i""ed with 0rabic numera"s: then X cou"d be e5pressed to 14 signi#icant digits' a"though any error wou"d signi#icant"y change the meaning. There e5ists a trade-o##' the more precise"y a system is speci#ied' using a given "imited amount o# in#ormation' the greater the danger o# gross mista$es. The overa"" scheme by which genetic in#ormation is rationed out in organisms' there#ore' must invo"ve a compromise between two con#"icting priorities> precision and the avoidance o# gross mista$es.

1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) Although studies of isogenic organisms ha'e shown that all organisms are sub<ect to de'elopmental 'ariations/ there is still scientific debate o'er the e$act causes of these 'ariations. (B) Because of limitations on the amount of information contained in the genes of organisms/ de'eloping ner'ous systems are sub<ect to two basic kinds of error/ the likelihood of one of which is reduced only when the likelihood of the other is increased. (C) The comple$ity of an organism4s genetic information means that much of the unusual 'ariation that occurs among organisms can best be e$plained as the result of de'elopmental mistakes.

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( ) 9ew findings about the nature of the genetic control of neural de'elopment support the work of some scientists who argue that the computer is an e$tremely useful model for understanding the ner'ous system. (#) The ma<or disco'ery made by scientists studying the genetic control of neural de'elopment is that both imprecision and gross de'elopmental error can be traced to specific types of mutations in specific genes. 16. According to the passage/ one of the reasons it has been assumed that there is an important random element in human neural de'elopment is that (A) genes cannot specify certain types of de'elopmental processes as well as they can others (B) the intricacy of the ner'ous system allows small de'elopmental errors to occur without harmful effects (C) the amount of information contained in the genes is less than the amount necessary to specify the location of the neurons ( ) the number of neurons in the human brain 'aries greatly from indi'idual to indi'idual (#) it is theoretically impossible for an organism to protect itself completely from gross de'elopmental mistakes 1,. The author suggests which of the following about the findings of information theorists% (A) Their findings pro'ocati'ely challenge the standard e$planation of redundancy in genes. (B) Their findings pro'ide useful insights into understanding the rationing of genetic information. (C) Their findings help to e$plain why imprecision can occur in neural de'elopment but not why gross mistakes can occur. ( ) Their findings suggest that genes may be able to specify neural de'elopment more accurately than had pre'iously been thought. (#) Their findings support the work of those who use computer operations as models for understanding genetic control. 25. According to the passage/ of the following aspects of the optic neurons of isogenic aphniae/ which 'aries the most% (A) ;i!e (B) Connecti'ity (C) @osition ( ) Branching pattern (#) 9umber of synapses 21. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph%

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(A) A specific case is presented/ its details are analy!ed/ and a conclusion is drawn from it. (B) A disco'ery is announced/ its most significant application is discussed/ and possibilities for the future are suggested. (C) A generali!ation is made/ specific situations in which it is applicable are noted/ and problems with it are suggested. ( ) An obser'ation is made/ specifics are pro'ided to support it/ and a generali!ation is deri'ed. (#) A hypothesis is presented/ its implications are clarified/ and applications of it are discussed. 22. The author uses all of the following to clarify the distinction between imprecision and gross mistake in neural de'elopment #DC#@T (A) classification of borderline phenomena (B) a description of the relationship between the phenomena denoted by each term (C) specific e$amples of the phenomena denoted by each term ( ) an e$planation of at least one of the key terms in'ol'ed (#) analogies to other types of phenomena 2.. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the genetic information of aphniae% 3. 33. There is probably some degree of redundancy in the information controlling neural de'elopment. ?ost of the information for neural de'elopment stored in the genes is used to specify the positions of the optic neurons.

333. There is sufficient information to preclude the occurrence of gross mistakes during neural de'elopment. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 33 only (#) 33 and 333 only
/n a recent study' Favid %ressy e5amines two centra" +uestions concerning =ng"ish immigration to *ew =ng"and in the 1G4.3s> what $inds o# peop"e immigrated and whyC Using contemporary "iterary evidence' shipping "ists' and customs records' %ressy #inds that most adu"t immigrants were s$i""ed in #arming or cra#ts' were "iterate' and were organi)ed in #ami"ies. =ach o# these characteristics sharp"y distinguishes the 11'... peop"e who "e#t #or *ew =ng"and in the 1G4.3s #rom most o# the appro5imate"y 477'... =ng"ish peop"e who had immigrating to 0merica by 17... 8ith respect to their reasons #or immigrating' %ressy does not deny the #re+uent"y noted

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#act that some o# the immigrants o# the 1G4.3s' most notab"y the organi)ers and c"ergy' advanced re"igious e5p"anations #or departure' but he #inds that such e5p"anations usua""y assumed primacy on"y in retrospect. 8hen he moves beyond the principa" actors' he #inds that re"igious e5p"anations were "ess #re+uent"y o##ered and he conc"udes that most peop"e immigrated because they were recruited by promises o# materia" improvement.

20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) summari!ing the findings of an in'estigation (B) analy!ing a method of argument (C) e'aluating a point of 'iew ( ) hypothesi!ing about a set of circumstances (#) establishing categories 21. According to the passage/ Cressy would agree with which of the following statements about the organi!ers among the #nglish immigrants to 9ew #ngland in the 12.54s% 3. 33. ?ost of them were clergy. ;ome of them offered a religious e$planation for their immigration.

333. They did not offer any reasons for their immigration until some time after they had immigrated. 3C. They were more likely than the a'erage immigrant to be moti'ated by material considerations. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 33 and 333 only ( ) 3/ 333/ and 3C only (#) 33/ 333/ and 3C only 22. According to the passage/ Cressy has made which of the following claims about what moti'ated #nglish immigrants to go to 9ew #ngland in the 12.54s% (A) They were moti'ated by religious considerations alone. (B) They were moti'ated by economic considerations alone. (C) They were moti'ated by religious and economic considerations e"ually. ( ) They were moti'ated more often by economic than by religious considerations. (#) They were moti'ated more often by religious than by economic considerations. 2-. The passage suggests that the ma<ority of those #nglish people who had immigrated to America by the late se'enteenth century were (A) clergy

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(B) young children (C) organi!ed in families ( ) skilled in crafts (#) illiterate SECTION B
/s the "iterary critic "i$e the poet' responding creative"y' intuitive"y' sub2ective"y to the written word as the poet responds to human e5perienceC 9r is the critic more "i$e a scientist' #o""owing a series o# demonstrab"e' veri#iab"e steps' using an ob2ective method o# ana"ysisC 7or the woman who is a practitioner o# #eminist "iterary criticism' the sub2ectivity versus ob2ectivity' or critic-as-artist-or-scientist' debate has specia" signi#icance: #or her' the +uestion is not on"y academic' but po"itica" as we""' and her de#inition wi"" court specia" ris$s whichever side o# the issue it #avors. /# she de#ines #eminist criticism as ob2ective and scienti#ic!a va"id' veri#iab"e' inte""ectua" method that anyone' whether man or woman' can per#orm the de#inition not on"y prec"udes the critic-as-artist approach' but may a"so impede accomp"ishment o# the uti"itarian po"itica" ob2ectives o# those who see$ to change the academic estab"ishment and its thin$ing' especia""y about se5 ro"es. /# she de#ines #eminist criticism as creative and intuitive' privi"eged as art' then her wor$ becomes vu"nerab"e to the pre2udices o# stereotypic ideas about the ways in which women thin$' and wi"" be dismissed by much o# the academic estab"ishment. &ecause o# these pre2udices' women who use an intuitive approach in their criticism may #ind themse"ves charged with inabi"ity to be ana"ytica"' to be ob2ective' or to thin$ critica""y. 8hereas men may be #ree to c"aim the ro"e o# critic-asartist' women run di##erent pro#essiona" ris$s when they choose intuition and private e5perience as critica" method and de#ense. These +uestions are po"itica" in the sense that the debate over them wi"" inevitab"y be "ess an e5p"oration o# abstract matters in a spirit o# disinterested in+uiry than an academic power strugg"e in which the careers and pro#essiona" #ortunes o# many women scho"ars!on"y now entering the academic pro#ession in substantia" numbers!wi"" be at sta$e' and with them the chances #or a distinctive contribution to humanistic understanding' a contribution that might be an important in#"uence against se5ism in our society. 0s "ong as the academic estab"ishment continues to regard ob2ective ana"ysis as ;mascu"ine< and an intuitive approach as ;#eminine'< the theoretician must steer a de"icate phi"osophica" course between the two. /# she wishes to construct a theory o# #eminist criticism' she wou"d be we"" advised to p"ace it within the #ramewor$ o# a genera" theory o# the critica" process that is neither pure"y ob2ective nor pure"y intuitive. (er theory is then more "i$e"y to be compared and contrasted with other theories o# criticism with some degree o# dispassionate distance.

1-. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the content of the passage% (A) )ow Theories of Kiterary Criticism Can Best Be :sed (B) @roblems Confronting &omen &ho Are >eminist Kiterary Critics

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(C) A )istorical o'er'iew of >eminist literary Criticism ( ) A 9ew Theory of Kiterary Criticism (#) Kiterary CriticismE Art or ;cience% 16. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es which of the following about women who are literary critics% 3. 33. They can make a uni"ue contribution to society. They must de'elop a new theory of the critical process.

333. Their criticisms of literature should be entirely ob<ecti'e. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 1,. The author specifically mentions all of the following as difficulties that particularly affect women who are theoreticians of feminist literary criticism #DC#@T the (A) tendency of a predominantly male academic establishment to form preconceptions about women (B) limitations that are imposed when criticism is defined as ob<ecti'e and scientific (C) likelihood that the work of a woman theoretician who claims the pri'ilege of art will be 'iewed with pre<udice by some academics ( ) inescapability of power struggles between women in the academic profession and the academic establishment (#) tendency of members of the academic establishment to treat all forms of feminist literary theory with hostility 25. According to the author/ the debate mentioned in the passage has special significance for the woman who is a theoretician of feminist literary criticism for which of the following reasons% (A) There are large numbers of capable women working within the academic establishment. (B) There are a few powerful feminist critics who ha'e been recogni!ed by the academic establishment. (C) Kike other critics/ most women who are literary critics define criticism as either scientific or artistic. ( ) &omen who are literary critics face professional risks different from those faced by men who are literary critics. (#) &omen who are literary critics are more likely to participate in the debate

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than are men who are literary critics. 21. &hich of the following is presented by the author in support of the suggestion that there is stereotypic thinking among members of the academic establishment% (A) A distincti'ely feminist contribution to humanistic understanding could work against the influence of se$ism among members of the academic establishment. (B) &omen who define criticism as artistic may be seen by the academic establishment as being incapable of critical thinking. (C) The debate o'er the role of the literary critic is often seen as a political one. ( ) &omen scholars are only now entering academia in substantial numbers. (#) The woman who is a critic is forced to construct a theory of literary criticism. 22. &hich of the following is most likely to be one of the *utilitarian political ob<ecti'es+ mentioned by the author in line 12% (A) To forge a new theory of literary criticism (B) To pursue truth in a disinterested manner (C) To demonstrate that women are interested in literary criticism that can be 'iewed either sub<ecti'ely or ob<ecti'ely ( ) To con'ince the academic establishment to re'ise the ways in which it assesses women scholars4 professional "ualities (#) To dissuade women who are literary critics from taking a sub<ecti'e approach to literary criticism 2.. 3t can be inferred that the author would define as *political+ (line .5) "uestions that (A) are contested largely through contentions o'er power (B) are primarily academic in nature and open to abstract analysis (C) are not in themsel'es important ( ) cannot be resol'ed without e$tensi'e debate (#) will be debated by both men and women
TThis passage was e5cerpted #rom an artic"e pub"ished in 1979.U Ouantum mechanics is a high"y success#u" theory> it supp"ies methods #or accurate"y ca"cu"ating the resu"ts o# diverse e5periments' especia""y with minute partic"es. The predictions o# +uantum mechanics' however' give on"y the probabi"ity o# an event' not a deterministic statement o# whether or not the event wi"" occur. &ecause o# this probabi"ism' =instein remained strong"y dissatis#ied with the theory throughout his "i#e' though he did not maintain that +uantum mechanics is wrong. Rather' he he"d that it is incomp"ete> in +uantum mechanics the motion o# a partic"e must be described in terms o# probabi"ities' he argued' on"y because some parameters that determine the motion have not been speci#ied. /# these hypothetica" ;hidden parameters< were $nown' a #u""y deterministic tra2ectory cou"d be de#ined. igni#icant"y' this hidden-parameter +uantum theory "eads to e5perimenta" predictions

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di##erent #rom those o# traditiona" +uantum mechanics. =instein3s ideas have been tested by e5periments per#ormed since his death' and as most o# these e5periments support traditiona" +uantum mechanics' =instein3s approach is a"most certain"y erroneous.

20. The author regards the idea that traditional "uantum mechanics is incomplete with (A) appro'al (B) surprise (C) indifference ( ) apprehension (#) skepticism 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author4s conclusion that #instein4s approach is *erroneous+ (line 22) might ha'e to be modified because (A) it is theoretically possible to generate plausible theories with hidden parameters within them (B) some e$perimental tests of #instein4s theory do not disconfirm the hidden( parameter theory of "uantum mechanics (C) it is possible for a theory to ha'e hidden parameters and yet be probabilistic ( ) traditional "uantum mechanics has not yet been used to analy!e all of the phenomena to which it could be applied (#) there are too many possible hidden parameters to de'elop meaningful tests of hidden(parameter theories 22. According to the passage/ #instein posed ob<ections to the (A) e$istence of hidden parameters in "uantum theory (B) probabilistic nature of "uantum mechanics (C) idea that "uantum mechanics is incomplete ( ) results of e$periments testing "uantum theory (#) importance accorded "uantum mechanics in physics 2-. The passage suggests that which of the following would ha'e resulted if the e$periments mentioned in lines 16(25 had not supported the predictions of traditional "uantum mechanics% (A) #instein/ had he been ali'e/ would ha'e re'ised his approach to "uantum mechanics. (B) )idden(parameter theories would ha'e been considered inaccurate descriptions of real(world phenomena. (C) A deterministic description of the motion of a particle might still be considered possible. ( ) Nuantum mechanics would ha'e ceased to attract the attention of physicists. (#) #instein/ had he been ali'e/ would ha'e abandoned attempts to specify the

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hidden parameters that describe motion. 1992 04 SECTION A

The 19G.3s witnessed two pro#ound socia" movements> the civi" rights movement and the movement protesting the war in Bietnam. 0"though they over"apped in time' they were "arge"y distinct. 7or a brie# moment in 19G7' however' it appeared that the two movements might unite under the "eadership o# ?artin Euther Ning' @r. Ning3s ro"e in the antiwar movement appears to re+uire "itt"e e5p"anation' since he was the #oremost advocate o# nonvio"ence o# his time. &ut Ning3s stance on the Bietnam 8ar cannot be e5p"ained in terms o# paci#ism a"one. 0#ter a""' he was something o# a "atecomer to the antiwar movement' even though by 19G- he was convinced that the ro"e o# the United tates in the war was inde#ensib"e. 8hy then the two years that passed be#ore he trans"ated his private misgivings into pub"ic dissentC 6erhaps he be"ieved that he cou"d not critici)e 0merican #oreign po"icy without endangering the support #or civi" rights that he had won #rom the #edera" government.

1-. According to the passage/ the delay referred to in lines 12(11 is perhaps attributable to which of the following% (A) Ming4s ambi'alence concerning the role of the :nited ;tates in the war in Cietnam (B) Ming4s attempts to consolidate support for his leadership within the ci'il rights mo'ement (C) Ming4s desire to keep the leadership of the ci'il rights mo'ement distinct from that of the antiwar mo'ement ( ) Ming4s desire to draw support for the ci'il rights mo'ement from the leadership of the antiwar mo'ement (#) Ming4s reluctance to <eopardi!e federal support for the ci'il rights mo'ement 16. The author supports the claim that *Ming4s stance on the Cietnam &ar cannot be e$plained in terms of pacifism alone+ (lines 15(12) by implying which of the following% (A) There is little e'idence that Ming was e'er a student of pacifist doctrine. (B) Ming/ despite pacifist sympathies/ was not con'inced that the policy of the federal go'ernment in Cietnam was wrong. (C) Ming4s belief in non'iolence was formulated in terms of domestic policy rather than in terms of international issues. ( ) )ad Ming4s actions been based on pacifism alone/ he would ha'e <oined the antiwar mo'ement earlier than he actually did. (#) 8pponents of :nited ;tates foreign policy within the federal go'ernment

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con'inced Ming of their need for support. 1,. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the mo'ement opposing the war in Cietnam% (A) 3t preceded the ci'il rights mo'ement. (B) 3t began in 1,21. (C) 3t was supported by many who otherwise opposed public dissent. ( ) 3t drew support from most ci'il rights leaders. (#) 3t was well underway by 1,2-. 25. &hich of the following best describes the passage% (A) 3t discusses an apparent inconsistency and suggests a reason for it. (B) 3t outlines a se"uence of historical e'ents. (C) 3t shows why a commonly held 'iew is inaccurate. ( ) 3t e'aluates an e$planation and finally accepts that e$planation. (#) 3t contrasts two 'iews of an issue.
8hat causes a he"i5 in nature to appear with either a de5tra" (;right-handed'< or c"oc$wise) twist or a sinistra" (;"e#t-handed'< or counterc"oc$wise) twist is one o# the most intriguing pu))"es in the science o# #orm. ?ost spira"-shaped snai" species are predominant"y de5tra". &ut at one time' handedness (twist direction o# the she"") was e+ua""y distributed within some snai" species that have become predominant"y de5tra" or' in a #ew species' predominant"y sinistra". 8hat mechanisms' contro" handedness and $eep "e#t-handedness rareC /t wou"d seem un"i$e"y that evo"ution shou"d discriminate against sinistra" snai"s i# sinistra" and de5tra" snai"s are e5act mirror images' #or any disadvantage that a sinistra" twist in itse"# cou"d con#er on its possessor is a"most inconceivab"e. &ut "e#t- and right-handed snai"s are not actua""y true mirror images o# one another. Their shapes are noticeab"y di##erent. inistra" rarity might' then' be a conse+uence o# possib"e disadvantages con#erred by these other concomitant structura" #eatures. /n addition' perhaps "e#t- and right-handed snai"s cannot mate with each other' having incompatib"e twist directions. 6resumab"y an individua" o# the rarer #orm wou"d have re"ative di##icu"ty in #inding a mate o# the same hand' thus $eeping the rare #orm rare or creating geographica""y separated right-and "e#t-handed popu"ations. &ut this evo"utionary mechanism combining dissymmetry' anatomy' and chance does not provide an ade+uate e5p"anation o# why right-handedness shou"d have become predominant. /t does not e5p"ain' #or e5amp"e' why the in#re+uent unions between snai"s o# opposing hands produce #ewer o##spring o# the rarer than the commoner #orm in species where each parent contributes e+ua""y to handedness. *or does it e5p"ain why' in a species where one parent determines handedness' a brood is not e5c"usive"y right- or "e#t-handed when the o##spring wou"d have the same genetic predisposition. /n the =uropean pond snai" 'ymnaea #eregra' a predominant"y de5tra" species whose handedness is materna""y determined' a brood might be e5pected to be e5c"usive"y right or "e#t-handed!and this o#ten occurs. (owever' some broods possess a #ew snai"s o# the opposing hand' and in predominant"y sinistra" broods' the

GRE
incidence o# de5tra"ity is surprising"y high.

11.

(ere' the evo"utionary theory must de#er to a theory based on an e5p"icit deve"opmenta" mechanism that can #avor either right or "e#t-handedness. /n the case o# 'ymnaea #eregra' studies indicate that a de5tra" gene is e5pressed during egg #ormation: i.e.' be#ore egg #erti"i)ation' the gene produces a protein' #ound in the cytop"asm o# the egg' that contro"s the pattern o# ce"" division and thus handedness. /n e5periments' an in2ection o# cytop"asm #rom de5tra" eggs changes the pattern o# sinistra" eggs' but an in2ection #rom sinistra" eggs does not in#"uence de5tra" eggs. 9ne e5p"anation #or the di##ering e##ects is that a"" 'ymnaea #eregra eggs begin "e#t-handed but most switch to being right-handed. Thus' the path to a so"ution to the pu))"e o# handedness in a"" snai"s appears to be as twisted as the he"i5 itse"#.

21. &hich of the following would ser'e as an e$ample of *concomitant structural features+ (line 1,) that might disad'antage a snail of the rarer form% (A) A shell and body that are an e$act mirror image of a snail of the commoner form (B) A smaller population of the snails of the rarer form (C) A chip or fracture in the shell caused by an ob<ect falling on it ( ) A pattern on the shell that better camouflages it (#) A smaller shell opening that restricts mobility and ingestion relati'e to that of a snail of the commoner form 22. The second paragraph of the passage is primarily concerned with offering possible reasons why (A) it is unlikely that e'olutionary mechanisms could discriminate against sinistral snails (B) sinistrality is relati'ely uncommon among snail species (C) de$tral and sinistral populations of a snail species tend to intermingle ( ) a theory based on a de'elopmental mechanism inade"uately accounts for the predominance of de$trality across snail species (#) de$tral snails breed more readily than sinistral snails/ e'en within predominantly sinistral populations 2.. 3n describing the *e'olutionary mechanism+ (line 2-)/ the author mentions which of the following% (A) The fa'orable conditions for nurturing new offspring (B) The 'ariable en'ironmental conditions that affect sur'i'al of adult snails (C) The a'ailability of potential mates for breeding ( ) The structural identity of offspring to parents of the same hand (#) The fre"uency of unions between snails of different species 20. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of y-naea peregra% (A) )andedness within the species was at one time e"ually distributed between

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left and right. (B) :nder laboratory conditions/ de$tral eggs from y-naea peregra can be artificially induced to de'elop into sinistral snails. (C) Broods of y-naea peregra are/ without 'ariation/ e$clusi'ely sinistral or de$tral. ( ) )andedness in y-naea peregra offspring is determined by only one of the parents. (#) Beographic factors ha'e played a larger role than has genetics in the e'olution of the species. 21. The passage implies that in y-naea peregra/ there will generally be (A) more offspring of the nondominant hand in broods where handedness is determined after/ rather than before/ fertili!ation (B) a sinistral gene that produces a protein in the cytoplasm of the egg cell (C) fewer sinistral offspring in de$tral broods than de$tral offspring in sinistral broods ( ) e"ual numbers of e$clusi'ely left(and right(handed broods (#) an increasing occurrence of left(handedness in successi'e broods 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a predominantly sinistral snail species might stay predominantly sinistral for each of the following reasons #DC#@T for (A) a de'elopmental mechanism that affects the cell(di'ision pattern of snails (B) structural features that ad'antage de$tral snails of the species (C) a relati'ely small number of snails of the same hand for de$tral snails of the species to mate with ( ) anatomical incompatibility that pre'ents mating between snails of opposing hands within the species (#) geographic separation of sinistral and de$tral populations 2-. &hich of the following accurately describes the relationship between the e'olutionary and de'elopmental theories discussed in the passage% (A) Although the two theories reach the same conclusion/ each is based on different assumptions. (B) They present contradictory e$planations of the same phenomenon. (C) The second theory accounts for certain phenomena that the first cannot e$plain. ( ) The second theory demonstrates why the first is 'alid only for 'ery unusual/ special cases. (#) They are identical and interchangeable in that the second theory merely restates the first in less technical terms.

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SECTION B
Recent"y some scientists have conc"uded that meteorites #ound on =arth and "ong be"ieved to have a ?artian origin might actua""y have been b"asted #ree o# ?ars3s gravity by the impact on ?ars o# other meteorites. This conc"usion has "ed to another +uestion> whether meteorite impacts on =arth have simi"ar"y driven roc$s #rom this p"anet to ?ars. 0ccording to astronomer . 0. 6hinney' $ic$ing a roc$ hard enough to #ree it #rom =arth3s gravity wou"d re+uire a meteorite capab"e o# ma$ing a crater more than G. mi"es across. ?oreover' even i# =arth roc$s were #reed by meteorite impact' ?ars3s orbit is much "arger than =arth3s' so 6hinney estimates that the probabi"ity o# these roc$s hitting ?ars is about onetenth as great as that o# ?ars3s roc$s hitting =arth. To demonstrate this estimate' 6hinney used a computer to ca"cu"ate where 1'... hypothetica" partic"es wou"d go i# e2ected #rom =arth in random directions. (e #ound that 17 o# the 1'... partic"es wou"d hit ?ars.

1-. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) presenting an argument to support a particular hypothesis (B) suggesting an answer to a theoretical "uestion (C) "uestioning the assumptions of a research pro<ect ( ) critici!ing e$perimental results (#) e$plaining the origin of certain scientific data 16. According to the passage/ which of the following e'ents may ha'e initiated the process that led to the presence on #arth of meteorites from ?ars% (A) A meteorite struck the #arth with tremendous 'elocity. (B) A meteorite collided with ?ars. (C) Appro$imately 1/555 rocks were e<ected from ?ars. ( ) The orbits of #arth and ?ars brought the planets to their closest points. (#) =ocks from a meteorite impact broke free of #arth4s gra'ity. 1,. The passage suggests that which of the following is true concerning the probability that a rock/ if e<ected from ?ars/ will hit the #arth% (A) The probability is increased when particles are e<ected from ?ars in random directions. (B) The probability is increased by the presence of large craters on the surface of ?ars. (C) The probability is decreased when ?ars4s orbit brings the planet close to #arth. ( ) The probability is greater than the probability that a rock from #arth will hit ?ars. (#) The probability is less than the probability that a rock from #arth will escape #arth4s gra'ity.

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25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would cast most doubt on @hinney4s estimate of the probability of #arth rocks hitting ?ars% (A) =ather than going in random directions/ about 21 percent of all particles e<ected from #arth go in the same direction into space. (B) Appro$imately 155 meteorites large enough to make a noticeable crater hit the #arth each year. (C) 9o rocks of #arth origin ha'e been detected on ?ars. ( ) The 'elocity of rocks escaping from #arth4s gra'ity is lower than the 'elocity of meteorites hitting the #arth. (#) 9o craters more than 25 miles across ha'e been found on ?ars.
0 ;scientistic< view o# "anguage was dominant among phi"osophers and "inguists who a##ected to deve"op a scienti#ic ana"ysis o# human thought and behavior in the ear"y part o# this century. Under the #orce o# this view' it was perhaps inevitab"e that the art o# rhetoric shou"d pass #rom the status o# being regarded as o# +uestionab"e worth (because a"though it might be both a source o# p"easure and a means to urge peop"e to right action' it might a"so be a means to distort truth and a source o# misguided action) to the status o# being who""y condemned. /# peop"e are regarded on"y as machines guided by "ogic' as they were by these ;scientistic< thin$ers' rhetoric is "i$e"y to be he"d in "ow regard: #or the most obvious truth about rhetoric is that it spea$s to the who"e person. /t presents its arguments #irst to the person as a rationa" being' because persuasive discourse' i# honest"y conceived' a"ways has a basis in reasoning. Eogica" argument is the p"ot' as it were' o# any speech or essay that is respect#u""y intended to persuade peop"e. Det it is a characteri)ing #eature o# rhetoric that it goes beyond this and appea"s to the parts o# our nature that are invo"ved in #ee"ing' desiring' acting' and su##ering. /t reca""s re"evant instances o# the emotiona" reactions o# peop"e to circumstances! rea" or #ictiona"!that are simi"ar to our own circumstances. uch is the purpose o# both historica" accounts and #ab"es in persuasive discourse> they indicate "itera""y or symbo"ica""y how peop"e may react emotiona""y' with hope or #ear' to particu"ar circumstances. 0 speech attempting to persuade peop"e can achieve "itt"e un"ess it ta$es into account the aspect o# their being re"ated to such hopes and #ears. Rhetoric' then' is addressed to human beings "iving at particu"ar times and in particu"ar p"aces. 7rom the point o# view o# rhetoric' we are not mere"y "ogica" thin$ing machines' creatures abstracted #rom time and space. The study o# rhetoric shou"d there#ore be considered the most humanistic o# the humanities' since rhetoric is not directed on"y to our rationa" se"ves. /t ta$es into account what the ;scientistic< view "eaves out. /# it is a wea$ness to harbor #ee"ings' then rhetoric may be thought o# as dea"ing in wea$ness. &ut those who re2ect the idea o# rhetoric because they be"ieve it dea"s in "ies and who at the same time hope to move peop"e to action' must either be "iars themse"ves or be very naive: pure "ogic has never been a motivating #orce un"ess it has been subordinated to human purposes' #ee"ings' and desires' and thereby ceased to be pure "ogic.

21. According to the passage/ to re<ect rhetoric and still hope to persuade people is (A) an aim of most speakers and writers

GRE

11-

(B) an indication either of dishonesty or of credulity (C) a way of displaying distrust of the audience4s moti'es ( ) a characteristic of most humanistic discourse (#) a way of a'oiding e$cessi'ely abstract reasoning 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in the late nineteenth century rhetoric was regarded as (A) the only necessary element of persuasi'e discourse (B) a dubious art in at least two ways (C) an outmoded and tedious amplification of logic ( ) an open offense to the rational mind (#) the most important of the humanistic studies 2.. The passage suggests that the disparagement of rhetoric by some people can be traced to their (A) reaction against science (B) lack of training in logic (C) desire to persuade people as completely as possible ( ) misunderstanding of the use of the term *scientistic+ (#) 'iew of human moti'ation 20. The passage suggests that a speech that attempts to persuade people to act is likely to fail if it does 98T (A) distort the truth a little to make it more acceptable to the audience (B) appeal to the self(interest as well as the humanitarianism of the audience (C) address listeners4 emotions as well as their intellects ( ) concede the logic of other points of 'iew (#) show how an immediately desirable action is consistent with timeless principles 21. The passage suggests that to consider people as *thinking machines+ (line .-) is to consider them as (A) beings separated from a historical conte$t (B) replaceable parts of a larger social machine (C) more comple$ than other animals ( ) liars rather than honest people (#) infallible in their reasoning 22. &hich of the following persuasi'e de'ices is 98T used in the passage% (A) A sample of an actual speech deli'ered by an orator (B) The contrast of different points of 'iew

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(C) The repetition of key ideas and e$pressions ( ) An analogy that seeks to e$plain logical argument (#) #'aluati'e or <udgmental words 2-. &hich of the following best states the author4s main point about logical argument% (A) 3t is a sterile/ abstract discipline/ of little use in real life. (B) 3t is an essential element of persuasi'e discourse/ but only one such element. (C) 3t is an important means of persuading people to act against their desires. ( ) 3t is the lowest order of discourse because it is the least imaginati'e. (#) 3t is essential to persuasi'e discourse because it deals with uni'ersal truths. 1992 10 SECTION A
(an$ ?organ' the hero o# ?ar$ Twain3s " Connecticut ;ankee in 0ing "rthurs Court& is a nineteenth-century master mechanic who mysterious"y awa$ening in si5th-century &ritain' "aunches what he hopes wi"" be a peace#u" revo"ution to trans#orm 0rthurian &ritain into an industria"i)ed modern democracy. The nove"' written as a spoo# o# Thomas ?a"ory3s (orte d "rthur' a popu"ar co""ection o# #i#teenth-century "egends about si5th-century &ritain' has been made into three upbeat movies and two musica" comedies. *one o# these trans"ations to screen and stage' however' dramati)e the anarchy at the conc"usion o# " Connecticut ;ankee' which ends with the vio"ent overthrow o# ?organ3s three-year-o"d progressive order and his return to the nineteenth century' where he apparent"y commits suicide a#ter being "abe"ed a "unatic #or his incoherent babb"ings about drawbridges and batt"ements. The 0merican pub"ic' a"though en2oying Twain3s humor' evident"y re2ected his cynicism about techno"ogica" advancement and change through peace#u" revo"ution as antithetica" to the United tates doctrine o# progress.

1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about the reception of A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court by the American public% (A) The public had too strong a belief in the doctrine of progress to accept the cynicism demonstrated at the conclusion of Twain4s no'el. (B) Twain4s no'el recei'ed little public recognition until the work was adapted for motion pictures and plays. (C) Although the public en<oyed Twain4s humor/ his use of both si$th(century and nineteenth(century characters confused many people. ( ) The public has continued to en<oy Twain4s story/ but the last part of the no'el seems too 'iolent to American minds. (#) Because of the cynicism at the end of the book/ the public re<ected Twain4s

GRE

11,

work in fa'or of the work of Thomas ?alory. 16. The author uses the e$amples of *three upbeat mo'ies and two musical comedies+ (lines ,(15) primarily in order to demonstrate that (A) well(written no'els like A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court/ regardless of their tone or theme/ can be translated to the stage and screen (B) the American public has traditionally been more interested in watching plays and mo'ies than in reading no'els like A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court (C) Twain4s o'erall message in A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court is one that had a profound impact on the American public ( ) Twain4s A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court has been a more popular 'ersion of the Arthurian legends than has ?alory4s *orte d Arthur (#) A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court has been accepted as an en<oyable and humorous tale in 'ersions that ha'e omitted the anarchy at the no'el4s conclusion 1,. The author of the passage characteri!es Thomas ?alory4s *orte d Arthur as which of the following% (A) The best(known and most authoritati'e collection of Arthurian tales written in the #nglish language (B) A collection of legends that ha'e been used as the basis for three mo'ies and two musical comedies (C) A historical account of Ming Arthur/ the si$th(century king of Britain ( ) A collection of legends about si$th(century Britain that ha'e e$isted since at least the fifteenth century (#) The no'el about the life of Ming Arthur that inspired Twain4s cynicism about nineteenth(century notions of progress 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ?ark Twain would most probably ha'e belie'ed in which of the following statements about societal change% (A) =e'olutions/ in order to be successful in changing society/ ha'e to be carried out without 'iolence. (B) Technological ad'ancements are limited in their ability to change society and will likely bring liabilities along with any potential benefits. (C) The belief in the unmitigated benefits of societal change is antithetical to the American doctrine of progress. ( ) The political system of si$th(century Britain was more conduci'e to societal change than was the political system of nineteenth(century America. (#) Technological ad'ances and peaceful re'olutions/ although sometimes accompanied by unintended 'iolence and resistance to societal change/ e'entually lead to a more progressi'e order.

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The intensive wor$ o# materia"s scientists and so"id-state physicists has given rise to a

c"ass o# so"ids $nown as amorphous meta""ic a""oys' or g"assy meta"s. There is a growing interest among theoretica" and app"ied researchers a"i$e in the structura" properties o# these materia"s. 8hen a mo"ten meta" or meta""ic a""oy is coo"ed to a so"id' a crysta""ine structure is #ormed that depends on the particu"ar a""oy composition. /n contrast' mo"ten nonmeta""ic g"ass#orming materia"s' when coo"ed' do not assume a crysta""ine structure' but instead retain a structure somewhat "i$e that o# the "i+uidan amorphous structure. 0t room temperature' the natura" "ong-term tendency #or both types o# materia"s is to assume the crysta""ine structure. The di##erence between the two is in the $inetics or rate o# #ormation o# the crysta""ine structure' which is contro""ed by #actors such as the nature o# the chemica" bonding and the ease with which atoms move re"ative to each other. Thus' in meta"s' the $inetics #avors rapid #ormation o# a crysta""ine structure' whereas in nonmeta""ic g"asses the rate o# #ormation is so s"ow that a"most any coo"ing rate is su##icient to resu"t in an amorphous structure. 7or g"assy meta"s to be #ormed' the mo"ten meta" must be coo"ed e5treme"y rapid"y so that crysta""i)ation is suppressed. The structure o# g"assy meta"s is thought to be simi"ar to that o# "i+uid meta"s. 9ne o# the #irst attempts to mode" the structure o# a "i+uid was that by the "ate @. F. &erna" o# the University o# Eondon' who pac$ed hard spheres into a rubber vesse" in such a way as to obtain the ma5imum possib"e density. The resu"ting dense' random-pac$ed structure was the basis #or many attempts to mode" the structure o# g"assy meta"s. %a"cu"ations o# the density o# a""oys based on &erna"-type mode"s o# the a""oys meta" component agreed #air"y we"" with the e5perimenta""y determined va"ues #rom measurements on a""oys consisting o# a nob"e meta" together with a meta""oid' such as a""oys o# pa""adium and si"icon' or a""oys consisting o# iron' phosphorus' and carbon' a"though sma"" discrepancies remained. 9ne di##erence between rea" a""oys and the hard spheres used in &erna" mode"s is that the components o# an a""oy have di##erent si)es' so that mode"s based on two si)es o# spheres are more appropriate #or a binary a""oy' #or e5amp"e. The sma""er meta""oid atoms o# the a""oy might #it into ho"es in the dense' random-pac$ed structure o# the "arger meta" atoms. 9ne o# the most promising properties o# g"assy meta"s is their high strength combined with high ma""eabi"ity. /n usua" crysta""ine materia"s' one #inds an inverse re"ation between the two properties' whereas #or many practica" app"ications simu"taneous presence o# both properties is desirab"e. 9ne residua" obstac"e to practica" app"ications that is "i$e"y to be overcome is the #act that g"assy meta"s wi"" crysta""i)e at re"ative"y "ow temperatures when heated s"ight"y.

21. The author is primarily concerned with discussing (A) crystalline solids and their beha'ior at different temperatures (B) molten materials and the kinetics of the formation of their crystalline structure (C) glassy metals and their structural characteristics ( ) metallic alloys and problems in determining their density (#) amorphous materials and their practical utili!ation

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22. The author implies that the rate at which the molten materials discussed in the passage are cooled is a determinant of the (A) chemical composition of the resulting solids (B) strength of the chemical bonds that are formed (C) kinetics of the materials4 crystalline structure ( ) structure the materials assume (#) stability of the materials4 crystalline structure 2.. The author4s speculation about the appropriateness of models using spheres of two si!es for binary alloys would be strongly supported if models using spheres of two si!es yielded (A) 'alues for density identical to 'alues yielded by one(sphere models using the smaller spheres only (B) 'alues for density agreeing nearly perfectly with e$perimentally determined 'alues (C) 'alues for density agreeing nearly perfectly with 'alues yielded by models using spheres of three si!es ( ) significantly different 'alues for density depending on the si!e ratio between the two kinds of spheres used (#) the same 'alues for density as the 'alues for appropriately chosen models that use only medium(si!ed spheres 20. The author4s attitude toward the prospects for the economic utili!ation of glassy metals is one of (A) disinterest (B) impatience (C) optimism ( ) apprehension (#) skepticism 21. According to the passage/ which of the following determines the crystalline structure of a metallic alloy% (A) At what rate the molten alloy is cooled (B) )ow rapid the rate of formation of the crystalline phase is (C) )ow the different(si!ed atoms fit into a dense/ random(packed structure ( ) &hat the alloy consists of and in what ratios (#) At what temperature the molten alloy becomes solid 22. &hich of the following best describes the relationship between the structure of li"uid metals and the structure of glassy metals/ as it is presented in the passage% (A) The latter is an illustrati'e e$ample of the former.

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) The latter is a large(scale 'ersion of the former. (C) The former is a structural elaboration of the latter. ( ) The former pro'ides an instructi'e contrast to the latter. (#) The former is a fair appro$imation of the latter. 2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ theoretically/ molten nonmetallic glasses assume a crystalline structure rather than an amorphous structure only if they are cooled (A) 'ery e'enly/ regardless of the rate (B) rapidly/ followed by gentle heating (C) e$tremely slowly ( ) to room temperature (#) to e$tremely low temperatures SECTION B
/n a per#ect"y #ree and open mar$et economy' the type o# emp"oyer government or privateshou"d have "itt"e or no impact on the earnings di##erentia"s between women and men. (owever' i# there is discrimination against one se5' it is un"i$e"y that the degree o# discrimination by government and private emp"oyers wi"" be the same. Fi##erences in the degree o# discrimination wou"d resu"t in earnings di##erentia"s associated with the type o# emp"oyer. Aiven the nature o# government and private emp"oyers' it seems most "i$e"y that discrimination by private emp"oyers wou"d be greater. Thus' one wou"d e5pect that' i# women are being discriminated against' government emp"oyment wou"d have a positive e##ect on women3s earnings as compared with their earnings #rom private emp"oyment. The resu"ts o# a study by 7uchs support this assumption. 7uchs3s resu"ts suggest that the earnings o# women in an industry composed entire"y o# government emp"oyers wou"d be 1H. G percent greater than the earnings o# women in an industry composed e5c"usive"y o# private emp"oyees' other things being e+ua". /n addition' both 7uchs and anborn have suggested that the e##ect o# discrimination by consumers on the earnings o# se"#-emp"oyed women may be greater than the e##ect o# either government or private emp"oyer discrimination on the earnings o# women emp"oyees. To test this hypothesis' &rown se"ected a "arge samp"e o# 8hite ma"e and #ema"e wor$ers #rom the 197. %ensus and divided them into three categories> private emp"oyees' government emp"oyees' and se"#-emp"oyed. (&"ac$ wor$ers were e5c"uded #rom the samp"e to avoid pic$ing up earnings di##erentia"s that were the resu"t o# racia" disparities.) &rown3s research design contro""ed #or education' "abor-#orce participation' mobi"ity' motivation' and age in order to e"iminate these #actors as e5p"anations o# the study3s resu"ts. &rown3s resu"ts suggest that men and women are not treated the same by emp"oyers and consumers. 7or men' se"#emp"oyment is the highest earnings category' with private emp"oyment ne5t' and government "owest. 7or women' this order is reversed. 9ne can in#er #rom &rown3s resu"ts that consumers discriminate against se"#-emp"oyed

GRE

12.

women. /n addition' se"#-emp"oyed women may have more di##icu"ty than men in getting good emp"oyees and may encounter discrimination #rom supp"iers and #rom #inancia" institutions. &rown3s resu"ts are c"ear"y consistent with 7uch3s argument that discrimination by consumers has a greater impact on the earnings o# women than does discrimination by either government or private emp"oyers. 0"so' the #act that women do better wor$ing #or government than #or private emp"oyers imp"ies that private emp"oyers are discriminating against women. The resu"ts do not prove that government does not discriminate against women. They do' however' demonstrate that i# government is discriminating against women' its discrimination is not having as much e##ect on women3s earnings as is discrimination in the private sector.

1-. The passage mentions all of the following as difficulties that self(employed women may encounter #DC#@TE (A) discrimination from suppliers (B) discrimination from consumers (C) discrimination from financial institutions ( ) problems in obtaining good employees (#) problems in obtaining go'ernment assistance 16. The author would be most likely to agree with which of the following conclusions about discrimination against women by pri'ate employers and by go'ernment employers% (A) Both pri'ate employers and go'ernment employers discriminate/ with e"ual effects on women4s earnings. (B) Both pri'ate employers and go'ernment employers discriminate/ but the discrimination by pri'ate employers has a greater effect on women4s earnings. (C) Both pri'ate employers and go'ernment employers discriminate/ but the discrimination by go'ernment employers has a greater effect on women4s earnings. ( ) @ri'ate employers discriminateI it is possible that go'ernment employers discriminate. (#) @ri'ate employers discriminateI go'ernment employers do not discriminate. 1,. A study of the practices of financial institutions that re'ealed no discrimination against self(employed women would tend to contradict which of the following% (A) ;ome tentati'e results of >uchs4s study (B) ;ome e$plicit results of Brown4s study (C) A suggestion made by the author ( ) >uchs4s hypothesis (#) ;anborn4s hypothesis 25. According to Brown4s study/ women4s earnings categories occur in which or the

120

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following orders/ from highest earnings to lowest earnings% (A) Bo'ernment employment/ self(employment/ pri'ate employment (B) Bo'ernment employment/ pri'ate employment/ self(employment (C) @ri'ate employment/ self(employment/ go'ernment employment ( ) @ri'ate employment/ go'ernment employment/ self(employment (#) ;elf(employment/ pri'ate employment/ go'ernment employment 21. The passage e$plicitly answers which of the following "uestions% (A) &hy were Black workers e$cluded from the sample used in Brown4s study% (B) &hy do pri'ate employers illuminate more against women than do go'ernment employers% (C) &hy do self(employed women ha'e more difficulty than men in hiring high( "uality employees% ( ) &hy do suppliers discriminate against self(employed women% (#) Are Black women and Black men treated similarly by employers and consumers% 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the statements in the last paragraph are most probably which of the following% (A) Brown4s elaboration of his research results (B) Brown4s tentati'e inference from his data (C) Brown4s conclusions/ based on common(sense reasoning ( ) The author4s conclusions/ based on >uchs4s and Brown4s results (#) The author4s criticisms of >uchs4s argument/ based on Brown4s results 2.. &hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage as a whole% (A) The 9ecessity for #arnings ifferentials in a >ree ?arket #conomy (B) &hy iscrimination Against #mployed &omen by Bo'ernment #mployers and @ri'ate #mployers iffers from iscrimination Against ;elf(#mployed &omen by Consumers (C) )ow iscrimination Affects &omen4s Choice of Type of #mployment ( ) The =elati'e #ffect of @ri'ate #mployer iscrimination on ?en4s #arnings as Compared to &omen4s #arnings (#) The =elati'e #ffect of iscrimination by Bo'ernment #mployers/ @ri'ate #mployers/ and Consumers on &omen4s #arnings
The success o# #"uoride in combating denta" decay is we"" estab"ished and' without a doubt' socia""y bene#icia". (owever' #"uoride3s to5ic properties have been $nown #or a century. /n humans e5cessive inta$e (#or adu"ts' over H mi""igrams per day) over many years can "ead to s$e"eta" #"uorosis' a we""-de#ined s$e"eta" disorder' and in some p"ant species' #"uoride is more to5ic than o)one' su"#ur dio5ide' or pesticides.

GRE
ome important +uestions remain. 7or e5amp"e' the precise "ower "imit at which the #"uoride content o# bone becomes to5ic is sti"" undetermined. 0nd whi"e #"uoride inta$e #rom water and air can be eva"uated re"ative"y easi"y' it is much harder to estimate how much a given popu"ation ingests #rom #oodstu##s because o# the wide variations in individua" eating

121

habits and in #"uoride concentrations in #oodstu##s. These di##icu"ties suggest that we shou"d by wary o# indiscriminate"y using #"uoride' even in the #orm o# #"uoride-containing denta" products.

20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) analy!ing and categori!ing (B) comparing and contrasting (C) synthesi!ing and predicting ( ) describing and cautioning (#) summari!ing and reinterpreting 21. The passage suggests that it would be easier to calculate fluoride intake from food if (A) ade"uate diets were a'ailable for most people. (B) indi'idual eating habits were more uniform (C) the fluoride content of food was more 'aried ( ) more people were aware of the fluoride content of food (#) methods for measuring the fluoride content of food were more generally agreed on 22. 8ne function of the second paragraph of the passage is to (A) raise doubts about fluoride4s to$icity (B) introduce the issue of fluoride4s to$icity (C) differentiate a to$ic from a nonto$ic amount of fluoride ( ) indicate that necessary knowledge of fluoride remains incomplete (#) discuss the foodstuffs that are most likely to contain significant concentrations of fluoride 2-. The passage suggests which of the following about the effect of fluoride on humans% (A) The effect is more easily measured than is the effect of e$posure to pesticides. (B) The effect of fluoride intake from water and air is relati'ely difficult to monitor. (C) 3n general the effect is not likely to be as harmful as the effect of e$posure to sulfur dio$ide. ( ) An intake of 0 milligrams o'er a long period of time usually leads to a skeletal disorder in humans. (#) An intake of slightly more than 0 milligrams for only a few months is not likely to be life(threatening.

122

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1993 02 SECTION A
/t is now estab"ished that the ?i"$y 8ay is #ar more e5tended and o# much greater mass than was hitherto thought. (owever' a"" that is visib"e o# the constituents o# the ?i"$y 8ay3s corona (outer edge)' where much o# the ga"a5y3s mass must be "ocated' is a tiny #raction o# the corona3s mass. Thus' most o# the ?i"$y 8ay3s out"ying matter must be dar$. 8hyC Three #acts are sa"ient. 7irst' dwar# ga"a5ies and g"obu"ar c"usters' into which most o# the stars o# the ?i"$y 8ay3s corona are probab"y bound' consist main"y o# o"d stars. econd' o"d stars are not high"y "uminous. Third' no one has detected in the corona the c"ouds o# gaseous matter such as hydrogen and carbon mono5ide that are characteristic o# the bright parts o# a ga"a5y. 0t present' there#ore' the best e5p"anation!though sti"" +uite tentative#or the dar$ness o# the corona is that the corona is composed main"y o# o"d' burned-out stars.

1-. The passage as a whole is primarily concerned with (A) analy!ing a current debate (B) critici!ing a well(established theory (C) showing how new facts support a pre'iously dismissed hypothesis ( ) stating a conclusion and adducing e'idence that may <ustify it (#) contrasting two types of phenomena and showing how they are related 16. According to the passage/ a bright part of a gala$y typically includes (A) dwarf gala$ies and clusters of stars (B) a balanced mi$ture of old and new stars (C) a large portion of the gala$y4s mass ( ) part of the corona of the gala$y (#) gases such as hydrogen and carbon mono$ide 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ compared with what they now think/ until fairly recently astronomers belie'ed that the ?ilky &ay (A) was much darker (B) was much smaller (C) was mo'ing much more slowly ( ) had a much larger corona (#) had much less gaseous matter 25. The passage presents which of the following as incontro'ertible% 3. 33. The low luminosity of old stars The absence of clouds of gaseous matter from the corona of the ?ilky &ay

GRE

12-

333. The predominance of globular clusters and dwarf gala$ies in the corona of the ?ilky &ay (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333
9ne o# the principa" themes o# 8a")er3s criti+ue o# "ibera" capita"ism is that it is insu##icient"y ega"itarian. 8a")er3s case against the economic ine+ua"ity generated by capita"ism and in #avor o# ;a radica" redistribution o# wea"th< is presented in a wide"y cited essay entit"ed ;/n Fe#ense o# =+ua"ity.< The most stri$ing #eature o# 8a")er3s criti+ue is that' #ar #rom re2ecting the princip"e o# reward according to merit' 8a")er insists on its va"idity. 6eop"e who e5ce" shou"d receive the superior bene#its appropriate to their e5ce""ence. &ut peop"e e5hibit a great variety o# +ua"ities ;inte""igence' physica" strength' agi"ity and grace' artistic creativity' mechanica" s$i""' "eadership' endurance' memory' psycho"ogica" insight' the capacity #or hard wor$ even mora" strength' sensitivity' the abi"ity to e5press compassion.< =ach deserves its proper recompense' and hence a proper distribution o# materia" goods shou"d re#"ect human di##erences as measured on a"" these di##erent sca"es. Det' under capita"ism' the abi"ity to ma$e money (;the green thumb o# bourgeois society<) enab"es its possessor to ac+uire a"most ;every other sort o# socia" good'< such as the respect and esteem o# others. The centerpiece o# 8a")er3s argument is the invocation o# a +uotation #rom 6asca"3s Pensees' which conc"udes> ;Tyranny is the wish to obtain by one means what can on"y be had by another.< 6asca" be"ieves that we owe di##erent duties to di##erent +ua"ities. o we might say that in#atuation is the proper response to charm' and awe the proper response to strength. /n this "ight' 8a")er characteri)es capita"ism as the tyranny o# money (or o# the abi"ity to ma$e it). 0nd 8a")er advocates as the means o# e"iminating this tyranny and o# restoring genuine e+ua"ity ;the abo"ition o# the power o# money outside its sphere.< 8hat 8a")er envisions is a society in which wea"th is no "onger convertib"e into socia" goods with which it has no intrinsic connection. 8a")er3s argument is a pu))"ing one. 0#ter a""' why shou"d those +ua"ities unre"ated to the production o# materia" goods be rewarded with materia" goodsC /s it not tyrannica"' in 6asca"3s sense' to insist that those who e5ce" in ;sensitivity< or ;the abi"ity to e5press compassion< merit e+ua" wea"th with those who e5ce" in +ua"ities (such as ;the capacity #or hard wor$<) essentia" in producing wea"thC Det 8a")er3s argument' however de#icient' does point to one o# the most serious wea$nesses o# capita"ismname"y' that it brings to predominant positions in a society peop"e who' no matter how "egitimate"y they have earned their materia" rewards' o#ten "ac$ those other +ua"ities that evo$e a##ection or admiration. ome even argue p"ausib"y that this wea$ness may be irremediab"e> in any society that' "i$e a capita"ist society' see$s to become ever wea"thier in materia" terms disproportionate rewards are bound to #"ow to the peop"e who are instrumenta" in producing the increase in its wea"th.

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21. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) argue that &al!er4s criti"ue of liberal capitalism is the cornerstone of &al!er4s thinking (B) identify and to deprecate the origins of the intellectual tradition championed by &al!er (C) present more clearly than does the essay *3n efense of #"uality+ the distincti'e features of &al!er4s politico(economic theories ( ) demonstrate that &al!er4s criti"ue of liberal capitalism is neither original nor persuasi'e (#) outline and to e$amine critically &al!er4s position on economic e"uality 22. The author mentions all of the following as issues addressed by &al!er #DC#@TE (A) proper recompense for indi'idual e$cellence (B) proper interpretation of *economic e"uality+ (C) proper le'el of a society4s wealth ( ) grounds for calling capitalism *the tyranny of money+ (#) e$changeability of money for social goods 2.. The argumentation in the passage turns importantly on the "uestion of what should be the proper relation between (A) *liberal capitalism+ (line 2) and *bourgeois society+ (lines 25(21) (B) *reward+ (line 6) and *recompense+ (line 1-) (C) *sensiti'ity+ (line 11) and *the ability to e$press compassion+ (lines 11(12) ( ) *distribution of material goods+ (lines 1-(16) and *redistribution of wealth+ (lines 0(1) (#) *social goods+ (line .-) and *material goods+ (line 01) 20. The passage pro'ides sufficient information to answer which of the following "uestions% (A) &hat weight in relation to other "ualities should a "uality like sensiti'ity ha'e/ according to &al!er/ in determining the proper distribution of goods% (B) &hich "uality does &al!er deem too highly 'alued under liberal capitalism% (C) &hich are the social goods that are/ according to &al!er/ outside the reach of the power of money% ( ) &hat practical steps does &al!er suggest be taken to relie'e the economic ine"uality generated by capitalism% (#) &hat deficiencies in &al!er4s own argument does &al!er acknowledge% 21. The author implies that &al!er4s interpretation of the principle of reward according to merit is distincti'e for its (A) insistence on ma$imi!ing e'eryone4s rewards

GRE

12,

(B) emphasis on e"uality (C) pro'en 'alidity ( ) broad conception of what constitutes merit (#) broad conception of what constitutes a reward 22. The author4s interpretation of the principle that *we owe different duties to different "ualities+ (lines 26(2,) suggests that which of the following would most probably be the duty paired with the "uality of 'eracity% (A) ignity (B) Trust (C) Affection ( ) 8bedience (#) 3ntegrity 2-. The author implies that sensiti'ity is not a "uality that (A) is essential in producing wealth (B) wealthy people lack (C) can be sensibly measured on a scale ( ) characteri!es tyrannical people (#) is owed a duty in @ascal4s sense SECTION B
The outpouring o# contemporary 0merican /ndian "iterature in the "ast two decades' o#ten ca""ed the *ative 0merican Renaissance' represents #or many the #irst opportunity to e5perience *ative 0merican poetry. The appreciation o# traditiona" ora" 0merican /ndian "iterature has been "imited' hampered by poor trans"ations and by the di##icu"ty' even in the rare cu"tura""y sensitive and aesthetica""y satis#ying trans"ation' o# comp"ete"y conveying the origina"3s verse structure' tone' and synta5. &y writing in =ng"ish and e5perimenting with =uropean "iterary #orms' contemporary 0merican /ndian writers have broadened their potentia" audience' whi"e c"ear"y retaining many essentia" characteristics o# their ancestra" ora" traditions. 7or e5amp"e' 6u"it)er-pri)ewinning author *. cott ?omaday3s poetry o#ten treats art and morta"ity in a manner that reca""s &ritish romantic poetry' whi"e his poetic response to the power o# natura" #orces reca""s %hero$ee ora" "iterature. /n the same way' his nove"s' an art #orm =uropean in origin' disp"ay an e"o+uence that echoes the oratorica" grandeur o# the great nineteenth-century 0merican /ndian chie#s.

1-. According to the passage/ ?omaday4s poetry shares which of the following with British romantic poetry% (A) Cerse structure (B) 8ratorical techni"ues (C) ?anner of treating certain themes

1-5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) :se of certain syntactical constructions (#) @atterns of rhythm and rhyme 16. &hich of the following is most likely one of the reasons that the author mentions the work of 9. ;cott ?omaday% (A) To illustrate how the author belie'es that members of the 9ati'e American =enaissance ha'e broadened their potential audience (B) To emphasi!e the similarities between ?omaday4s writings and their #uropean literary models (C) To demonstrate the contemporary appeal of traditional 9ati'e American oral literature ( ) To suggest that contemporary American 3ndian writers ha'e sacrificed traditional 'alues for popular literary success (#) To imply the continuing popularity of translations of oral American 3ndian literature 1,. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about written translations of oral 9ati'e American poetry% (A) They were less widely read than are the works of contemporary 9ati'e American poets writing in #nglish. (B) They were often made by writers who were intimately familiar with both #nglish and 9ati'e American languages. (C) They often ga'e their readers aesthetic satisfaction/ despite their inaccuracies. ( ) They usually lacked comple$ 'erse structure. (#) They were o'erly dependent on #uropean literary models. 25. The passage suggests which of the following about American 3ndian poets before the 9ati'e American =enaissance% (A) Art and mortality were rarely the sub<ects of their poetry. (B) Their oratorical grandeur reached its peak in the nineteenth century. (C) They occasionally translated their own poetry. ( ) They seldom wrote poetry in #nglish. (#) They emphasi!ed structure/ tone/ and synta$ rather than literary form.
Recent #indings suggest that visua" signa"s are #ed into at "east three separate processing systems in the brain' each with its own distinct #unction. 9ne system appears to process in#ormation about shape perception: a second' in#ormation about co"or: a third' in#ormation about movement' "ocation' and spatia" organi)ation. 0n understanding o# the #unctions and capabi"ities o# these three systems can shed "ight on how artists manipu"ate materia"s to create surprising visua" e##ects. /t is possib"e to summari)e the #unctions o# the three subsystems o# the visua" system as #o""ows. The parvo system carries high"y detai"ed in#ormation about stationary ob2ects and

GRE
about borders that are #ormed by contrasting co"ors. /t does not' however' carry in#ormation about speci#ic co"ors. &ecause much o# the in#ormation about the shape o# ob2ects can be represented by their borders' we suspect that this system is important in shape perception. The b"ob system processes in#ormation about co"ors' but not about movement' shape

1-1

discrimination' or depth. The magno system carries in#ormation about movement and depth. /t is good at detecting motion but poor at scrutini)ing stationary images. /n addition it appears to be co"orb"ind: it is unab"e to perceive borders that are visib"e on"y on the basis o# co"or contrast. %e""s in the parvo system can distinguish between two co"ors at any re"ative brightness o# the two. %e""s in the co"or-b"ind magno system' on the other hand' are ana"ogous to a b"ac$and-white photograph in the way they #unction> they signa" in#ormation about the brightness o# sur#aces but not about their co"ors. 7or any pair o# co"ors there is a particu"ar brightness ratio at which two co"ors' #or e5amp"e red and green' wi"" appear as the same shade o# gray in a b"ac$-and-white photograph' hence any border between them wi"" vanish. imi"ar"y at some re"ative red-to-green brightness "eve"' the red and green wi"" appear identica" to the magno system. The red and green are then ca""ed e+ui"uminant. 0 border between two e+ui"uminant co"ors has co"or contrast but no "uminance contrast. ?any artists have seemed to be empirica""y aware o# these under"ying princip"es and have used them to ma5imi)e particu"ar e##ects. ome o# the pecu"iar e##ects o# 9p 0rt' #or e5amp"e' probab"y arise #rom co"or combinations that are strong activators o# the parvo system but are wea$ stimu"i #or the magno system. 0n ob2ect that is e+ui"uminant with its bac$ground "oo$s vibrant and unstab"e. The reason is that the parvo system can signa" the ob2ect3s shape but the magno system cannot see its borders and there#ore cannot signa" either the movement or the position o# the ob2ect. (ence it seems to 2ump around' dri#t' or vibrate on the canvas.

21. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) describing subsystems of the 'isual system and showing their rele'ance to art (B) comparing three theories on how the 'isual system analy!es images in a work of art (C) e$plaining how artists use color contrasts to create particular 'isual effects ( ) e$plaining how the 'isual system distinguishes among different colors (#) describing functions of the first three phases of the 'isual system 22. &hich of the following would create 'isual effects most similar to those discussed in lines 0.(06% (A) A watercolor in which colors are applied imprecisely to outlined shapes (B) A painting in which different shades of the same color are used to obscure the boundaries between ob<ects (C) A black(and(white sketch in which shading is used to con'ey a sense of depth ( ) An ad'ertisement in which key words are at the same le'el of brightness as a background of contrasting color

1-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(#) A design in which two different shades of gray are <u$taposed to heighten the contrast between them 2.. The passage pro'ides information about which of the following% (A) &hy the same system can process information about mo'ement and location (B) &hy the par'o system is considered to be responsible for shape perception (C) &hy the blob system can process information about colors but not mo'ement ( ) The mechanism that enables the blob system to distinguish between stationary ob<ects (#) The mechanism that enables the magno system to carry information about shape discrimination 20. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the 'isual system% (A) 3t processes 'isual signals in three consecuti'e stages. (B) 3t processes 'isual signals through separate processing systems in the brain. (C) 3t consists of only three separate systems. ( ) 3t consists of a single hierarchical system rather than a multipartite system. (#) 3t consists of separate system with high o'erlap in processing functions. 21. The author mentions a *black(and(white photograph+ (line 2,) most probably in order to e$plain (A) how the par'o system distinguishes between different shapes and colors (B) how the magno system uses luminosity to identify borders between ob<ects (C) the mechanism that makes the magno system color(blind ( ) why the magno system is capable of percei'ing mo'ing images (#) the brightness ratio at which colors become indistinguishable to the par'o system 22. The author uses all of the following in the discussion in the third paragraph #DC#@TE (A) an e$ample (B) definition of terms (C) contrast ( ) a rhetorical "uestion (#) analogy 2-. The passage suggests which of the following about the magno system% (A) 3t percei'es borders on the basis of luminance contrast. (B) 3t percei'es shapes on the basis of color contrast. (C) 3t is better at percei'ing stationary ob<ects than it is at detecting mo'ement. ( ) 3t can detect motion but it cannot signal the position of an ob<ect.

GRE

1-.

(#) 3t is better at processing information about mo'ement than it is at processing information about depth. 1993 04 SECTION A
0"though' recent years have seen substantia" reductions in no5ious po""utants #rom individua" motor vehic"es' the number o# such vehic"es has been steadi"y increasing conse+uent"y' more than 1.. cities in the United tates sti"" have "eve"s o# carbon mono5ide' particu"ate matter' and o)one (generated by photochemica" reactions with hydrocarbons #rom vehic"e e5haust) that e5ceed "ega""y estab"ished "imits. There is a growing rea"i)ation that the on"y e##ective way to achieve #urther reductions in vehic"e emissions short o# a massive shi#t away #rom the private automobi"eis to rep"ace conventiona" diese" #ue" and gaso"ine with c"eaner-burning #ue"s such as compressed natura" gas' "i+ue#ied petro"eum gas' ethano"' or methano". 0"" o# these a"ternatives are carbon-based #ue"s whose mo"ecu"es are sma""er and simp"er than those o# gaso"ine. These mo"ecu"es burn more c"ean"y than gaso"ine' in part because they have #ewer' i# and' carbon-carbon bonds' and the hydrocarbons they do emit are "ess "i$e"y to generate o)one. The combustion o# "arger mo"ecu"es' which have mu"tip"e carboncarbon bonds' invo"ves a more comp"e5 series o# reactions. These reactions increase the probabi"ity o# incomp"ete combustion and are more "i$e"y to re"ease uncombusted and photochemica""y active hydrocarbon compounds into the atmosphere. 9n the other hand' a"ternative #ue"s do have drawbac$s. %ompressed natura" gas wou"d re+uire that vehic"es have a set o# heavy #ue" tan$sa serious "iabi"ity in terms o# per#ormance and #ue" e##iciency !and "i+ue#ied petro"eum gas #aces #undamenta" "imits on supp"y. =thano" and methano"' on the other hand' have important advantages over other carbonbased a"ternative #ue"s> they have a higher energy content per vo"ume and wou"d re+uire minima" changes in the e5isting networ$ #or distributing motor #ue". =thano" is common"y used as a gaso"ine supp"ement' but it is current"y about twice as e5pensive as methano"' the "ow cost o# which is one o# its attractive #eatures. ?ethano"3s most attractive #eature' however' is that it can reduce by about 9. percent the vehic"e emissions that #orm o)one' the most serious urban air po""utant. Ei$e any a"ternative #ue"' methano" has its critics. Det much o# the criticism is based on the use o# ;gaso"ine c"one< vehic"es that do not incorporate even the simp"est design improvements that are made possib"e with the use o# methano". /t is true' #or e5amp"e' that a given vo"ume o# methano" provides on"y about one-ha"# o# the energy that gaso"ine and diese" #ue" do: other things being e+ua"' the #ue" tan$ wou"d have to be somewhat "arger and heavier. (owever' since methano"-#ue"ed vehic"es cou"d be designed to be much more e##icient than ;gaso"ine c"one< vehic"es #ue"ed with methano"' they wou"d need comparative"y "ess #ue". Behic"es incorporating on"y the simp"est o# the engine improvements that methano" ma$es #easib"e wou"d sti"" contribute to an immediate "essening o# urban air po""ution.

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT

1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) countering a flawed argument that dismisses a possible solution to a problem (B) reconciling contradictory points of 'iew about the nature of a problem (C) identifying the strengths of possible solutions to a problem ( ) discussing a problem and arguing in fa'or of one solution to it (#) outlining a plan of action to sol'e a problem and discussing the obstacles blocking that plan 16. According to the passage/ incomplete combustion is more likely to occur with gasoline than with an alternati'e fuel because (A) the combustion of gasoline releases photochemically acti'e hydrocarbons (B) the combustion of gasoline in'ol'es an intricate series of reactions (C) gasoline molecules ha'e a simple molecular structure ( ) gasoline is composed of small molecules. (#) gasoline is a carbon(based fuel 1,. The passage suggests which of the following about air pollution% (A) >urther attempts to reduce emissions from gasoline(fueled 'ehicles will not help lower urban air(pollution le'els. (B) Attempts to reduce the pollutants that an indi'idual gasoline(fueled 'ehicle emits ha'e been largely unsuccessful. (C) >ew serious attempts ha'e been made to reduce the amount of pollutants emitted by gasoline(fueled 'ehicles. ( ) @ollutants emitted by gasoline(fueled 'ehicles are not the most critical source of urban air pollution. (#) =eductions in pollutants emitted by indi'idual 'ehicles ha'e been offset by increases in pollution from sources other than gasoline(fueled 'ehicles. 25. which of the following most closely parallels the situation described in the first sentence of the passage% (A) Although a town reduces its public ser'ices in order to a'oid a ta$ increase/ the town4s ta$ rate e$ceeds that of other towns in the surrounding area. (B) Although a state passes strict laws to limit the type of to$ic material that can be disposed of in public landfills/ illegal dumping continues to increase. (C) Although a town4s citi!ens reduce their indi'idual use of water/ the town4s water supplies continue to dwindle because of a steady increase in the total population of the town. ( ) Although a country attempts to increase the sale of domestic goods by adding a ta$ to the price of imported goods/ the sale of imported goods within the country continues to increase. (#) Although a country reduces the speed limit on its national highways/ the

GRE

1-1

number of fatalities caused by automobile accidents continues to increase. 21. The author describes which of the following as the most appealing feature of methanol% (A) 3t is substantially less e$pensi'e than ethanol. (B) 3t could be pro'ided to consumers through the e$isting motor fuel distribution system. (C) 3t has a higher energy content than other alternati'e fuels. ( ) 3ts use would make design impro'ements in indi'idual 'ehicles feasible. (#) 3ts use would substantially reduce o!one le'els. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a 'ehicle specifically designed to use methanol for fuel would (A) be somewhat lighter in total body weight than a con'entional 'ehicle fueled with gasoline (B) be more e$pensi'e to operate than a con'entional 'ehicle fueled with gasoline (C) ha'e a larger and more powerful engine than a con'entional 'ehicle fueled with gasoline ( ) ha'e a larger and hea'ier fuel tank than a *gasoline clone+ 'ehicle fueled with methanol (#) a'erage more miles per gallon than a *gasoline clone+ 'ehicle fueled with methanol 2.. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage most likely regards the criticism of methanol in the last paragraph as (A) flawed because of the assumptions on which it is based (B) inapplicable because of an inconsistency in the critics4 arguments (C) misguided because of its e$clusi'ely technological focus ( ) inaccurate because it ignores consumers4 concerns (#) in'alid because it reflects the personal bias of the critics
6au"e ?arsha""3s Brown .irl& Brownstones (19-9) was a "andmar$ in the depiction o# #ema"e characters in &"ac$ 0merican "iterature. ?arsha"" avoided the oppressed and tragic heroine in con#"ict with 8hite society that had been typica" o# the protest nove"s o# the ear"y twentieth century. Ei$e her immediate predecessors' Lora *ea"e (urston and Awendo"yn &roo$s' she #ocused her nove" on an ordinary &"ac$ woman3s search #or identity within the conte5t o# a &"ac$ community. &ut ?arsha"" e5tended the ana"ysis o# &"ac$ #ema"e characters begun by (urston and &roo$s by depicting her heroine3s deve"opment in terms o# the re"ationship between her &arbadian 0merican parents' and by e5p"oring how ma"e and #ema"e ro"es were de#ined by their immigrant cu"ture' which in turn was in#"uenced by the materia"ism o# 8hite 0merica. &y p"acing characters within a wider cu"tura" conte5t' ?arsha"" attac$ed racia" and se5ua" stereotypes and paved the way #or e5p"orations o# race' c"ass' and gender in the nove"s o# the 197.3s.

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT

20. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) comparing the works of three Black American authors (B) describing common themes in Black American literature (C) discussing an important work in Black American literature ( ) pro'iding insights about Black American literature in the early twentieth century (#) pro'iding historical information about the writing of Black American no'els in the second half the twentieth century 21. According to the passage/ )urston/ Brooks/ and ?arshall are alike in that they (A) did not e$amine the effects of &hite culture on their characters4 li'es (B) were hea'ily influenced by the protest no'els of the early twentieth century (C) used Black communities as the settings for their no'els ( ) wrote primarily about the difficulties their characters encountered in &hite culture (#) wrote e$clusi'ely about female characters and the e$periences of women 22. The author4s description of the way in which ?arshall depicts her heroine4s de'elopment is most probably intended to (A) continue the discussion of similarities in the works of Brooks/ )urston/ and ?arshall (B) describe the specific racial and se$ual stereotypes that ?arshall attacked (C) contrast the characters in ?arshall4s no'els with those in later works ( ) show how ?arshall e$tends the portrayal of character initiated by her predecessors (#) compare themes in ?arshall4s early work with themes in her later no'els 2-. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would describe %ro(n #irl1 %ro(nstones as being (A) completely different from no'els written before 1,1, (B) highly influenced by no'els written in the early twentieth century (C) similar to the protest no'els that preceded it ( ) important in the late 1,154s but dated today (#) an important influence on no'els written in the 1,-54s SECTION B
?any phi"osophers disagree over the de#inition o# mora"ity' but most disputants #a"" into one o# two categories> egocentrics' who de#ine mora"ity as the pursuit o# se"#-#u"#i""ment' and sociocentrics' who de#ine mora"ity as an individua"3s ob"igations to society. 8here does the truth "ieC 7ortunate"y' the stem o# the word ;mora"ity< provides some c"ues. The word ;mores<

GRE
origina""y re#erred to the customs o# pre"iterate cu"tures. ?ores' which embodied each cu"ture3s idea" princip"es #or governing every citi)en' were deve"oped in the be"ie# that the

1--

#oundation o# a community "ies in the cu"tivation o# individua" powers to be p"aced in service to the community. These mores were concerned with such s$i""s as #ood-gathering and war#are as we"" as an individua"3s re"ationships with others. Thus' / submit' ;mora"ity< must be concerned with what is honored by the community at "arge. (owever' se"#-#u"#i""ment is important to mora"ity because un#u"#i""ed citi)ens' no matter how virtuous' cannot per#orm the duties mora"ity assigns them.

1-. The primary purpose of this passage is to (A) summari!e an argument (B) resol'e a dispute (C) trace a word4s origin ( ) pro'e a hypothesis (#) initiate a debate 16. According to the passage/ mores in preliterate cultures concerned such skills as warfare and food(gathering because these skills were (A) characteristic of an indi'idual4s self(fulfillment (B) e$amples of a culture4s traditions (C) manifestations of an indi'idual4s ideals ( ) demonstrations of an indi'idual4s contributions to the community (#) e$amples of a community4s go'erning principles 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements regarding sociocentrics and egocentrics% (A) The position of the sociocentrics is stronger than that of the egocentrics. (B) The positions of the egocentrics and sociocentrics are of e"ual merit. (C) There is no merit in the position of the egocentrics. ( ) 9either position contributes 'ery much to an understanding of the definition of morality. (#) The dispute between the egocentrics and sociocentrics is based on tri'ial issues. 25. &ith which of the following statements regarding the relationship between the indi'idual and morality would the author be most likely to agree% (A) >ailure in social obligations is the price of success in indi'idual endea'ors. (B) The unfulfilled citi!en cannot fulfill his moral obligations to the community. (C) ?orality is unconcerned with conflicts among citi!ens. ( ) The unfulfilled citi!en is without 'irtue. (#) &ealth harms a citi!en4s moral standing in the community.

1-6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(This passage was written in 197-.) The comp"ications #re+uent"y accompanying diabetes' such as impairment o# vision and o# $idney #unction' are now thought to resu"t #rom the "ac$ o# continuous contro" o# b"ood g"ucose concentrations. The hea"thy pancreas' in response to increases in b"ood g"ucose concentration' re"eases sma"" +uantities o# insu"in throughout the day and thereby maintains the concentration within physio"ogica" "imits (normog"ycemia). &ut the diabetic genera""y receives on"y one "arge dose dai"y. The diabetic3s b"ood g"ucose concentration can thus #"uctuate great"y during the interva" between doses' and it has been suggested that the comp"ications resu"t #rom the periods o# high concentrations o# b"ood g"ucose (hyperg"ycemia). ?any investigators thus be"ieve that restoration o# normog"ycemia might ha"t the progression o# such comp"ications and perhaps even reverse them. There are three primary techni+ues that have been investigated #or restoration o# normog"ycemia. They are> transp"antation o# who"e' hea"thy pancreases: transp"antation o# is"ets o# Eangerhans' that portion o# the pancreas that actua""y secretes insu"in: and imp"antation o# arti#icia" pancreases. There has' in #act' been a great dea" o# success in the deve"opment o# these techni+ues and each seems' on the who"e' promising. *onethe"ess' it wi"" undoubted"y be many years be#ore any one o# them is accepted as a treatment #or diabetes. To many peop"e' the obvious approach wou"d seem to be simp"y to transp"ant pancreases #rom cadavers in the same manner that $idneys and other organs are routine"y transp"anted. That was the rationa"e in 19GG when the #irst recorded pancreas transp"ant was per#ormed. &etween 19GG and 197-' there were #orty-si5 pancreas transp"ants in #orty-#ive other patients in the United tates and #ive other countries. &ut on"y one o# these patients is sti"" a"ive with a #unctioning gra#t' and surgeons have #ound that the procedure is not as simp"e as they once thought. The surviving patient has re+uired no insu"in since the operation. 0nother patient survived G48 days without re+uiring insu"in. 0nd one patient survived a transp"antation #or more than a year' but died when he chose not to ta$e the immunosuppressive drugs. These resu"ts' though meager' suggest that the procedure has the potentia" #or success. The rest o# the patients' however' either re2ected the transp"ant or died within a short period. There does not appear to be any technica" prob"em with the procedure. Rather' most o# the patients were a"ready so severe"y debi"itated by the comp"ications o# diabetes that they cou"d not withstand the surgery and the immunosuppressive regimen re+uired to prevent re2ection. ?ore than ha"# o# the patients' #urthermore' a"so re+uired a $idney transp"ant. ?ost investigators now agree that the simu"taneous transp"antation o# both organs is too great a shoc$ to the patient and great"y increases the tota" ris$.

21. &hich of the following best states one of the main conclusions of the passage% (A) Although the techni"ues for pancreas transplants appear to be theoretically correct/ there are problems that must be sol'ed before the operation can be used as a treatment for diabetes. (B) Although the techni"ues for pancreas transplants are still being de'eloped/ the

GRE

1-,

e$perimental results show that the operation will be a successful treatment for diabetes in the near future. (C) Although pancreas transplants are reliable/ many diabetics are reluctant to undergo the operation because of the side effects of immunosuppressi'e drugs. ( ) Although pancreas transplants alone are not generally successful/ the operation can be used in con<unction with other procedures to treat diabetes. (#) Although pancreas transplants ha'e not been successful in treating diabetes/ research indicates that other procedures may soon be de'eloped. 22. According to the passage/ widely spaced doses of insulin can cause. (A) re'ersal of normal kidney function (B) delay in the onset of diabetes (C) radical changes in the concentration of blood glucose ( ) restoration of normoglycemia (#) marked 'ariations in the islets of Kangerhans 2.. According to the passage/ a periodic high concentration of blood glucose in diabetics is a possible cause of (A) deterioration of the pancreas (B) damage to the eyes and kidneys (C) re<ection of transplanted organs ( ) inade"uate secretion of insulin (#) increased production of blood cells 20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one of the important contributing causes of the failure of most pancreas transplants has been the (A) reluctance of patients to cooperate with physicians (B) imperfect techni"ues used in the operations (C) scarcity of immunosuppressi'e drugs ( ) una'ailability or healthy pancreases (#) weakened condition of the patients 21. The author pro'ides information that would answer which of the following "uestions% 3. 33. &hat is hyperglycemia% &hat is one cause of hyperglycemia%

333. &hat are some of the organs that can be ad'ersely affected by hyperglycemia% (A) 3 only (B) 33 only

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(C) 3 and 333 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 22. 8n the basis of the information in the passage/ which of the following can be inferred about the islets of Kangerhans% 3. 33. They are important for the normal control of blood glucose concentration. They can be transplanted independently of other pancreatic cells.

333. They regulate immunosuppressi'e reactions. (A) 3 only (B) 333 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33/ and 333 2-. The passage suggests that the author considers the data concerning the success of pancreas transplants to be (A) in'alid (B) indirect (C) inaccurate ( ) insufficient (#) inappropriate SECTION C
/n 7ebruary 18H8 the peop"e o# 6aris rose in revo"t against the constitutiona" monarchy o# Eouis-6hi"ippe. Fespite the e5istence o# e5ce""ent narrative accounts' the 7ebruary Fays' as this revo"t is ca""ed' have been "arge"y ignored by socia" historians o# the past two decades. 7or each o# the three other ma2or insurrections in nineteenth-century 6aris @u"y 184.' @une 18H8' and ?ay 1871!there e5ists at "east a s$etch o# participants3 bac$grounds and an ana"ysis' more or "ess rigorous' o# the reasons #or the occurrence o# the uprisings. 9n"y in the case o# the 7ebruary Revo"ution do we "ac$ a use#u" description o# participants that might characteri)e it in the "ight o# what socia" history has taught us about the process o# revo"utionary mobi"i)ation. Two reasons #or this re"ative neg"ect seem obvious. 7irst' the insurrection o# 7ebruary has been overshadowed by that o# @une. The 7ebruary Revo"ution overthrew a regime' to be sure' but met with so "itt"e resistance that it #ai"ed to generate any rea" sense o# historica" drama. /ts successor' on the other hand' appeared to pit $ey socioeconomic groups in a "i#e-or-death strugg"e and was wide"y seen by contemporary observers as mar$ing a historica" departure. Through their interpretations' which e5ert a continuing in#"uence on our understanding o# the revo"utionary process' the impact o# the events o# @une has been magni#ied' whi"e' as an unintended conse+uence' the signi#icance o# the 7ebruary insurrection has been diminished.

GRE
econd' "i$e other ;success#u"< insurrections' the events o# 7ebruary #ai"ed to generate the most desirab"e $inds o# historica" records. 0"though the @une insurrection o# 18H8 and the 6aris %ommune o# 1871 wou"d be considered watersheds o# nineteenth-century 7rench

161

history by any standard' they a"so present the socia" historian with a signa" advantage> these #ai"ed insurrections created a mass o# inva"uab"e documentation as a by-product o# authorities3 e##orts to search out and punish the rebe"s. Ouite di##erent is the outcome o# success#u" insurrections "i$e those o# @u"y 184. and 7ebruary 18H8. =5periences are reto"d' but participants typica""y resume their dai"y routines without ever recording their activities. Those who p"ayed sa"ient ro"es may become the ob2ects o# high"y embe""ished verba" accounts or in rare cases' o# ce"ebratory artic"es in contemporary periodica"s. 0nd it is true that the pub"ic"y ac$now"edged "eaders o# an uprising #re+uent"y write memoirs. (owever' such documents are "i$e"y to be high"y unre"iab"e' unrepresentative' and unsystematica""y preserved' especia""y when compared to the detai"ed 2udicia" dossiers prepared #or everyone arrested #o""owing a #ai"ed insurrection. 0s a conse+uence' it may prove di##icu"t or impossib"e to estab"ish #or a success#u" revo"ution a comprehensive and trustworthy picture o# those who participated' or to answer even the most basic +uestions one might pose concerning the socia" origins o# the insurgents.

1-. According to the passage/ *a useful description of participants+ (lines 11(12) e$ists for which of the following insurrections of nineteenth(century >rance% 3. 33. The Auly 3nsurrection of 16.5 The >ebruary =e'olution of 1606

333. The Aune insurrection of 1606 3C. The ?ay insurrection of 16-1 (A) 3 and 333 only (B) 33 and 3C only (C) 3/ 33/ and 333 only ( ) 3/ 333/ and 3C only (#) 33/ 333/ and 3C only 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that support for the ob<ecti'es of the >ebruary =e'olution was (A) negligible (B) misguided (C) fanatical ( ) spontaneous (#) widespread 1,. &hich of the following/ best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph% (A) The thesis of the passage is stated and supporting e'idence systematically presented. (B) Two 'iews regarding the thesis presented in the first paragraph are compared

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and contrasted. (C) #'idence refuting the thesis presented in the first paragraph is systematically presented. ( ) The thesis presented in the first paragraph is systematically supported. (#) The thesis presented in the first paragraph is further defined and a conclusion drawn. 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers which of the following essential for understanding a re'olutionary mobili!ation% (A) A comprehensi'e theory of re'olution that can be applied to the ma<or insurrections of the nineteenth century (B) Awareness of the e'ents necessary for a re'olution to be successful (C) Access to narrati'es and memoirs written by eyewitnesses of a gi'en re'olution ( ) The historical perspecti'e pro'ided by the passage of a considerable amount of time (#) Mnowledge of the socioeconomic backgrounds of a re'olution4s participants 21. &hich of the following can be inferred about the *detailed <udicial dossiers+ referred to in line 0,% (A) 3nformation contained in the dossiers sheds light on the social origins of a re'olution4s participants. (B) The dossiers closely resemble the narrati'es written by the re'olution4s leaders in their personal memoirs. (C) The information that such dossiers contain is untrustworthy and unrepresentati'e of a re'olution4s participants. ( ) ;ocial historians prefer to a'oid such dossiers whene'er possible because they are e$cessi'ely detailed. (#) The >ebruary =e'olution of 1606 produced more of these dossiers than did the Aune insurrection. 22. &hich of the following is the most logical ob<ection to the claim made in lines .6(.,% (A) The >ebruary =e'olution of 1606 is much less significant than the Auly insurrection of 16.5. (B) The backgrounds and moti'ations of participants in the Auly insurrection of 16.5 ha'e been identified/ howe'er cursorily. (C) #'en less is known about the Auly insurrection of 16.5 than about the >ebruary =e'olution of 1606. ( ) )istorical records made during the Auly insurrection of 16.5 are less reliable than those made during the ?ay insurrection of 16-1.

GRE

16.

(#) The importance of the Auly insurrection of 16.5 has been magnified at the e$pense of the significance of the >ebruary =e'olution of 1606. 2.. &ith which of the following statements regarding re'olution would the author most likely agree% (A) =e'olutionary mobili!ation re"uires a great deal of planning by people representing disaffected groups. (B) The ob<ecti'es of the >ebruary =e'olution were more radical than those of the Aune insurrection. (C) The process of re'olutionary mobili!ation 'aries greatly from one re'olution to the ne$t. ( ) =e'olutions 'ary greatly in the usefulness of the historical records that they produce. (#) As knowledge of the >ebruary =e'olution increases/ chances are good that its importance will e'entually eclipse that of the Aune insurrection.
9ne advantage o# breeding 0#rican bees with other bee types (0#ricani)ation) may be resistance to the parasitic mite <arroa =aco$soni& a ma2or threat to modern bee$eeping. /n parts o# =urope' this mite is devastating honeybees and $i""ing many co"onies despite preventive measures by bee$eepers. &ut in &ra)i" <arroa =aco$soni has been present in 0#ricani)ed bees since 1971 without the "oss o# a sing"e co"ony' even though bee$eepers there undertoo$ no preventive measures. The mites "ay eggs within the brood ce""s o# immature bees' and deve"oping mites #eed on the hemo"ymph (b"ood) o# bee pupae. &ut #ewer mites reproduce in 0#ricani)ed bees than in =uropean bees. ome researchers point out that this resistance may be re"ated to the 0#ricani)ed wor$er bee3s shorter deve"opment period' which prevents some mites #rom reaching maturity. Recent"y the mite has become a serious prob"em in co"onies o# =uropean bees in *orth 0merica. 0#ricani)ation o# these bees may be the best sa#eguard against this parasite.

20. The passage suggests that which of the following was true of the honeybee colonies described in line 0(2% (A) Their life e$pectancy/ when free of disease/ was shorter than that of #uropean bee colonies in 9orth America. (B) They were not Africani!ed. (C) Their life cycle did not accommodate the feeding habits of )arroa 5acobsoni2 ( ) They responded well to measures to control )arroa 5acobsoni. (#) They were managed using methods that were more modern than those employed in Bra!il. 21. The author cites all of the following as e'idence that Africani!ed bees4 resistance to )arroa 5acobsoni is superior to that of #uropean bees #DC#@TE (A) >ewer )arroa 5acobsoni mites reproduce in Africani!ed bees. (B) )arroa 5acobsoni is killing many bee colonies in #urope.

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(C) Beekeepers in Bra!il ha'e not used pre'enti'e measures to protect their colonies. ( ) Bra!ilian bee colonies ha'e endured )arroa 5acobsoni since 1,-2. (#) At least some #uropean bee colonies ha'e been sa'ed by pre'enti'e measures. 22. According to the passage/ research suggests that one possible reason the Africani!ed bees in Bra!il ha'e successfully resisted )arroa 5acobsoni is that (A) the life cycle of the Africani!ed bee may limit the )arroa 5acobsoni mite4s opportunity to reach full de'elopment (B) the Africani!ed bees may ha'e had an opportunity to de'elop a chemical resistance to )arroa 5acobsoni (C) the location of bee colonies in Bra!il may pro'ide a natural deterrent to )arroa 5acobsoni ( ) )arroa 5acobsoni may be relati'ely new to Bra!il and may not ha'e had time to become widespread (#) beekeepers may ha'e de'eloped effecti'e control techni"ues for )arroa 5acobsoni 2-. The author4s argument regarding the resistance of Africani!ed bees to )arroa 5acobsoni would be most weakened if which of the following were true% (A) The bees in Bra!il were resistant before being Africani!ed. (B) The number of bee colonies in 9orth American increased dramatically whereas the number in Bra!il remained unchanged. (C) ?ites found in #uropean bees reproduce at a faster rate than mites of identical species found in the bees in Bra!il. ( ) Africani!ed bees retain many of the characteristics of #uropean bees. (#) Bee colonies in #urope continue to produce greater "uantities of honey than do those in Bra!il. 1993 10 SECTION A
*ationa" character is not #orma""y considered by socia" scientists in discussing economic and socia" deve"opment today. They be"ieve that peop"e di##er and that these di##erences shou"d be ta$en into account somehow' but they have as yet discovered no way to inc"ude such variab"es in their #orma" mode"s o# economic and socia" deve"opment. The di##icu"ty "ies in the nature o# the data that supposed"y de#ine di##erent nationa" characters. 0nthropo"ogists and others are on much #irmer ground when they attempt to describe the cu"tura" norms #or a sma"" homogeneous tribe or vi""age than when they underta$e the #ormidab"e tas$ o# discovering the norms that e5ist in a comp"e5 modern nation-state composed o# many

GRE
disparate groups. The situation is #urther comp"icated by the nature o# 2udgments about

161

character' since such 2udgments are over"y dependent on impressions and since' #urthermore' impressions are usua""y stated in +ua"itative terms' it is impossib"e to ma$e a re"iab"e comparison between the nationa" characters o# two countries.

1-. The author4s main point in the passage is that national character (A) is too elusi'e to merit attention by anthropologists and other social scientists (B) is of greater interest to social scientists today than it has been in the past (C) is still too difficult to describe with the precision re"uired by many social scientists ( ) has become increasingly irrele'ant because of the comple$ity of modern life (#) can be described more accurately by anthropologists than by other social scientists 16. Bi'en the information in the passage/ which of the following is 98T true of modern nation(states% (A) They are comple$. (B) They are heterogeneous. (C) They are of interest to social scientists. ( ) They lack cultural norms. (#) They differ from one another in terms of national character. 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the social scientists mentioned in lines 1(would agree with which of the following statements% 3. 33. 3t is e$tremely difficult to create models that account for both economic and social de'elopment. ?odels of economic and social de'elopment would be impro'ed by the inclusion of ade"uate descriptions of national character.

333. 3t is important to supplement formal models of economic and social de'elopment with "ualitati'e impressions of national character. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 333 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 33 and 333 only 25. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A problem is presented and reasons for its e$istence are supplied. (B) A contro'ersial 'iew is presented and e'idence for its 'alidity is supplied. (C) A hypothesis is presented and possible means of 'erifying it are suggested. ( ) A recent de'elopment is described and then analy!ed.

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(#) A dispute is summari!ed and one side defended.

9ne o# the simp"est and best $nown $inds o# crysta" is the ionic sa"t' o# which a typica" e5amp"e is sodium ch"oride or ordinary tab"e sa"t. The #undamenta" components o# an ionic sa"t are ions> atoms or mo"ecu"es that have become e"ectrica""y charged by gaining or "osing one or more e"ectrons. /n #orming sodium ch"oride' #or e5amp"e' sodium atoms give up an e"ectron (thereby becoming positive"y charged) and ch"orine atoms gain an e"ectron (thereby becoming negative"y charged). The ions are attracted to one another by their opposite charges' and they stac$ together compact"y' "i$e tight"y pac$ed spheres. Recent"y' scientists at ?ichigan tate University created a new $ind o# crysta" ca""ed an e"ectride. /n e"ectrides' the anions (negative ions) are comp"ete"y rep"aced by e"ectrons' which are trapped in natura""y #ormed cavities within a #ramewor$ o# regu"ar"y stac$ed cations (positive ions). ="ectrides are the #irst e5amp"es o# ionic sa"ts in which a"" these anionic sites are occupied so"e"y by e"ectrons. Un"i$e other types o# anions' anionic e"ectrons do not behave as i# they were simp"e charged spheres. /n particu"ar' because o# their "ow mass and their tendency to interact with one another over great distances' they cannot be ;pinned down< to any one "ocation. /nstead' they wander c"ose to and among the atoms "ining the cavity and interact with e"ectrons in nearby cavities' perhaps changing p"aces with them. The properties o# an e"ectride depend "arge"y on the distance between the cavities that ho"d trapped e"ectrons. 8hen the trapped e"ectrons are #ar apart' they do not interact strong"y' and so behave somewhat "i$e an array o# iso"ated negative charges. 8hen they are c"oser together' they begin to disp"ay properties associated with "arge ensemb"es o# identica" partic"es. 8hen they are sti"" c"oser' the ensemb"e properties dominate and the e"ectrons ;de"oca"i)e<> they are no "onger tight"y bound within individua" cavities but are more or "ess #ree to pass through the spaces within the #rame-wor$ o# positive ions. &y synthesi)ing e"ectrides #rom a variety o# materia"s' one can vary the geometry o# the anionic cavities and their re"ation to the surrounding cations. The resu"ting properties may ma$e it possib"e #or e"ectrides to become a basis #or economica""y use#u" new materia"s and devices. 7or instance' because the e"ectrons in some e"ectrides are very wea$"y bound' these crysta"s cou"d be e##ective as photosensitive detectors' in which an impinging photon "iberates an e"ectron' resu"ting in a sma"" e"ectric current. The same wea$ binding cou"d a"so ma$e e"ectrides use#u" in so"ar-energy converters and as cathodes in batteries. 9ne obstac"e is the tendency o# e"ectrides to decompose through reaction with air and water. Researchers are see$ing ways to increase their stabi"ity.

21. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing (A) a way to isolate electrons (B) the characteristics of a new kind of crystal (C) the structure of an ionic salt ( ) commercial uses for electrides (#) the properties of ions

GRE

16-

22. 3n the first paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) introducing a 'ariant on the standard atomic theory (B) describing how chlorine atoms can become negati'ely charged (C) describing some early research at ?ichigan ;tate :ni'ersity ( ) presenting the identifying properties of an electride (#) pro'iding background for the technical discussion to follow 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the differences between the beha'ior of anionic electrons and normal anions result from which of the following features of electrons/ as compared to normal anions% 3. 33. The much lower mass of electrons The much greater tendency of electrons to interact with one another o'er large distances

333. The much greater likelihood of electrons to remain trapped in naturally formed anionic ca'ities (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 33 and 333 only 20. According to the passage/ the defining characteristic of an electride is which of the following% (A) 3ts positi'e ions are of particularly low mass. (B) 3ts ions possess identical electrical charges. (C) 3t contains a framework of regularly stacked ions. ( ) 3ts ions demonstrate strong mutual attraction. (#) 3ts negati'e ions consist solely of electrons. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that anions beha'ing as *simple charged spheres+ (line 22) could be e$pected to (A) readily lose electrons and become positi'ely charged (B) mo'e freely in and out of their ca'ities (C) respond to photons by liberating electrons ( ) stack with other anions to create a regular framework (#) remain fi$ed relati'e to their cations 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that an electride beha'es most like a normal ionic crystal when the electride has which of the following features% (A) The anionic ca'ities are widely separated. (B) All of the trapped electrons are able to delocali!e.

166

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(C) The trapped electrons are liberated by impinging photons. ( ) The ions are tightly packed together. (#) ?ost of the cations ha'e lost their electrical charge. 2-. &ith which of the following statements regarding electrides would the author most likely agree% (A) They ha'e pro'en themsel'es to be of great commercial 'alue. (B) Their future commercial 'alue is promising but uncertain. (C) They are interesting but of no practical 'alue. ( ) They ha'e commercial 'alue mainly in solar(energy applications. (#) Their principal importance will lie in scientific research. SECTION B
Typica""y the +ueen honeybee is mother to a"" the bees in a hive: a#ter mating with severa" ma"e drones #rom other co"onies' she "ays #erti"i)ed eggs that deve"op into a""-#ema"e wor$er bees and "ays un#erti"i)ed eggs that become a""-ma"e drones. 8hen a +ueen dies' wor$ers o#ten "ay un#erti"i)ed eggs that hatch into drones. Det wor$ers rare"y reproduce whi"e a +ueen reigns. 0ccording to natura" se"ection theory' a wor$er wou"d enhance her #itness!or abi"ity to propagate her genes!by hatching her own eggs in addition to or in p"ace o# the +ueen3s. &ut a typica" wor$er3s #itness wou"d be diminished i# other wor$ers3 sons' who have "ess genetic materia" in common with the wor$er' supp"anted the +ueen3s sons (the wor$er3s brothers). Researchers' testing the hypothesis that wor$ers usua""y somehow b"oc$ each other3s attempts to reproduce' put un#erti"i)ed eggs "aid by wor$ers and by the +ueen into a hive. 9ther wor$ers +uic$"y devoured the wor$ers3 eggs whi"e "eaving the +ueen3s eggs a"one.

1-. The author refers to the e$periment described in lines 12(1, in order to (A) e$plain how worker bees are pre'ented from mating with drones (B) e$plain how worker bees hatch and nurture the "ueen4s young (C) demonstrate the uni'ersality of natural selection ( ) show that worker bees are capable of thwarting each other4s attempts to reproduce (#) pro'ide a model of daily life in a typical honeybee hi'e 16. The inner workings in a honeybee hi'e that regulate reproduction/ as they are described in the passage/ are most similar to which of the following types of human societies% (A) A totalitarian society in which citi!ens4 *policing+ of each other4s actions helps to maintain the status "uo. (B) A pacifist state in which the indi'iduals are strongly opposed to the use of 'iolence or aggression to settle disputes.

GRE

16,

(C) A democratic society in which the 'oice of the ma<ority rules. ( ) A parliamentary society in which a few members/ organi!ed as a cabinet wield e$ecuti'e power. (#) An anarchic state in which order and stable social structures are lacking. 1,. The passage best supports which of the following inferences about the fitness of honeybees% (A) =eproduction diminishes any indi'idual honeybee4s fitness. (B) An indi'idual worker4s fitness can be maintained without the indi'idual herself reproducing. (C) A hierarchy of stronger and weaker indi'iduals among the worker bees determines which indi'iduals will reproduce when a "ueen dies. ( ) &hile a "ueen reigns/ the fitness of the worker bees is increased and that of the drones is diminished. (#) >itness encourages worker bees to hatch honeybee eggs without regard for the relatedness of the young to the *parent.+ 25. The passage suggests which of the following about the eggs laid by worker bees% (A) 8ne of the eggs hatches into the ne$t "ueen. (B) The eggs are in'ariably destroyed by other worker bees. (C) #ach worker tries to hide her eggs from the other worker bees. ( ) The eggs hatch only if the worker has mated with a drone from another hi'e. (#) The eggs are less likely to be harmed by other workers if the "ueen is dead.
/n the #ie"ds o# Fe"ano' %a"i#ornia' in 19G-' Euis Ba"de) started the Teatro %ampesino (7armwor$er3s Theater)' and with it initiated the renaissance o# ?e5ican 0merican theater. The Teatro %ampesino had an avowed"y po"itica" purpose> to ra""y cam#esinos (#armwor$ers) in support o# the #arm wor$ers3 stri$e then being organi)ed by %esar %have). Ba"de)3 dramatic presentations' ca""ed actos& spo$e to a cam#esino audience and addressed topics and themes direct"y re"ated to the stri$e. Ba"de)3 ear"y actos were composed o# a series o# scenes about the stri$e e5perience acted by cam#esino vo"unteers. (is "ater actos were presented by a new"y constituted pro#essiona" company' sti"" ca""ed the Teatro %ampesino' and addressed such themes as the impact o# the Bietnam 8ar on ?e5ican 0mericans and the dangers o# assimi"ation' themes re"evant to urban ?e5ican 0mericans as we"" as to cam#esinos. 0"" Ba"de)3 actos contained e"ements o# song and dance' re"ied "itt"e on stage e##ects or props' and #eatured the use o# mas$s. These dramatic e"ements' a"ong with an intense"y socia" or po"itica" purpose and the use o# a mi5ture o# panish' =ng"ish' and ?e5ican 0merican dia"ects in the dia"ogues' which rea"istica""y capture the #"avor o# ?e5ican 0merican conversation' are sti"" characteristic both o# the acto and o# most other #orms o# ?e5ican 0merican theater today. /nnovative as it is' the acto owes much to the theater traditions o# other periods and regions. Ei$e ear"y panish 0merican re"igious dramas' secu"ar #o"$ dramas' and the ?e5ican car#as o# a somewhat "ater period' actos are usua""y per#ormed outdoors by trave"ing groups o# p"ayers or by "oca" theater groups. The improvised comic satire o# the actos is o#ten

1,5

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attributed to Ba"de)3 study o# the /ta"ian commedia dell arte o# the si5teenth century' a"though some critics see it as a direct re#"ection o# the comic and improvisationa" +ua"ities o# the more contemporary and "oca" car#as o# ?e5ican theater. The /ta"ian in#"uence is "i$e"y' whatever Ba"de) immediate source> the ?e5ican car#as themse"ves are said to have originated #rom the theater pieces o# a si5teenth-century panish writer inspired by encounters with /ta"ian commedia dell arte troupes on tour in pain. The =ng"ish-"anguage theater has provided e"ements as we""> Ba"de) himse"# has ac$now"edged his debt to the agitprop socia"ist theater that appeared in the United tates during the 191.3s and 194.3s. /n particu"ar' his actos contain the same assortment o# semia""egorica" characters and the same b"end o# music' chorus' and dia"ogue #ound in some o# the agitprop pieces' as we"" as the same #ierce spirit o# socia" and po"itica" criti+ue. 7ina""y' many o# Ba"de)3 "ater theater pieces #ree"y incorporate characters' p"ots and symbo"s drawn #rom the indigenous myths and ritua"s o# the pre(ispanic peop"es o# Eatin 0merica. /n #act' no other art #orm i""ustrates more c"ear"y the depth and comp"e5ity o# the ?e5ican 0merican heritage itse"# than does the acto o# Euis Ba"de) and the Teatro %ampesino.

21. According to the passage/ the original impetus behind the establishment of the Teatro Campesino was which of the following% (A) To help urban ?e$ican Americans understand the problems confronting striking ca-pesinos in California (B) To promote an attitude of pride in the depth and richness of the ?e$ican American heritage among striking ca-pesinos (C) To pro'ide striking campesinos an opportunity to use their creati'e talents to e$press their political opinions ( ) To allow its founder to e$press his personal support of the ca-pesinos strike effort (#) To mobili!e ca-pesinos to support the farm workers4 strike in California 22. The author cites all of the following as probable influences on Calde!4 de'elopment of the acto #DC#@T the (A) theater of si$teenth(century 3taly (B) carpas of ?e$ico (C) drama of classical Breece ( ) #nglish(language theater of the :nited ;tates (#) myths and rituals of pre()ispanic America 2.. The passage suggests that which of the following was true of the later actos of the Teatro Campesino% (A) They were more politically effecti'e than were earlier actos. (B) They were presented primarily outdoors/ whereas earlier actos were presented inside theaters. (C) They used a greater mi$ture of dialects than did the earlier actos.

GRE

1,1

( ) They addressed a broader audience than did the earlier actos. (#) They differed from earlier actos in that they contained fewer impro'isational elements. 20. &hich of the following best describes the author4s e'aluation of the 'iews of the critics cited in lines .2(.,% (A) Their 'iews/ if correct/ do not preclude the e$istence of an 3talian influence on the acto. (B) Their 'iews are unlikely to be correct/ gi'en the differences e$isting between ?e$ican and ?e$ican American theater. (C) Their 'iews concerning the ?e$ican carpas are essentially correct/ but they lack familiarity with the acto2 ( ) Their 'iews are probably more correct than the 'iews of those who ha'e attributed the comic and impro'isational elements of the acto to earlier sources. (#) Their 'iews betray a lack of familiarity with the co--edia dell arte. 21. The passage suggests that which of the following e$plains the characteristic use of a mi$ture of ;panish/ #nglish/ and ?e$ican American dialects in the works of ?e$ican American playwrights% (A) ?e$ican American playwrights wish to include in their works elements drawn from the traditions and history of pre()ispanic America. (B) ?e$ican American playwrights try to guarantee that their works are fully understood by the broadest possible audience/ including those who may speak only one language. (C) ;uch a linguistic mi$ faithfully reflects the linguistic di'ersity of ?e$ican American culture/ and is easily understood by most ?e$ican Americans. ( ) ?any ?e$ican American playwrights are "uite familiar with both the ;panish(language and the #nglish(language theater traditions. (#) ?any different languages are still spoken within the confines of the :nited ;tates/ although #nglish is still the most common first language of its citi!ens. 22. According to the passage/ which of the following elements characteristic of the acto are also found in some agitprop theater pieces% (A) The use of masks (B) Comic impro'isation (C) An outdoor setting ( ) ?inimal use of comple$ stage effects or props (#) An assortment of semiallegorical characters 2-. &hich of the following/ if true/ most strengthens the author4s argument

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concerning the debt of the acto to the theater traditions of other periods and regions% (A) ?any popular forms of theater rely hea'ily on impro'isation. (B) @lays resembling the acto in structure were written in the 1,-54s by &est African playwrights who are interested in dramati!ing the richness of their own cultures. (C) The use of masks has/ at one time or another/ been characteristic of the theater traditions of almost all cultures/ e'en those most isolated from outside influences. ( ) uring a strike/ it is common for union members to present musical skits dramati!ing the 'alues of solidarity and resistance. (#) Before 1,21 Kuis Calde! had attended many performances of traditional ?e$ican theater groups touring the western :nited ;tates. 1994 02 SECTION A
0na"y)ing the physics o# dance can add #undamenta""y to a dancer3s s$i"". 0"though dancers se"dom see themse"ves tota""y in physica" terms!as body mass moving through space under the in#"uence o# we""-$nown #orces and obeying physica" "aws neither can they a##ord to ignore the physics o# movement. 7or e5amp"e' no matter how much a dancer wishes to "eap o## the #"oor and then start turning' the "aw o# conservation o# angu"ar momentum abso"ute"y prevents such a movement. ome movements invo"ving primari"y vertica" or hori)onta" motions o# the body as a who"e' in which rotations can be ignored' can be studied using simp"e e+uations o# "inear motion in three dimensions. (owever' rotationa" motions re+uire more comp"e5 approaches that invo"ve ana"yses o# the way the body3s mass is distributed' the a5es o# rotation invo"ved in di##erent types o# movement' and the sources o# the #orces that produce the rotationa" movement.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) initiate a debate o'er two approaches to analy!ing a field of study (B) describe how one field of knowledge can be applied to another field (C) point out the contradictions between two distinct theories ( ) define and elaborate on an accepted scientific principle (#) discuss the application of a new theory within a new setting 16. The author mentions all of the following as contributing to an understanding of the physics of dance #DC#@TE (A) the law of conser'ation of angular momentum (B) analyses of the way in which the body4s mass is distributed

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1,.

(C) e"uations of linear motion in three dimensions ( ) analyses of the sources that produce rotational motions (#) the technical terms for mo'ements such as leaps and turns 1,. The author implies that dancers can become more skilled by doing which of the following% (A) 3gnoring rotational mo'ements (B) :nderstanding the forces that permit 'arious mo'ements (C) ;ol'ing simple linear e"uations ( ) Kearning the technical terms utili!ed by choreographers (#) Circum'enting the law of conser'ation of angular momentum 25. Analysis of which of the following would re"uire the kind of comple$ approach described in lines 10(1,% (A) A long leap across space (B) A short <ump upward with a return to the same place (C) A sustained and controlled turn in place ( ) ;hort/ rapid steps forward and then backward without turning (#) Nuick sidesteps in a diagonal line
(uman re"ations have commanded peop"e3s attention #rom ear"y times. The ways o# peop"e have been recorded in innumerab"e myths' #o"$ta"es' nove"s' poems' p"ays' and popu"ar or phi"osophica" essays. 0"though the #u"" signi#icance o# a human re"ationship may not be direct"y evident' the comp"e5ity o# #ee"ings and actions that can be understood at a g"ance is surprising"y great. 7or this reason psycho"ogy ho"ds a uni+ue position among the sciences. ;/ntuitive< $now"edge may be remar$ab"y penetrating and can signi#icant"y he"p us understand human behavior' whereas in the physica" sciences such commonsense $now"edge is re"ative"y primitive. /# we erased a"" $now"edge o# scienti#ic physics #rom our modem word' not on"y wou"d we not have cars and te"evision sets' we might even #ind that the ordinary person was unab"e to cope with the #undamenta" mechanica" prob"ems o# pu""eys and "evers. 9n the other hand i# we removed a"" $now"edge o# scienti#ic psycho"ogy #rom our wor"d' prob"ems in interpersona" re"ations might easi"y be coped with and so"ved much as be#ore. 8e wou"d sti"" ;$now< how to avoid doing something as$ed o# us and how to get someone to agree with us: we wou"d sti"" ;$now< when someone was angry and when someone was p"eased. 9ne cou"d even o##er sensib"e e5p"anations #or the ;whys< o# much o# the se"#3s behavior and #ee"ings. /n other words' the ordinary person has a great and pro#ound understanding o# the se"# and o# other peop"e which' though un#ormu"ated or on"y vague"y conceived' enab"es one to interact with others in more or "ess adaptive ways. Noh"er' in re#erring to the "ac$ o# great discoveries in psycho"ogy as compared with physics' accounts #or this by saying that ;peop"e were ac+uainted with practica""y a"" territories o# menta" "i#e a "ong time be#ore the #ounding o# scienti#ic psycho"ogy.< 6arado5ica""y' with a"" this natura"' intuitive' commonsense capacity to grasp human re"ations' the science o# human re"ations has been one o# the "ast to deve"op. Fi##erent

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e5p"anations o# this parado5 have been suggested. 9ne is that science wou"d destroy the vain and p"easing i""usions peop"e have about themse"ves: but we might as$ why peop"e have a"ways "oved to read pessimistic' debun$ing writings' #rom =cc"esiastes to 7reud. /t has a"so been proposed that 2ust because we $now so much about peop"e intuitive"y' there has been "ess incentive #or studying them scienti#ica""y: why shou"d one deve"op a theory' carry out systematic observations' or ma$e predictions about the obviousC /n any case' the #ie"d o# human re"ations' with its vast "iterary documentation but meager scienti#ic treatment' is in great contrast to the #ie"d o# physic in which there are re"ative"y #ew nonscienti#ic boo$s.

21. According to the passage/ it has been suggested that the science of human relations was slow to de'elop because (A) intuiti'e knowledge of human relations is deri'ed from philosophy (B) early scientists were more interested in the physical world (C) scientific studies of human relations appear to in'estigate the ob'ious ( ) the scientific method is difficult to apply to the study of human relations (#) people generally seem to be more attracted to literary than to scientific writings about human relations 22. The author4s statement that *@sychology holds a uni"ue position among the sciences+ (lines 6(,) is supported by which of the following claims in the passage% (A) The full meaning of a human relationship may not be ob'ious. (B) Commonsense understanding of human relations can be incisi'e. (C) 3ntuiti'e knowledge in the physical sciences is relati'ely ad'anced. ( ) ;ub<ecti'e bias is difficult to control in psychological research. (#) @sychological facts are too imprecise to lead to great disco'eries. 2.. According to the passage/ an understanding of the self can be (A) highly biased due to unconscious factors (B) profound e'en when 'aguely concei'ed (C) impro'ed by speciali!ed training ( ) irrele'ant for understanding human relations (#) more reliable than knowledge about other people 20. 3t can be inferred that the author would most likely agree with which of the following statements regarding people who li'ed before the ad'ent of scientific psychology% (A) Their understanding of human relations was "uite limited. (B) They were uninterested in ac"uiring knowledge of the physical world. (C) They misunderstood others more fre"uently than do people today. ( ) Their intuitions about human relations were reasonably sophisticated. (#) They were more likely to hold pleasing illusions about themsel'es than are

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people today. 21. The author implies that attempts to treat human relations scientifically ha'e thus far been relati'ely (A) unilluminating (B) parado$ical (C) pessimistic ( ) encouraging (#) uninterpretable 22. The author refers to people who are attracted to *pessimistic/ debunking writings+ (line 00) in order to support which of the following ideas% (A) 3nteresting books about human relations are typically pessimistic. (B) @eople tend to ignore scientific e$planations of human relations. (C) @eople rarely hold pleasing illusions about themsel'es. ( ) A scientific approach human relations would undermine the pleasing illusions people hold of themsel'es. (#) 3t is doubtful that the science of human relations de'eloped slowly because of a desire to maintain pleasing illusions. 2-. 3t can be inferred that the author assumes that commonsense knowledge of human relations is (A) e"ually well de'eloped among all adults within a gi'en society (B) considerably more accurate in some societies than in others (C) biased insofar as it is based on myths and folktales ( ) typically unrelated to an indi'idual4s interactions with other people (#) usually sufficiently accurate to facilitate interactions with others SECTION B
0"though a historica" "ac$ o# access to #orma" panish-"anguage education initia""y "imited the opportunities o# some %hicanos to hone their s$i""s as writers o# panish' their bi"ingua" cu"ture c"ear"y #ostered an e5uberant and compe""ing ora" tradition. /t has thus genera""y been by way o# the emphasis on ora" "iterary creativity that these %hicano writers' whose =ng"ish"anguage wor$s are sometimes uninspired' deve"oped the power#u" and arresting "anguage that characteri)ed their panish-"anguage wor$s. This panish-=ng"ish di##erence is not surprising. 8hen writing in panish' these authors stayed c"ose to the spo$en traditions o# their communities where pub"ication' support' and instructive response wou"d come +uic$"y in "oca" or regiona" newspapers. 8or$s in =ng"ish' however' o#ten re+uired the e"imination o# nuance or co""o+uia"ism' the adoption o# a #orma" tone' and the ad2ustment o# themes or ideas to satis#y the di##erent demands o# nationa" pub"ications.

1-. The passage is primarily concerned with doing which of the following%

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(A) ebating the historical 'alue of a literary mo'ement (B) escribing and accounting for a difference in literary styles (C) #$plaining a publishing decision and e'aluating its results ( ) Analy!ing the e$pectations of a particular group of readers (#) Classifying se'eral kinds of literary production 16. According to the author/ the Chicano oral e$perience contributed directly to which of the following characteristics in the work of some Chicano writers% (A) A sensiti'ity to and adeptness in using the spoken language (B) A tendency to appear in national rather than regional publications (C) A style reflecting the influence of ;panish language education ( ) A reliance on a rather formal style (#) A capacity to appeal to a broad range of audiences 1,. &hich of the following best describes the function of the last two sentences of the passage (lines 11(1,)% (A) They e$pand on an ad'antage mentioned in the first sentence of the passage(lines 1(1). (B) They outline the conse"uences of a limitation discussed in the first sentence of the passage (lines 1(1). (C) They pro'ide e$plicit e$amples drawn from the oral and the written works mentioned in the second sentence of the passage (lines 1(15). ( ) They e$plain the causes of a phenomenon mentioned in the third sentence of the passage(lines 15(11). (#) They limit the applicability of a generali!ation made in the third sentence of the passage (lines 15(11). 25. The passage suggests that which of the following was probably characteristic of the *national publications+ mentioned in line 1,% (A) They primarily presented scholarly material of little interest to a general audience. (B) They sometimes published articles treating contro'ersial themes. (C) They encouraged authors to feature local issues in articles in order to increase circulation. ( ) They included a significant number of articles by minority authors. (#) They took a stylistically formal approach to material of interest to a general audience.
The two c"aws o# the mature 0merican "obster are decided"y di##erent #rom each other. The crusher c"aw is short and stout: the cutter c"aw is "ong and s"ender. uch bi"atera" asymmetry' in which the right side o# the body is' in a"" other respects' a mirror image o# the "e#t side' is not un"i$e handedness in humans. &ut where the ma2ority o# humans are right-

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handed' in "obsters the crusher c"aw appears with e+ua" probabi"ity on either the right or "e#t side o# the body. &i"atera" asymmetry o# the c"aws comes about gradua""y. /n the 2uveni"e #ourth and #i#th stages o# deve"opment' the paired c"aws are symmetrica" and cutter"i$e. 0symmetry begins to appear in the 2uveni"e si5th stage o# deve"opment' and the paired c"aws #urther diverge toward we""-de#ined cutter and crusher c"aws during succeeding stages. 0n intriguing aspect o# this deve"opment was discovered by Bictor =mme". (e #ound that i# one o# the paired c"aws is removed during the #ourth or #i#th stage' the intact c"aw invariab"y becomes a crusher' whi"e the regenerated c"aw becomes a cutter. Remova" o# a c"aw during a "ater 2uveni"e stage or during adu"thood' when asymmetry is present' does not a"ter the asymmetry: the intact and the regenerate c"aws retain their origina" structures. These observations indicate that the conditions that trigger di##erentiation must operate in a random manner when the paired c"aws are intact but in a nonrandom manner when one o# the c"aws is "ost. 9ne possib"e e5p"anation is that di##erentia" use o# the c"aws determines their asymmetry. 6erhaps the c"aw that is used more becomes the crusher. This wou"d e5p"ain why' when one o# the c"aws is missing during the #ourth or #i#th stage' the intact c"aw a"ways becomes a crusher. 8ith two intact c"aws' initia" use o# one c"aw might prompt the anima" to use it more than the other throughout the 2uveni"e #ourth and #i#th stages' causing it to become a crusher. To test this hypothesis' researchers raised "obsters in the 2uveni"e #ourth and #i#th stages o# deve"opment in a "aboratory environment in which the "obsters cou"d manipu"ate oyster chips. (*ot coincidenta""y' at this stage o# deve"opment "obsters typica""y change #rom a habitat where they dri#t passive"y' to the ocean #"oor where they have the opportunity to be more active by burrowing in the substrate.) Under these conditions' the "obsters deve"oped asymmetric c"aws' ha"# with crusher c"aws on the "e#t' and ha"# with crusher c"aws on the right. /n contrast' when 2uveni"e "obsters were reared in a smooth tan$ without the oyster chips' the ma2ority deve"oped two cutter c"aws. This unusua" con#iguration o# symmetrica" cutter c"aws did not change when the "obsters were subse+uent"y p"aced in a manipu"atab"e environment or when they "ost and regenerated one or both c"aws.

21. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) drawing an analogy between asymmetry in lobsters and handedness in humans (B) de'eloping a method for predicting whether crusher claws in lobsters will appear on the left or right side (C) e$plaining differences between lobsters4 crusher claws and cutter claws ( ) discussing a possible e$planation for the way bilateral asymmetry is determined in lobsters (#) summari!ing the stages of de'elopment of the lobster 22. #ach of the following statements about the de'elopment of a lobster4s crusher claw is supported by information in the passage #DC#@TE (A) 3t can be stopped on one side and begun on the other after the <u'enile si$th

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stage. (B) 3t occurs gradually o'er a number of stages. (C) 3t is initially apparent in the <u'enile si$th stage. ( ) 3t can occur e'en when a prospecti'e crusher claw is remo'ed in the <u'enile si$th stage. (#) 3t is less likely in the absence of a manipulatable en'ironment. 2.. &hich of the following e$perimental results/ if obser'ed/ would most clearly contradict the findings of Cictor #mmel% (A) A left cutterlike claw is remo'ed in the fifth stage and a crusher claw de'elops on the right side. (B) A left cutterlike claw is remo'ed in the fourth stage and a crusher claw de'elops on the left side. (C) A left cutterlike claw is remo'ed in the si$th stage and a crusher claw de'elops on the right side. ( ) Both cutterlike claws are remo'ed in the fifth stage and a crusher claw de'elops on the left side. (#) Both cutterlike claws are remo'ed in the fourth stage and a crusher claw de'elops on the right side. 20. 3t can be inferred that of the two laboratory en'ironments mentioned in the passage/ the one with oyster chips was designed to (A) pro'e that the presence of oyster chips was not necessary for the de'elopment of a crusher claw (B) pro'e that the relati'e length of time that the lobsters were e$posed to the oyster(chip en'ironment had little impact on the de'elopment of a crusher claw (C) eliminate the en'ironment as a possible influence in the de'elopment of a crusher claw ( ) control on which side the crusher claw de'elops (#) simulate the conditions that lobsters encounter in their natural en'ironment 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one difference between lobsters in the earlier stages of de'elopment and those in the <u'enile fourth and fifth stages is that lobsters in the early stages are (A) likely to be less acti'e (B) likely to be less symmetrical (C) more likely to lose a claw ( ) more likely to replace a crusher claw with a cutter claw (#) more likely to regenerate a lost claw 22. &hich of the following conditions does the passage suggest is a possible cause

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1,,

for the failure of a lobster to de'elop a crusher claw% (A) The loss of a claw during the third or earlier stage of de'elopment (B) The loss of a claw during the fourth or fifth stage of de'elopment (C) The loss of a claw during the si$th stage of de'elopment ( ) e'elopment in an en'ironment de'oid of material that can be manipulated (#) e'elopment in an en'ironment that changes fre"uently throughout the stages of de'elopment 2-. The author regards the idea that differentiation is triggered randomly when paired claws remain intact as (A) irrefutable considering the authoritati'e nature of #mmel4s obser'ations (B) likely in 'iew of present e'idence (C) contradictory to con'entional thinking on lobster(claw differentiation ( ) purely speculati'e because it is based on scattered research and e$perimentation (#) unlikely because of apparent inconsistencies with theories on handedness in humans 1994 04 SECTION A
Fe#enders o# specia" protective "abor "egis"ation #or women o#ten maintain that e"iminating such "aws wou"d destroy the #ruits o# a century-"ong strugg"e #or the protection o# women wor$ers. =ven a brie# e5amination o# the historic practice o# courts and emp"oyers wou"d show that the #ruit o# such "aws has been bitter> they are' in practice' more o# a curse than a b"essing. e5-de#ined protective "aws have o#ten been based on stereotypica" assumptions concerning women3s needs and abi"ities' and emp"oyers have #re+uent"y used them as "ega" e5cuses #or discriminating against women. 0#ter the econd 8or"d 8ar' #or e5amp"e' businesses and government sought to persuade women to vacate 2obs in #actories' thus ma$ing room in the "abor #orce #or returning veterans. The reviva" or passage o# state "aws "imiting the dai"y or wee$"y wor$ hours o# women convenient"y accomp"ished this. =mp"oyers had on"y to dec"are that overtime hours were a necessary condition o# emp"oyment or promotion in their #actory' and women cou"d be +uite "ega""y #ired' re#used 2obs' or $ept at "ow wage "eve"s' a"" in the name o# ;protecting< their hea"th. &y va"idating such "aws when they are cha""enged by "awsuits' the courts have co""uded over the years in estab"ishing di##erent' "ess advantageous emp"oyment terms #or women than #or men' thus reducing women3s competitiveness on the 2ob mar$et. 0t the same time' even the most we""-intentioned "awma$ers' courts' and emp"oyers have o#ten been b"ind to the rea" needs o# women. The "awma$ers and the courts continue to permit emp"oyers to o##er emp"oyee hea"th insurance p"ans that cover a"" $nown human medica" disabi"ities e5cept those re"ating to pregnancy and

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chi"dbirth. 7ina""y' "abor "aws protecting on"y specia" groups are o#ten ine##ective at protecting the wor$ers who are actua""y in the wor$p"ace. ome chemica"s' #or e5amp"e' pose reproductive ris$s #or women o# chi"dbearing years: manu#acturers using the chemica"s comp"y with "aws protecting women against these ha)ards by re#using to hire them. Thus the se5-de#ined "egis"ation protects the hypothetica" #ema"e wor$er' but has no e##ect whatever on the sa#ety o# any actua" emp"oyee. The hea"th ris$s to ma"e emp"oyees in such industries cannot be neg"igib"e' since chemica"s to5ic enough to cause birth de#ects in #etuses or steri"ity in women are presumab"y harm#u" to the human metabo"ism. 6rotective "aws aimed at changing production materia"s or techni+ues in order to reduce such ha)ards wou"d bene#it a"" emp"oyees without discriminating against any. /n sum' protective "abor "aws #or women are discriminatory and do not meet their intended purpose. Eegis"ators shou"d recogni)e that women are in the wor$ #orce to stay' and that their needsgood hea"th care' a decent wage' and a sa#e wor$p"ace are the needs o# a"" wor$ers. Eaws that ignore these #acts vio"ate women3s rights #or e+ua" protection in emp"oyment.

1-. According to the author/ which of the following resulted from the passage or re'i'al of state laws limiting the work hours of women workers% (A) &omen workers were compelled to lea'e their <obs in factories. (B) ?any employers had difficulty in pro'iding <obs for returning 'eterans. (C) ?any employers found it hard to attract women workers. ( ) The health of most women factory workers impro'ed. (#) #mployment practices that addressed the real needs of women workers became common. 16. The author places the word *protecting+ in "uotation marks in line 21 most likely in order to suggest that (A) she is "uoting the actual wording of the laws in "uestion (B) the protecti'e nature of the laws in "uestion should not be o'erlooked (C) protecting the health of workers is important to those who support protecti'e labor laws ( ) the laws in "uestion were really used to the detriment of women workers/ despite being o'ertly protecti'e in intent (#) the health of workers is not in need of protection/ e'en in <obs where many hours of o'ertime work are re"uired 1,. The passage suggests that which of the following is a shortcoming of protecti'e labor laws that single out a particular group of workers for protection% (A) ;uch laws are often too weak to be effecti'e at protecting the group in "uestion. (B) ;uch laws are usually drafted by legislators who/ do not ha'e the best

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interests of workers at heart. (C) ;uch laws e$ert no pressure on employers to eliminate ha!ards in the workplace. ( ) Compliance with such laws is often costly for employers and pro'okes lawsuits by employees claiming discrimination. (#) #mployer compliance with such laws results in increased tension among workers on the <ob/ because such laws unfairly pri'ilege one group of employees o'er another. 25. According to the first paragraph of the passage/ the author considers which of the following to be most helpful in determining the 'alue of special protecti'e labor legislation for women% (A) A comparati'e study of patterns of work(related illnesses in states that had such laws and in states that did not (B) An estimate of how many women workers are in fa'or of such laws (C) An analysis of the cost to employers of complying with such laws ( ) A consideration of what intentions the ad'ocates of such laws really had concerning women workers (#) An e$amination of the actual effects that such laws ha'e had in the past on women workers 21. The main point of the passage is that special protecti'e labor laws for women workers are (A) unnecessary because most workers are well protected by e$isting labor laws (B) harmful to the economic interests of women workers while offering them little or no actual protection (C) not worth preser'ing e'en though they do represent a hard(won legacy of the labor mo'ement ( ) contro'ersial because male workers recei'e less protection than they re"uire (#) inade"uate in that they often do not pre'ent employers from e$posing women workers to many health ha!ards 22. The author implies that which of the following is characteristic of many employee health insurance plans% (A) They co'er all the common medical conditions affecting men/ but only some of those affecting women. (B) They lack the special pro'isions for women workers that proposed special labor laws for women would pro'ide. (C) They pay the medical costs associated with pregnancy and childbirth only for the spouses of male employees/ not for female employees. ( ) They meet minimum legal re"uirements/ but do not ade"uately safeguard the health of either male or female employees.

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(#) They ha'e recently been impro'ed as a result of the passage of new labor laws/ but continue to e$clude co'erage of certain uncommon medical conditions affecting women. 2.. According to the passage/ special labor laws protecting women workers tend generally to ha'e which of the following effects% (A) They tend to modify the stereotypes employees often hold concerning women. (B) They increase the ad'antage to employers of hiring men instead of women/ making it less likely that women will be hired. (C) They decrease the likelihood that employers will offer more protection to women workers than that which is absolutely re"uired by law. ( ) They increase the tendency of employers to deny health insurance and disability plans to women workers. (#) They ha'e little impact of any kind on women workers/ since typically 'ery few women are employed in those classes of <obs co'ered by the laws.
8hi"e it is true that "iving organisms are pro#ound"y a##ected by their environment' it is e+ua""y important to remember that many organisms are a"so capab"e o# a"tering their habitat signi#icant"y' sometimes "imiting their own growth. The in#"uence o# the bio"ogica" component o# an ecosystem is o#ten greater in #resh waters that in marine or terrestria" systems' because o# the sma"" si)e o# many #reshwater bodies. ?any o# the important e##ects o# organisms are re"ated to their physio"ogy' especia""y growth and respiration. &y their growth many species can dep"ete essentia" nutrients within the system' thus "imiting their own growth or that o# other species. Eund has demonstrated that in Ea$e 8indermere the a"ga "sterionella is unab"e to grow in conditions that it itse"# has created. 9nce a year' in the spring' this p"ant starts to grow rapid"y in the "a$e' using up so much si"ica #rom the water that by "ate spring there is no "onger enough to maintain its own growth. The popu"ation decreases dramatica""y as a resu"t.

20. &hich of the following is an e$ample of the type of organism described in lines 2(1% (A) A kind of ant that feeds on the sweet <uice e$uded by the twigs of a species of thorn tree that grows in dry areas. (B) A kind of fish that/ after growing to maturity in the ocean/ returns to fresh water. (C) A kind of flower that has markings distinctly perceptible in ultra'iolet light to the species of bee that pollinates the flower. ( ) A kind of tree with seeds that germinate readily only in a sunny spot and then de'elop into mature trees that shade the area below them. (#) A kind of butterfly/ itself nonpoisonous/ with the same markings as a kind of butterfly that birds refuse to eat because it is poisonous. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the followings is true about

GRE

25.

Asterionella plants in Kake &indermere% (A) They are not present e$cept in early spring. (B) They contribute silica to the waters as they grow. (C) They are food for other organisms. ( ) They form a silica(rich layer on the lake bottom. (#) Their growth peaks in the spring. 22. The passage indicates that organisms fre"uently ha'e the strongest effects on their en'ironment in (A) oceans/ since oceans contain the largest organisms li'ing on #arth (B) oceans/ since oceans pro'ide habitats for many different kinds of species (C) freshwater bodies/ since such effects become pronounced in relati'ely small spaces ( ) freshwater lakes/ since nutrients in freshwater lakes are present only in small amounts (#) land areas/ since there e$ist ma<or influences of climate on the kinds of small organisms supported in land areas 2-. The primary topic of the passage is the way in which (A) organisms are affected by the amount of nutrients a'ailable (B) organisms can change their own surroundings (C) elements of freshwater habitats impede the growth of small organisms ( ) the reproduction of organisms is controlled by factors in the en'ironment (#) plant matter in a gi'en locale can increase up to a limit SECTION B
/t is their sensitive response to human circumstance that accounts #or the persistence o# certain universa" ideas. Rabbi ?eir' a second-century scho"ar' admonished his discip"es to "oo$ not at the pitcher but at its contents because' he stated' ;?any a new pitcher has been #ound to be #u"" o# o"d wine.< This was his way o# emphasi)ing the importance o# the distinction between #orm and idea' and o# stressing that the integrity o# an idea is more important than the #orm o# its e5pression. %reative ideas not on"y produce their own instruments o# surviva" as time and circumstances demand' but permit the substitution o# new #orms #or o"d under the pressure o# changed circumstances. 7or e5amp"e democracy' as an idea' originated in ancient Areece and was carried #rom there to 8estern =urope and the 0mericas. &ut it did not retain the ancient Aree$ #orm> it passed through severa" re#orming processes and e5ists today in many countries. Femocratic governments di##er in #orm because democracy is in princip"e dynamic and has there#ore responded to "oca" needs.

1-. The author is primarily concerned with

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(A) illustrating the importance of a historical figure (B) discussing an important characteristic of human ideas (C) describing the history of the growth of democracy ( ) contrasting ancient and modern 'iews of the importance of creati'e ideas (#) e'aluating the contribution of ancient Breece to modern go'ernment 16. According to the passage/ democracy is an e$ample of (A) a human circumstance that has molded creati'e ideas (B) an instrument of sur'i'al that has altered its original form (C) an attribute of a creati'e idea that has allowed that idea to persist ( ) a creati'e idea that has persisted because of its adaptability (#) a reforming process that has culminated in the creation of modern go'ernments 1,. The *new pitcher+ mentioned in line 2 is the e"ui'alent of which of the following elements in the author4s discussion of democracy (lines 11(22)% (A) Ancient Breece (B) The idea of democracy (C) A modern democratic go'ernment ( ) A dynamic principle (#) The Breek form of democracy 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would disagree most with which of the following assertions% (A) Changing circumstances sometimes gi'e rise to original ideas. (B) Creati'e ideas ha'e uni'ersal applications. (C) Changing human needs influence uni'ersal ideas. ( ) emocratic institutions are appropriate in the modern world. (#) An idea must be e$pressed in a traditional way.
&e#ore 19G- many scientists pictured the circu"ation o# the ocean3s water mass as consisting o# "arge' s"ow-moving currents' such as the Au"# tream. That view' based on 1.. years o# observations made around the g"obe' produced on"y a rough appro5imation o# the true circu"ation. &ut in the 19-.3s and the 19G.3s' researchers began to emp"oy new"y deve"oped techni+ues and e+uipment' inc"uding subsur#ace #"oats that move with ocean currents and emit identi#ication signa"s' and ocean-current meters that record data #or months at #i5ed "ocations in the ocean. These instruments disc"osed an une5pected "eve" o# variabi"ity in the deep ocean. Rather than being characteri)ed by smooth' "arge-sca"e currents that change seasona""y (i# at a"")' the seas are dominated by what oceanographers ca"" mesosca"e #ie"ds> #"uctuating' energetic #"ows whose ve"ocity can reach ten times the mean ve"ocity o# the ma2or currents. ?esosca"e phenomenathe oceanic ana"ogue o# weather systemso#ten e5tend to

GRE
distances o# 1.. $i"ometers and persist #or 1.. days (weather systems genera""y e5tend about 1'... $i"ometers and "ast 4 to - days in any given area). ?ore than 9. percent o# the

251

$inetic energy o# the entire ocean may be accounted #or by mesosca"e variabi"ity rather than by "arge-sca"e currents. ?esosca"e phenomena may' in #act' p"ay a signi#icant ro"e in oceanic mi5ing' air-sea interactions' and occasiona"but #ar-reachingc"imatic events such as =" *ino' the atmospheric-oceanic disturbance in the e+uatoria" 6aci#ic that a##ects g"oba" weather patterns. Un#ortunate"y' it is not #easib"e to use conventiona" techni+ues to measure mesosca"e #ie"ds. To measure them proper"y' monitoring e+uipment wou"d have to be "aid out on a grid at interva"s o# at most -. $i"ometers' with sensors at each grid point "owered deep in the ocean and $ept there #or many months. &ecause using these techni+ues wou"d be prohibitive"y e5pensive and time-consuming' it was proposed in 1979 that tomography be adapted to measuring the physica" properties o# the ocean. /n medica" tomography 5-rays map the human body3s density variations (and hence interna" organs): the in#ormation #rom the 5-rays' transmitted through the body a"ong many di##erent paths' is recombined to #orm threedimensiona" images o# the body3s interior. /t is primari"y this mu"tip"icative increase in data obtained #rom the mu"tipath transmission o# signa"s that accounts #or oceanographers3 attraction to tomography> it a""ows the measurement o# vast areas with re"ative"y #ew instruments. Researchers reasoned that "ow-#re+uency sound waves' because they are so we"" described mathematica""y and because even sma"" perturbations in emitted sound waves can be detected' cou"d be transmitted through the ocean over many di##erent paths and that the properties o# the ocean3s interiorits temperature' sa"inity' density' and speed o# currents cou"d be deduced on the basis o# how the ocean a"tered the signa"s. Their initia" tria"s were high"y success#u"' and ocean acoustic tomography was born.

21. According to the passage/ scientists are able to use ocean acoustic tomography to deduce the properties of the ocean4s interior in part because (A) low(fre"uency sound wa'es are well described mathematically (B) mesoscale phenomena are so large as to be easily detectable (C) information from sound wa'es can be recombined more easily than information from $(rays ( ) tomography is better suited to measuring mesoscale phenomena than to measuring small(scale systems (#) density 'ariations in the ocean are mathematically predictable 22. The passage suggests that medical tomography operates on the principle that (A) $(rays are superior to sound wa'es for producing three(dimensional images (B) sound wa'es are altered as they pass through regions of 'arying density (C) images of the body4s interior can be produced by analy!ing a single $(ray transmission through the body ( ) the 'arying densities within the human body allow $(rays to map the internal organs

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(#) information from $(rays and sound wa'es can be combined to produce a highly detailed image of the body4s interior 2.. &hich of the following is most similar to medical tomography as it is described in the passage% (A) The use of ocean(current meters to determine the direction and 'elocity of the ocean4s mesoscale fields (B) The use of earth"uake shockwa'e data collected at se'eral different locations and combined to create a three(dimensional image of the #arth4s interior (C) The use of a grid(point sensory system to map global weather patterns ( ) The use of subsurface floats to map large(scale circulation in the ocean (#) The use of computer technology to halt the progress of a particular disease within the human body4s internal organs 20. The author mentions #l 9ino (line 2-) primarily in order to emphasi!e which of the following points% (A) The brief duration of weather patterns (B) The 'ariability of mesoscale phenomena (C) The difficulty of measuring the ocean4s large(scale currents ( ) The effecti'eness of low(fre"uency sound wa'es in mapping the ocean (#) The possible impact of mesoscale fields on weather conditions 21. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph of the passage% (A) A theory is proposed/ considered/ and then attended. (B) 8pposing 'iews are presented/ elaborated/ and then reconciled. (C) A problem is described/ then a solution is discussed and its effecti'eness is affirmed. ( ) An argument is ad'anced/ then refuted/ and an alternati'e is suggested. (#) A hypothesis is presented/ "ualified/ and then reaffirmed. 22. The passage suggests that which of the following would be true if the ocean4s circulation consisted primarily of large/ slow(mo'ing currents% (A) The influence of mesoscale fields on global weather patterns would remain the same. (B) Karge(scale currents would e$hibit more 'ariability than is actually obser'ed. (C) The ma<ority of the ocean4s kinetic energy would be deri'ed from mesoscale fields. ( ) Atmospheric(oceanic disturbances such as #l 9ino would occur more often. (#) Con'entional measuring techni"ues would be a feasible method of studying the physical properties of the ocean.

GRE

25-

2-. &hich of the following/ if presented as the first sentence of a succeeding paragraph/ would most logically continue the discussion presented in the passage% (A) Timekeeping in medical tomography must be precise because the changes in tra'el time caused by density fluctuations are slight. (B) To understand how ocean acoustic tomography works/ it is necessary to know how sound tra'els in the ocean. (C) ;hips are another possibility/ but they would need to stop e'ery 15 kilometers to lower measuring instruments. ( ) These 'ariations amount to only about 2 to . percent of the a'erage speed of sound in water/ which is about 1/ 155 meters per second. (#) The de'ice used in medical tomography emits a specially coded signal/ easily distinguishable from background noise. 1994 10 SECTION A
The 7ourteenth 0mendment to the United tates %onstitution' rati#ied in 18G8' prohibits state governments #rom denying citi)ens the ;e+ua" protection o# the "aws.< 0"though precise"y what the #ramers o# the amendment meant by this e+ua" protection c"ause remains unc"ear' a"" interpreters agree that the #ramers3 immediate ob2ective was to provide a constitutiona" warrant #or the %ivi" Rights 0ct o# 18GG' which guaranteed the citi)enship o# a"" persons born in the United tates and sub2ect to United tates 2urisdiction. This dec"aration' which was echoed in the te5t o# the 7ourteenth 0mendment' was designed primari"y to counter the upreme %ourt3s ru"ing in -red cott v. andford that &"ac$ peop"e in the United tates cou"d be denied citi)enship. The act was vetoed by 6resident 0ndrew @ohnson' who argued that the Thirteenth 0mendment' which abo"ished s"avery' did not provide %ongress with the authority to e5tend citi)enship and e+ua" protection to the #reed s"aves. 0"though %ongress prompt"y overrode @ohnson3s veto' supporters o# the act sought to ensure its constitutiona" #oundations with the passage o# the 7ourteenth 0mendment. The broad "anguage o# the amendment strong"y suggests that its #ramers were proposing to write into the %onstitution not a "aundry "ist o# speci#ic civi" rights but a princip"e o# e+ua" citi)enship that #orbids organi)ed society #rom treating any individua" as a member o# an in#erior c"ass. Det #or the #irst eight decades o# the amendment3s e5istence' the upreme %ourt3s interpretation o# the amendment betrayed this idea" o# e+ua"ity. /n the Civil *ights Cases o# 1884' #or e5amp"e' the %ourt invented the ;state action< "imitation' which asserts that ;private< decisions by owners o# pub"ic accommodations and other commercia" businesses to segregate their #aci"ities are insu"ated #rom the reach o# the 7ourteenth 0mendment3s guarantee o# e+ua" protection under the "aw. 0#ter the econd 8or"d 8ar' a 2udicia" c"imate more hospitab"e to e+ua" protection c"aims cu"minated in the upreme %ourt3s ru"ing in Brown v. Board of Education that racia""y

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segregated schoo"s vio"ated the e+ua" protection c"ause o# the 7ourteenth 0mendment. Two doctrines embraced by the upreme %ourt during this period e5tended the amendment3s reach. 7irst' the %ourt re+uired especia""y strict scrutiny o# "egis"ation that emp"oyed a ;suspect c"assi#ication'< meaning discrimination against a group on grounds that cou"d be construed as racia". This doctrine has broadened the app"ication o# the 7ourteenth 0mendment to other' nonracia" #orms o# discrimination' #or whi"e some 2ustices have re#used to #ind any "egis"ative c"assi#ication other than race to be constitutiona""y dis#avored' most have been receptive to arguments that at "east some nonracia" discriminations' se5ua" discrimination in particu"ar' are ;suspect< and deserve this heightened scrutiny by the courts. econd' the %ourt re"a5ed the state action "imitation on the 7ourteenth 0mendment' bringing new #orms o# private conduct within the amendment3s reach.

1-. &hich of the following best describes the main idea of the passage% (A) By presenting a list of specific rights/ framers of the >ourteenth Amendment were attempting to pro'ide a constitutional basis for broad <udicial protection of the principle of e"ual citi!enship. (B) 8nly after the ;upreme Court adopted the suspect classification approach to re'iewing potentially discriminatory legislation was the applicability of the >ourteenth Amendment e$tended to include se$ual discrimination. (C) 9ot until after the ;econd &orld &ar did the ;upreme Court begin to interpret the >ourteenth Amendment in a manner consistent with the principle of e"ual citi!enship that it e$presses. ( ) 3nterpreters of the >ourteenth Amendment ha'e yet to reach consensus with regard to what its framers meant by the e"ual protection clause. (#) Although the reluctance of <udges to e$tend the reach of the >ourteenth Amendment to nonracial discrimination has betrayed the principle of e"ual citi!enship/ the ;upreme Court4s use of the state action limitation to insulate pri'ate acti'ity from the amendment4s reach has been more harmful. 16. The passage suggests that the principal effect of the state action limitation was to (A) allow some discriminatory practices to continue unimpeded by the >ourteenth Amendment (B) influence the ;upreme Court4s ruling in %ro(n $1 %oard o+ Education (C) pro'ide e$panded guidelines describing prohibited actions ( ) prohibit states from enacting laws that 'iolated the intent of the Ci'il =ights Act of 1622 (#) shift to state go'ernments the responsibility for enforcement of laws prohibiting discriminatory practices 1,. The author4s position regarding the intent of the framers of the >ourteenth Amendment would be most seriously undermined if which of the following were true% (A) The framers had anticipated state action limitations as they are described in

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the passage. (B) The framers had merely sought to pre'ent discriminatory acts by federal officials. (C) The framers were concerned that the Ci'il =ights Act of 1622 would be o'erturned by the ;upreme Court. ( ) The framers were aware that the phrase *e"ual protection of the laws+ had broad implications. (#) The framers belie'ed that racial as well as non(racial forms of discrimination were unacceptable. 25. According to the passage/ the original proponents of the >ourteenth Amendment were primarily concerned with (A) detailing the rights afforded by the principle of e"ual citi!enship (B) pro'iding support in the Constitution for e"ual protection for all citi!ens of the :nited ;tates (C) closing a loophole that could be used to deny indi'iduals the right to sue for enforcement of their ci'il rights ( ) asserting that the ci'il rights protected by the Constitution included nonracial discrimination as well as racial discrimination (#) granting state go'ernments broader discretion in interpreting the Ci'il =ights Act of 1622 21. The author implies that the >ourteenth Amendment might not ha'e been enacted if (A) Congress4 authority with regard to legislating ci'il rights had not been challenged (B) the framers had anticipated the ;upreme Court4s ruling in %ro(n $2 %oard o+ Education (C) the framers had belie'ed that it would be used in deciding cases of discrimination in'ol'ing non(racial groups ( ) most state go'ernments had been willing to protect citi!ens4 ci'il rights (#) its essential elements had not been implicit in the Thirteenth Amendment 22. According to the passage/ which of the following most accurately indicates the se"uence of the e'ents listed below% 3. 33. Ci'il =ights Act of 1622 red ;cott '. ;andford

333. >ourteenth Amendment 3C. Ceto by @resident Aohnson (A) 3/ 33/ 333/ 3C (B) 3/ 3C/ 33/ 333

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(C) 3/ 3C/ 333/ 33 ( ) 33/ 3/ 3C/ 333 (#) 333/ 33/ 3/ 3C 2.. &hich of the following can be inferred about the second of the two doctrines referred to in lines .,(01 of the passage% (A) 3t caused some <ustices to rule that all types of discrimination are prohibited by the Constitution. (B) 3t shifted the focus of the ;upreme Court from racial to nonracial discrimination. (C) 3t narrowed the concern of the ;upreme Court to legislation that employed a suspect classification. ( ) 3t caused legislators who were writing new legislation to re<ect language that could be construed as permitting racial discrimination. (#) 3t made it more difficult for commercial businesses to practice racial discrimination.
The =arth3s magnetic #ie"d is generated as the mo"ten iron o# the =arth3s outer core revo"ves around its so"id inner core. 8hen surges in the mo"ten iron occur' magnetic tempests are created. 0t the =arth3s sur#ace' these tempests can be detected by changes in the strength o# the =arth3s magnetic #ie"d. 7or reasons not #u""y understood' the #ie"d itse"# reverses periodica""y every mi""ion years or so. Furing the past mi""ion years' #or instance' the magnetic north po"e has migrated between the 0ntarctic and the 0rctic. %"ear"y' geophysicists who see$ to e5p"ain and #orecast changes in the #ie"d must understand what happens in the outer core. Un"i$e meteoro"ogists' however' they cannot re"y on observations made in their own "i#etimes. 8hereas atmospheric storms arise in a matter o# hours and "ast #or days' magnetic tempests deve"op over decades and persist #or centuries. 7ortunate"y scientists have been recording changes in the =arth3s magnetic #ie"d #or more than 4.. years.

20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) analy!ing a complicated scientific phenomenon and its impact on the #arth4s surface features (B) describing a natural phenomenon and the challenges its study presents to researchers (C) discussing a scientific field of research and the gaps in researchers4 methodological approaches to it ( ) comparing two distinct fields of physical science and the different research methods employed in each (#) proposing an e$planation for a geophysical phenomenon and an e$periment that could help confirm that e$planation 21. The passage suggests which of the following about surges in the #arth4s outer

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core% (A) They occur cyclically e'ery few decades. (B) They can be predicted by changes in the #arth4s inner core. (C) They are detected through indirect means. ( ) They are linked to disturbances in the #arth4s atmosphere. (#) They last for periods of about 1 million years. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that geophysicists seeking to e$plain magnetic tempests ought to conduct research on the #arth4s outer core because the #arth4s outer core (A) is more fully understood than the #arth4s magnetic field (B) is more easily obser'ed than the #arth4s magnetic field (C) has been the sub<ect of e$tensi'e scientific obser'ation for .55 years ( ) is in'ol'ed in generating the #arth4s magnetic field (#) reflects changes in the inner core caused by magnetic tempests 2-. 3n the second paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) stating a limitation that helps determine a research methodology (B) making a comparati'e analysis of two different research methodologies (C) assessing the amount of empirical data in the field of physical science ( ) suggesting an optimistic way of 'iewing a widely feared phenomenon (#) describing a fundamental issue and discussing its future impact on society SECTION B
The de#o"iation o# mi""ions o# acres o# trees by massive in#estations o# gypsy moth caterpi""ars is a recurring phenomenon in the northeastern United tates. /n studying these outbrea$s' scientists have discovered that a##ected trees #ight bac$ by re"easing to5ic chemica"s' main"y pheno"s' into their #o"iage. These no5ious substances "imit caterpi""ars3 growth and reduce the number o# eggs that #ema"e moths "ay. 6heno"s a"so ma$e the eggs sma""er' which reduces the growth o# the #o""owing year3s caterpi""ars. &ecause the number o# eggs a #ema"e moth produces is direct"y re"ated to her si)e' and because her si)e is determined entire"y by her #eeding success as a caterpi""ar' the trees3 de#ensive mechanism has an impact on moth #ecundity. The gypsy moth is a"so sub2ect to attac$ by the nuc"eopo"yhedrosis virus' or wi"t disease' a particu"ar"y important $i""er o# the caterpi""ars in outbrea$ years. %aterpi""ars contract wi"t disease when they eat a "ea# to which the virus' encased in a protein g"obu"e' has become attached. 9nce ingested by a caterpi""ar' the protein g"obu"e disso"ves' re"easing thousands o# viruses' or virions' that a#ter about two wee$s mu"tip"y enough to #i"" the entire body cavity. 8hen the caterpi""ar dies' the virions are re"eased to the outside' encased in a new protein g"obu"e synthesi)ed #rom the caterpi""ar3s tissues and ready to be pic$ed up by other caterpi""ars.

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Nnowing that pheno"s' inc"uding tannins' o#ten act by associating with and a"tering the

activity o# proteins' researchers #ocused on the e##ects on caterpi""ars o# ingesting the virus and "eaves together. They #ound that on tannin-rich oa$ "eaves' the virus is considerab"y "ess e##ective at $i""ing caterpi""ars than when it is on aspen "eaves' which are "ower in pheno"s. /n genera"' the more concentrated the pheno"s in tree "eaves' the "ess dead"y the virus. Thus' whi"e high"y concentrated pheno"s in tree "eaves reduce the caterpi""ar popu"ation by "imiting the si)e o# caterpi""ars and' conse+uent"y' the si)e o# the #ema"e3s egg c"uster' these same chemica"s a"so he"p caterpi""ars survive by disab"ing the wi"t virus. 7orest stands o# red oa$s' with their tannin-rich #o"iage' may even provide caterpi""ars with sa#e havens #rom disease. /n stands dominated by trees such as aspen' however' incipient gypsy moth outbrea$s are +uic$"y suppressed by vira" epidemics. 7urther research has shown that caterpi""ars become virtua""y immune to the wi"t virus as the trees on which they #eed respond to increasing de#o"iation. The trees3 own de#enses raise the thresho"d o# caterpi""ar vu"nerabi"ity to the disease' a""owing popu"ations to grow denser without becoming more susceptib"e to in#ection. 7or these reasons' the bene#its to the caterpi""ars o# ingesting pheno"s appear to outweigh the costs. Aiven the presence o# the virus' the trees3 de#ensive tactic apparent"y has bac$#ired.

1-. &hich of the following statements best e$presses the main point of the passage% (A) =ecurring outbreaks of infestation by gypsy moth caterpillars ha'e had a de'astating impact on trees in the northeastern :nited ;tates. (B) A mechanism used by trees to combat the threat from gypsy moth caterpillars has actually made some trees more 'ulnerable to that threat. (C) Although deadly to gypsy moth caterpillars/ wilt disease has failed to significantly affect the population density of the caterpillars. ( ) The tree species with the highest le'els of phenols in their foliage are the most successful in defending themsel'es against gypsy moth caterpillars. (#) 3n their efforts to de'elop new methods for controlling gypsy moth caterpillars/ researchers ha'e focused on the effects of phenols in tree lea'es on the insects4 growth and reproduction. 16. 3n lines 12(10/ the phrase *the trees4 defensi'e mechanism has an impact on moth fecundity+ refers to which of the following phenomena% (A) >emale moths that ingest phenols are more susceptible to wilt 'irus/ which causes them to lay smaller eggs. (B) )ighly concentrated phenols in tree lea'es limit caterpillars4 food supply/ thereby reducing the gypsy moth population. (C) @henols attack the protein globule that protects moth egg clusters/ making them 'ulnerable to wilt 'irus and lowering their sur'i'al rate. ( ) @henols in oak lea'es dri'e gypsy moths into forest stands dominated by aspens/ where they succumb to 'iral epidemics. (#) The consumption of phenols by caterpillars results in undersi!ed female

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21.

gypsy moths/ which tend to produce small egg clusters. 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that wilt disease 'irions depend for their sur'i'al on (A) protein synthesi!ed from the tissues of a host caterpillar (B) aspen lea'es with high concentrations of phenols (C) tannin(rich oak lea'es ( ) nutrients that they synthesi!e from gypsy moth egg clusters (#) a rising threshold of caterpillar 'ulnerability to wilt disease 25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most clearly demonstrate the operation of the trees4 defensi'e mechanism as it is described in the first paragraph of the passage% (A) Caterpillars feeding on red oaks that were more than 15 percent defoliated grew to be only two(thirds the si!e of those feeding on trees with relati'ely intact foliage. (B) 8ak lea'es in areas unaffected by gypsy moths were found to ha'e higher le'els of tannin on a'erage than aspen lea'es in areas infested with gypsy moths. (C) The sur'i'al rate of gypsy moth caterpillars e$posed to the wilt 'irus was 05 percent higher for those that fed on aspen lea'es than for those that ate oak lea'es. ( ) >emale gypsy moths produced an a'erage of 21 percent fewer eggs in areas where the wilt 'irus flourished than did moths in areas that were free of the 'irus. (#) Bypsy moth egg clusters deposited on oak trees were found to ha'e relati'ely large indi'idual eggs compared to those deposited on aspen trees. 21. &hich of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph of the passage% (A) 3t resol'es a contradiction between the ideas presented in the first and second paragraphs. (B) 3t introduces research data to support the theory outlined in the second paragraph. (C) 3t draws a conclusion from conflicting e'idence presented in the first two paragraphs. ( ) 3t shows how phenomena described in the first and second paragraphs act in combination. (#) 3t elaborates on the thesis introduced in the first paragraph after a digression in the second paragraph. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that gypsy moth caterpillars become immune to the wilt 'irus as a result of

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(A) consuming a wide range of nutrients from a 'ariety of leaf types (B) feeding on lea'es that contain high le'els of phenols (C) producing fewer offspring/ which fa'ors the sur'i'al of the hardiest indi'iduals ( ) ingesting the 'irus together with lea'es that do not contain tannin (#) growing population density/ which outstrips the ability of the 'irus to multiply and spread 2.. &hich of the following statements about gypsy moth caterpillars is supported by information presented in the passage% (A) &ilt disease is more likely to strike small gypsy moth caterpillars than large ones. (B) The concentration of phenols in tree lea'es increases as the gypsy moth caterpillar population dies off. (C) >emale gypsy moth caterpillars stop growing after they ingest lea'es containing phenols. ( ) iffering concentrations of phenols in lea'es ha'e differing effects on the ability of the wilt 'irus to kill gypsy moth caterpillars. (#) The longer a gypsy moth population is e$posed to wilt disease/ the greater the likelihood that the gypsy moth caterpillars will become immune to the 'irus.
The sweep o# narrative in 0. *. 8i"son3s biography o# %. . Eewis is impressive and there is much that is acute and we"" argued. &ut much in this wor$ is care"ess and unworthy o# its author. 8i"son' a nove"ist and an accomp"ished biographer' has #ai"ed to do what any writer on such a sub2ect as Eewis ought to do' name"y wor$ out a coherent view o# how the various "iterary wor$s by the sub2ect are to be described and commented on. Fecisions have to be made on what to "oo$ at in detai" and what to pass by with 2ust a mention. 8i"son has not thought this prob"em out. 7or instance' Till ,e %ave Faces' Eewis3 treatment o# the =ros and 6syche story and one o# his best-e5ecuted and most moving wor$s' is mere"y mentioned by 8i"son' though it i""uminates Eewis3 spiritua" deve"opment' whereas Eewis3 minor wor$ Pilgrims *egress is "oo$ed at in considerab"e detai".

20. The author of the passage implies that &ilson4s e$amination of Pilgri-s "egress (A) is not as coherent as his treatment of Till We &a$e Faces (B) would ha'e been more appropriate in a separate treatise because of the scope of Pilgri-s =egress (C) demonstrates how &ilson4s narrow focus ignores the general themes of Kewis4 works ( ) was more e$tensi'e than warranted because of the relati'e unimportance of Pilgri-s "egress (#) was disproportionately long relati'e to the amount of effort Kewis de'oted to writing Pilgri-s "egress

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21. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements regarding Till We &a$e Faces% (A) 3t is an impro'ement o'er the #ros and @syche story on which it is based. (B) 3t illustrated Kewis4 attempt to in'ol'e his readers emotionally in the story of #ros and @syche. (C) 3t was more highly regarded by &ilson than by Kewis himself. ( ) 3t is one of the outstanding literary achie'ements of Kewis4 career. (#) 3t is probably one of the most popular of Kewis4 works. 22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) An e'aluation is made/ and aspects of the e'aluation are e$panded on with supporting e'idence. (B) A theory is proposed/ and supporting e$amples are pro'ided. (C) A position is e$amined/ analy!ed/ and re<ected. ( ) A contradiction is described/ then the points of contention are e'aluated and reconciled. (#) 8pposing 'iews are presented and e'aluated/ then modifications are ad'ocated. 2-. &hich of the following best describes the content of the passage% (A) A criti"ue of A. 9. &ilson as a biographer (B) An e'aluation of the significance of se'eral works by C. ;. Kewis (C) An appraisal of a biography by A. 9. &ilson ( ) A ranking of the elements necessary for a well(structured biography (#) A proposal for e'aluating the literary merits of the works of C. ;. Kewis 1995 04 SECTION A
/n#"uenced by the view o# some twentieth-century #eminists that women3s position within the #ami"y is one o# the centra" #actors determining women3s socia" position' some historians have underestimated the signi#icance o# the woman su##rage movement. These historians contend that nineteenth-century su##ragist was "ess radica" and' hence' "ess important than' #or e5amp"e' the mora" re#orm movement or domestic #eminism two nineteenth-century movements in which women strugg"ed #or more power and autonomy within the #ami"y. True' by emphasi)ing these strugg"es' such historians have broadened the conventiona" view o# nineteenth-century #eminism' but they do a historica" disservice to su##ragism. *ineteenthcentury #eminists and anti-#eminist a"i$e perceived the su##ragists3 demand #or en#ranchisement as the most radica" e"ement in women3s protest' in part because su##ragists were demanding power that was not based on the institution o# the #ami"y' women3s traditiona"

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sphere. 8hen eva"uating nineteenth-century #eminism as a socia" #orce' contemporary historians shou"d consider the perceptions o# actua" participants in the historica" events.

1-. The author asserts that the historians discussed in the passage ha'e (A) influenced feminist theorists who concentrate on the family (B) honored the perceptions of the women who participated in the women suffrage mo'ement (C) treated feminism as a social force rather than as an intellectual tradition ( ) paid little attention to feminist mo'ements (#) e$panded the con'entional 'iew of nineteenth(century feminism 16. The author of the passage asserts that some twentieth(century feminists ha'e influenced some historians 'iew of the (A) significance of the woman suffrage mo'ement (B) importance to society of the family as an institution (C) degree to which feminism changed nineteenth(century society ( ) philosophical traditions on which contemporary feminism is based (#) public response to domestic feminism in the nineteenth century 1,. The author of the passage suggests that which of the following was true of nineteenth(century feminists% (A) Those who participated in the moral reform mo'ement were moti'ated primarily by a desire to reconcile their pri'ate li'es with their public positions. (B) Those who ad'ocated domestic feminism/ although less 'isible than the suffragists/ were in some ways the more radical of the two groups. (C) Those who participated in the woman suffrage mo'ement sought social roles for women that were not defined by women4s familial roles. ( ) Those who ad'ocated domestic feminism regarded the gaining of more autonomy within the family as a step toward more participation in public life. (#) Those who participated in the nineteenth(century moral reform mo'ement stood midway between the positions of domestic feminism and suffragism. 25. The author implies that which of the following is true of the historians discussed in the passage% (A) They argue that nineteenth(century feminism was not as significant a social force as twentieth(century feminism has been. (B) They rely too greatly on the perceptions of the actual participants in the e'ents they study. (C) Their assessment of the relati'e success of nineteenth(century domestic feminism does not ade"uately take into account the effects of antifeminist

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21-

rhetoric. ( ) Their assessment of the significance of nineteenth(century suffragism differs considerably from that of nineteenth(century feminists. (#) They de'ote too much attention to nineteenth(century suffragism at the e$pense of more radical mo'ements that emerged shortly after the turn of the century.
?any ob2ects in dai"y use have c"ear"y been in#"uenced by science' but their #orm and #unction' their dimensions and appearance' were determined by techno"ogists' artisans' designers' inventors' and engineers!using non-scienti#ic modes o# thought. ?any #eatures and +ua"ities o# the ob2ects that a techno"ogist thin$s about cannot be reduced to unambiguous verba" descriptions: they are dea"t with in the mind by a visua"' nonverba" process. /n the deve"opment o# 8estern techno"ogy' it has been non-verba" thin$ing' by and "arge' that has #i5ed the out"ines and #i""ed in the detai"s o# our materia" surroundings. 6yramids' cathedra"s' and roc$ets e5ist not because o# geometry or thermodynamics' but because they were #irst a picture in the minds o# those who bui"t them. The creative shaping process o# a techno"ogist3s mind can be seen in near"y every arti#act that e5ists. 7or e5amp"e' in designing a diese" engine' a techno"ogist might impress individua" ways o# nonverba" thin$ing on the machine by continua""y using an intuitive sense o# rightness and #itness. 8hat wou"d be the shape o# the combustion chamberC 8here shou"d the va"ves be p"acedC hou"d it have a "ong or short pistonC uch +uestions have a range o# answers that are supp"ied by e5perience' by physica" re+uirements' by "imitations o# avai"ab"e space' and not "east by a sense o# #orm. ome decisions' such as wa"" thic$ness and pin diameter' may depend on scienti#ic ca"cu"ations' but the nonscienti#ic component o# design remains primary. Fesign courses' then' shou"d be an essentia" e"ement in engineering curricu"a. *onverba" thin$ing' a centra" mechanism in engineering design' invo"ves perceptions' the stoc$-in-trade o# the artist' not the scientist. &ecause perceptive processes are not assumed to entai" ;hard thin$ing'< nonverba" thought is sometimes seen as a primitive stage in the deve"opment o# cognitive processes and in#erior to verba" or mathematica" thought. &ut it is parado5ica" that when the sta## o# the %istoric "merican Engineering *ecord wished to have drawings made o# machines and isometric views o# industria" processes #or its historica" record o# 0merican engineering' the on"y co""ege students with the re+uisite abi"ities were not engineering students' but rather students attending architectura" schoo"s. /# courses in design' which in a strong"y ana"ytica" engineering curricu"um provide the bac$ground re+uired #or practica" prob"em-so"ving' are not provided' we can e5pect to encounter si""y but cost"y errors occurring in advanced engineering systems. 7or e5amp"e' ear"y mode"s o# high-speed rai"road cars "oaded with sophisticated contro"s were unab"e to operate in a snowstorm because a #an suc$ed snow into the e"ectrica" system. 0bsurd random #ai"ures that p"ague automatic contro" systems are not mere"y trivia" aberrations: they are a re#"ection o# the chaos that resu"ts when design is assumed to be primari"y a prob"em in mathematics.

21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with

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(A) identifying the kinds of thinking that are used by technologists (B) stressing the importance of non'erbal thinking in engineering design (C) proposing a new role for nonscientific thinking in the de'elopment of technology ( ) contrasting the goals of engineers with those of technologists (#) critici!ing engineering schools for emphasi!ing science in engineering curricula 22. 3t can be inferred that the author thinks engineering curricula are (A) strengthened when they include courses in design (B) weakened by the substitution of physical science courses for courses designed to de'elop mathematical skills (C) strong because non'erbal thinking is still emphasi!ed by most of the courses ( ) strong despite the errors that graduates of such curricula ha'e made in the de'elopment of automatic control systems (#) strong despite the absence of nonscientific modes of thinking 2.. &hich of the following statements best illustrates the main point of lines 1(26 of the passage% (A) &hen a machine like a rotary engine malfunctions/ it is the technologist who is best e"uipped to repair it. (B) #ach component of an automobilefor e$ample/ the engine or the fuel tank has a shape that has been scientifically determined to be best suited to that component4s function. (C) A telephone is a comple$ instrument designed by technologists using only non'erbal thought. ( ) The designer of a new refrigerator should consider the designs of other refrigerators before deciding on its final form. (#) The distincti'e features of a suspension bridge reflect its designer4s conceptuali!ation as well as the physical re"uirements of its site. 20. &hich of the following statements would best ser'e as an introduction to the passage% (A) The assumption that the knowledge incorporated in technological de'elopments must be deri'ed from science ignores the many non(scientific decisions made by technologists. (B) Analytical thought is no longer a 'ital component in the success of technological de'elopment. (C) As knowledge of technology has increased/ the tendency has been to lose sight of the important role played by scientific thought in making decisions about form/ arrangement/ and te$ture.

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21,

( ) A mo'ement in engineering colleges toward a technician4s degree reflects a demand for graduates who ha'e the non'erbal reasoning ability that was once common among engineers. (#) A technologist thinking about a machine/ reasoning through the successi'e steps in a dynamic process/ can actually turn the machine o'er mentally. 21. The author calls the predicament faced by the &istoric A-erican Engineering "ecord *parado$ical+ (lines .2(.-) most probably because (A) the publication needed drawings that its own staff could not make (B) architectural schools offered but did not re"uire engineering design courses for their students (C) college students were "ualified to make the drawings while practicing engineers were not ( ) the drawings needed were so complicated that e'en students in architectural schools had difficulty making them (#) engineering students were not trained to make the type of drawings needed to record the de'elopment of their own discipline 22. According to the passage/ random failures in automatic control systems are *not merely tri'ial aberrations+ (lines 1.) because (A) automatic control systems are designed by engineers who ha'e little practical e$perience in the field (B) the failures are characteristic of systems designed by engineers relying too hea'ily on concepts in mathematics (C) the failures occur too often to be taken lightly ( ) designers of automatic control systems ha'e too little training in the analysis of mechanical difficulties (#) designers of automatic control systems need more help from scientists who ha'e a better understanding of the analytical problems to be sol'ed before such systems can work efficiently 2-. The author uses the e$ample of the early models of high(speed railroad cars primarily to (A) weaken the argument that modern engineering systems ha'e ma<or defects because of an absence of design courses in engineering curricula (B) support the thesis that the number of errors in modern engineering systems is likely to increase (C) illustrate the idea that courses in design are the most effecti'e means for reducing the cost of designing engineering systems ( ) support the contention that a lack of attention to the nonscientific aspects of design results in poor conceptuali!ation by engineers (#) weaken the proposition that mathematics is a necessary part of the study of

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design SECTION B
9ne e5p"anation #or the tendency o# anima"s to be more vigi"ant in sma""er groups than in "arger ones assumes that the vigi"ant behavior"oo$ing up' #or e5amp"eis aimed at predators. /# individua"s on the edge o# a group are more vigi"ant because they are at greater ris$ o# being captured' then individua"s on average wou"d have to be more vigi"ant in sma""er groups' because the anima"s on the periphery o# a group #orm a greater proportion o# the who"e group as the si)e o# the group diminishes. (owever' a di##erent e5p"anation is necessary in cases where the vigi"ant behavior is not directed at predators. @. Nrebs has discovered that great b"ue herons "oo$ up more o#ten when in sma""er #"oc$s than when in "arger ones' so"e"y as a conse+uence o# poor #eeding conditions. Nrebs hypothesi)es that the herons in sma""er #"oc$s are watching #or herons that they might #o""ow to better #eeding poo"s' which usua""y attract "arger numbers o# the birds.

1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in species in which 'igilant beha'ior is directed at predators/ the tendency of the animals to be more 'igilant in smaller groups than in larger ones would most likely be minimi!ed if which of the following were true% (A) The 'igilance of animals on the periphery of a group always e$ceeded that of animals located in its interior/ e'en when predators were not in the area. (B) The risk of capture for indi'iduals in a group was the same/ whether they were located in the interior of the group or on its periphery. (C) Animals on the periphery of a group tended to be less capable of defending themsel'es from attack by predators than animals located in the interior of the group. ( ) Animals on the periphery of a group tended to bear marks that were more distincti'e to predators than animals located in the interior of the group. (#) Animals on the periphery of a group tended to ha'e shorter life spans than animals located in the interior of the group. 16. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the second paragraph to the first% (A) The second paragraph relies on different e'idence in drawing a conclusion similar to that e$pressed in the first paragraph. (B) The second paragraph pro'ides further elaboration on why an assertion made at the end of the first paragraph pro'es to be true in most cases. (C) The second paragraph pro'ides additional information in support of a hypothesis stated in the first paragraph. ( ) The second paragraph pro'ides an e$ample of a case in which the assumption described in the first paragraph is unwarranted. (#) The second paragraph describes a phenomenon that has the same cause as the

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phenomenon described in the first paragraph. 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the following assertions about 'igilant beha'ior% (A) The larger the group of animals/ the higher the probability that indi'iduals in the interior of the group will e$hibit 'igilant beha'ior. (B) Cigilant beha'ior e$hibited by indi'iduals in small groups is more effecti'e at warding off predators than the same beha'ior e$hibited by indi'iduals in larger groups. (C) Cigilant beha'ior is easier to analy!e in species that are preyed upon by many different predators than in species that are preyed upon by relati'ely few of them. ( ) The term *'igilant/+ when used in reference to the beha'ior of animals/ does not refer e$clusi'ely to beha'ior aimed at a'oiding predators. (#) The term *'igilant/+ when used in reference to the beha'ior of animals/ usually refers to beha'ior e$hibited by large groups of animals. 25. The passage pro'ides information in support of which of the following assertions% (A) The a'oidance of predators is more important to an animal4s sur'i'al than is the "uest for food. (B) Cigilant beha'ior aimed at predators is seldom more beneficial to groups of animals than to indi'idual animals. (C) ifferent species of animals often de'elop different strategies for dealing with predators. ( ) The si!e of a group of animals does not necessarily reflect its success in finding food. (#) ;imilar beha'ior in different species of animals does not necessarily ser'e the same purpose.
The ear"iest controversies about the re"ationship between photography and art centered on whether photography3s #ide"ity to appearances and dependence on a machine a""owed it to be a #ine art as distinct #rom mere"y a practica" art. Throughout the nineteenth century' the de#ense o# photography was identica" with the strugg"e to estab"ish it as a #ine art. 0gainst the charge that photography was a sou""ess' mechanica" copying o# rea"ity' photographers asserted that it was instead a privi"eged way o# seeing' a revo"t against commonp"ace vision' and no "ess worthy an art than painting. /ronica""y' now that photography is secure"y estab"ished as a #ine art' many photographers #ind it pretentious or irre"evant to "abe" it as such. erious photographers various"y c"aim to be #inding' recording' impartia""y observing' witnessing events' e5p"oring themse"vesanything but ma$ing wor$s o# art. /n the nineteenth century' photography3s association with the rea" wor"d p"aced it in an ambiva"ent re"ation to art: "ate in the twentieth century' an ambiva"ent re"ation e5ists because o# the ?odernist heritage in art. That important

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photographers are no "onger wi""ing to debate whether photography is or is not a #ine art' e5cept to proc"aim that their own wor$ is not invo"ved with art' shows the e5tent to which they simp"y ta$e #or granted the concept o# art imposed by the triumph o# ?odernism> the better the art' the more subversive it is o# the traditiona" aims o# art. 6hotographers3 disc"aimers o# any interest in ma$ing art te"" us more about the harried status o# the contemporary notion o# art than about whether photography is or is not art. 7or e5amp"e' those photographers who suppose that' by ta$ing pictures' they are getting away #rom the pretensions o# art as e5emp"i#ied by painting remind us o# those 0bstract =5pressionist painters who imagined they were getting away #rom the inte""ectua" austerity o# c"assica" ?odernist painting by concentrating on the physica" act o# painting. ?uch o# photography3s prestige today derives #rom the convergence o# its aims with those o# recent art' particu"ar"y with the dismissa" o# abstract art imp"icit in the phenomenon o# 6op painting during the 19G.3s. 0ppreciating photographs is a re"ie# to sensibi"ities tired o# the menta" e5ertions demanded by abstract art. %"assica" ?odernist painting that is' abstract art as deve"oped in di##erent ways by 6icasso' Nandins$y' and ?atisse presupposes high"y deve"oped s$i""s o# "oo$ing and a #ami"iarity with other paintings and the history o# art. 6hotography' "i$e 6op painting' reassures viewers that art is not hard: photography seems to be more about its sub2ects than about art. 6hotography' however' has deve"oped a"" the an5ieties and se"#-consciousness o# a c"assic ?odernist art. ?any pro#essiona"s private"y have begun to worry that the promotion o# photography as an activity subversive o# the traditiona" pretensions o# art has gone so #ar that the pub"ic wi"" #orget that photography is a distinctive and e5a"ted activity in short' an art.

21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) defining the ?odernist attitude toward art (B) e$plaining how photography emerged as a fine art after the contro'ersies of the nineteenth century (C) e$plaining the attitudes of serious contemporary photographers toward photography as art and placing those attitudes in their historical conte$t ( ) defining the 'arious approaches that serious contemporary photographers take toward their art and assessing the 'alue of each of those approaches (#) identifying the ways that recent mo'ements in painting and sculpture ha'e influenced the techni"ues employed by serious photographers 22. &hich of the following ad<ecti'es best describes *the concept of art imposed by the triumph of ?odernism+ as the author represents it in lines 21(2-% (A) 8b<ecti'e (B) ?echanical (C) ;uperficial ( ) ramatic (#) @arado$ical 2.. The author introduces Abstract #$pressionist painters (lines .0) in order to

GRE

22.

(A) pro'ide an e$ample of artists who/ like serious contemporary photographers/ disa'owed traditionally accepted aims of modern art (B) call attention to artists whose works often bear a physical resemblance to the works of serious contemporary photographers (C) set forth an analogy between the Abstract #$pressionist painters and classical ?odernist painters ( ) pro'ide a contrast to @op artists and others who created works that e$emplify the ?odernist heritage in art (#) pro'ide an e$planation of why serious photography/ like other contemporary 'isual forms/ is not and should not pretend to be an art 20. According to the author/ the nineteenth(century defenders of photography mentioned in the passage stressed that photography was (A) a means of making people familiar with remote locales and unfamiliar things (B) a technologically ad'anced acti'ity (C) a de'ice for obser'ing the world impartially ( ) an art comparable to painting (#) an art that would e'entually replace the traditional arts 21. According to the passage/ which of the following best e$plains the reaction of serious contemporary photographers to the "uestion of whether photography is an art% (A) The photographers4 belief that their reliance on an impersonal machine to produce their art re"uires the surrender of the authority of their personal 'ision (B) The photographers4 fear that serious photography may not be accepted as an art by the contemporary art public (C) The influence of Abstract #$pressionist painting and @op Art on the sub<ect matter of the modern photograph ( ) The photographers4 belief that the best art is sub'ersi'e of art as it has pre'iously been defined (#) The notorious difficulty of defining art in its relation to realistic representation 22. According to the passage/ certain serious contemporary photographers e$pressly make which of the following claims about their photographs% (A) Their photographs could be created by almost anyone who had a camera and the time to de'ote to the acti'ity. (B) Their photographs are not e$amples of art but are e$amples of the photographers4 impartial obser'ation of the world. (C) Their photographs are important because of their sub<ects but not because of the responses they e'oke in 'iewers.

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( ) Their photographs e$hibit the same ageless principles of form and shading that ha'e been used in painting. (#) Their photographs represent a conscious glorification of the mechanical aspects of twentieth(century life. 2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably considers serious contemporary photography to be a (A) contemporary art that is struggling to be accepted as fine art (B) craft re"uiring sensiti'ity but by no means an art (C) mechanical copying of reality ( ) modern art that displays the ?odernist tendency to try to sub'ert the pre'ailing aims of art (#) modern art that displays the tendency of all ?odernist art to become increasingly formal and abstract 1995 10 SECTION A
/t is possib"e #or students to obtain advanced degrees in =ng"ish whi"e $nowing "itt"e or nothing about traditiona" scho"ar"y methods. The conse+uences o# this neg"ect o# traditiona" scho"arship are particu"ar"y un#ortunate #or the study o# women writers. /# the canon the "ist o# authors whose wor$s are most wide"y taughtis ever to inc"ude more women' scho"ars must be we"" trained in historica" scho"arship and te5tua" editing. cho"ars who do not $now how to read ear"y manuscripts' "ocate rare boo$s' estab"ish a se+uence o# editions' and so on are bere#t o# crucia" too"s #or revising the canon. To address such concerns' an e5perimenta" version o# the traditiona" scho"ar"y methods course was designed to raise students3 consciousness about the use#u"ness o# traditiona" "earning #or any modern critic or theorist. To minimi)e the arti#icia" aspects o# the conventiona" course' the usua" procedure o# assigning a "arge number o# sma"" prob"ems drawn #rom the entire range o# historica" periods was abandoned' though this procedure has the obvious advantage o# at "east super#icia""y #ami"iari)ing students with a wide range o# re#erence sources. /nstead students were engaged in a co""ective e##ort to do origina" wor$ on a neg"ected eighteenth-century writer' ="i)abeth Ari##ith' to give them an authentic e5perience o# "iterary scho"arship and to inspire them to ta$e responsibi"ity #or the +ua"ity o# their own wor$. Ari##ith3s wor$ presented a number o# advantages #or this particu"ar pedagogica" purpose. 7irst' the body o# e5tant scho"arship on Ari##ith was so tiny that it cou"d a"" be read in a day: thus students spent "itt"e time and e##ort mastering the "iterature and had a c"ear #ie"d #or their own discoveries. Ari##ith3s p"ay The Platonic ,ife e5ists in three versions' enough to provide i""ustrations o# editoria" issues but not too many #or beginning students to manage. /n addition' because Ari##ith was success#u" in the eighteenth century' as her continued productivity and #avorab"e reviews demonstrate' her e5c"usion #rom the canon and virtua" disappearance #rom

GRE
"iterary history a"so he"ped raise issues concerning the current canon. The range o# Ari##ith3s wor$ meant that each student cou"d become the wor"d3s "eading authority on a particu"ar Ari##ith te5t. 7or e5amp"e' a student studying Ari##ith3s ,ife in the *ight obtained a #irst edition o# the p"ay and studied it #or some wee$s. This student was suitab"y shoc$ed and outraged to #ind its tit"e trans#ormed into " ,ife in the +ight in 8att3s

221

Bi$liotheca Britannica. uch e5periences' inevitab"e and common in wor$ing on a writer to whom so "itt"e attention has been paid' serve to vaccinate the student / hope #or a "i#etime against credu"ous use o# re#erence sources.

1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) re'ealing a commonly ignored deficiency (B) proposing a return to traditional terminology (C) describing an attempt to correct a shortcoming ( ) assessing the success of a new pedagogical approach (#) predicting a change in a traditional teaching strategy 16. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage e$pects that the e$perience of the student mentioned as ha'ing studied Wi+e in the "ight would ha'e which of the following effects% (A) 3t would lead the student to disregard information found in the %ibliotheca %ritannica. (B) 3t would teach the student to "uestion the accuracy of certain kinds of information sources when studying neglected authors. (C) 3t would teach the student to a'oid the use of reference sources in studying neglected authors. ( ) 3t would help the student to understand the importance of first editions in establishing the authorship of plays. (#) 3t would enhance the student4s appreciation of the works of authors not included in the canon. 1,. The author of the passage suggests that which of the following is a disad'antage of the strategy employed in the e$perimental scholarly methods course% (A) ;tudents were not gi'en an opportunity to study women writers outside the canon. (B) ;tudents4 original work would not be appreciated by recogni!ed scholars. (C) Kittle scholarly work has been done on the work of #li!abeth Briffith. ( ) ?ost of the students in the course had had little opportunity to study eighteenth(century literature. (#) ;tudents were not gi'en an opportunity to encounter certain sources of information that could pro'e useful in their future studies. 25. &hich of the following best states the *particular pedagogical purpose+

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mentioned in line 26% (A) To assist scholars in re'ising the canon of authors (B) To minimi!e the tri'ial aspects of the traditional scholarly methods course (C) To pro'ide students with information about Briffith4s work ( ) To encourage scholarly rigor in students4 own research (#) To reestablish Briffith4s reputation as an author 21. &hich of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph in relation to the passage as a whole% (A) 3t summari!es the benefits that students can deri'e from the e$perimental scholarly methods course. (B) 3t pro'ides additional reasons why Briffith4s work raises issues ha'ing to do with the canon of authors. (C) 3t pro'ides an illustration of the immediate nature of the e$periences students can deri'e from the e$perimental scholarly methods course. ( ) 3t contrasts the e$perience of a student in the e$perimental scholarly methods course with the e$perience of a student in the traditional course. (#) 3t pro'ides information that emphasi!es the suitability of Briffith4s work for inclusion in the canon of authors. 22. 3t can be inferred that which of the following is most likely to be among the *issues+ mentioned in line .6% (A) &hy has the work of Briffith/ a woman writer who was popular in her own century/ been e$cluded from the canon% (B) 3n what ways did Briffith4s work reflect the political climate of the eighteenth century% (C) )ow was Briffith4s work recei'ed by literary critics during the eighteenth century% ( ) )ow did the error in the title of Briffith4s play come to be made% (#) )ow did critical reception of Briffith4s work affect the "uantity and "uality of that work% 2.. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage considers traditional scholarly methods courses to be (A) irrele'ant to the work of most students (B) inconse"uential because of their narrow focus (C) unconcerned about the accuracy of reference sources ( ) too superficial to establish important facts about authors (#) too wide(ranging to appro$imate genuine scholarly acti'ity
=5periments show that insects can #unction as po""inators o# cycads' rare' pa"m"i$e tropica" p"ants. 7urthermore' cycads removed #rom their native habitats and there#ore #rom

GRE

22-

insects native to those habitatsare usua""y in#erti"e. *everthe"ess' anecdota" reports o# wind po""ination in cycads cannot be ignored. The structure o# cycads ma"e cones is +uite consistent with the wind dispersa" o# po""en' c"ouds o# which are re"eased #rom some o# the "arger cones. The ma"e cone o# Cycas circinalis' #or e5amp"e' sheds a"most 1.. cubic centimeters o# po""en' most o# which is probab"y dispersed by wind. ti""' many ma"e cycad cones are comparative"y sma"" and thus produce #ar "ess po""en. 7urthermore' the structure o# most #ema"e cycad cones seems inconsistent with direct po""ination by wind. 9n"y in the %ycas genus are the #ema"es3 ovu"es accessib"e to airborne po""en' since on"y in this genus are the ovu"es surrounded by a "oose aggregation o# megasporophy""s rather than by a tight cone.

20. According to the passage/ the si!e of a male cycad cone directly influences which of the following% (A) The arrangement of the male cone4s structural elements (B) The mechanism by which pollen is released from the male cone (C) The degree to which the o'ules of female cycads are accessible to airborne pollen ( ) The male cone4s attracti'eness to potential insect pollinators (#) The amount of pollen produced by the male cone 21. The passage suggests that which of the following is true of the structure of cycad cones% (A) The structure of cycad cones pro'ides conclusi'e e'idence in fa'or of one particular e$planation of cycad pollination. (B) The structure of cycad cones pro'ides e'idence concerning what triggers the first step in the pollination process. (C) An irresol'able discrepancy e$ists between what the structure of most male cycad cones suggests about cycad pollination and what the structure of most female cones suggests about that process. ( ) The structure of male cycad cones rules out a possible mechanism for cycad pollination that is suggested by the structure of most female cycad cones. (#) The structure of male cycad cones is consistent with a certain means of cycad pollination/ but that means is inconsistent with the structure of most female cycad cones. 22. The e'idence in fa'or of insect pollination of cycads presented in lines 2(0 would be more con'incing if which of the following were also true% (A) 8nly a small 'ariety of cycad species can be successfully transplanted. (B) Cycads can sometimes be pollinated by means other than wind or insects. (C) 3nsects indigenous to regions to which cycads are transplanted sometimes feed on cycads. ( ) &inds in the areas to which cycads are usually transplanted are similar to

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winds in cycads4 nati'e habitats. (#) The transplantation of cycads from one region to another usually in'ol'es the accidental remo'al and introduction of insects as well. 2-. The passage suggests that which of the following is true of scientific in'estigations of cycad pollination% (A) They ha'e not yet produced any systematic e'idence of wind pollination in cycads. (B) They ha'e so far confirmed anecdotal reports concerning the wind pollination of cycads. (C) They ha'e/ until recently/ produced little e'idence in fa'or of insect pollination in cycads. ( ) They ha'e primarily been carried out using cycads transplanted from their nati'e habitats. (#) They ha'e usually concentrated on describing the physical characteristics of the cycad reproducti'e system. SECTION B
(This passage is adapted #rom an artic"e pub"ished in 1981.) The term ;remote sensing< re#ers to the techni+ues o# measurement and interpretation o# phenomena #rom a distance. 6rior to the mid-19G.3s the interpretation o# #i"m images was the primary means #or remote sensing o# the =arth3s geo"ogic #eatures. 8ith the deve"opment o# the optomechanica" scanner' scientists began to construct digita" mu"tispectra" images using data beyond the sensitivity range o# visib"e "ight photography. These images are constructed by mechanica""y a"igning pictoria" representations o# such phenomena as the re#"ection o# "ight waves outside the visib"e spectrum' the re#raction o# radio waves' and the dai"y changes in temperature in areas on the =arth3s sur#ace. Figita" mu"tispectra" imaging has now become the basic too" in geo"ogic remote sensing #rom sate""ites. The advantage o# digita" over photographic imaging is evident> the resu"ting numerica" data are precise"y $nown' and digita" data are not sub2ect to the vagaries o# di##icu"t-to-contro" chemica" processing. 8ith digita" processing' it is possib"e to combine a "arge number o# spectra" images. The ac+uisition o# the #irst mu"tispectra" digita" data set #rom the mu"tispectra" scanner (? ) aboard the sate""ite Eandsat in 1971 conse+uent"y attracted the attention o# data are now being app"ied to a variety o# the entire geo"ogic community. Eandsat ?

geo"ogic prob"ems that are di##icu"t to so"ve by conventiona" methods a"one. These inc"ude speci#ic prob"ems in minera" and energy resource e5p"oration and the charting o# g"aciers and sha""ow seas. 0 more #undamenta" app"ication o# remote sensing is to augment conventiona" methods #or geo"ogic mapping o# "arge areas. Regiona" maps present compositiona"' structura"' and chrono"ogica" in#ormation #or reconstructing geo"ogic evo"ution. uch reconstructions have important practica" app"ications because the conditions under which roc$ units and other

GRE
structura" #eatures are #ormed in#"uence the occurrence o# ore and petro"eum deposits and a##ect the thic$ness and integrity o# the geo"ogic media in which the deposits are #ound. Aeo"ogic maps incorporate a "arge' varied body o# speci#ic #ie"d and "aboratory

22,

measurements' but the maps must be interpretative because #ie"d measurements are a"ways "imited by roc$ e5posure' accessibi"ity and "abor resources. 8ith remote-sensing techni+ues it is possib"e to obtain much geo"ogic in#ormation more e##icient"y than it can be obtained on the ground. These techni+ues a"so #aci"itate overa"" interpretation. ince detai"ed geo"ogic mapping is genera""y conducted in sma"" areas' the continuity o# regiona" #eatures that have intermittent and variab"e e5pressions is o#ten not recogni)ed' but in the comprehensive views o# Eandsat images these continuities are apparent. (owever' some critica" in#ormation cannot be obtained through remote sensing' and severa" characteristics o# the Eandsat ? impose "imitations on the ac+uisition o# diagnostic data. ome o# these "imitations can be overcome by designing sate""ite systems speci#ica""y #or geo"ogic purposes: but' to be most e##ective' remote-sensing data must sti"" be combined with data #rom #ie"d surveys and "aboratory tests' the techni+ues o# the ear"ier twentieth century.

1-. By using the word *interpretati'e+ in line 05/ the author is indicating which of the following% (A) ;ome maps are based more on data from aerial photography than on data from field operations. (B) ;ome maps are based almost e$clusi'ely on laboratory measurements. (C) ;ome maps are based on incomplete data from field obser'ations. ( ) ;ome maps show only large geologic features. (#) ;ome maps can be three(dimensional. 16. &ith which of the following statements about geologic mapping would the author be most likely to agree% (A) Beologic mapping is basically an art and not a science. (B) Beologic mapping has not changed significantly since the early 1,254s. (C) Beologic mapping will ha'e limited practical applications until remote( sensing systems are perfected. ( ) A de'elopmental milestone in geologic mapping was reached in 1,-2. (#) &ithout the present 'ariety of remote(sensing techni"ues/ geologic mapping could not be done. 1,. According to the passage/ measurements of which of the following can be pro'ided by the optomechanical scanner but not by 'isible(light photography% (A) The amount of 'isible light reflected from oceans (B) The density of foliage in remote areas on the #arth4s surface (C) aily temperature changes of areas on the #arth4s surface ( ) The degree of radioacti'ity emitted by e$posed rocks on the #arth4s surface (#) Atmospheric conditions o'er large landmasses

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25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a ma<or disad'antage of photographic imaging in geologic mapping is that such photography (A) cannot be used at night (B) cannot focus on the details of a geologic area (C) must be chemically processed ( ) is always enhanced by digital reconstruction (#) cannot reflect changes o'er e$tended periods of time 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Kandsat images differ from con'entional geologic maps in that Kandsat images (A) re'eal the e$act si!e of petroleum deposits and ore deposits (B) indicate the continuity of features that might not otherwise be interpreted as continuous (C) predict the mo'ements of glaciers ( ) pro'ide highly accurate data about the occurrence of mineral deposits (#) re'eal the integrity of the media in which petroleum deposits and ore deposits are found 22. The passage pro'ides information about each of the following topics #DC#@TE (A) the principal method of geologic remote sensing prior to the mid(1,254s (B) some of the phenomena measured by digital multi(spectral images in remote sensing (C) some of the practical uses of regional geologic maps ( ) the kinds of problems that are difficult to sol'e solely through con'entional methods of geologic mapping (#) the specific limitations of the Kandsat multi(spectral scanner 2.. The passage suggests which of the following about the *con'entional methods+ mentioned in line 2,% (A) They consist primarily of field sur'eys and laboratory measurements. (B) They are not useful in pro'iding information necessary for reconstructing geologic e'olution. (C) They ha'e rarely been used by geologists since 1,-2. ( ) They are used primarily to gather compositional information about geologic features. (#) They are limited primarily because of difficulties in'ol'ed in interpreting film images.
0"though the deve"opment o# new in#rastructure (such pub"ic #aci"ities as power p"ants' schoo"s' and bridges) is usua""y determined by governmenta" p"anning' sometimes this deve"opment can be p"anned more #"e5ib"y and rea"istica""y by private investors who anticipate pro#it #rom the co""ection o# user #ees. uch pro#its can contribute to the #inancing o# more

GRE

2.1

in#rastructure i# demand proves great enough' whereas the re"uctance o# deve"opers to invest in such pro2ects can signa" that additiona" in#rastructure is not needed. Furing the economic boom o# the 198.3s' #or e5amp"e' the state o# Birginia authori)ed private deve"opers to bui"d a ,4.. mi""ion to"" road. These deve"opers obtained the needed right-o#-way #rom property owners' but by 1994 they sti"" had not raised the necessary #inancing. The unwi""ingness o# investors to #inance this pro2ect does not negate the viabi"ity o# private"y #inanced roads: rather' it i""ustrates a virtue o# private #inancing. /# a road appears un"i$e"y to attract enough #uture tra##ic to pay #or the road' then it shou"d not be bui"t.

20. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) build a case for increasing the de'elopment of new infrastructure (B) ad'ocate an alternati'e to go'ernment financing of infrastructure (C) e$plain the failure of a pri'ately financed 'enture ( ) suggest the types of infrastructure most appropriate for pri'ate financing (#) argue against go'ernment restrictions on de'eloping new infrastructure 21. The passage implies that the *go'ernmental planning+ mentioned in line . may lead to which of the following problems% (A) 3mproper use of profits deri'ed from user fees (B) :nduly slow de'elopment of necessary new infrastructure (C) :nrealistic decisions about de'eloping new infrastructure ( ) 3ncorrect predictions about profits to be gained from user fees (#) 8bstruction of pri'ate financing for the de'elopment of new infrastructure 22. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the toll road mentioned in line 12% (A) After it was built/ it attracted too little traffic to pay for its construction. (B) 3t was partially financed by the state of Cirginia. (C) 3ts de'elopment was authori!ed during an economic boom. ( ) 3ts construction was contro'ersial among local residents. (#) 3ts de'elopers were discouraged by go'ernmental restrictions on ac"uiring the necessary land. 2-. The passage suggests that which of the following would occur if a pri'ately financed bridge that pro'ed to be profitable failed after a number of years to meet the demands of traffic% (A) @ri'ate de'elopers who financed the bridge would rely on go'ernmental authorities to de'elop new infrastructure. (B) :ser fees would be increased so that usage would become more costly. (C) Bo'ernmental authorities would be reluctant to rely on pri'ate contractors to de'elop a new bridge. ( ) The success of the pro<ect would be <eopardi!ed by public dissatisfaction with

2.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

the pro<ect4s ade"uacy. (#) @rofits generated by user fees would be used to help finance the construction of new infrastructure to alle'iate the traffic problem. 1996 04 SECTION A
0s peop"e age' their ce""s become "ess e##icient and "ess ab"e to rep"ace damaged components. 0t the same time their tissues sti##en. 7or e5amp"e' the "ungs and the heart musc"e e5pand "ess success#u""y' the b"ood vesse"s become increasing"y rigid' and the "igaments and tendons tighten. 7ew investigators wou"d attribute such diverse e##ects to a sing"e cause. *everthe"ess' researchers have discovered that a process "ong $nown to disco"or and toughen #oods may a"so contribute to age-re"ated impairment o# both ce""s and tissues. That process is nonen)ymatic g"ycosy"ation' whereby g"ucose becomes attached to proteins without the aid o# en)ymes. 8hen en)ymes attach g"ucose to proteins (en)ymatic g"ycosy"ation)' they do so at a speci#ic site on a speci#ic protein mo"ecu"e #or a speci#ic purpose. /n contrast' the nonen)ymatic process adds g"ucose hapha)ard"y to any o# severa" sites a"ong any avai"ab"e peptide chain within a protein mo"ecu"e. This nonen)ymatic g"ycosy"ation o# certain proteins has been understood by #ood chemists #or decades' a"though #ew bio"ogists recogni)ed unti" recent"y that the same steps cou"d ta$e p"ace in the body. *onen)ymatic g"ycosy"ation begins when an a"dehyde group (%(9) o# g"ucose and an amino group (*(1) o# a protein are attracted to each other. The mo"ecu"es combine' #orming what is ca""ed a chi## base within the protein. This combination is unstab"e and +uic$"y rearranges itse"# into a stab"er' but sti"" reversib"e' substance $nown as an 0madori product. /# a given protein persists in the body #or months or years' some o# its 0madori products s"ow"y dehydrate and rearrange themse"ves yet again' into new g"ucose-derived structures. These can combine with various $inds o# mo"ecu"es to #orm irreversib"e structures named advanced g"ycosy"ation end products (0A=3s). ?ost 0A=3s are ye""owish brown and #"uorescent and have speci#ic spectrographic properties. ?ore important #or the body' many are a"so ab"e to cross-"in$ ad2acent proteins' particu"ar"y ones that give structure to tissues and organs. 0"though no one has yet satis#actori"y described the origin o# a"" such bridges between proteins' many investigators agree that e5tensive cross-"in$ing o# proteins probab"y contributes to the sti##ening and "oss o# e"asticity characteristic o# aging tissues. /n an attempt to "in$ this process with the deve"opment o# cataracts (the browning and c"ouding o# the "ens o# the eye as peop"e age)' researchers studied the e##ect o# g"ucose on so"utions o# puri#ied crysta""in' the ma2or protein in the "ens o# the eye. A"ucose-#ree so"utions remained c"ear' but so"utions with g"ucose caused the proteins to #orm c"usters' suggesting that the mo"ecu"es had become cross-"in$ed. The c"usters di##racted "ight' ma$ing the so"ution opa+ue. The researchers a"so discovered that the pigmented cross-"in$s in human cataracts

GRE
have the brownish co"or and #"uorescence characteristic o# 0A=3s. These data suggest that nonen)ymatic g"ycosy"ation o# "ens crysta""ins may contribute to cataract #ormation.

2..

1-. &ith which of the following statements concerning the stiffening of aging tissues would the author most likely agree% (A) 3t is caused to a large degree by an increased rate of cell multiplication. (B) 3t parado$ically both helps and hinders the longe'ity of proteins in the human body. (C) 3t can be counteracted in part by increased ingestion of glucose(free foods. ( ) 3t is e$acerbated by increased en!ymatic glycosylation. (#) 3t probably in'ol'es the nonen!ymatic glycosylation of proteins. 16. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of the process that discolors and toughens foods% (A) 3t takes place more slowly than glycosylation in the human body. (B) 3t re"uires a higher ratio of glucose to protein than glycosylation re"uires in the human body. (C) 3t does not re"uire the aid of en!ymes to attach glucose to protein. ( ) 3t proceeds more "uickly when the food proteins ha'e a molecular structure similar to that of crystallin proteins. (#) 3ts effecti'eness depends hea'ily on the amount of en'ironmental moisture. 1,. According to the passage/ which of the following is characteristic of en!ymatic glycosylation of proteins% (A) AB#4s are formed after a period of months or years. (B) @roteins affected by the process are made unstable. (C) Blucose attachment impairs and stiffens tissues. ( ) Blucose is attached to proteins for specific purposes. (#) Amino groups combine with aldehyde groups to form ;chiff bases. 25. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of Amadori products in proteins% (A) They are more plentiful in a dehydrated en'ironment. (B) They are created through en!ymatic glycosylation. (C) They are composed entirely of glucose molecules. ( ) They are deri'ed from ;chiff bases. (#) They are deri'ed from AB#4s. 21. &hich of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph of the passage (lines 1,(2,)% (A) 3t offers e'idence that contradicts the findings described in the first two paragraphs.

2.0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) 3t presents a specific e$ample of the process discussed in the first two paragraphs. (C) 3t e$plains a problem that the researchers mentioned in the second paragraph ha'e yet to sol'e. ( ) 3t e'aluates the research disco'eries described in the pre'ious paragraph. (#) 3t begins a detailed description of the process introduced in the pre'ious two paragraphs. 22. The passage suggests that which of the following would be K#A;T important in determining whether nonen!ymatic glycosylation is likely to ha'e taken place in the proteins of a particular tissue% (A) The likelihood that the tissue has been e$posed to free glucose (B) The color and spectrographic properties of structures within the tissue (C) The amount of time that the proteins in the tissue ha'e persisted in the body ( ) The number of amino groups within the proteins in the tissue (#) The degree of elasticity that the tissue e$hibits 2.. 3f the hypothesis stated in lines 12(16 is true/ it can be inferred that the crystallin proteins in the lenses of people with cataracts (A) ha'e increased elasticity (B) do not respond to en!ymatic glycosylation (C) are more susceptible to stiffening than are other proteins ( ) are at least se'eral months old (#) respond more acutely than other proteins to changes in moisture le'els
8riting o# the /ro+uois nation' mith has argued that through the chie#s3 counci"' triba" chie#s traditiona""y maintained comp"ete contro" over the po"itica" a##airs o# both the /ro+uois triba" "eague and the individua" tribes be"onging to the "eague' whereas the so"e 2urisdiction over re"igious a##airs resided with the shamans. 0ccording to mith' this division was maintained unti" the "ate nineteenth century' when the disso"ution o# the chie#s3 counci" and the conse+uent diminishment o# the chie#s3 po"itica" power #ostered their increasing invo"vement in re"igious a##airs. (owever' mith #ai"s to recogni)e that this division o# power between the triba" chie#s and shamans was not actua""y rooted in /ro+uois tradition: rather' it resu"ted #rom the /ro+uois3 resett"ement on reservations ear"y in the nineteenth century. 6rior to resett"ement' the chie#s3 counci" contro""ed on"y the broad po"icy o# the triba" "eague: individua" tribes had institutions! most important' the "onghouse!to govern their own a##airs. /n the "onghouse' the tribe3s chie# in#"uenced both po"itica" and re"igious a##airs.

20. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) "uestion the published conclusions of a scholar concerning the history of the 3ro"uois nation (B) establish the relationship between an earlier scholar4s work and new

GRE

2.1

anthropological research (C) summari!e scholarly contro'ersy concerning an incident from 3ro"uois history ( ) trace two generations of scholarly opinion concerning 3ro"uois social institutions (#) differentiate between 3ro"uois political practices and 3ro"uois religious practices 21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage regards ;mith4s argument as (A) pro'ocati'e and potentially useful/ but flawed by poor organi!ation (B) elo"uently presented/ but needlessly inflammatory (C) accurate in some of its particulars/ but inaccurate with regard to an important point ( ) historically sound/ but o'erly detailed and redundant (#) persuasi'e in its time/ but now largely outdated 22. The author of the passage implies that which of the following occurred after the 3ro"uois were resettled on reser'ations early in the nineteenth century% (A) Chiefs became more in'ol'ed in their tribes4 religious affairs. (B) The authority of the chiefs4 council o'er the affairs of indi'idual tribes increased. (C) The political influence of the 3ro"uois shamans was diminished. ( ) 3ndi'idual tribes coalesced into the 3ro"uois tribal league. (#) The longhouse because a political rather than a religious institution. 2-. &hich of the following best e$presses an opinion presented by the author of the passage% (A) ;mith has o'erstated the importance of the political role played by 3ro"uois tribal chiefs in the nineteenth century. (B) ;mith has o'erlooked the fact that the 3ro"uois rarely allowed their shamans to e$ercise political authority. (C) ;mith has failed to e$plain why the chiefs4 council was dissol'ed late in the nineteenth century. ( ) ;mith has failed to acknowledge the role prior to the nineteenth century of the 3ro"uois tribal chiefs in religious affairs. (#) ;mith has failed to recogni!e that the 'ery structure of 3ro"uois social institutions reflects religious beliefs. SECTION B

2.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(ary Barton' particu"ar"y in its ear"y chapters' is a moving response to the su##ering o# the

industria" wor$er in the =ng"and o# the 18H.3s. 8hat is most impressive about the boo$ is the intense and painsta$ing e##ort made by the author' ="i)abeth Aas$e""' to convey the e5perience o# everyday "i#e in wor$ing-c"ass homes. (er method is part"y documentary in nature> the nove" inc"udes such #eatures as a care#u""y annotated reproduction o# dia"ect' the e5act detai"s o# #ood prices in an account o# a tea party' an itemi)ed description o# the #urniture o# the &artons3 "iving room' and a transcription (again annotated) o# the ba""ad ;The 9"dham 8eaver.< The interest o# this record is considerab"e' even though the method has a s"ight"y distancing e##ect. 0s a member o# the midd"e c"ass' Aas$e"" cou"d hard"y he"p approaching wor$ing-c"ass "i#e as an outside observer and a reporter' and the reader o# the nove" is a"ways conscious o# this #act. &ut there is genuine imaginative re-creation in her accounts o# the wa"$ in Areen (eys 7ie"ds' o# tea at the &artons3 house' and o# @ohn &arton and his #riend3s discovery o# the starving #ami"y in the ce""ar in the chapter ;6overty and Feath.< /ndeed' #or a simi"ar"y convincing re-creation o# such #ami"ies3 emotions and responses (which are more crucia" than the materia" detai"s on which the mere reporter is apt to concentrate)' the =ng"ish nove" had to wait G. years #or the ear"y writing o# F. (. Eawrence. /# Aas$e"" never +uite conveys the sense o# #u"" participation that wou"d comp"ete"y authenticate this aspect o# (ary Barton' she sti"" brings to these scenes an intuitive recognition o# #ee"ings that has its own su##icient conviction. The chapter ;9"d 0"ice3s (istory< bri""iant"y dramati)es the situation o# that ear"y generation o# wor$ers brought #rom the vi""ages and the countryside to the urban industria" centers. The account o# @ob Eegh' the weaver and natura"ist who is devoted to the study o# bio"ogy' vivid"y embodies one $ind o# response to an urban industria" environment> an a##inity #or "iving things that hardens' by its very contrast with its environment' into a $ind o# cran$iness. The ear"y chapters!about #actory wor$ers wa"$ing out in spring into Areen (eys 7ie"ds: about 0"ice 8i"son' remembering in her ce""ar the twig-gathering #or brooms in the native vi""age that she wi"" never again see: about @ob Eegh' intent on his impa"ed insects! capture the characteristic responses o# a generation to the new and crushing e5perience o# industria"ism. The other ear"y chapters e"o+uent"y portray the deve"opment o# the instinctive cooperation with each other that was a"ready becoming an important tradition among wor$ers.

1-. &hich of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward Baskell4s use of the method of documentary record in *ary %arton% (A) :ncritical enthusiasm (B) :nresol'ed ambi'alence (C) Nualified appro'al ( ) =esigned acceptance (#) ?ild irritation 16. According to the passage/ *ary %arton and the early no'els of . ). Kawrence share which of the following% (A) epiction of the feelings of working(class families (B) ocumentary ob<ecti'ity about working(class circumstances

GRE

2.-

(C) =ichly detailed description of working(class ad<ustment to urban life ( ) 3maginati'ely structured plots about working(class characters (#) #$perimental prose style based on working(class dialect 1,. &hich of the following is most closely analogous to Aob Kegh in *ary %arton/ as that character is described in the passage% (A) An entomologist who collected butterflies as a child (B) A small(town attorney whose hobby is nature photography (C) A young man who lea'es his family4s dairy farm to start his own business ( ) A city dweller who raises e$otic plants on the roof of his apartment building (#) A union organi!er who works in a te$tile mill under dangerous conditions 25. 3t can be inferred from e$amples gi'en in the last paragraph of the passage that which of the following was part of *the new and crushing e$perience of industrialism+ (lines 02(0-) for many members of the #nglish working class in the nineteenth century% (A) #$tortionate food prices (B) Beographical displacement (C) )a!ardous working conditions ( ) Alienation from fellow workers (#) issolution of family ties 21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage belie'es that *ary %arton might ha'e been an e'en better no'el if Baskell had (A) concentrated on the emotions of a single character (B) made no attempt to re(create e$periences of which she had no firsthand knowledge (C) made no attempt to reproduce working(class dialects ( ) grown up in an industrial city (#) managed to transcend her position as an outsider 22. &hich of the following phrases could best be substituted for the phrase *this aspect of *ary %arton+ in line 2, without changing the meaning of the passage as a whole% (A) the material details in an urban working(class en'ironment (B) the influence of *ary %arton on lawrence4s early work (C) the place of *ary %arton in the de'elopment of the #nglish no'el ( ) the e$tent of the po'erty and physical suffering among #ngland4s industrial workers in the 16054s (#) the portrayal of the particular feelings and responses of working(class characters

2.6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

2.. The author of the passage describes *ary %arton as each of the following #DC#@TE (A) insightful (B) meticulous (C) 'i'id ( ) poignant (#) lyrical
0s o# the "ate 198.3s' neither theorists nor "arge-sca"e computer c"imate mode"s cou"d accurate"y predict whether c"oud systems wou"d he"p or hurt a warming g"obe. ome studies suggested that a #our percent increase in stratocumu"us c"ouds over the ocean cou"d compensate #or a doub"ing in atmospheric carbon dio5ide' preventing a potentia""y disastrous p"anetwide temperature increase. 9n the other hand' an increase in cirrus c"ouds cou"d increase g"oba" warming. That c"ouds represented the wea$est e"ement in c"imate mode"s was i""ustrated by a study o# #ourteen such mode"s. %omparing c"imate #orecasts #or a wor"d with doub"e the current amount o# carbon dio5ide' researchers #ound that the mode"s agreed +uite we"" i# c"ouds were not inc"uded. &ut when c"ouds were incorporated' a wide range o# #orecasts was produced. 8ith such discrepancies p"aguing the mode"s' scientists cou"d not easi"y predict how +uic$"y the wor"d3s c"imate wou"d change' nor cou"d they te"" which regions wou"d #ace dustier droughts or dead"ier monsoons.

20. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) confirming a theory (B) supporting a statement (C) presenting new information ( ) predicting future disco'eries (#) reconciling discrepant findings 21. 3t can be inferred that one reason the fourteen models described in the passage failed to agree was that (A) they failed to incorporate the most up(to(date information about the effect of clouds on climate (B) they were based on faulty information about factors other than clouds that affect climate (C) they were based on different assumptions about the o'erall effects of clouds on climate ( ) their originators disagreed about the kinds of forecasts the models should pro'ide (#) their originators disagreed about the factors other than clouds that should be included in the models 22. 3t can be inferred that the primary purpose of the models included in the study

GRE

2.,

discussed in the second paragraph of the passage was to (A) predict future changes in the world4s climate (B) predict the effects of cloud systems on the world4s climate (C) find a way to pre'ent a disastrous planetwide temperature increase ( ) assess the percentage of the #arth4s surface co'ered by cloud systems (#) estimate by how much the amount of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere will increase 2-. The information in the passage suggests that scientists would ha'e to answer which of the following "uestions in order to predict the effect of clouds on the warming of the globe% (A) &hat kinds of cloud systems will form o'er the #arth% (B) )ow can cloud systems be encouraged to form o'er the ocean% (C) &hat are the causes of the pro<ected planetwide temperature increase% ( ) &hat proportion of cloud systems are currently composed of cirrus of clouds% (#) &hat proportion of the clouds in the atmosphere form o'er land masses% 1996 04 SECTION A
7or many years' &en2amin Ouar"es3 semina" account o# the participation o# 0#rican 0mericans in the 0merican Revo"ution has remained the standard wor$ in the #ie"d. 0ccording to Ouar"es' the outcome o# this con#"ict was mi5ed #or 0#rican 0merican s"aves who en"isted in &ritain3s #ight against its rebe""ious 0merican co"onies in return #or the promise o# #reedom> the &ritish treacherous"y reso"d many into s"avery in the 8est /ndies' whi"e others obtained #reedom in %anada and 0#rica. &ui"ding on Ouar"es3 ana"ysis o# the "atter group' y"via 7rey studied the #ormer s"aves who emigrated to &ritish co"onies in %anada. 0ccording to 7rey' these re#ugeesthe most success#u" o# the 0#rican 0merican Revo"utionary 8ar participants viewed themse"ves as the ideo"ogica" heirs o# the 0merican Revo"ution. 7rey sees this inheritances re#"ected in their demands #or the same rights that the 0merican revo"utionaries had demanded #rom the &ritish> "and ownership' "imits to arbitrary authority and burdensome ta5es' and #reedom o# re"igion.

1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is true about the African American =e'olutionary &ar participants who settled in Canada after the American =e'olution% (A) Although they were politically unaligned with either side/ they identified more with British ideology than with American ideology. (B) &hile they were not immediately betrayed by the British/ they ultimately suffered the same fate as did African American =e'olutionary &ar participants who were resold into sla'ery in the &est 3ndies.

205

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) They settled in Canada rather than in Africa because of the greater religious freedom a'ailable in Canada. ( ) They were more politically acti'e than were African American =e'olutionary &ar participants who settled in Africa. (#) They were more successful than were African American =e'olutionary &ar participants who settled Africa. 16. &hich of the following is most analogous to the relationship between the African American =e'olutionary &ar participants who settled in Canada after the American =e'olution and the American re'olutionaries/ as that relationship is described in the passage% (A) A brilliant pupil of a great musician rebels against the teacher/ but adopts the teacher4s musical style after the teacher4s une$pected death. (B) Two warring rulers finally make peace after a lifetime of strife when they reali!e that they ha'e been duped by a common enemy. (C) A child who has sided with a domineering parent against a defiant sibling later makes demands of the parent similar to those once made by the sibling. ( ) A writer spends much of her life populari!ing the work of her mentor/ only to disco'er late in life that much of the older writer4s work is plagiari!ed from the writings of a foreign contemporary. (#) Two research scientists spend much of their careers working together toward a common goal/ but later "uarrel o'er which of them should recei'e credit for the training of a promising student. 1,. The author of the passage suggests that which of the following is true of Ben<amin Nuarles4 work% (A) 3t introduced a new and untried research methodology. (B) 3t contained theories so contro'ersial that they ga'e rise to an entire generation of scholarship. (C) 3t was a pioneering work that has not yet been displaced by subse"uent scholarship. ( ) 3t launched the career of a scholar who later wrote e'en more important works. (#) At the time it appeared/ its author already en<oyed a well(established reputation in the field. 25. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning Britain4s rule in its Canadian colonies after the American =e'olution% (A) )umiliated by their defeat by the Americans/ the British sharply curtailed ci'il rights in their Canadian colonies. (B) The British largely ignored their Canadian colonies. (C) The British encouraged the coloni!ation of Canada by those African

GRE

201

Americans who had ser'ed on the American side as well as by those who had ser'ed on the British side. ( ) ;ome of Britain4s policies in its Canadian colonies were similar to its policies in its American colonies before the American =e'olution. (#) To reduce the debt incurred during the war/ the British imposed e'en higher ta$es on the Canadian colonists than they had on the American colonists.
9ver the years' bio"ogists have suggested two main pathways by which se5ua" se"ection may have shaped the evo"ution o# ma"e birdsong. /n the #irst' ma"e competition and intrase5ua" se"ection produce re"ative"y short' simp"e songs used main"y in territoria" behavior. /n the second' #ema"e choice and interse5ua" se"ection produce "onger' more comp"icated songs used main"y in mate attraction: "i$e such visua" ornamentation as the peacoc$3s tai"' e"aborate voca" characteristics increase the ma"e3s chances o# being chosen as a mate' and he thus en2oys more reproductive success than his "ess ostentatious riva"s. The two pathways are not mutua""y e5c"usive' and we can e5pect to #ind e5amp"es that re#"ect their interaction. Teasing them apart has been an important cha""enge to evo"utionary bio"ogists. =ar"y research con#irmed the ro"e o# intrase5ua" se"ection. /n a variety o# e5periments in the #ie"d' ma"es responded aggressive"y to recorded songs by e5hibiting territoria" behavior near the spea$ers. The brea$through #or research into interse5ua" se"ection came in the deve"opment o# a new techni+ue #or investigating #ema"e response in the "aboratory. 8hen #ema"e cowbirds raised in iso"ation in sound-proo# chambers were e5posed to recordings o# ma"e song' they responded by e5hibiting mating behavior. &y +uanti#ying the responses' researchers were ab"e to determine what particu"ar #eatures o# the song were most important. /n #urther e5periments on song sparrows' researchers #ound that when e5posed to a sing"e song type repeated severa" times or to a repertoire o# di##erent song types' #ema"es responded more to the "atter. The beauty o# the e5perimenta" design is that it e##ective"y ru"es out con#ounding variab"es: acoustic iso"ation assures that the #ema"e can respond on"y to the song structure itse"#. /# interse5ua" se"ection operates as theori)ed' ma"es with more comp"icated songs shou"d not on"y attract #ema"es more readi"y but shou"d a"so en2oy greater reproductive success. 0t #irst' however' researchers doing #ie"dwor$ with song sparrows #ound no corre"ation between "arger repertoires and ear"y mating' which has been shown to be one indicator o# reproductive success: #urther' common measures o# ma"e +ua"ity used to predict reproductive success' such as weight' si)e' age' and territory' a"so #ai"ed to corre"ate with song comp"e5ity. The con#irmation researchers had been see$ing was #ina""y achieved in studies invo"ving two varieties o# warb"ers. Un"i$e the song sparrow' which repeats one o# its severa" song types in bouts be#ore switching to another' the warb"er continuous"y composes much "onger and more variab"e songs without repetition. 7or the #irst time' researchers #ound a signi#icant corre"ation between repertoire si)e and ear"y mating' and they discovered #urther that repertoire si)e had a more signi#icant e##ect than any other measure o# ma"e +ua"ity on the number o# young produced. The evidence suggests that warb"ers use their e5treme"y e"aborate songs primari"y to attract #ema"es' c"ear"y con#irming the e##ect o# interse5ua" se"ection on the evo"ution o# birdsong.

202

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

21. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) showing that intrase$ual selection has a greater effect on birdsong than does interse$ual selection (B) contrasting the role of song comple$ity in se'eral species of birds (C) describing research confirming the suspected relationship between interse$ual selection and the comple$ity of birdsong ( ) demonstrating the superiority of laboratory work o'er field studies in e'olutionary biology (#) illustrating the effecti'eness of a particular approach to e$perimental design in e'olutionary biology 22. The author mentions the peacock4s tail in line 6 most probably in order to (A) cite an e$ception to the theory of the relationship between intrase$ual selection and male competition (B) illustrate the importance of both of the pathways that shaped the e'olution of birdsong (C) draw a distinction between competing theories of interse$ual selection ( ) gi'e an e$ample of a feature that may ha'e e'ol'ed through interse$ual selection by female choice (#) refute a commonly held assumption about the role of song in mate attraction 2.. According to the passage/ which of the following is specifically related to intrase$ual selection% (A) >emale choice (B) Territorial beha'ior (C) Comple$ song types ( ) Karge song repertoires (#) Cisual ornamentation 20. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most clearly demonstrate the interaction mentioned in lines 11(1.% (A) >emale larks respond similarly both to short/ simple songs and to longer/ more complicated songs. (B) ?ale canaries use 'isual ornamentation as well as elaborate song repertoires for mate attraction. (C) Both male and female blackbirds de'elop elaborate 'isual and 'ocal characteristics. ( ) ?ale <ays use songs to compete among themsel'es and to attract females. (#) ?ale robins with elaborate 'isual ornamentation ha'e as much reproducti'e success as ri'als with elaborate 'ocal characteristics. 21. The passage indicates that researchers raised female cowbirds in acoustic

GRE

20.

isolation in order to (A) eliminate confounding 'ariables (B) appro$imate field conditions (C) measure reproducti'e success ( ) "uantify repertoire comple$ity (#) pre'ent early mating 22. According to the passage/ the song sparrow is unlike the warbler in that the song sparrow (A) uses songs mainly in territorial beha'ior (B) continuously composes long and comple$ songs (C) has a much larger song repertoire ( ) repeats one song type before switching to another (#) responds aggressi'ely to recorded songs 2-. The passage suggests that the song sparrow e$periments mentioned in lines .-(0. failed to confirm the role of interse$ual selection because (A) females were allowed to respond only to the song structure (B) song sparrows are unlike other species of birds (C) the e$periments pro'ided no e'idence that elaborate songs increased male reproducti'e success ( ) the e$periments included the songs of only a small number of different song sparrows (#) the e$periments duplicated some of the limitations of pre'ious field studies SECTION B
0n e5periment conducted aboard pace Eab in 1984 was the #irst attempt to grow protein crysta"s in the "ow-gravity environment o# space. That e5periment is sti"" cited as evidence that growing crysta"s in microgravity can increase crysta" si)e> the authors reported that they grew "yso)yme protein crysta"s 1'... times "arger than crysta"s grown in the same device on =arth. Un#ortunate"y' the authors did not point out that their crysta"s were no "arger than the average crysta" grown using other' more standard techni+ues in an =arth "aboratory. *o research has yet produced resu"ts that cou"d 2usti#y the enormous costs o# producing crysta"s on a "arge sca"e in space. To get an unbiased view o# the use#u"ness o# microgravity crysta" growth' crysta"s grown in space must be compared with the best crysta"s that have been grown with standard techni+ues on =arth. Aiven the great e5pense o# conducting such e5periments with proper contro"s' and the "imited promise o# e5periments per#ormed thus #ar' it is +uestionab"e whether #urther e5periments in this area shou"d even be conducted.

1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is true about the ;pace Kab e$periment conducted in 1,6.%

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(A) 3t was the first e$periment to take place in the microgra'ity en'ironment of space. (B) 3t was the first e$periment in which researchers in space were able to grow lyso!yme protein crystals greater in si!e than those grown on #arth. (C) 3ts results ha'e been superseded by subse"uent research in the field of microgra'ity protein crystal growth. ( ) 3ts results are still considered by some to be e'idence for the ad'antages of microgra'ity protein crystal growth. (#) 3ts results are considered by many to be in'alid because nonstandard techni"ues were employed. 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would find the ;pace Kab e$periment more impressi'e if which of the following were true% (A) The results of the ;pace Kab e$periment could be replicated in producing other kinds of crystals in addition to lyso!yme protein. (B) The de'ice used in the e$periment produced larger crystals on #arth than it did in space. (C) The si!e of the crystals produced in the e$periment e$ceeded the si!e of crystals grown in #arth laboratories using standard techni"ues. ( ) The cost of producing the crystals in space e$ceeded that of producing them using standard laboratory techni"ues. (#) The standard techni"ues used in #arth laboratories were modified in the ;pace Kab e$periment due to the effects of microgra'ity. 1,. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the de'ice used to grow crystals in the ;pace Kab e$periment% (A) The de'ice is more e$pensi'e to manufacture than are the de'ices used in standard techni"ues in an #arth laboratory. (B) The de'ice has not been used to grow crystals in space since the ;pace Kab e$periment of 1,6.. (C) Crystals grown in the de'ice on #arth tend to be much smaller than crystals grown in it in space. ( ) Crystals grown in the de'ice in space ha'e been e$ceeded in si!e by crystals grown in subse"uent e$periments in space using other de'ices. (#) The e$periments in which the de'ice was used were conducted with proper controls. 25. The passage suggests that the author would most probably agree with which of the following assessments of the results of the ;pace Kab e$periment% (A) Although the results of the e$periment are impressi'e/ the e$periment was too limited in scope to allow for definiti'e conclusions. (B) The results of the e$periment are impressi'e on the surface/ but the report is

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misleading. (C) The results of the e$periment con'incingly confirm what researchers ha'e long suspected. ( ) Because of design flaws/ the e$periment did not yield any results rele'ant to the issue under in'estigation. (#) The results of the e$periment are too contradictory to allow for easy interpretation.
/n 1914 the innovative Russian #i"mma$er F)iga Bertov described #i"mma$ing as a process that "eads viewers toward a ;#resh perception o# the wor"d.< Bertov3s description o# #i"mma$ing shou"d app"y to #i"ms on the sub2ect o# art. Det #i"ms on art have not had a power#u" and pervasive e##ect on the way we see. 6ub"ications on art #"ourish' but these boo$s and artic"es do not necessari"y succeed in teaching us to see more deep"y or more c"ear"y. ?uch writing in art history advances the discourse in the #ie"d but is un"i$e"y to in#orm the eye o# one un#ami"iar with its po"emics. 7i"ms' however' with their capacity to present materia" visua""y and to reach a broader audience' have the potentia" to enhance visua" "iteracy (the abi"ity to identi#y the detai"s that characteri)e a particu"ar sty"e) more e##ective"y than pub"ications can. Un#ortunate"y' #ew o# the hundred or so #i"ms on art that are made each year in the United tates are broadcast nationa""y on prime-time te"evision. The #act that #i"ms on art are rare"y seen on prime-time te"evision may be due not on"y to "imitations on distribution but a"so to the shortcomings o# many such #i"ms. ome o# these shortcomings can be attributed to the #ai"ure o# art historians and #i"mma$ers to co""aborate c"ose"y enough when ma$ing #i"ms on art. These pro#essiona"s are ab"e' within their respective discip"ines' to increase our awareness o# visua" #orms. 7or c"ose co""aboration to occur' pro#essiona"s in each discip"ine need to recogni)e that #i"ms on art can be both educationa" and entertaining' but this wi"" re+uire compromise on both sides. 0 #i"mma$er who is creating a #i"m about the wor$ o# an artist shou"d not #o""ow the standards set by roc$ videos and advertising. 7i"mma$ers need to resist the impu"se to move the camera +uic$"y #rom detai" to detai" #or #ear o# boring the viewer' to #rame the image #or the sa$e o# drama a"one' to add music #or #ear o# si"ence. 7i"mma$ers are aware that an art ob2ect demands concentration and' at the same time' are concerned that it may not be compe""ing enough!and so they hope to provide re"ie# by interposing ;rea"< scenes that bear on"y a tangentia" re"ationship to the sub2ect. &ut a wor$ o# art needs to be e5p"ored on its own terms. 9n the other hand' art historians need to trust that one can indicate and ana"y)e' not so"e"y with words' but a"so by directing the viewer3s ga)e. The specia"i)ed written "anguage o# art history needs to be re"in+uished or at "east tempered #or the screen. 9n"y an e##ective co""aboration between #i"mma$ers and art historians can create #i"ms that wi"" enhance viewers3 perceptions o# art.

21. The passage suggests that a filmmaker desiring to enhance 'iewers4 perceptions of art should do which of the following% (A) =ely on the precise language of art history when de'eloping scripts for films

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on art. (B) =ely on dramatic narrati'e and music to set a film4s tone and style. (C) =ecogni!e that a work of art by itself can be compelling enough to hold a 'iewer4s attention. ( ) epend more strongly on narration instead of camera mo'ements to guide the 'iewer4s ga!e. (#) #mphasi!e the social and the historical conte$ts within which works of art ha'e been created. 22. The author of the passage refers to Certo' in the first paragraph most probably in order to (A) pro'ide an e$ample of how films can be used to influence perceptions (B) present e'idence to support the argument that films ha'e been used successfully to influence 'iewers4 perceptions (C) introduce the notion that film can influence how 'iewers see ( ) contrast a traditional 'iew of the uses of film with a more modern 'iew (#) describe how film can change a 'iewer4s perception of a work of art 2.. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) An obser'ation about an unsatisfactory situation is offered/ the reasons for the situation are discussed/ and then ways to change it are suggested. (B) Two opinions regarding a contro'ersial phenomenon are contrasted/ supporting e'idence for each is presented/ and then the two opinions are reconciled. (C) Criticism of a point of 'iew is discussed/ the criticism is answered/ and then the criticism is applied to another point of 'iew. ( ) A point of 'iew is described/ e'idence supporting the 'iew is pro'ided/ and then a summary is presented. (#) A strategy is presented/ reasons for its past failure are discussed/ and then a recommendation that will be abandoned is offered. 20. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) discussing why film4s potential as a medium for presenting art to the general public has not been fully reali!ed and how film might be made more effecti'e in this regard (B) discussing the shortcomings of films on art and the technological inno'ations re"uired to increase the impact of film on 'isual literacy (C) discussing the ad'antages and the disad'antages of using films rather than publications to present works of art to the general public ( ) presenting information to support the 'iew that films on art must focus more on education and less on entertainment in order to increase 'isual literacy

GRE

20-

(#) presenting information to support the 'iew that films on art/ because they reach a broader audience than many other kinds of media/ ha'e had greater success in promoting 'isual literacy 21. The author would most likely agree with which of the following statements about film and 'isual literacy% (A) =eading a publication about a work of art and then seeing a film about the same work is the most effecti'e way to de'elop 'isual literacy. (B) An increase in a 'iewer4s awareness of 'isual forms will also lead to an increased attention span. (C) >ilm has a great but not yet fully e$ploited capacity to increase 'iewers4 awareness of 'isual forms. ( ) A film that focuses on the details of a work of art will hinder the de'elopment of 'isual literacy. (#) >ilms on art would more effecti'ely enhance the 'isual literacy of teenagers if filmmakers followed the standards set by rock 'ideos. 22. According to the passage/ art historians desiring to work with filmmakers to enhance the public4s appreciation of art need to acknowledge which of the following% (A) The art historian4s role in the creation of a film on art is likely to be a relati'ely minor one. (B) >ilm pro'ides an ideal opportunity to ac"uaint 'iewers with a wide range of issues that relate incidentally to a work of art. (C) An in(depth analysis of a work of art is not an appropriate topic for a film on art. ( ) Although silence may be an appropriate background when 'iewing a work of art in a museum/ it is inappropriate in a film. (#) >ilm can use non'erbal means to achie'e some of the same results that a spoken or written discourse can achie'e. 2-. &hich of the following would describe the author4s most likely reaction to a claim that films on art would more successfully promote 'isual literacy if they followed the standards set for rock 'ideos% (A) Ambi'alence (B) 3ndifference (C) ;ympathy ( ) 3nterest (#) isdain 1996 10

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SECTION A
This is not to deny that the &"ac$ gospe" music o# the ear"y twentieth century di##ered in important ways #rom the s"ave spiritua"s. 8hereas spiritua"s were created and disseminated in #o"$ #ashion' gospe" music was composed' pub"ished' copyrighted' and so"d by pro#essiona"s. *everthe"ess' improvisation remained centra" to gospe" music. 9ne has on"y to "isten to the recorded repertoire o# gospe" songs to rea"i)e that &"ac$ gospe" singers rare"y sang a song precise"y the same way twice and never according to its e5act musica" notation. They per#ormed what 2a)) musicians ca"" ;head arrangements< proceeding #rom their own #ee"ings and #rom the way ;the spirit< moved them at the time. This improvisatory e"ement was re#"ected in the manner in which gospe" music was pub"ished. &"ac$ gospe" composers scored the music intended #or 8hite singing groups #u""y' indicating the various voca" parts and the accompaniment' but the music produced #or &"ac$ singers inc"uded on"y a voca" "ine and piano accompaniment.

1-. &hich of the following best describes *head arrangement+ as the term is used in line 11% (A) A published 'ersion of a gospel song produced for use by Black singers (B) A gospel song based on a sla'e spiritual (C) A musical score shared by a gospel singer and a <a!! musician ( ) An informally written composition intended for use by a gospel singer (#) An impro'ised performance inspired by the singer4s emotions 16. The author mentions *folk fashion+ (line 0) most likely in order to (A) counter an assertion about the role of impro'isation in music created by Black people (B) compare early gospel music with gospel music written later in the twentieth century (C) make a distinction between gospel music and sla'e spirituals ( ) introduce a discussion about the dissemination of sla'e spirituals (#) describe a similarity between gospel music and sla'e spirituals 1,. The passage suggests which of the following about Black gospel music and sla'e spirituals% (A) Both became widely known in the early twentieth century. (B) Both had an important impro'isatory element. (C) Both were fre"uently performed by <a!! musicians. ( ) Both were published with only a 'ocal line and piano accompaniment. (#) Both were disseminated chiefly by Black singing groups. 25. 8f the following sentences/ which is most likely to ha'e immediately preceded the passage%

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20,

(A) >ew composers of gospel music drew on traditions such as the spiritual in creating their songs. (B) ;pirituals and Black gospel music were deri'ed from the same musical tradition. (C) The creation and singing of spirituals/ practiced by Black Americans before the Ci'il &ar/ continued after the war. ( ) ;pirituals and gospel music can be clearly distinguished from one another. (#) 3mpro'isation was one of the primary characteristics of the gospel music created by Black musicians.
0bout a century ago' the wedish physica" scientist 0rrhenius proposed a "aw o# c"assica" chemistry that re"ates chemica" reaction rate to temperature. 0ccording to the 0rrhenius e+uation' chemica" reactions are increasing"y un"i$e"y to occur as temperatures approach abso"ute )ero' and at abso"ute )ero ()ero degrees Ne"vin' or minus 174 degrees %e"sius) reactions stop. (owever' recent e5perimenta" evidence revea"s that a"though the 0rrhenius e+uation is genera""y accurate in describing the $ind o# chemica" reaction that occurs at re"ative"y high temperatures' at temperatures c"oser to )ero a +uantum-mechanica" e##ect $nown as tunne"ing comes into p"ay: this e##ect accounts #or chemica" reactions that are #orbidden by the princip"es o# c"assica" chemistry. peci#ica""y' entire mo"ecu"es can ;tunne"< through the barriers o# repu"sive #orces #rom other mo"ecu"es and chemica""y react even though these mo"ecu"es do not have su##icient energy' according to c"assica" chemistry' to overcome the repu"sive barrier. The rate o# any chemica" reaction' regard"ess o# the temperature at which it ta$es p"ace' usua""y depends on a very important characteristic $nown as its activation energy. 0ny mo"ecu"e can be imagined to reside at the bottom o# a so-ca""ed potentia" we"" o# energy. 0 chemica" reaction corresponds to the transition o# a mo"ecu"e #rom the bottom o# one potentia" we"" to the bottom o# another. /n c"assica" chemistry' such a transition can be accomp"ished on"y by going over the potentia" barrier between the we""s' the height o# which remains constant and is ca""ed the activation energy o# the reaction. /n tunne"ing' the reacting mo"ecu"es tunne" #rom the bottom o# one to the bottom o# another we"" without having to rise over the barrier between the two we""s. Recent"y researchers have deve"oped the concept o# tunne"ing temperature> the temperature be"ow which tunne"ing transitions great"y outnumber 0rrhenius transitions' and c"assica" mechanics gives way to its +uantum counterpart. This tunne"ing phenomenon at very "ow temperatures suggested my hypothesis about a co"d prehistory o# "i#e> the #ormation o# rather comp"e5 organic mo"ecu"es in the deep co"d o# outer space' where temperatures usua""y reach on"y a #ew degrees Ne"vin. %osmic rays (highenergy protons and other partic"es) might trigger the synthesis o# simp"e mo"ecu"es' such as interste""ar #orma"dehyde' in dar$ c"ouds o# interste""ar dust. 0#terward comp"e5 organic mo"ecu"es wou"d be #ormed' s"ow"y but sure"y' by means o# tunne"ing. 0#ter / o##ered my hypothesis' (oy"e and 8ic$ramasinghe argued that mo"ecu"es o# interste""ar #orma"dehyde have indeed evo"ved into stab"e po"ysaccharides such as ce""u"ose and starch. Their conc"usions' a"though strong"y disputed' have generated e5citement among investigators such as myse"# who are proposing that the ga"actic c"ouds are the p"aces where the

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prebio"ogica" evo"ution o# compounds necessary to "i#e occurred.

21. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) describing how the principles of classical chemistry were de'eloped (B) initiating a debate about the kinds of chemical reactions re"uired for the de'elopment of life (C) e$plaining how current research in chemistry may be related to broader biological concerns ( ) reconciling opposing theories about chemical reactions (#) clarifying inherent ambiguities in the laws of classical chemistry 22. According to the passage/ classical chemical reactions and tunneling reactions are alike in which of the following ways% (A) 3n both types of reactions/ reacting molecules ha'e to rise o'er the barrier between the two wells. (B) 3n both types of reactions/ a transition is made from the bottom of one potential well to the bottom of another. (C) 3n neither type of reaction does the height of the barrier between the wells remain constant. ( ) 3n neither type of reaction does the rate of a chemical reaction depend on its acti'ation energy. (#) 3n both types of reactions/ reacting molecules are able to go through the barrier between the two wells. 2.. According to the Arrhenius e"uation as discussed in the passage/ which of the following statements about chemical reactions is true% (A) Chemical reactions are less likely to occur at temperatures close to absolute !ero. (B) 3n some cases the rate of a chemical reaction is related to temperature and in other cases it is not. (C) Chemical reactions fre"uently occur at a few degrees abo'e absolute !ero/ but they are 'ery unpredictable. ( ) The rate of a chemical reaction depends on many other factors besides temperature. (#) Chemical reaction rate and temperature are not related. 20. The author4s attitude toward the theory of a cold pre(history of life can best be described as (A) neutral (B) skeptical (C) mildly positi'e ( ) 'ery supporti'e

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(#) pointedly critical 21. The author4s hypothesis concerning the cold prehistory of life would be most weakened if which of the following were true% (A) Cosmic rays are unlikely to trigger the formation of simple molecules. (B) Tunneling occurs only in a narrow band of temperatures around !ero degrees Mel'in. (C) The synthesis of interstellar formaldehyde can be acti'ated by means other than cosmic rays. ( ) ;imple molecules can be synthesi!ed by means of tunneling. (#) Classical chemical reactions do not occur at temperatures close to absolute !ero. 22. &hich of the following best describes the hypothesis of )oyle and &ickramasinghe as it is presented in the passage% (A) Cosmic rays can directly synthesi!e comple$ organic molecules. (B) The galactic clouds are the places where prebiological e'olution of compounds necessary to life occurred. (C) 3nterstellar formaldehyde can be synthesi!ed by tunneling. ( ) ?olecules of interstellar formaldehyde can e'ol'e into comple$ organic molecules. (#) Comple$ organic molecules can be synthesi!ed from stable polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch. 2-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first two paragraphs of the passage% (A) The author cites a basic principle of classical chemistry and then describes the research from which that principle was de'eloped. (B) The author cites an apparent contradiction to the principles of classical chemistry and then e$plains the process of a chemical reaction to show there is in fact no contradiction. (C) The author describes the role of heat in chemical reactions and then offers a detailed e$planation of its function. ( ) The author presents a law of classical chemistry in order to introduce a kind of chemical reaction that differs from it and then e$plains the essential difference between the two. (#) The author presents the fundamental rules of classical chemistry in order to introduce an e$planation of a specific chemical reaction. SECTION B
0"though the hormone adrena"ine is $nown to regu"ate memory storage' it does not pass

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#rom the b"ood into brain ce""s. 8e are #aced with an apparent parado5> how can a hormone that does not act direct"y on the brain have such a "arge e##ect on brain #unctionC Recent"y' we tested the possibi"ity that one o# the hormone3s actions outside the brain might be responsib"e. ince one conse+uence o# adrena"ine re"ease in an anima" is an increase in b"ood g"ucose "eve"s' we e5amined the e##ects o# g"ucose on memory in rats. 8e #ound that g"ucose in2ected immediate"y a#ter training enhances memory tested the ne5t day. 0dditiona" evidence was provided by negative #indings> drugs ca""ed adrenergic antagonists' which b"oc$ periphera" adrena"ine receptors' disrupted adrena"ine3s abi"ity to regu"ate memory but did not a##ect memory enhancements produced by g"ucose that was not stimu"ated by adrena"ine. These resu"ts are as they shou"d be i# adrena"ine a##ects memory modu"ation by increasing b"ood g"ucose "eve"s.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) reconcile two opposing theories (B) compare two different e$planations for a phenomenon (C) describe e$perimental research that appears to support an unpopular theory ( ) present e'idence that may help to resol'e an apparent contradiction (#) describe a hypothesis that has cause a contro'ersy 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely describe the *additional e'idence+ (line 12) pro'ided by e$periments with adrenergic antagonists as (A) re'olutionary (B) disappointing (C) incomplete ( ) une$pected (#) corroborati'e 1,. The passage pro'ides information about which of the following topics% (A) The mechanism by which glucose affects memory storage (B) The e'idence that prompted scientist to test the effects of adrenaline on memory regulation (C) The reason that the effects of glucose on memory were tested ( ) The ways that memory storage modifies the structure of the brain (#) The kinds of training used to test memory enhancement in rats 25. The author refers to the results of the e$periment using adrenergic antagonists as *negati'e findings+ (line 1.) most likely because the adrenergic antagonists (A) failed to disrupt adrenaline4s effect on memory (B) did not affect glucose4s ability to enhance memory (C) did not block adrenaline4s ability to increase blood glucose le'els

GRE

21.

( ) only partially affected adrenaline4s ability to enhance memory (#) disrupted both adrenaline4s and glucose4s effect on memory
The age at which young chi"dren begin to ma$e mora" discriminations about harm#u" actions committed against themse"ves or others has been the #ocus o# recent research into the mora" deve"opment o# chi"dren. Unti" recent"y' chi"d psycho"ogists supported pioneer deve"opmenta"ist @ean. 6iaget in his hypothesis that because o# their immaturity' chi"dren under age seven do not ta$e into account the intentions o# a person committing accidenta" or de"iberate harm' but rather simp"y assign punishment #or transgressions on the basis o# the magnitude o# the negative conse+uences caused. 0ccording to 6iaget' chi"dren under age seven occupy the #irst stage o# mora" deve"opment' which is characteri)ed by mora" abso"utism (ru"es made by authorities must be obeyed) and imminent 2ustice (i# ru"es are bro$en' punishment wi"" be meted out). Unti" young chi"dren mature' their mora" 2udgments are based entire"y on the e##ect rather than the cause o# a transgression. (owever' in recent research' Neasey #ound that si5-year-o"d chi"dren not on"y distinguish between accidenta" and intentiona" harm' but a"so 2udge intentiona" harm as naughtier' regard"ess o# the amount o# damage produced. &oth o# these #indings seem to indicate that chi"dren' at an ear"ier age than 6iaget c"aimed' advance into the second stage o# mora" deve"opment' mora" autonomy' in which they accept socia" ru"es but view them as more arbitrary than do chi"dren in the #irst stage. Neasey3s research raises two $ey +uestions #or deve"opmenta" psycho"ogists about chi"dren under age seven> do they recogni)e 2usti#ications #or harm#u" actions' and do they ma$e distinctions between harm#u" acts that are preventab"e and those acts that have un#oreseen harm#u" conse+uencesC tudies indicate that 2usti#ications e5cusing harm#u" actions might inc"ude pub"ic duty' se"#-de#ense' and provocation. 7or e5amp"e' *esda"e and Ru"e conc"uded that chi"dren were capab"e o# considering whether or not an aggressor3s action was 2usti#ied by pub"ic duty> #ive year o"ds reacted very di##erent"y to ;&onnie wrec$s 0nn3s pretend house< depending on whether &onnie did it ;so somebody won3t #a"" over it< or because &onnie wanted ;to ma$e 0nn #ee" bad.< Thus' a chi"d o# #ive begins to understand that certain harm#u" actions' though intentiona"' can be 2usti#ied: the constraints o# mora" abso"utism no "onger so"e"y guide their 2udgments. 6sycho"ogists have determined that during $indergarten chi"dren "earn to ma$e subt"e distinctions invo"ving harm. Far"ey observed that among acts invo"ving unintentiona" harm' si5-year-o"d chi"dren 2ust entering $indergarten cou"d not di##erentiate between #oreseeab"e' and thus preventab"e' harm and un#oreseeab"e harm #or which the perpetrator cannot be b"amed. even months "ater' however' Far"ey #ound that these same chi"dren cou"d ma$e both distinctions' thus demonstrating that they had become mora""y autonomous.

21. &hich of the following best describes the passage as a whole% (A) An outline for future research (B) An e$panded definition of commonly misunderstood terms (C) An analysis of a dispute between two theorists ( ) A discussion of research findings in an ongoing in"uiry

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(#) A confirmation of an established authority4s theory 22. According to the passage/ arley found that after se'en months of kindergarten si$ year olds ac"uired which of the following abilities% (A) ifferentiating between foreseeable and unforeseeable harm (B) 3dentifying with the perpetrator of a harmful action (C) Austifying harmful actions that result from pro'ocation ( ) #'aluating the magnitude of negati'e conse"uences resulting from the breaking of rules (#) =ecogni!ing the difference between moral absolutism and moral autonomy 2.. According to the passage/ @iaget and Measey would not ha'e agreed on which of the following points% (A) The kinds of e$cuses children gi'e for harmful acts they commit (B) The age at which children begin to discriminate between intentional and unintentional harm (C) The intentions children ha'e in perpetrating harm ( ) The circumstances under which children punish harmful acts (#) The <ustifications children recogni!e for mitigating punishment for harmful acts 20. 3t can be inferred that the term *public duty+ (line ..) in the conte$t of the passage means which of the following% (A) The necessity to apprehend perpetrators. (B) The responsibility to punish transgressors (C) An obligation to pre'ent harm to another ( ) The assignment of punishment for harmful action (#) A <ustification for punishing transgressions 21. According to the passage/ Measey4s findings support which of the following conclusions about si$(year(old children% (A) They ha'e the ability to make autonomous moral <udgments. (B) They regard moral absolutism as a threat to their moral autonomy. (C) They do not understand the concept of public duty. ( ) They accept moral <udgment made by their peers more easily than do older children. (#) They make arbitrary moral <udgments. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that @iaget would be likely to agree with which of the following statements about the punishment that children under se'en assign to wrongdoing% (A) The se'erity of the assigned punishment is determined by the percei'ed

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magnitude of negati'e conse"uences more than by any other factor. (B) The punishment is to be administered immediately following the transgression. (C) The children assign punishment less arbitrarily than they do when they reach the age of moral autonomy. ( ) The punishment for acts of unintentional harm is less se'ere than it is for acts in'ol'ing accidental harm. (#) The more de'elopmentally immature a child/ the more se'ere the punishment that the child will assign. 2-. According to the passage/ the research of 9esdale and =ule suggests which of the following about fi'e(year(old children% (A) Their reactions to intentional and accidental harm determine the se'erity of the punishments they assign. (B) They/ as perpetrators of harmful acts/ disregard the feelings of the children they harm. (C) They take into account the moti'ations of actions when <udging the beha'ior of other children. ( ) They 'iew public duty as a <ustification for accidental/ but not intentional/ harm. (#) They <ustify any action that protects them from harm. 1997 04 SECTION A
Aeo"ogists (arris and Aass hypothesi)ed that the Red ea ri#t deve"oped a"ong the "ine o# a suture (a sp"ice in the =arth3s crust) #ormed during the "ate 6rotero)oic era' and that signi#icant observab"e di##erences in the composition o# the upper "ayers o# roc$s deposited on either side o# the suture give c"ues to the di##erent natures o# the under"ying igneous roc$s. 9ther geo"ogists argued that neither the upper roc$ "ayer nor the under"ying igneous roc$s on the one side o# the ri#t di##er #undamenta""y #rom the corresponding "ayers on the other side. These geo"ogists be"ieve' there#ore' that there is inade+uate evidence to conc"ude that a suture under"ies the ri#t. /n response' (arris and Aass asserted that the upper roc$ "ayers on the two sides o# the ri#t had not been shown to be o# simi"ar age' structure' or geochemica" content. 7urthermore' they cited new evidence that the under"ying igneous roc$s on either side o# the ri#t contain signi#icant"y di##erent $inds o# rare meta"s.

1-. @art of the )arris and Bass hypothesis about the =ed ;ea rift would be weakened if it could be demonstrated that the composition of upper rock layers (A) cannot cause a suture to de'elop

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(B) has no effect on where a suture will occur (C) cannot pro'ide information about the nature of underlying rocks ( ) is similar on the two sides of a rift unless a suture di'ides the two sides (#) is usually different from the composition of underlying rocks 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *8ther geologists+ (line 6) would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements% (A) ;imilar geological features along both sides of a possible suture imply the e$istence of that suture. (B) ;utures can be disco'ered only where they are not obscured by superimposed geological features. (C) The composition of igneous rocks permits prediction of the likelihood of a rift de'eloping through them. ( ) 3t is possible to date igneous rocks by carefully studying the different kinds of rare metals contained in them and by obser'ing their similarity to the layer of rock that lies abo'e them. (#) The e$istence of rock layers on one side of a rift that are similar in composition to rock layers on the other side suggests that no suture e$ists between the two sides. 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that )arris and Bass ha'e done which of the following% (A) rawn detailed diagrams of the =ed ;ea rift. (B) Based their conclusions on the way in which sutures de'elop in the #arth4s crust. (C) =e<ected other geologists ob<ections to their hypothesis about the =ed ;ea rift. ( ) ;uggested that the presence of rare metals in rocks indicates an underlying suture. (#) Asserted that rifts usually occur along the lines of sutures. 25. According to the passage/ )arris and Bass ha'e mentioned all of the following properties of rocks along the =ed ;ea rift #DC#@TE (A) age of the upper layers of rock (B) structure of the upper layers of rocks (C) geochemical content of the upper layers of rocks ( ) metallic content of the underlying igneous rocks (#) age of the underlying igneous rocks
6roponents o# di##erent 2a)) sty"es have a"ways argued that their predecessors3 musica" sty"e did not inc"ude essentia" characteristics that de#ine 2a)) as 2a)). Thus' 19H.3s swing was

GRE
be"itt"ed by beboppers o# the 19-.3s' who were themse"ves attac$ed by #ree 2a))ers o# the

21-

19G.3s. The neoboppers o# the 198.3s and 199.3s attac$ed a"most everybody e"se. The titanic #igure o# &"ac$ sa5ophonist @ohn %o"trane has comp"icated the arguments made by proponents o# sty"es #rom bebop through neobop because in his own musica" 2ourney he drew #rom a"" those sty"es. (is in#"uence on a"" types o# 2a)) was immeasurab"e. 0t the height o# his popu"arity' %o"trane "arge"y abandoned p"aying bebop' the sty"e that had brought him #ame' to e5p"ore the outer reaches o# 2a)). %o"trane himse"# probab"y be"ieved that the on"y essentia" characteristic o# 2a)) was improvisation' the one constant in his 2ourney #rom bebop to open-ended improvisations on moda"' /ndian' and 0#rican me"odies. 9n the other hand' this dogged student and prodigious technicianwho insisted on spending hours each day practicing sca"es #rom theory boo$s! was never ab"e to 2ettison comp"ete"y the in#"uence o# bebop' with its #ast and e"aborate chains o# notes and ornaments on me"ody. Two sty"istic characteristics shaped the way %o"trane p"ayed the tenor sa5ophone' he #avored p"aying #ast runs o# notes bui"t on a me"ody and depended on heavy' regu"ar"y accented beats. The #irst "ed %o"trane to ;sheets o# sound'< where he raced #aster and #aster' pi"e-driving notes into each other to suggest stac$ed harmonies. The second meant that his sense o# rhythm was a"most as c"ose to roc$ as to bebop. Three recordings i""ustrate %o"trane3s energi)ing e5p"orations. Recording 0ind of Blue with ?i"es Favis' %o"trane #ound himse"# outside bop' e5p"oring moda" me"odies. (ere he p"ayed surging' "engthy so"os bui"t "arge"y around repeated moti#s an organi)ing princip"e un"i$e that o# #ree 2a)) sa5ophone p"ayer 9rnette %o"eman' who modu"ated or a"tered me"odies in his so"os. 9n .iant te#s' %o"trane debuted as "eader' introducing his own compositions. (ere the sheets o# sound' downbeat accents' repetitions' and great speed are part o# each so"o' and the variety o# the shapes o# his phrases is uni+ue. %o"trane3s searching e5p"orations produced so"id achievement. (y Favorite Things was another $ind o# watershed. (ere %o"trane p"ayed the soprano sa5ophone' an instrument se"dom used by 2a)) musicians. ?usica""y' the resu"ts were astounding. 8ith the soprano3s piping sound' ideas that had sounded dar$ and brooding ac+uired a #ee"ing o# giddy #antasy. 8hen %o"trane began recording #or the /mpu"seJ "abe"' he was sti"" searching. (is music became raucous' physica". (is in#"uence on roc$ers was enormous' inc"uding @imi (endri5' the roc$ guitarist' who' #o""owing %o"trane' raised the e5tended guitar so"o using repeated moti#s to a $ind o# roc$ art #orm.

21. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) discuss the place of Coltrane in the world of <a!! and describe his musical e$plorations (B) e$amine the nature of bebop and contrast it with impro'isational <a!! (C) analy!e the musical sources of Coltrane4s style and their influence on his work ( ) acknowledge the influence of Coltrane4s music on rock music and rock musicians

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(#) discuss the arguments that di'ide the proponents of different <a!! styles 22. The author implies that which of the following would ha'e been an effect of Coltrane4s ha'ing chosen to play the tenor rather than the soprano sa$ophone on *y Fa$orite Things% (A) The tone of the recording would ha'e been more somber. (B) The influence of bebop on the recording would ha'e been more ob'ious. (C) The music on the recording would ha'e sounded less raucous and physical. ( ) )is influence on rock music might ha'e been less per'asi'e. (#) The style of the recording would ha'e been indistinguishable from that on 4ind o+ %lue2 2.. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the fourth paragraph% (A) A thesis referred to earlier in the passage is mentioned and illustrated with three specific e$amples. (B) A thesis is stated and three e$amples are gi'en each suggesting that a correction needs to be made to a thesis referred to earlier in the passage. (C) A thesis referred to earlier in the passage is mentioned/ and three e$amples are presented and ranked in order of their support of the thesis. ( ) A thesis is stated/ three seemingly opposing e$amples are presented/ and their underlying correspondence is e$plained. (#) A thesis is stated/ three dissimilar e$amples are considered/ and the thesis is restated. 20. According to the passage/ Aohn Coltrane did all of the following during his career #DC#@TE (A) impro'ise on melodies from a number of different cultures (B) perform as leader as well as soloist (C) spend time impro'ing his technical skills ( ) e$periment with the sounds of 'arious instruments (#) eliminate the influence of bebop on his own music 21. The author mentions the work of 8rnette Coleman in the fourth paragraph in order to do which of the following% (A) #$pand the discussion by mentioning the work of a sa$ophone player who played in Coltrane4s style. (B) Compare Coltrane4s solos with the work of another <a!! artist. (C) ;upport the idea that rational organi!ing principles need to be applied to artistic work. ( ) ;how the increasing intricacy of Coltrane4s work after he abandoned bebop. (#) 3ndicate disagreement with the way Coltrane modulated the motifs in his lengthy solos.

GRE

21,

22. According to the passage/ a ma<or difference between Coltrane and other <a!! musicians was the (A) degree to which Coltrane4s music encompassed all of <a!! (B) repetition of motifs that Coltrane used in his solos (C) number of his own compositions that Coltrane recorded ( ) indifference Coltrane maintained to musical techni"ue (#) importance Coltrane placed on rhythm in <a!! 2-. 3n terms of its tone and form/ the passage can best be characteri!ed as (A) dogmatic e$planation (B) indignant denial (C) enthusiastic praise ( ) speculati'e study (#) lukewarm re'iew SECTION B
0 specia" mucous coating that serves as a chemica" camou#"age a""ows c"own #ish to "ive among the dead"y tentac"es o# the unsuspecting sea anemone. Utter"y dependent on this un"i$e"y host #or protection #rom predators' c"own #ish have evo"ved in iso"ated communities' a pattern that has "ed to unusua" behaviora" adaptations. The rigid"y de#ined hierarchy o# each c"own-#ish community is dominated by a monogamous breeding pair consisting o# the "argest #ish' a #ema"e' and the ne5t "argest' a ma"e' attended by a #i5ed number o# se5ua""y immature #ish ranging in si)e #rom "arge to tiny. 0 remar$ab"e adaptation is that the deve"opment o# these 2uveni"es is somehow arrested unti" the hierarchy changes: then they grow in "oc$step' maintaining their re"ative si)es. 8hi"e the community thus economi)es on "imited space and #ood resources' "i#e is ris$y #or new"y spawned c"own #ish. 9n hatching' the hundreds o# "arvae dri#t o## into the p"an$ton. /#' within three wee$s' the de#ense"ess "arva" c"own #ish "ocates a suitab"e anemone (either by pure chance or perhaps guided by chemica"s secreted by the anemone)' it may survive. (owever' i# an anemone is #u""y occupied' the resident c"own #ish wi"" repe" any newcomer. Though advantageous #or estab"ished community members' the suspended and staggered maturation o# 2uveni"es might seem to pose a danger to the continuity o# the community> there is on"y one successor #or two breeding #ish. hou"d one o# a pair die' the remaining #ish cannot swim o## in search o# a mate' nor is one "i$e"y to arrive. /t wou"d seem inevitab"e that reproduction must sometimes have to ha"t' pending the chance arriva" and maturation o# a "arva" #ish o# the appropriate se5. This' however' turns out not to be the case. /n e5periments' vacancies have been contrived by removing an estab"ished #ish #rom a community. ="imination o# the breeding ma"e triggers the prompt maturation o# the "argest 2uveni"e. =ach remaining 2uveni"e a"so grows somewhat' and a minuscu"e newcomer drops in #rom the p"an$ton. Remova" o# the #ema"e a"so triggers growth in a"" remaining #ish and acceptance o# a newcomer' but the #ema"e is

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rep"aced by the adu"t ma"e. 8ithin days' the ma"e3s behavior a"ters and physio"ogica" trans#ormation is comp"ete within a #ew months. Thus' whichever o# the breeding pair is "ost' a re"ative"y "arge 2uveni"e can #i"" the void' and reproduction can resume with a minima" "oss o# time. 7urthermore' the new mate has a"ready proved its abi"ity to survive. This trans#ormation o# a ma"e into a #ema"e' or protandrous hermaphroditism' is rare among ree# #ish. The more common protogynous hermaphroditism' where #ema"es change into ma"es' does not occur among c"own #ish. 0n intriguing +uestion #or #urther research is whether a 2uveni"e c"own #ish can turn direct"y into a #ema"e or whether it must #unction #irst as a ma"e.

1-. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) analy!ing the mutually ad'antageous relationship between two species (B) comparing two forms of hermaphroditism among clown fish (C) describing and e$plaining aspects of clown(fish beha'ior ( ) outlining proposed research on clown(fish reproduction (#) attempting to reconcile inconsistent obser'ations of clown(fish de'elopment 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the clown fish is able to sur'i'e in close association with the sea anemone because the (A) sea anemone cannot detect the presence of the clown fish (B) tentacles of the sea anemone cannot grasp the slippery clown fish (C) sea anemone prefers other prey ( ) clown fish does not actually come within the range of the sea anemone4s tentacles (#) clown fish has de'eloped tolerance to the sea anemone4s poison 1,. According to the passage/ adult clown fish would be at a disad'antage if they were not associated with sea anemones because the clown fish would (A) be incapable of se$ual transformation (B) be 'ulnerable to predators (C) ha'e no reliable source of food ( ) ha'e to lay their eggs in the open (#) face competition from other clown fish 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that se$ change would ha'e been less necessary for the clown fish if (A) the male clown fish were larger than the female (B) each sea anemone were occupied by se'eral 'arieties of clown fish (C) many mature clown fish of both se$es occupied each sea anemone ( ) <u'enile clown fish had a high mortality rate (#) both male clown fish and female clown fish were highly territorial

GRE

221

21. The author mentions all of the following as characteristic of the *rigidly defined hierarchy+ (line 6) of the clown(fish community #DC#@TE (A) At any time only one female clown fish can be reproducti'ely acti'e (B) The mature clown fish are monogamous (C) The growth of clown fish is synchroni!ed ( ) The ma$imum number of clown fish is fi$ed (#) There are e"ual numbers of male <u'eniles and female <u'eniles 22. &hich of the following statements about newly hatched clown fish can be inferred from the passage% (A) They de'elop rapidly. (B) They remain close to the sea anemone occupied by their parents. (C) They are more sensiti'e to chemical signals than are adult clown fish. ( ) They are not protected by their parents. (#) They are less 'ulnerable to predation than are adult fish. 2.. &hich of the following/ if true/ would be K#A;T consistent with the author4s e$planation of the ad'antage of hermaphroditism for clown fish% (A) The number of indi'iduals in a clown(fish community fluctuates significantly. (B) Adult clown fish fre"uently cannibali!e their young. (C) The sea anemone tolerates clown fish only during a specific stage of the anemone4s life cycle. ( ) Au'enile clown fish rarely reach maturity. (#) Clown(fish communities are capable of efficiently recruiting solitary adult clown fish.
%omparing designs in music with visua" designs raises interesting +uestions. 8e are #ami"iar with the easy trans#ers o# terms denoting +ua"ities #rom one #ie"d to another. The basic prob"em can be put this way> can music sound the way a design "oo$sC The e"ements o# music are not the same as those o# painting. They may be ana"ogous' but to be ana"ogous is not to be identica". /s it possib"e' then' #or the same broad characteristics to emerge #rom di##erent perceptua" conditionsC Two #acts about the re"ation between broad characteristics o# a wor$ and their perceptua" conditions must be $ept distinct. 7irst' the g"oba" characteristics o# a visua" or auditory comp"e5 are determined by the discernib"e parts and their re"ationships. Thus' any notab"e change in the parts or their re"ationships produces a change in some o# the g"oba" characteristics. econd' a change in the parts or their re"ationships may "eave other g"oba" characteristics unchanged.

20. 3n the first paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with establishing the fact that (A) comparisons are not e"uations

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(B) auditory phenomena are not 'isual phenomena (C) fre"uently used comparisons are usually inaccurate ( ) careless perceptions result from careless thought (#) "uestions concerning perception are psychological 21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) distinguishing mutually e$clusi'e categories (B) clarifying an apparent contradiction (C) supporting new ideas ( ) analy!ing a problem (#) comparing opinions 22. The second paragraph is primarily concerned with establishing the idea that (A) different global characteristics of a work result from the same discernible parts (B) the parts of a work of art influence the total perception of the work (C) 'isual and auditory characteristics can be combined ( ) changes in the parts of a work remain isolated from the work as a whole (#) the 'isual comple$es in a work of art influence the work4s auditory comple$es 2-. &hich of the following statements is most likely be a continuation of the passage% (A) The search for broad similarities thus begins by understanding and distinguishing these two facts. (B) The search for musical('isual analogies thus depends on the comple$ity of the works being compared. (C) The search for music and art of the highest "uality thus depends on 'ery different assumptions. ( ) Thus music and painting e$ist in mutually e$clusi'e worlds. (#) Thus music and painting are too complicated to be e'aluated in terms of analogies. 1997 11 SECTION A
/nvestigators o# mon$eys3 socia" behavior have a"ways been struc$ by mon$eys3 aggressive potentia" and the conse+uent need #or socia" contro" o# their aggressive behavior. tudies directed at describing aggressive behavior and the situations that e"icit it' as we"" as the socia" mechanisms that contro" it' were there#ore among the #irst investigations o# mon$eys3 socia" behavior.

GRE
/nvestigators initia""y be"ieved that mon$eys wou"d compete #or any resource in the

22.

environment> hungry mon$eys wou"d #ight over #ood' thirsty mon$eys wou"d #ight over water' and' in genera"' any time more than one mon$ey in a group sought the same incentive simu"taneous"y' a dispute wou"d resu"t and wou"d be reso"ved through some #orm o# aggression. (owever' the motivating #orce o# competition #or incentives began to be doubted when e5periments "i$e outhwic$3s on the reduction o# space or the withho"ding o# #ood #ai"ed to produce more than temporary increases in intragroup aggression. /ndeed' #ood deprivation not on"y #ai"ed to increase aggression but in some cases actua""y resu"ted in decreased #re+uencies o# aggression. tudies o# anima"s in the wi"d under conditions o# e5treme #ood deprivation "i$ewise revea"ed that starving mon$eys devoted a"most a"" avai"ab"e energy to #oraging' with "itt"e energy remaining #or aggressive interaction. 7urthermore' accumu"ating evidence #rom "ater studies o# a variety o# primate groups' #or e5amp"e' the study conducted by &ernstein' indicates that one o# the most potent stimu"i #or e"iciting aggression is the introduction o# an intruder into an organi)ed group. uch introductions resu"t in #ar more serious aggression than that produced in any other types o# e5periments contrived to produce competition. These studies o# intruders suggest that adu"t members o# the same species introduced to one another #or the #irst time show considerab"e hosti"ity because' in the absence o# a socia" order' one must be estab"ished to contro" interanima" re"ationships. 8hen a sing"e new anima" is introduced into an e5isting socia" organi)ation' the newcomer meets even more serious aggression. 8hereas in the #irst case aggression estab"ishes a socia" order' in the second case resident anima"s mob the intruder' thereby initia""y e5c"uding the new anima" #rom the e5isting socia" unit. The simu"taneous introduction o# severa" anima"s "essens the e##ect' i# on"y because the group divides its attention among the mu"tip"e targets. /#' however' the severa" anima"s introduced to a group constitute their own socia" unit' each group may #ight the opposing group as a unit: but' again' no individua" is sub2ected to mass attac$' and the very cohesion o# the groups prec"udes pro"onged individua" combat. The submission o# the de#eated group' rather than un"eashing unchec$ed aggression on the part o# the victorious group' reduces both the intensity and #re+uency o# #urther attac$. ?on$ey groups there#ore see to be organi)ed primari"y to maintain their estab"ished socia" order rather than to engage in hosti"ities per se.

1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) ad'ancing a new methodology for changing a monkey4s social beha'ior (B) comparing the methods of se'eral research studies on aggression among monkeys (C) e$plaining the reasons for researchers4 interest in monkeys4 social beha'ior ( ) discussing the de'elopment of in'estigators4 theories about aggression among monkeys (#) e$amining the effects of competition on monkeys4 social beha'ior 16. &hich of the following best summari!es the findings reported in the passage about the effects of food depri'ation on monkeys4 beha'ior%

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(A) >ood depri'ation has no effect on aggression among monkeys. (B) >ood depri'ation increases aggression among monkeys because one of the most potent stimuli for eliciting aggression is the competition for incenti'es. (C) >ood depri'ation may increase long(term aggression among monkeys in a laboratory setting/ but it produces only temporary increases among monkeys in the wild. ( ) >ood depri'ation may temporarily increase aggression among monkeys/ but it also leads to a decrease in conflict. (#) >ood depri'ation decreases the intensity but not the fre"uency of aggressi'e incidents among monkey. 1,. According to the author/ studies such as ;outhwick4s had which of the following effects on in'estigators4 theories about monkeys4 social beha'ior% (A) They suggested that e$isting theories about the role of aggression among monkeys did not fully account for the monkeys4 ability to maintain an established social order. (B) They confirmed in'estigators4 theories about monkeys4 aggressi'e response to competition for food and water. (C) They confirmed in'estigators4 beliefs about the moti'ation for continued aggression among monkeys in the same social group. ( ) They dispro'ed in'estigators4 theory that the introduction of intruders in an organi!ed monkey group elicits intragroup aggressi'e beha'ior. (#) They cast doubt on in'estigators4 theories that could account for obser'ed patterns of aggression among monkeys. 25. The passage suggests that in'estigators of monkeys social beha'ior ha'e been especially interested in aggressi'e beha'ior among monkeys because (A) aggression is the most common social beha'ior among monkeys (B) successful competition for incenti'es determines the social order in a monkey group (C) situations that elicit aggressi'e beha'ior can be studied in a laboratory ( ) most monkeys are potentially aggressi'e/ yet they li'e in social units that could not function without control of their aggressi'e impulses (#) most monkeys are social/ yet they fre"uently respond to newcomers entering e$isting social units by attacking them 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the establishment and preser'ation of social order among a group of monkeys is essential in order to (A) keep the monkeys from straying and <oining other groups (B) control aggressi'e beha'ior among group members (C) pre'ent the domination of that group by another

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221

( ) protect indi'iduals seeking to become members of that group from mass attack (#) pre'ent aggressi'e competition for incenti'es between that group and another 22. The passage supplies information to answer which of the following "uestions% (A) )ow does the reduction of space affect intragroup aggression among monkeys in an e$perimental setting% (B) o family units within a monkey social group compete with other family units for food% (C) &hat are the mechanisms by which the social order of an established group of monkeys controls aggression within that group% ( ) )ow do monkeys engaged in aggression with other monkeys signal submission% (#) o monkeys of different species engage in aggression with each other o'er food% 2.. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph% (A) A hypothesis is e$plained and counter e'idence is described. (B) A theory is ad'anced and specific e'idence supporting it is cited. (C) >ield obser'ations are described and a conclusion about their significance is drawn. ( ) Two theories are e$plained and e'idence supporting each of them is detailed. (#) An e$planation of a general principle is stated and specific e$amples of its operation are gi'en.
0na"ysis o# prehistoric air trapped in tiny bubb"es beneath the po"ar ice sheets and o# the composition o# ice surrounding those bubb"es suggests a corre"ation between carbon dio5ide "eve"s in the =arth3s atmosphere and g"oba" temperature over the "ast 1G.'... years. =stimates o# g"oba" temperature at the time air in the bubb"es was trapped re"y on measuring the re"ative abundances o# hydrogen and its heavier isotope' deuterium' in the ice surrounding the bubb"es. 8hen g"oba" temperatures are re"ative"y "ow' water containing deuterium tends to condense and precipitate be#ore reaching the po"es: thus' ice deposited at the po"es when the g"oba" temperature was coo"er contained re"ative"y "ess deuterium than ice deposited at warmer g"oba" temperatures. =stimates o# g"oba" temperature based on this in#ormation' combined with ana"ysis o# the carbon dio5ide content o# air trapped in ice deep beneath the po"ar sur#ace' suggest that during periods o# postg"acia" warming carbon dio5ide in the =arth3s atmosphere increased by appro5imate"y H. percent.

20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which of the following% (A) escribing a new method of estimating decreases in global temperature that ha'e occurred o'er the last 125/555 years (B) escribing a method of analysis that pro'ides information regarding the

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relation between the carbon dio$ide content of the #arth4s atmosphere and global temperature (C) @resenting information that suggests that global temperature has increased o'er the last 125/555 years ( ) escribing the kinds of information that can be gleaned from a careful analysis of the contents of sheets (#) emonstrating the difficulty of arri'ing at a firm conclusion regarding how increases in the amount of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere affect global temperature 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that during periods of postglacial warming/ which of the following occurred% (A) The total 'olume of air trapped in bubbles beneath the polar ice sheets increased. (B) The amount of deuterium in ice deposited at the poles increased. (C) Carbon dio$ide le'els in the #arth atmosphere decreased. ( ) The amount of hydrogen in the #arth4s atmosphere decreased relati'ely the amount of deuterium. (#) The rate at which ice was deposited at the poles increased. 22. The author states that there is e'idence to support which of the following assertions% (A) #stimates of global temperature that rely on measurements of deuterium in ice deposited at the poles are more reliable than those based on the amount of carbon dio$ide contained in air bubbles beneath the polar surface. (B) The amount of deuterium in the #arth4s atmosphere tends to increase as global temperature decreases. (C) @eriods of postglacial warming are characteri!ed by the presence of increased le'els of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere. ( ) 3ncreases in global temperature o'er the last 125/555 years are largely the result of increases in the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the #arth4s atmosphere. (#) 3ncreases in global temperature o'er the last 125/555 years ha'e been accompanied by decreases in the amount of deuterium in the ice deposited at the poles. 2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the conclusion stated in the last sentence would need to be ree'aluated if scientists disco'ered that which of the following were true% (A) The amount of deuterium in ice deposited on the polar surface is significantly greater than the amount of deuterium in ice located deep beneath the polar surface.

GRE

22-

(B) Both the air bubbles trapped deep beneath the polar surface and the ice surrounding them contain relati'ely low le'els of deuterium. (C) Air bubbles trapped deep beneath the polar surface and containing relati'ely high le'els of carbon dio$ide are surrounded by ice that contained relati'ely low le'els of deuterium. ( ) The current le'el of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere e$ceeds the le'el of carbon dio$ide in the prehistoric air trapped beneath the polar surface. (#) 3ncreases in the le'el of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere are accompanied by increases in the amount of deuterium in the ice deposited at the poles. SECTION B
&rac$en #ern has been spreading #rom its wood"and strongho"ds #or centuries' but the rate o# encroachment into open countryside has "ate"y increased a"arming"y throughout northern and western &ritain. 0 tough competitor' brac$en reduces the va"ue o# gra)ing "and by crowding out other vegetation. The #ern is itse"# poisonous to "ivestoc$' and a"so encourages pro"i#eration o# sheep tic$s' which not on"y attac$ sheep but a"so transmit diseases. *o "ess important to some peop"e are brac$en3s e##ects on threatened habitats and on the use o# up"ands #or recreationa" purposes' even though many appreciate its beauty. &io"ogica" contro"s may be the on"y economic so"ution. 9ne potentia""y cheap and se"#sustaining method o# ha"ting the spread o# brac$en is to introduce natura" enemies o# the p"ant. /nitia""y unrestrained by predators o# their own' #oreign predators are "i$e"y to be ab"e to mu"tip"y rapid"y and overwhe"m intended targets. &ecause brac$en occurs throughout the wor"d' there is p"enty o# scope #or this approach. Two candidates' both moths #rom the outhern (emisphere' are now being studied. 9# course' bio"ogica" contro" agents can sa#e"y be re"eased on"y i# it can be veri#ied that they #eed so"e"y on the target weed. The screening tests have so #ar been #raught with di##icu"ties. The #irst "arge shipment o# moths succumbed to a disease. Arowing enough brac$en indoors is di##icu"t' and the moths do not readi"y e5p"oit cut stems. These are common prob"ems with rearing insects #or bio"ogica" contro". 9ther prob"ems can be #oreseen. 6o"icyma$ers need to consider many #actors and opinions such as the cost o# contro" compared to e5isting methods' and the impact o# the c"earance o# brac$en on the "andscape' wi"d"i#e' and vegetation. /n #act' scientists a"ready have much o# the in#ormation needed to assess the impact o# bio"ogica" contro" o# brac$en' but it is spread among many individua"s' organi)ations' and government bodies. The potentia" gains #or the environment are "i$e"y to outweigh the "osses because #ew p"ants' insects' mamma"s' and birds "ive associated on"y with brac$en' and many wou"d bene#it #rom a return o# other vegetation or #rom a more diverse mosaic o# habitats. &ut "ega" conse+uences o# attempts at bio"ogica" contro" present a potentia" mine#ie"d. 7or e5amp"e' many rura" tenants sti"" have the right o# ;estoyers'< the right to cut brac$en as bedding #or "ivestoc$ and uses.

226

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

8hat wou"d happen i# they were deprived o# these rightsC 9nce a bio"ogica" contro" agent is re"eased' it is di##icu"t to contro" its speed. 8hat consideration is due "andowners who do not want to contro" brac$enC 0ccording to "aw' the re"ease o# the bio"ogica" contro" agents must be authori)ed by the secretary o# state #or the environment. &ut &ritain "ac$s the "ega" and administrative machinery to assemb"e evidence #or and against re"ease.

1-. &hich of the following best states the main idea of the passage% (A) ;tudies suggest that biological control of bracken will not be technically feasible. (B) Although biological control appears to be the best solution to bracken infestation/ careful assessment of the conse"uences is re"uired. (C) #n'ironmentalists are hoping that laboratory technicians will find a way to raise large numbers of moths in capti'ity. ( ) Bracken is currently the best solution to the proliferation of nonnati'e moth species. (#) #'en after researchers disco'er the most economical method of pest control/ the go'ernment has no authority to implement a control program. 16. According to the passage/ which of the following can be inferred about sheep ticks% (A) They increase where bracken spreads. (B) They are dangerous only to sheep. (C) They are especially adapted to woodland. ( ) They ha'e no natural enemies. (#) They cause disease among bracken. 1,. The author cites all of the following as disad'antages of bracken encroachment #DC#@TE (A) Bracken is poisonous to farm animals. (B) Bracken inhibits the growth of 'aluable 'egetation. (C) Bracken indirectly helps spread certain diseases. ( ) Bracken is aesthetically ob<ectionable. (#) Bracken disturbs habitats that some people would like to protect. 25. The final paragraph can best be described as (A) a summation of arguments presented in pre'ious paragraphs (B) the elimination of competing arguments to strengthen a single remaining conclusion (C) an enumeration of ad'antages to biological control ( ) an e$pansion of the discussion from the particular e$ample of bracken control to the general problem of go'ernment regulation (#) an o'er'iew of the 'ariety of factors re"uiring further assessment

GRE

22,

21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that it is ad'antageous to choose as the biological control agent a predator that is foreign to the targeted en'ironment for which of the following reasons% (A) Conser'ation groups prefer not to fa'or one nati'e species o'er another. (B) All local predators ha'e already been o'erwhelmed by the target species. (C) Kocal predators cannot be effecti'ely screened since they already e$ist in the wild. ( ) There is little risk of an artificially introduced foreign predator multiplying out of control. (#) 9ati'e predator species are generally limited by their own predators. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the screening tests performed on the biological control agent are designed primarily to determine (A) its effecti'eness in eliminating the target species (B) the response of local residents to its introduction (C) the risk it poses to species other than the target ( ) its resistance to the stress of shipment (#) the likelihood of its sur'i'al indoors 2.. As it is discussed in the passage/ the place of bracken within the forest habitat can best be described as (A) rapidly e$panding (B) the sub<ect of contro'ersy (C) well established ( ) circumscribed by numerous predators (#) a significant nutrient source
0""en and 8o"$owit)3s research cha""enges the common c"aim that homewor$ waged "abor per#ormed at home #or a companyis primari"y a response to women wor$ers3 needs and pre#erences. &y #ocusing on a "imited geographica" area in order to gather in-depth in#ormation' the authors have avoided the methodo"ogica" pit#a""s that have p"agued ear"ier research on homewor$. Their #indings disprove accepted notions about homewor$ers> that they are un+ua"i#ied #or other 2obs and that they use homewor$ as a short-term strategy #or dea"ing with chi"d care. The authors conc"ude that the persistence o# homewor$ cannot be e5p"ained by appea" to such notions' #or' in #act' homewor$ers do not di##er sharp"y #rom other emp"oyed women. ?ost homewor$ers wou"d pre#er to wor$ outside the home but are constrained #rom doing so by "ac$ o# opportunity. /n #act' homewor$ is driven by emp"oyers3 desires to minimi)e #i5ed costs> homewor$ers receive no bene#its and are paid "ess than regu"ar emp"oyees.

20. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) ad'ocating a contro'ersial theory

2-5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(B) presenting and challenging the results of a study (C) describing a problem and proposing a solution ( ) discussing research that opposes a widely accepted belief (#) comparing se'eral e$planations for the same phenomenon 21. According to the passage/ which of the following has been generally belie'ed about homework% (A) The benefits of homework accrue primarily to employers rather than to homeworkers. (B) )omework is pre'alent predominantly in rural areas. (C) )omework is primarily a response to the preferences of women workers. ( ) >ew homeworkers rely on homework for the ma<ority of their family income. (#) ?ost homework is seasonal and part(time rather than full(time and year( round. 22. Allen and &olkowit!4s research suggests that each of the following is true of most homeworkers #DC#@TE (A) They do not necessarily resort to homework as a strategy for dealing with child care. (B) Their family situations are not unlike those of other employed women. (C) They are as well "ualified as women who work outside the home. ( ) They perform professional(le'el duties rather than manual tasks or piecework. (#) They do not prefer homework to employment outside the home. 2-. The passage suggests which of the following about pre'ious research on homework% (A) 3t was conducted primarily with women who did not ha'e e$tensi'e household responsibilities or care for small children at home. (B) 3t was conducted with homeworkers and companies o'er a large geographical area. (C) 3t indicated that women homeworkers had numerous opportunities to work outside the home. ( ) 3t indicated that homeworkers usually work for companies that are close to their homes. (#) 3t indicated that homework was financially ad'antageous to large companies. 1998 04 SECTION A

GRE
?uch o# the research on ha""ucinogenic drugs such as E F has #ocused on the neurotransmitter serotonin' a chemica" that when re"eased #rom a presynaptic serotonin-

2-1

secreting neuron causes the transmission o# a nerve impu"se across a synapse to an ad2acent postsynaptic' or target' neuron. There are two ma2or reasons #or this emphasis. 7irst' it was discovered ear"y on that many o# the ma2or ha""ucinogens have a mo"ecu"ar structure simi"ar to that o# serotonin. /n addition' anima" studies o# brain neurochemistry #o""owing administration o# ha""ucinogens invariab"y reported changes in serotonin "eve"s. =ar"y investigators correct"y reasoned that the structura" simi"arity to the serotonin mo"ecu"e might imp"y that E F3s e##ects are brought about by an action on the neurotransmission o# serotonin in the brain. Un#ortunate"y' the "eve" o# technica" e5pertise in the #ie"d o# brain research was such that this hypothesis had to be tested on periphera" tissue (tissue outside the brain). Two di##erent groups o# scientists reported that E F power#u""y b"oc$aded serotonin3s action. Their conc"usions were +uic$"y cha""enged' however. 8e now $now that the action o# a drug at one site in the body does not necessari"y correspond to the drug3s action at another site' especia""y when one site is in the brain and the other is not. &y the 19G.3s' technica" advances permitted the direct testing o# the hypothesis that E F and re"ated ha""ucinogens act by direct"y suppressing the activity o# serotonin-secreting neurons themse"ves!the so-ca""ed presynaptic hypothesis. Researchers reasoned that i# the ha""ucinogenic drugs act by suppressing the activity o# serotonin-secreting neurons' then drugs administered a#ter these neurons had been destroyed shou"d have no e##ect on behavior' because the system wou"d a"ready be ma5ima""y suppressed. %ontrary to their e5pectations' neuron destruction enhanced the e##ect o# E F and re"ated ha""ucinogens on behavior. Thus' ha""ucinogenic drugs apparent"y do not act direct"y on serotonin-secreting neurons. (owever' these and other avai"ab"e data do support an a"ternative hypothesis that E F and re"ated drugs act direct"y at receptor sites on serotonin target neurons (the postsynaptic hypothesis). The #act that E F e"icits ;serotonin syndrome<!that is' causes the same $inds o# behaviors as does the administration o# serotonin!in anima"s whose brains are dep"eted o# serotonin indicates that E F acts direct"y on serotonin receptors' rather than indirect"y through the re"ease o# stores o# serotonin. The enhanced e##ect o# E F reported a#ter serotonin dep"etion cou"d be due to a pro"i#eration o# serotonin receptor sites on serotonin target neurons. This phenomenon o#ten #o""ows neuron destruction or neurotransmitter dep"etion: the increase in the number o# receptor sites appears to be a compensatory response to decreased input. igni#icant"y' this hypothesis is supported by data #rom a number o# di##erent "aboratories.

1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is one of the primary factors that led researchers studying hallucinogenic drugs to focus on serotonin% (A) The suppression of the acti'ity of serotonin(secreting neurons by the administration of hallucinogens (B) The obser'ed similarities in the chemical structures of serotonin and hallucinogens (C) The effects the administration of hallucinogens has on serotonin production in

2-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

the human brain ( ) ;erotonin(induced changes in the effects of hallucinogens on beha'ior (#) )allucinogen(induced changes in the effects of serotonin on beha'ior 16. 3t can be inferred that researchers abandoned the presynaptic hypothesis because (A) a new and more attracti'e hypothesis was suggested (B) no research was reported that supported the hypothesis (C) research results pro'ided e'idence to counter the hypothesis ( ) the hypothesis was supported only by studies of animals and not by studies of human beings (#) the le'el of technical e$pertise in the field of brain research did not permit ade"uate testing of the hypothesis 1,. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) =esearch has suggested that the neurotransmitter serotonin is responsible for the effects of hallucinogenic drugs on the brain and on beha'ior. (B) =esearchers ha'e spent an inade"uate amount of time de'eloping theories concerning the way in which the effects of hallucinogenic drugs occur. (C) =esearch results strongly suggest that hallucinogenic drugs create their effects by acting on the serotonin receptor sites located on target neurons in the brain. ( ) =esearchers ha'e recently made 'aluable disco'eries concerning the effects of depleting the amount of serotonin in the brain. (#) =esearchers ha'e concluded that hallucinogenic drugs suppress the acti'ity of serotonin(secreting neurons. 25. The research described in the passage is primarily concerned with answering which of the following "uestions% (A) )ow can researchers control the effects that K; has on beha'ior% (B) )ow are animals4 reactions to K; different from those of human beings% (C) &hat triggers the effects that K; has on human beha'ior% ( ) &hat technical ad'ances would permit researchers to predict more accurately the effects of K; on beha'ior% (#) &hat relationship does the suppression of neuron acti'ity ha'e to the occurrence of *serotonin syndrome+% 21. &hich of the following best defines *serotonin syndrome+ (line 02) as the term is used in the passage% (A) The series of beha'iors/ usually associated with the administration of serotonin/ that also occurs when K; is administered to animals whose brains are depleted of serotonin (B) The series of beha'iors/ usually associated with the administration of K; /

GRE

2-.

that also occurs when the amount of serotonin in the brain is reduced (C) The ma$imal suppression of neuron acti'ity that results from the destruction of serotonin(secreting neurons ( ) The release of stores of serotonin from serotonin(secreting neurons in the brain (#) The proliferation of serotonin receptor sites that follows depletion of serotonin supplies in the brain 22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the argument that the author of the passage presents in the last two paragraphs% (A) Two approaches to testing a hypothesis are described/ and the greater merits of one approach are indicated. (B) The assumptions underlying two hypotheses are outlined/ and e'idence for and against each hypothesis is discussed. (C) A phenomenon is described/ and hypotheses concerning its occurrence are considered and re<ected. ( ) The reasoning behind a hypothesis is summari!ed/ e'idence supporting the hypothesis is presented/ and research that counters the supporting e'idence is described. (#) A hypothesis is discussed/ e'idence undermining the hypothesis is re'ealed/ and a further hypothesis based on the undermining e'idence is e$plained. 2.. The author4s attitude toward early researchers4 reasoning concerning the implications of similarities in the structures of serotonin and K; molecules can best be described as one of (A) complete agreement (B) reluctant support (C) subtle condescension ( ) irre'erent dismissal (#) strong opposition
8hen "iterary periods are de#ined on the basis o# men3s writing' women3s writing must be #orcib"y assimi"ated into an irre"evant grid> a Renaissance that is not a renaissance #or women' a Romantic period in which women p"ayed very "itt"e part' a modernism with which women con#"ict. imu"taneous"y' the history o# women3s writing has been suppressed' "eaving "arge' mysterious gaps in accounts o# the deve"opment o# various genres. 7eminist criticism is beginning to correct this situation. ?argaret 0nne Foody' #or e5amp"e' suggests that during ;the period between the death o# Richardson and the appearance o# the nove"s o# cott and 0usten'< which has ;been regarded as a dead period'< "ate-eighteenth-century women writers actua""y deve"oped ;the paradigm #or women3s #iction o# the nineteenth century!something hard"y "ess than the paradigm o# the nineteenth-century nove" itse"#.< 7eminist critics have a"so pointed out that the twentieth-century writer Birginia 8oo"# be"onged to a tradition other than modernism and that this tradition sur#aces in her wor$ precise"y where criticism has hitherto

2-0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

#ound obscurities' evasions' imp"ausibi"ities' and imper#ections.

20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author 'iews the di'ision of literature into periods based on men4s writing as an approach that (A) makes distinctions among literary periods ambiguous (B) is appropriate for e'aluating only premodern literature (C) was misunderstood until the ad'ent of feminist criticism ( ) pro'ides a 'aluable basis from which feminist criticism has e'ol'ed (#) obscures women4s contributions to literature 21. The passage suggests which of the following about Cirginia &oolf4s work% 3. 33. 9onfeminist criticism of it has been flawed. Critics ha'e treated it as part of modernism.

333. 3t is based on the work of late(eighteenth(century women writers. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 3 and 33 only ( ) 33 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33 and 333 22. The author "uotes oody most probably in order to illustrate (A) a contribution that feminist criticism can make to literary criticism (B) a modernist approach that conflicts with women4s writing (C) writing by a woman which had pre'iously been ignored ( ) the hitherto o'erlooked significance of ;cott4s and Austen4s no'els (#) a standard system of defining literary periods 2-. The passage pro'ides information that answers which of the following "uestions% (A) 3n what tradition do feminist critics usually place Cirginia &oolf% (B) &hat are the main themes of women4s fiction of the nineteenth century% (C) &hat e'ents moti'ated the feminist reinterpretation of literary history% ( ) )ow has the period between =ichardson4s death and ;cott4s and Austen4s no'els traditionally been regarded by critics% (#) )ow was the de'elopment of the nineteenth(century no'el affected by women4s fiction in the same century% SECTION B
The origin o# the theory that ma2or geo"ogic events may occur at regu"ar interva"s can be traced bac$ not to a study o# vo"canism or p"ate tectonics but to an investigation o# marine e5tinctions. /n the ear"y 198.3s' scientists began to "oo$ c"ose"y at the +uestion o# how these

GRE

2-1

e5tinctions occur. Two pa"eonto"ogists' Raup and ep$os$i' compi"ed a master "ist o# marine species that died out during the past 1G8 mi""ion years and noted that there were brie# periods during which many species disappeared at once. These mass e5tinctions occurred at surprising"y regu"ar interva"s. Eater studies revea"ed that e5tinctions o# terrestria" repti"es and mamma"s a"so occurred periodica""y. These #indings' combined with the research o# Raup and ep$os$i' "ed scientists to hypothesi)e the e5istence o# some $ind o# cyc"ica""y recurring #orce power#u" enough to a##ect "iving things pro#ound"y. pecu"ation that so power#u" a #orce might a##ect geo"ogic events as we"" "ed geo"ogists to search #or evidence o# periodicity in episodes o# vo"canism' sea#"oor spreading' and p"ate movement.

1-. According to the passage/ =aup and ;epkoski4s research was concerned with (A) learning more about the habitats of marine species (B) studying plate tectonics and the occurrence of 'olcanism o'er the past 226 million years (C) e$amining e$tinctions of marine species o'er the past 226 million years ( ) finding out whether a rhythmically recurring geologic force e$ists (#) confirming pre'ious e'idence suggesting that e$tinction of terrestrial species occurred regularly 16. The author of the passage would most likely describe the findings of =aup and ;epkoski as (A) plausible/ because the findings supported the theories of pre'ious researchers (B) significant/ because the findings were an impetus for subse"uent research (C) contro'ersial/ because the findings contradicted the theories of pre'ious researchers ( ) "uestionable/ because the authors were not working in their field of e$pertise (#) definiti'e/ because the findings confirmed the e$istence of a rhythmically recurring force 1,. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) determining the dates of 'arious geologic e'ents (B) defending the conclusions reached by =aup and ;epkoski (C) establishing a link between the disciplines of paleontology and geology ( ) pro'ing that mass e$tinctions of marine animals occur periodically (#) e$plaining how a theory concerning geologic e'ents was formulated 25. The passage suggests which of the following about the *force+ mentioned in lines 12 and 16% (A) 3t is responsible for most of the ma<or geologic e'ents that ha'e occurred. (B) 3t is responsible for most of the marine e$tinctions that ha'e occurred. (C) 3ts recurrence is unlikely to be able to be predicted by scientists.

2-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

( ) 3ts e$istence was not seriously considered by scientists before =aup and ;epkoski did their research. (#) 3ts e$istence was confirmed by the research of =aup and ;epkoski.
0 recent history o# the %hicago meat-pac$ing industry and its wor$ers e5amines how the industry grew #rom its appearance in the 184.3s through the ear"y 189.3s. ?eat-pac$ers' the author argues' had good wages' wor$ing conditions' and prospects #or advancement within the pac$inghouses' and did not cooperate with "abor agitators since "abor re"ations were so harmonious. &ecause the history maintains that conditions were above standard #or the era' the #re+uency o# "abor disputes' especia""y in the mid-188.3s' is not accounted #or. The wor$ ignores the #act that the 188.3s were crucia" years in 0merican "abor history' and that the pac$inghouse wor$ers3 e##orts were part o# the nationa" movement #or "abor re#orm. /n #act' other historica" sources #or the "ate nineteenth century record deteriorating housing and high disease and in#ant morta"ity rates in the industria" community' due to "ow wages and unhea"thy wor$ing conditions. 0dditiona" data #rom the University o# %hicago suggest that the pac$inghouses were dangerous p"aces to wor$. The government investigation commissioned by 6resident Theodore Rooseve"t which eventua""y "ed to the adoption o# the 19.G ?eat /nspection 0ct #ound the pac$inghouses unsanitary' whi"e socia" wor$ers observed that most o# the wor$ers were poor"y paid and overwor$ed. The history may be too optimistic because most o# its data date #rom the 188.3s at the "atest' and the in#ormation provided #rom that decade is insu##icient"y ana"y)ed. %onditions actua""y dec"ined in the 188.3s' and continued to dec"ine a#ter the 188.3s' due to a reorgani)ation o# the pac$ing process and a massive in#"u5 o# uns$i""ed wor$ers. The deterioration in wor$er status' part"y a resu"t o# the new avai"abi"ity o# uns$i""ed and hence cheap "abor' is not discussed. Though a detai"ed account o# wor$ in the pac$ing-houses is attempted' the author #ai"s to distinguish between the wages and conditions #or s$i""ed wor$ers and #or those uns$i""ed "aborers who comprised the ma2ority o# the industry3s wor$ers #rom the 188.3s on. 8hi"e conditions #or the #ormer were arguab"y to"erab"e due to the strategic importance o# s$i""ed wor$ers in the comp"icated s"aughtering' cutting' and pac$ing process (though wor$er comp"aints about the rate and conditions o# wor$ were #re+uent)' pay and conditions #or the "atter were wretched. The author3s misinterpretation o# the origins o# the #ee"ings the meat-pac$ers had #or their industria" neighborhood may account #or the history3s #au"ty genera"i)ations. The pride and contentment the author remar$s upon were' arguab"y' "ess the products o# the industria" wor"d o# the pac$ers!the giant yards and the intricate p"ants!than o# the unity and vibrance o# the ethnic cu"tures that #ormed a viab"e community on %hicago3s outh ide. /ndeed' the strength o# this community succeeded in generating a socia" movement that e##ective"y con#ronted the prob"ems o# the industry that provided its "ive"ihood.

21. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing (A) how historians ought to e$plain the origins of the conditions in the Chicago meat(packing industry (B) why it is difficult to determine the actual nature of the conditions in the Chicago meat(packing industry

GRE

2--

(C) why a particular account of the conditions in the Chicago meat(packing industry is inaccurate ( ) what ought to be included in any account of the Chicago meat(packers4 role in the national labor mo'ement (#) what data are most rele'ant for an accurate account of the relations between Chicago meat(packers and local labor agitators 22. The author of the passage mentions all of the following as describing negati'e conditions in the meat(packing industry #DC#@TE (A) data from the :ni'ersity of Chicago (B) a recent history of the meat(packing industry (C) social workers ( ) historical sources for the late nineteenth century (#) go'ernment records 2.. The author of the passage mentions the *social mo'ement+ (line 1-) generated by Chicago4s ;outh ;ide community primarily in order to (A) inform the reader of e'ents that occurred in the meat(packing industry after the period of time co'ered by the history (B) suggest the history4s limitations by pointing out a situation that the history failed to e$plain ade"uately (C) sal'age the history4s point of 'iew by suggesting that there were positi'e de'elopments in the meat(packing industry due to worker unity ( ) introduce a new issue designed to elaborate on the good relationship between the meat(packers and Chicago4s ethnic communities (#) suggest that the history should ha'e focused more on the general issue of the relationship between labor mo'ements and healthy industrial communities 20. According to the passage/ the working conditions of skilled workers in the meat( packing industry during the 16654s were influenced by (A) the workers4 determined complaints about the rate and conditions of their work (B) the efforts of social workers to impro'e sanitation in the packinghouses (C) the workers4 ability to perform the industry4s comple$ tasks ( ) impro'ements in the industry4s packing process that occurred in the 16654s (#) opportunities for <ob ad'ancement due to the filling of less desirable positions by increasing numbers of unskilled workers 21. The author of the passage uses the second paragraph to (A) summari!e the main point of the history discussed in the passage (B) e$plain why the history discussed in the passage has been disparaged by critics

2-6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) e'aluate the findings of recent studies that undermine the premises of the history discussed in the passage ( ) introduce a hypothesis that will be discussed in detail later in the passage (#) present e'idence that is intended to refute the argument of the history discussed in the passage 22. The tone of the author of the passage in discussing the meat(packer community on Chicago4s ;outh ;ide can best be described as one of (A) appreciation of the community4s ability to cope with difficult conditions (B) admiration for the community4s refusal to cooperate with labor agitators (C) indignation at the kinds of social conditions the community faced ( ) annoyance at the community4s inability to abolish discrimination in the meat( packing industry (#) concern that the meat(packers4 feelings for their community ha'e not been documented 2-. The information in the passage suggests that the author of the history discussed in the passage made which of the following errors% (A) >ailing to recogni!e the effect of the di'ersity of the ;outh ;ide community on the meat(packers4 efforts to reform the industry (B) Attributing good working conditions in the meat(packing industry to the efforts of labor agitators (C) 8'eremphasi!ing the importance of the a'ailability of unskilled labor as an influence on conditions in the meat packing industry ( ) 3nterpreting the meat(packers4 feelings for their community as appreciation of their industry (#) >ailing to obser'e the pride and contentment felt by the meat(packers 1998 11 SECTION A
(This passage is #rom a boo$ pub"ished in 19G..) 8hen we consider great painters o# the past' the study o# art and the study o# i""usion cannot a"ways be separated. &y i""usion / mean those contrivances o# co"or' "ine' shape' and so #orth that "ead us to see mar$s on a #"at sur#ace as depicting three-dimensiona" ob2ects in space. / must emphasi)e that / am not ma$ing a p"ea' disguised or otherwise' #or the e5ercise o# i""usionist tric$s in painting today' a"though / am' in #act' rather critica" o# certain theories o# non-representationa" art. &ut to argue over these theories wou"d be to miss the point. That the discoveries and e##ects o# representation that were the pride o# ear"ier artists have become trivia" today / wou"d not deny #or a moment. Det / be"ieve that we are in rea" danger o# "osing contact with past masters i# we accept the #ashionab"e doctrine that such matters never had

GRE
anything to do with art. The very reason why the representation o# nature can now be

2-,

considered something commonp"ace shou"d be o# the greatest interest to art historians. *ever be#ore has there been an age when the visua" image was so cheap in every sense o# the word. 8e are surrounded and assai"ed by posters and advertisements' comics and maga)ine i""ustrations. 8e see aspects o# rea"ity represented on te"evision' postage stamps' and #ood pac$ages. 6ainting is taught in schoo" and practiced as a pastime' and many modest amateurs have mastered tric$s that wou"d have "oo$ed "i$e sheer magic to the #ourteenthcentury painter Aiotto. =ven the crude co"ored renderings on a cerea" bo5 might have made Aiotto3s contemporaries gasp. 6erhaps there are peop"e who conc"ude #rom this that the cerea" bo5 is superior to a Aiotto: / do not. &ut / thin$ that the victory and vu"gari)ation o# representationa" s$i""s create a prob"em #or both art historians and critics. /n this connection it is instructive to remember the Aree$ saying that to marve" is the beginning o# $now"edge and i# we cease to marve" we may be in danger o# ceasing to $now. / be"ieve we must restore our sense o# wonder at the capacity to con2ure up by #orms' "ines' shades' or co"ors those mysterious phantoms o# visua" rea"ity we ca"" ;pictures.< =ven comics and advertisements' right"y viewed' provide #ood #or thought. @ust as the study o# poetry remains incomp"ete without an awareness o# the "anguage o# prose' so' / be"ieve' the study o# art wi"" be increasing"y supp"emented by in+uiry into the ;"inguistics< o# the visua" image. The way the "anguage o# art re#ers to the visib"e wor"d is both so obvious and so mysterious that it is sti"" "arge"y un$nown e5cept to artists' who use it as we use a"" "anguage!without needing to $now its grammar and semantics.

1-. The author of the passage e$plicitly disagrees with which of the following statements4 (A) 3n modern society e'en nonartists can master techni"ues that great artists of the fourteenth century did not employ. (B) The ability to represent a three(dimensional ob<ect on a flat surface has nothing to do with art. (C) 3n modern society the 'ictory of representational skills has created a problem for art critics. ( ) The way that artists are able to represent the 'isible world is an area that needs a great deal more study before it can be fully understood. (#) ?odern painters do not fre"uently make use of illusionist tricks in their work. 16. The author suggests which of the following about art historians% (A) They do not belie'e that illusionist tricks ha'e become tri'ial. (B) They generally spend little time studying contemporary artists. (C) They ha'e not gi'en enough consideration to how the representation of nature has become commonplace. ( ) They generally tend to argue about theories rather than address substanti'e issues. (#) They are less likely than art critics to study comics or ad'ertisements.

265

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1,. &hich of the following best states the author4s attitude toward comics/ as e$pressed in the passage% (A) They constitute an inno'ati'e art form. (B) They can be a worthwhile sub<ect for study. (C) They are critically important to an understanding of modem art. ( ) Their 'isual structure is more comple$ than that of medie'al art. (#) They can be understood best if they are e$amined in con<unction with ad'ertisements. 25. The author4s statement regarding how artists use the language of art (lines 06(12) implies that (A) artists are better e"uipped than are art historians to pro'ide detailed e'aluations of other artists4 work (B) many artists ha'e an unusually "uick/ intuiti'e understanding of language (C) artists can produce works of art e'en if they cannot analy!e their methods of doing so ( ) artists of the past/ such as Biotto/ were better educated about artistic issues than were artists of the author4s time (#) most artists probably consider the processes in'ol'ed in their work to be closely akin to those in'ol'ed in writing poetry 21. The passage asserts which of the following about commercial art% (A) There are many e$amples of commercial art whose artistic merit is e"ual to that of great works of art of the past. (B) Commercial art is hea'ily influenced by whate'er doctrines are fashionable in the serious art world of the time. (C) The line between commercial art and great art lies primarily in how an image is used/ not in the moti'ation for its creation. ( ) The le'el of technical skill re"uired to produce representational imagery in commercial art and in other kinds of art cannot be compared. (#) The per'asi'eness of contemporary commercial art has led art historians to under'alue representational skills. 22. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the adherents of *certain theories of nonrepresentational art+ (lines ,(15)% (A) They consider the use of illusion to be inappropriate in contemporary art. (B) They do not agree that marks on a flat surface can e'er satisfactorily con'ey the illusion of three(dimensional space. (C) They do not discuss important works of art created in the past. ( ) They do not think that the representation of nature was e'er the primary goal of past painters.

GRE

261

(#) They concern themsel'es more with types of art such as ad'ertisements and maga!ine illustrations than with traditional art. 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that someone who wanted to analy!e the *grammar and semantics+ (line 12) of the language of art would most appropriately comment on which of the following% (A) The relationship between the drawings in a comic strip and the accompanying te$t (B) The amount of detail that can be included in a tiny illustration on a postage stamp (C) The sociological implications of the images chosen to ad'ertise a particular product ( ) The degree to which 'arious colors used in different 'ersions of the same poster would attract the attention of passersby (#) The particular <u$taposition of shapes in an illustration that makes one shape look as though it were behind another
The 1974 =ndangered pecies 0ct made into "ega" po"icy the concept that endangered species o# wi"d"i#e are precious as part o# a natura" ecosystem. The near"y unanimous passage o# this act in the United tates %ongress' re#"ecting the rising nationa" popu"arity o# environmenta"ism' mas$ed a bitter debate. 0##ected industries c"ung to the #ormer wi"d"i#e po"icy o# va"uing individua" species according to their economic use#u"ness. They #ought to minimi)e the "aw3s impact by "imiting de#initions o# $ey terms' but they "ost on near"y every issue. The act de#ined ;wi"d"i#e< as a"most a"" $inds o# anima"s!#rom "arge mamma"s to invertebrates!and p"ants. ;Ta$ing< wi"d"i#e was de#ined broad"y as any action that threatened an endangered species: areas vita" to a species3 surviva" cou"d be #edera""y protected as ;critica" habitats.< Though these de#initions "egis"ated strong environmenta"ist goa"s' po"itica" compromises made in the en#orcement o# the act were to determine 2ust what economic interests wou"d be set aside #or the sa$e o# eco"ogica" stabi"i)ation.

20. According to the passage/ which of the following does the #ndangered ;pecies Act define as a *critical habitat+% (A) A natural ecosystem that is threatened by imminent de'elopment (B) An industrial or urban area in which wildlife species ha'e almost ceased to li'e among humans (C) A natural area that is crucial to the sur'i'al of a species and thus eligible for federal protection ( ) A wilderness area in which the *taking+ of wildlife species is permitted rarely and only under strict federal regulation (#) A natural en'ironment that is protected under law because its wildlife has a high economic 'alue 21. According to the passage/ which of the following is an e$planation for the degree of support that the #ndangered ;pecies Act recei'ed in Congress%

262

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(A) Concern for the en'ironment had gained increasing national popularity. (B) #cological research had created new economic opportunities dependent on the sur'i'al of certain species. (C) Congress had long wanted to change the e$isting wildlife policy. ( ) The growth of industry had endangered increasing numbers of wildlife species. (#) Kegislators did not anticipate that the act could be effecti'ely enforced. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if business interests had won the debate on pro'isions of the 1,-. #ndangered ;pecies Act/ which of the following would ha'e resulted% (A) #n'ironmentalist concepts would not ha'e become widely popular. (B) The definitions of key terms of the act would ha'e been more restricted. (C) #nforcement of the act would ha'e been more difficult. ( ) The act would ha'e had stronger support from Congressional leaders. (#) The public would ha'e boycotted the industries that had the greatest impact in defining the act. 2-. The author refers to the terms *wildlife+ (line 11)/ *taking+ (line 1.)/ and *critical habitats+ (line 12) most likely in order to (A) illustrate the misuse of scientific language and concepts in political processes (B) emphasi!e the importance of selecting precise language in transforming scientific concepts into law (C) represent terminology whose definition was crucial in writing en'ironmentalist goals into law ( ) demonstrate the tri'iality of the issues debated by industries before Congress passed the #ndangered ;pecies Act (#) show that broad definitions of key terms in many types of laws resulted in ambiguity and thus left room for disagreement about how the law should be enforced SECTION B
7rom the 19..3s through the 19-.3s waitresses in the United tates deve"oped a #orm o# unionism based on the unions3 de#ining the s$i""s that their occupation inc"uded and en#orcing standards #or the per#ormance o# those s$i""s. This ;occupationa" unionism< di##ered substantia""y #rom the ;wor$site unionism< preva"ent among #actory wor$ers. Rather than unioni)ing the wor$#orces o# particu"ar emp"oyers' waitress "oca"s sought to contro" their occupation throughout a city. 9ccupationa" unionism operated through union hiring ha""s' which provided #ree p"acement services to emp"oyers who agreed to hire their personne" on"y through the union. (iring ha""s o##ered union waitresses co""ective emp"oyment security' not individua" 2ob securitya basic protection o##ered by wor$site unions. That is' when a waitress

GRE

26.

"ost her 2ob' the "oca" did not intervene with her emp"oyer but p"aced her e"sewhere: and when 2obs were scarce' the wor$ hours avai"ab"e were distributed #air"y among a"" members rather than being assigned according to seniority.

1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) analy!e a current trend in relation to the past (B) discuss a particular solution to a longstanding problem (C) analy!e changes in the way that certain standards ha'e been enforced ( ) apply a generali!ation to an unusual situation (#) describe an approach by contrasting it with another approach 16. &hich of the following statements best summari!es a distinction mentioned in the passage between waitress unions and factory workers4 unions% (A) &aitress unions were more successful than factory workers4 unions in that they were able to unioni!e whole cities. (B) &aitress unions had an impact on only certain local areas/ whereas the impact of factory workers4 unions was national. (C) &aitress union members held primarily part(time positions/ whereas factory workers4 unions placed their members in full(time <obs. ( ) &aitress unions emphasi!ed the occupation of workers/ whereas factory workers4 unions emphasi!ed the worksite at which workers were employed. (#) &aitress unions defined the skills of their trade/ whereas the skills of factory trades were determined by employers4 groups. 1,. According to the passage/ which of the following was characteristic of the form of union that :nited ;tates waitresses de'eloped in the first half of the twentieth century% (A) The union represented a wide 'ariety of restaurant and hotel ser'ice occupations. (B) The union defined the skills re"uired of waitresses and disciplined its members to meet certain standards. (C) The union billed employers for its members4 work and distributed the earnings among all members. ( ) The union negotiated the enforcement of occupational standards with each employer whose workforce <oined the union. (#) The union ensured that a worker could not be laid off arbitrarily by an employer. 25. The author of the passage mentions *particular employers+ (line 6) primarily in order to (A) suggest that occupational unions found some employers difficult to satisfy (B) indicate that the occupational unions ser'ed some employers but not others

260

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(C) emphasi!e the uni"ue focus of occupational unionism ( ) accentuate the hostility of some employers toward occupational unionism (#) point out a weakness of worksite unionism
/n prehistoric times brachiopods were one o# the most abundant and diverse #orms o# "i#e on =arth> more than 4.'... species o# this c"am"i$e creature have been cata"oged #rom #ossi" records. Today brachiopods are not as numerous' and e5isting species are not we"" studied' part"y because neither the anima"3s #"eshy inner tissue nor its she"" has any commercia" va"ue. ?oreover' in contrast to the greater diversity o# the e5tinct species' the appro5imate"y 4.. $nown surviving species are re"ative"y uni#orm in appearance. ?any )oo"ogists have interpreted this as a sign that the anima" has been unab"e to compete success#u""y with other marine organisms in the evo"utionary strugg"e. evera" things' however' suggest that the conventiona" view needs revising. 7or e5amp"e' the genus 'ingula has an unbro$en #ossi" record e5tending over more than ha"# a bi""ion years to the present. Thus' i# "ongevity is any measure' brachiopods are the most success#u" organisms e5tant. 7urther' recent studies suggest that diversity among species is a "ess important measure o# evo"utionary success than is the abi"ity to withstand environmenta" change' such as when a "ayer o# c"ay rep"aces sand on the ocean bottom. The re"ative"y greater uni#ormity among the e5isting brachiopod species may o##er greater protection #rom environmenta" change and hence may re#"ect high"y success#u" adaptive behavior. The adaptive advantages o# uni#ormity #or brachiopods can be seen by considering specia"i)ation' a process that occurs as a resu"t o# pro"onged co"oni)ation o# a uni#orm substrate. Those that can survive on many sur#aces are ca""ed genera"ists' whi"e those that can survive on a "imited range o# substrates are ca""ed specia"ists. 9ne specia"ist species' #or e5amp"e' has va"ves weighted at the base' a characteristic that assures that the organism is proper"y positioned #or #eeding in mud and simi"ar substrates: other species secrete g"ue a""owing them to survive on the #ace o# underwater c"i##s. The #ossi" record demonstrates that most brachiopod "ineages have #o""owed a trend toward increased specia"i)ation. (owever' during periods o# environmenta" instabi"ity' when a particu"ar substrate to which a specia"ist species has adapted is no "onger avai"ab"e' the species +uic$"y dies out. Aenera"ists' on the other hand' are not dependent on a particu"ar substrate' and are thus "ess vu"nerab"e to environmenta" change. 9ne study o# the #ossi" record revea"ed a mass e5tinction o# brachiopods #o""owing a change in sedimentation #rom cha"$ to c"ay. 9# the 4- brachiopod species #ound in the cha"$' on"y G survived in the c"ay' a"" o# them genera"ists. 0s "ong as enough genera"ist species are maintained' and studies o# arctic and subarctic seas suggest that genera"ists are o#ten dominant members o# the marine communities there' it seems un"i$e"y that the phy"um is c"ose to e5tinction.

21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) re<ecting an earlier e$planation for the longe'ity of certain brachiopod species (B) ree'aluating the implications of uniformity among e$isting brachiopod species

GRE

261

(C) describing the 'arieties of en'ironmental change to which brachiopods are 'ulnerable ( ) reconciling opposing e$planations for brachiopods4 lack of e'olutionary success (#) elaborating the mechanisms responsible for the tendency among brachiopod species toward speciali!ation 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that many !oologists assume that a large di'ersity among species of a gi'en class of organisms typically leads to which of the following% (A) ifficulty in classification (B) A discontinuous fossil record (C) A greater chance of sur'i'al o'er time ( ) 9umerical abundance (#) A longer life span 2.. The second paragraph makes use of which of the following% (A) ;pecific e$amples (B) Analogy (C) ?etaphor ( ) Nuotation (#) #$aggeration 20. The author suggests that the scientists holding the con'entional 'iew mentioned in lines 11(12 make which of the following errors% (A) They mistakenly emphasi!e sur'i'al rather than di'ersity. (B) They misunderstand the causes of speciali!ation. (C) They misuse !oological terminology. ( ) They catalog fossili!ed remains improperly. (#) They o'erlook an alternati'e criterion of e'olutionary success. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the decision to study an organism may sometimes be influenced by (A) its practical or commercial benefits to society (B) the nature and pre'alence of its fossili!ed remains (C) the relati'e con'enience of its geographical distribution ( ) its similarity to one or more better(known species (#) the degree of its physiological comple$ity 22. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the author4s claim (lines 12(1-) that *it seems unlikely that the phylum is close to e$tinction+%

262

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(A) Beneralist species now li'ing in arctic water gi'e few if any indications of a tendency towards significant future speciali!ation. (B) Loologists ha'e recently disco'ered that a common marine organism is a natural predator of brachiopods. (C) 3t was recently disco'ered that certain brachiopod species are almost always concentrated near areas rich in offshore oil deposits. ( ) The ratio of specialist to Beneralist species is slowly but steadily increasing. (#) 3t is easier for a brachiopod to sur'i'e a change in sedimentation than a change in water temperature. 2-. 3nformation in the passage supports which of the following statements about brachiopods% 3. 33. >ew brachiopods li'ing in prehistoric times were specialists. A tendency toward speciali!ation/ though typical/ is not ine'itable.

333. ;pecialist species dominate in all but arctic and subarctic waters. (A) 3 only (B) 33 only (C) 33 and 333 only ( ) 3 and 333 only (#) 3/ 33 and 333 1999 04 SECTION A
This passage is based on an artic"e pub"ished in 199.. =ight times within the past mi""ion years' something in the =arth3s c"imatic e+uation has changed' a""owing snow in the mountains and the northern "atitudes to accumu"ate #rom one season to the ne5t instead o# me"ting away. =ach time' the enormous ice sheets resu"ting #rom this continua" bui"dup "asted tens o# thousands o# years unti" the end o# each particu"ar g"acia" cyc"e brought a warmer c"imate. cientists specu"ated that these g"acia" cyc"es were u"timate"y driven by astronomica" #actors> s"ow' cyc"ic changes in the eccentricity o# the =arth3s orbit and in the ti"t and orientation o# its spin a5is. &ut up unti" around 4. years ago' the "ac$ o# an independent record o# ice-age timing made the hypothesis untestab"e. Then in the ear"y 19-.3s =mi"iani produced the #irst comp"ete record o# the wa5ings and wanings o# past g"aciations. /t came #rom a seeming"y odd p"ace' the sea#"oor. ing"e-ce"" marine organisms ca""ed ;#oramini#era< house themse"ves in she""s made #rom ca"cium carbonate. 8hen the #oramini#era die' sin$ to the bottom' and become part o# sea#"oor sediments' the carbonate o# their she""s preserves certain characteristics o# the seawater they inhabited. /n particu"ar' the ratio o# a heavy isotope o# o5ygen (o5ygen-18) to ordinary o5ygen (o5ygen-1G) in the carbonate preserves the ratio o# the two o5ygens in water mo"ecu"es.

GRE
/t is now understood that the ratio o# o5ygen isotopes in seawater c"ose"y re#"ects the

26-

proportion o# the wor"d3s water "oc$ed up in g"aciers and ice sheets. 0 $ind o# meteoro"ogica" disti""ation accounts #or the "in$. 8ater mo"ecu"es containing the heavier isotope tend to condense and #a"" as precipitation s"ight"y sooner than mo"ecu"es containing the "ighter isotope. (ence' as water vapor evaporated #rom warm oceans moves away #rom its source' its o5ygen-18 returns more +uic$"y to the oceans than does its o5ygen-1G. 8hat #a""s as snow on distant ice sheets and mountain g"aciers is re"ative"y dep"eted o# o5ygen-18. 0s the o5ygen-18-poor ice bui"ds up' the oceans become re"ative"y enriched in the isotope. The "arger the ice sheets grow' the higher the proportion o# o5ygen-18 becomes in seawater!and hence in the sediments. 0na"y)ing cores dri""ed #rom sea#"oor sediments' =mi"iani #ound that the isotopic ratio rose and #e"" in rough accord with the =arth3s astronomica" cyc"es. ince that pioneering observation' o5ygen-isotope measurements have been made on hundreds o# cores. 0 chrono"ogy #or the combined record enab"es scientists to show that the record contains the very same periodicities as the orbita" processes. 9ver the past 8..'... years' the g"oba" ice vo"ume has pea$ed every 1..'... years' matching the period o# the orbita" eccentricity variation. /n addition' ;wrin$"es< superposed on each cyc"e!sma"" decreases or surges in ice vo"ume!have come at interva"s o# rough"y 14'... and H1'... years' in $eeping with the precession and ti"t #re+uencies o# the =arth3s spin a5is.

1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) ?arine sediments ha'e allowed scientists to amass e'idence tending to confirm that astronomical cycles dri'e the #arth4s glacial cycles. (B) The ratio between two different isotopes of o$ygen in seawater correlates closely with the si!e of the #arth4s ice sheets. (C) ;urprisingly/ single(cell marine organisms pro'ide a record of the #arth4s ice ages. ( ) The #arth4s astronomical cycles ha'e recently been re'ealed to ha'e an une$pectedly large impact on the #arth4s climate. (#) The earth has e$perienced eight periods of intense glaciation in the past million years/ primarily as a result of substantial changes in its orbit. 16. The passage asserts that one reason that oceans become enriched in o$ygen(16 as ice sheets grow is because (A) water molecules containing o$ygen(16 condense and fall as precipitation slightly sooner than those containing o$ygen(12 (B) the ratio of o$ygen(16 to o$ygen(12 in water 'apor e'aporated from oceans is different from that of these isotopes in seawater (C) growing ice sheets tend to lose their o$ygen(16 as the temperature of the oceans near them gradually decreases ( ) less water 'apor e'aporates from oceans during glacial periods and therefore less o$ygen(16 is remo'ed from the seawater

266

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(#) the free!ing point of seawater rich in o$ygen(16 is slightly lower than that of seawater poor in o$ygen(16 1,. According to the passage/ the large ice sheets typical of glacial cycles are most directly caused by (A) changes in the a'erage temperatures in the tropics and o'er open oceans (B) prolonged increases in the rate at which water e'aporates from the oceans (C) e$treme seasonal 'ariations in temperature in northern latitudes and in mountainous areas ( ) steadily increasing precipitation rates in northern latitudes and in mountainous areas (#) the continual failure of snow to melt completely during the warmer seasons in northern latitudes and in mountainous areas 25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of the water locked in glaciers and ice sheets today% (A) 3t is richer in o$ygen(16 than fro!en water was during past glacial periods. (B) 3t is primarily located in the northern latitudes of the #arth. (C) 3ts ratio of o$ygen isotopes is the same as that pre'alent in seawater during the last ice age. ( ) 3t is steadily decreasing in amount due to increased thawing during summer months. (#) 3n comparison with seawater/ it is relati'ely poor in o$ygen(16. 21. The discussion of the o$ygen(isotope ratios in paragraph three of the passage suggests that which of the following must be assumed if the conclusions described in lines 0,(16 are to be 'alidly drawn% (A) The #arth4s o'erall annual precipitation rates do not dramatically increase or decrease o'er time. (B) The 'arious chemicals dissol'ed in seawater ha'e had the same concentrations o'er the past million years. (C) 9atural processes unrelated to ice formation do not result in the formation of large "uantities of o$ygen(16. ( ) &ater molecules falling as precipitation usually fall on the open ocean rather than on continents or polar ice packs. (#) 3ncreases in global temperature do not increase the amount of water that e'aporates from the oceans. 22. The passage suggests that the scientists who first constructed a coherent/ continuous picture of past 'ariations in marine(sediment isotope ratios did which of the following% (A) =elied primarily on the data obtained from the analysis of #miliani4s core

GRE

26,

samples. (B) Combined data deri'ed from the analysis of many different core samples. (C) ?atched the data obtained by geologists with that pro'ided by astronomers. ( ) #'aluated the isotope(ratio data obtained in se'eral areas in order to eliminate all but the most reliable data. (#) Compared data obtained from core samples in many different marine en'ironments with data samples deri'ed from polar ice caps. 2.. The passage suggests that the scientists mentioned in line 6 considered their reconstruction of past astronomical cycles to be (A) unreliable because astronomical obser'ations ha'e been made and recorded for only a few thousand years (B) ade"uate enough to allow that reconstruction4s use in e$plaining glacial cycles if a record of the latter could be found (C) in need of confirmation through comparison with an independent source of information about astronomical phenomena ( ) incomplete and therefore unusable for the purposes of e$plaining the causes of ice ages (#) ade"uate enough for scientists to support conclusi'ely the idea that ice ages were caused by astronomical changes
0"though Bictor Turner3s writings have proved #ruit#u" #or #ie"ds beyond anthropo"ogy' his de#inition o# ritua" is over"y restrictive. Ritua"' he says' is ;prescribed #orma" behavior #or occasions not given over to techno"ogica" routine' having re#erence to be"ie#s in mystica" beings or powers.< ;Techno"ogica" routine< re#ers to the means by which a socia" group provides #or its materia" needs. Turner3s di##erentiating ritua" #rom techno"ogy he"ps us recogni)e that #estiva"s and ce"ebrations may have "itt"e purpose other than p"ay' but it obscures the practica" aims' such as ma$ing crops grow or hea"ing patients' o# other ritua"s. 7urther' Turner3s de#inition imp"ies a necessary re"ationship between ritua" and mystica" be"ie#s. (owever' not a"" ritua"s are re"igious: some re"igions have no re#erence to mystica" beings: and individua"s may be re+uired on"y to participate in' not necessari"y be"ieve in' a ritua". Turner3s assumption that ritua" behavior #o""ows be"ie# thus "imits the use#u"ness o# his de#inition in studying ritua" across cu"tures.

20. According to the passage/ which of the following does Turner e$clude from his conception of ritual% (A) Beha'ior based on beliefs (B) Beha'ior based on formal rules (C) Celebrations whose purpose is play ( ) =outines directed toward practical ends (#) >esti'als honoring supernatural beings 21. The passage suggests that an assumption underlying Turner4s definition of ritual

2,5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

is that (A) anthropological concepts apply to other fields (B) festi'als and ceremonies are related cultural phenomena (C) there is a relationship between play and practical ends ( ) rituals refer only to belief in mystical beings or powers (#) mystical beings and powers ha'e certain common attributes across cultures 22. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage belie'es each of the following concerning rituals #DC#@TE (A) ;ome are unrelated to religious belief. (B) ;ome are intended to ha'e practical conse"uences. (C) ;ome ha'e no purpose other than play. ( ) They sometimes in'ol'e reference to mystical beings. (#) They are predominantly focused on agricultural ends. 2-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) >actual data are presented and a hypothesis is proposed. (B) A distinction is introduced then shown not to be a true distinction. (C) A statement is "uoted/ and two assumptions on which it is based are clarified. ( ) A definition is challenged/ and two reasons for the challenge are gi'en. (#) An opinion is offered and then placed within a historical framework. SECTION B
&en2amin 7ran$"in estab"ished that "ightning is the trans#er o# positive or negative e"ectrica" charge between regions o# a c"oud or #rom c"oud to earth. uch trans#ers re+uire that e"ectrica""y neutra" c"ouds' with uni#orm charge distributions' become e"ectri#ied by separation o# charges into distinct regions. The greater this separation is' the greater the vo"tage' or e"ectrica" potentia" o# the c"oud. cientists sti"" do not now the precise distribution o# charges in thunderc"ouds nor how separation ade+uate to support the huge vo"tages typica" o# "ightning bo"ts arises. 0ccording to one theory' the precipitation hypothesis' charge separation occurs as a resu"t o# precipitation. Earger drop"ets in a thunderc"oud precipitate downward past sma""er suspended drop"ets. %o""isions among drop"ets trans#er negative charge to precipitating drop"ets' "eaving the suspended drop"ets with a positive charge' thus producing a positive dipo"e in which the "ower region o# the thunderc"oud is #i""ed with negative"y charged raindrops and the upper with positive"y charged suspended drop"ets.

1-. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing which of the following% (A) A central issue in the e$planation of how lightning occurs (B) Ben<amin >ranklin4s acti'ities as a scientist (C) =esearch into the strength and distribution of thunderstorms

GRE

2,1

( ) The direction of mo'ement of electrical charges in thunderclouds (#) The relation between a cloud4s charge distribution and its 'oltage 16. The passage suggests that lightning bolts typically (A) produce a distribution of charges called a positi'e dipole in the clouds where they originate (B) result in the mo'ement of negati'e charges to the centers of the clouds where they originate (C) result in the suspension of large/ positi'ely charged raindrops at the tops of the clouds where they originate ( ) originate in clouds that ha'e large numbers of negati'ely charged droplets in their upper regions (#) originate in clouds in which the positi'e and negati'e charges are not uniformly distributed 1,. According to the passage/ Ben<amin >ranklin contributed to the scientific study of lightning by (A) testing a theory proposed earlier/ showing it to be false/ and de'eloping an alternati'e/ far more successful theory of his own (B) making an important disco'ery that is still important for scientific in'estigations of lightning (C) introducing a hypothesis that/ though recently shown to be false/ pro'ed to be a useful source of insights for scientists studying lightning ( ) de'eloping a techni"ue that has enabled scientists to measure more precisely the phenomena that affect the strength and location of lightning bolts (#) predicting correctly that two factors pre'iously thought unrelated to lightning would e'entually be shown to contribute <ointly to the strength and location of lightning bolts 25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the precipitation hypothesis/ as it is set forth in the passage% (A) Karger clouds are more likely than smaller clouds to be characteri!ed by complete separation of positi'e and negati'e charges. (B) 3n smaller clouds lightning more often occurs within the cloud than between the cloud and the earth. (C) Karge raindrops mo'e more rapidly in small clouds than they do in large clouds. ( ) Clouds that are smaller than a'erage in si!e rarely/ if e'er/ produce lightning bolts. (#) 3n clouds of all si!es negati'e charges concentrate in the center of the clouds when the clouds become electrically charged.
&e#ore Eaura Ai"pin (1891-1979)' #ew women in the history o# photography had so

2,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

devoted themse"ves to chronic"ing the "andscape. 9ther women had photographed the "and' but none can be regarded as a "andscape photographer with a sustained body o# wor$ documenting the physica" terrain. 0nne &rigman o#ten photographed wood"ands and coasta" areas' but they were genera""y settings #or her art#u""y p"aced sub2ects. Forothea Eange3s "andscapes were a"ways conceived o# as counterparts to her portraits o# rura" women. 0t the same time that Ai"pin3s interest in "andscape wor$ distinguished her #rom most other women photographers' her approach to "andscape photography set her apart #rom men photographers who' "i$e Ai"pin' documented the western United tates. 8estern 0merican "andscape photography grew out o# a ma"e tradition' pioneered by photographers attached to government and commercia" survey teams that went west in the 18G.3s and 187.3s. These e5p"orer-photographers documented the 8est that their emp"oyers wanted to see> an e5otic and ma2estic "and shaped by awesome natura" #orces' unpopu"ated and ready #or 0merican sett"ement. The ne5t generation o# ma"e photographers' represented by 0nse" 0dams and ="iot 6orter' o#ten wor$ed with conservationist groups rather than government agencies or commercia" companies' but they nonethe"ess preserved the ;heroic< sty"e and maintained the ro"e o# respect#u" outsider peering in with reverence at a #ragi"e natura" wor"d. 7or Ai"pin' by contrast' the "andscape was neither an empty vista awaiting human sett"ement nor a 2ewe"-"i$e scene resisting human intrusion' but a peop"ed "andscape with a rich history and tradition o# its own' an environment that shaped and mo"ded the "ives o# its inhabitants. (er photographs o# the Rio Arande' #or e5amp"e' consistent"y depict the river in terms o# its signi#icance to human cu"ture> as a source o# irrigation water' a source o# #ood #or "ivestoc$' and a provider o# town sites. 0"so instructive is Ai"pin3s genera" avoidance o# e5treme c"ose-ups o# her natura" sub2ects> #or her' emb"ematic detai"s cou"d never suggest the intricacies o# the interre"ationship between peop"e and nature that made the "andscape a compe""ing sub2ect. 8hi"e it is dangerous to draw conc"usions about a ;#eminine< way o# seeing #rom the wor$ o# one woman' it can nonethe"ess be argued that Ai"pin3s uni+ue approach to "andscape photography was ana"ogous to the wor$ o# many women writers who' #ar more than their ma"e counterparts' described the "andscape in terms o# its potentia" to sustain human "i#e. Ai"pin never spo$e o# herse"# as a photographer with a #eminine perspective> she eschewed any discussion o# gender as it re"ated to her wor$ and maintained "itt"e interest in interpretations that re"ied on the concept o# a ;woman3s eye.< Thus it is ironic that her photographic evocation o# a historica" "andscape shou"d so c"ear"y present a distinctive"y #eminine approach to "andscape photography.

21. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) Bilpin4s landscape photographs more accurately documented the ;outhwest than did the photographs of e$plorers and conser'ationists. (B) Bilpin4s style of landscape photography substantially influenced the heroic style practiced by her male counterparts. (C) The labeling of Bilpin4s style of landscape photography as feminine ignores important ties between it and the heroic style.

GRE

2,.

( ) Bilpin4s work e$emplifies an arguably feminine style of landscape photography that contrasts with the style used by her male predecessors. (#) Bilpin4s style was strongly influenced by the work of women writers who described the landscape in terms of its relationship to people. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the teams mentioned in line 1, were most interested in which of the following aspects of the land in the western :nited ;tates% (A) 3ts fragility in the face of increased human intrusion (B) 3ts role in shaping the li'es of indigenous peoples (C) 3ts potential for sustaining future settlements ( ) 3ts importance as an en'ironment for rare plants and animals (#) 3ts unusual 'ulnerability to e$treme natural forces 2.. The author of the passage claims that which of the following is the primary reason why Bilpin generally a'oided e$treme close(ups of natural sub<ects% (A) Bilpin belie'ed that pictures of natural details could not depict the interrelationship between the land and humans. (B) Bilpin considered close(up photography to be too closely associated with her predecessors. (C) Bilpin belie'ed that all of her photographs should include people in them. ( ) Bilpin associated close(up techni"ues with photography used for commercial purposes. (#) Bilpin feared that pictures of small details would suggest an indifference to the fragility of the land as a whole. 20. The passage suggests that a photographer who practiced the heroic style would be most likely to emphasi!e which of the following in a photographic series focusing on the =io Brande% (A) 3ndigenous people and their ancient customs relating to the ri'er (B) The e$ploits of na'igators and e$plorers (C) :npopulated/ pristine parts of the ri'er and its surroundings ( ) #$isting commercial 'entures that relied hea'ily on the ri'er (#) The dams and other monumental engineering structures built on the ri'er 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the first two generations of landscape photographers in the western :nited ;tates had which of the following in common% (A) They photographed the land as an entity that had little interaction with human culture. (B) They ad'anced the philosophy that photographers should resist alliances with political or commercial groups.

2,0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT

(C) They were con'inced that the pristine condition of the land needed to be preser'ed by go'ernment action. ( ) They photographed the land as a place ready for increased settlement. (#) They photographed only those locations where humans had settled. 22. Based on the description of her works in the passage/ which of the following would most likely be a sub<ect for a photograph taken by Bilpin% (A) A 'ista of a canyon still untouched by human culture (B) A portrait of a 'isitor to the &est against a desert backdrop (C) A 'iew of historic 9ati'e American dwellings car'ed into the side of a natural cliff ( ) A picture of artifacts from the &est being transported to the eastern :nited ;tates for retail sale (#) An abstract pattern created by the shadows of clouds on the desert 2-. The author of the passage mentions women writers in line 15 most likely in order to (A) counter a widely held criticism of her argument (B) bolster her argument that Bilpin4s style can be characteri!ed as a feminine style (C) suggest that Bilpin took some of her ideas for photographs from landscape descriptions by women writers ( ) clarify the interrelationship between human culture and the land that Bilpin was attempting to capture (#) offer an analogy between photographic close(ups and literary descriptions of small details

LSAT

2,1

LSAT 01

SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
/mmigrants3 adoption o# =ng"ish as their primary "anguage is one measure o# assimi"ation into the "arger United tates society. Aenera""y "anguages de#ine socia" groups and provide 2usti#ication #or socia" structures. (ence' a distinctive "anguage sets a cu"tura" group o## #rom the dominant "anguage group. Throughout United tates history this pattern has resu"ted in one consistent' unhappy conse+uence' discrimination against members o# the cu"tura" minority. Eanguage di##erences provide both a way to rationa"i)e subordination and a ready means #or achieving it. Traditiona""y' =ng"ish has rep"aced the native "anguage o# immigrant groups by the second or third generation. ome characteristics o# today3s panish-spea$ing popu"ation' however' suggest the possibi"ity o# a departure #rom this historica" pattern. ?any #ami"ies retain ties in Eatin 0merica and move bac$ and #orth between their present and #ormer communities. This ;revo"ving door< phenomenon' a"ong with the high probabi"ity o# additiona" immigrants #rom the south' means that "arge panish-spea$ing communities are "i$e"y to e5ist in the United tates #or the inde#inite #uture. This e5pectation under"ies the ca"" #or nationa" support #or bi"ingua" education in panishspea$ing communities3 pub"ic schoo"s. &i"ingua" education can serve di##erent purposes' however. /n the 19G.s' such programs were estab"ished to #aci"itate the "earning o# =ng"ish so as to avoid disadvantaging chi"dren in their other sub2ects because o# their "imited =ng"ish. ?ore recent"y' many advocates have viewed bi"ingua" education as a means to maintain chi"dren3s native "anguages and cu"tures. The issue is important #or peop"e with di##erent po"itica" agendas' #rom absorption at one po"e to separatism at the other. To date' the eva"uations o# bi"ingua" education3s impact on "earning have been inconc"usive. The issue o# bi"ingua" education has' neverthe"ess' served to unite the "eadership o# the nation3s (ispanic communities. Arounded in concerns about status that are direct"y traceab"e to the United tates history o# discrimination against (ispanics' the demand #or maintenance o# the panish "anguage in the schoo"s is an assertion o# the worth o# a peop"e and their cu"ture. /# the United tates is tru"y a mu"ticu"tura" nation that is' i# it is one cu"ture re#"ecting the contributions o# manythis demand shou"d be seen as a demand not #or separation but #or inc"usion. ?ore direct e##orts to #orce inc"usion can be misguided. 7or e5amp"e' movements to dec"are =ng"ish the o##icia" "anguage do not tru"y advance the cohesion o# a mu"ticu"tura" nation. They a"ienate the twenty mi""ion peop"e who do not spea$ =ng"ish as their mother tongue. They are unnecessary since the pub"ic3s business is a"ready conducted "arge"y in =ng"ish. 7urther' given the present state o# understanding about the e##ects o# bi"ingua"

2,2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

education on "earning' it wou"d be unwise to re+uire the universa" use o# =ng"ish. 7ina""y' it is #or parents and "oca" communities to choose the path they wi"" #o""ow' inc"uding how much o# their cu"ture they want to maintain #or their chi"dren.

1.

3t can be inferred from the passage that one of the characteristics of immigrant groups to the :nited ;tates has traditionally been that/ after immigration/ relati'ely few members of the group (A) became politically acti'e in their new communities (B) mo'ed back and forth repeatedly between the :nited ;tates and their former communities (C) used their nati'e languages in their new communities ( ) suffered discrimination in their new communities at the hands of the cultural ma<ority (#) sought assimilation into the dominant culture of the new communities they were entering

2.

The passage suggests that one of the effects of the debate o'er bilingual education is that it has (A) gi'en the )ispanic community a new(found pride in its culture (B) hampered the education of ;panish(speaking students (C) demonstrated the negati'e impact on imposing #nglish as the official :nited ;tates language ( ) pro'ided a common banner under which the ;panish(speaking communities could rally (#) polari!ed the opinions of local ;panish(speaking community leaders

..

3n lines .6(.,/ the phrase *different political agendas+ refers specifically to conflicting opinions regarding the (A) means of legislating the assimilation of minorities into :nited ;tates society (B) methods of inducing )ispanics to adopt #nglish as their primary language (C) means of achie'ing nondiscriminatory education for )ispanics ( ) official gi'en responsibility for decisions regarding bilingual education (#) e$tent to which )ispanics should blend into the larger :nited ;tates society

0.

3n lines 20(21 the author says that *3t would be unwise to re"uire the uni'ersal use of #nglish.+ 8ne reason for this/ according to the author/ is that (A) it is not clear yet whether re"uiring the uni'ersal use of #nglish would promote or hinder the education of children whose #nglish is limited (B) the nation4s )ispanic leaders ha'e shown that bilingual education is most effecti'e when it includes the maintenance of the ;panish language in the schools (C) re"uiring the uni'ersal use of #nglish would reduce the cohesion of the

LSAT

2,-

nation4s )ispanic communities and leadership ( ) the "uestion of language in the schools should be answered by those who e'aluate bilingual education/ not by people with specific political agendas (#) it has been shown that bilingual education is necessary to a'oid disad'antaging in their general learning children whose #nglish is limited 1. 3n the last paragraph/ the author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing (A) reasons against enacting a measure that would mandate the forced inclusion of immigrant groups within the dominant :nited culture (B) the 'irtues and limitations of declaring #nglish the official language of the :nited ;tates (C) the history of attitudes within the )ispanic community toward bilingual education in the :nited ;tates ( ) the importance for immigrant groups of maintaining large segments of their culture to pass on to their children (#) the difference in cultures between )ispanics and other immigrant groups in the :nited ;tates
The re#usa" o# some countries to e5tradite persons accused or convicted o# terrorist act has #ocused attention on the prob"ems caused by the po"itica" o##ense e5ception to e5tradition. =5tradition is the process by which one country returns an accused or convicted person #ound within its borders to another country #or tria" or punishment. Under the po"itica" o##ense e5ception' the re+uested state may' i# it considers the crime to be a ;po"itica" o##ense'< deny e5tradition to the re+uesting state. 6rotection o# po"itica" o##enses is a recent addition to the ancient practice o# e5tradition. /t is the resu"t o# two #undamenta" changes that occurred as =uropean monarchies were rep"aced by representative governments. 7irst' these governments began to re2ect what had been a primary intent o# e5tradition' to e5pedite the return o# po"itica" o##enders' and instead sought to protect dissidents #"eeing despotic regimes. econd' countries began to contend that they had no "ega" or mora" duty to e5tradite o##enders without speci#ic agreements creating such ob"igations. 0s e5tradition "aws subse+uent"y deve"oped through internationa" treaties' the po"itica" o##ense e5ception gradua""y became an accepted princip"e among 8estern nations. There is no internationa" consensus' however' as to what constitutes a po"itica" o##ense. 7or ana"ytica" purposes i""ega" po"itica" conduct has traditiona""y been divided into two categories. ;6ure< po"itica" o##enses are acts perpetrated direct"y against the government' such as treason and espionage. These crimes are genera""y recogni)ed as none5traditab"e' even i# not e5press"y e5c"uded #rom e5tradition by the app"icab"e treaty. /n contrast' common crimes' such as murder' assau"t' and robbery' are genera""y e5traditab"e. (owever' there are some common crimes that are so inseparab"e #rom a po"itica" act that the entire o##ense is regarded as po"itica". These crimes' which are ca""ed ;re"ative< po"itica" o##enses' are genera""y none5traditab"e. Fespite the widespread acceptance o# these ana"ytic constructs' the

2,6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

distinctions are more academic than meaning#u". 8hen it comes to rea" cases' there is no agreement about what trans#orms a common crime into a po"itica" o##ense and about whether terrorist acts #a"" within the protection o# the e5ception. ?ost terrorists c"aim that their acts do #a"" under this protection. *ations o# the wor"d must now ba"ance the competing needs o# po"itica" #reedom and internationa" pub"ic order. /t is time to ree5amine the po"itica" o##ense e5ception' as internationa" terrorism eradicates the critica" distinctions between po"itica" o##enses and nonpo"itica" crimes. The on"y rationa" and attainab"e ob2ective o# the e5ception is to protect the re+uested person against un#air treatment by the re+uesting country. The internationa" community needs to #ind an a"ternative to the po"itica" o##ense e5ception that wou"d protect the rights o# re+uested persons and yet not o##er terrorists immunity #rom crimina" "iabi"ity.

2.

3n the passage/ the author primarily seeks to (A) define a set of terms (B) outline a new approach (C) describe a current problem ( ) e$pose an illegal practice (#) present historical information

-.

According to the passage/ when did countries begin to e$cept political offenders from e$tradition% (A) when the principle of e$traditing accused or con'icted persons originated (B) when some nations began refusing to e$tradite persons accused or con'icted of terrorist acts (C) when representati'e go'ernments began to replace #uropean monarchies ( ) when countries began to refuse to e$tradite persons accused or con'icted of common crimes (#) when go'ernments began to use e$tradition to e$pedite the return of political offenders

6.

Bi'en the discussion in the passage/ which one of the following distinctions does the author consider particularly problematic% (A) between common crimes and *relati'e+ political offense (B) between *pure+ political offenses and common crimes (C) between *pure+ political offenses and *relati'e+ political offenses ( ) between terrorist acts and acts of espionage (#) between the political offense e$ception and other e$ceptions to e$tradition

,.

According to the author/ the primary purpose of the political offense e$ception should be to (A) ensure that terrorists are tried for their acts (B) ensure that indi'iduals accused of political crimes are not treated unfairly

LSAT

2,,

(C) distinguish between political and nonpolitical offenses ( ) limit e$tradition to those accused of *pure+ political offenses (#) limit e$tradition to those accused of *relati'e+ political offenses 15. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would agree with which one of the following statements about the political offense e$ception% (A) The e$ception is 'ery unpopular. (B) The e$ception is probably illegal. (C) The e$ception is used too little. ( ) The e$ception needs rethinking. (#) The e$ception is too limited. 11. &hen referring to a balance between *the competing needs of political freedom and international public order+ (lines 10(11) the author means that nations must strike a balance between (A) allowing persons to protest political in<ustice and pre'enting them from committing political offenses (B) protecting the rights of persons re"uested for e$tradition and holding terrorists criminally liable (C) maintaining the political offense e$ception to e$tradition and clearing up the confusion o'er what is a political offense ( ) allowing nations to establish their own e$tradition policies and establishing an agreed(upon international approach to e$tradition (#) protecting from e$tradition persons accused of *pure+ political offenses and ensuring the trial of persons accused of *relati'e+ political offenses 12. The author would most likely agree that the political offense e$ception (A) has/ in some cases/ been stretched beyond intended use (B) has been used too infre"uently to be e'aluated (C) has been a modestly useful weapon again terrorism ( ) has ne'er met the ob<ecti'e for which it was originally established (#) has been of more academic than practical 'alue to political dissidents 1.. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would gi'e the author most cause to reconsider her recommendation regarding the political offence e$ception (lines 22(22)% (A) ?ore nations started refusing to e$tradite persons accused or con'icted of terrorist acts. (B) ?ore nations started e$traditing persons accused or con'icted of treason/ espionage/ and other similar crimes. (C) The nations of the world sharply decreased their use of the political offense e$ception protect persons accused of each of the 'arious types of *pure+

-55

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

political offenses. ( ) The nations of the world sharply decreased their use of the political offense e$ception to protect persons accused of each of the 'arious types of *relati'e+ political offenses. (#) The nations of the world started to disagree o'er the analytical distinction between *pure+ political offenses and *relati'e+ political offenses.
0s is we"" $nown and has o#ten been described' the machine industry o# recent times too$ its rise by a gradua" emergence out o# handicra#t in =ng"and in the eighteenth century. ince then the mechanica" industry has progressive"y been getting the upper hand in a"" the civi"i)ed nations' in much the same degree in which these nations have come to be counted as civi"i)ed. This mechanica" industry now stands dominant at the ape5 o# the industria" system. The state o# the industria" arts' as it runs on the "ines o# the mechanica" industry' is a techno"ogy o# physics and chemistry. That is to say' it is governed by the same "ogic as the scienti#ic "aboratories. The procedure' the princip"es' habits o# thought' preconceptions' units o# measurement and o# va"uation' are the same in both cases. The techno"ogy o# physics and chemistry is not derived #rom estab"ished "aw and custom' and it goes on its way with as near"y comp"ete a disregard o# the spiritua" truths o# "aw and custom as the circumstances wi"" permit. The rea"ities with which this techno"ogy is occupied are o# another order o# actua"ity' "ying a"together within the three dimensions that contain the materia" universe' and running a"together on the "ogic o# materia" #act. /n e##ect it is the "ogic o# inanimate #acts. The mechanica" industry ma$es use o# the same range o# #acts hand"ed in the same impersona" way and directed to the same manner o# ob2ective resu"ts. /n both cases a"i$e it is o# the #irst importance to e"iminate the ;persona" e+uation'< to "et the wor$ go #orward and "et the #orces at wor$ ta$e e##ect +uite ob2ective"y' without hindrance or de#"ection #or any persona" end' interest' or gain. /t is the technician3s p"ace in industry' as it is the scientist3s p"ace in the "aboratory' to serve as an inte""ectua" embodiment o# the #orces at wor$' iso"ate the #orces engaged #rom a"" e5traneous disturbances' and "et them ta$e #u"" e##ect a"ong the "ines o# designed wor$. The technician is an active or creative #actor in the case on"y in the sense that he is the $eeper o# the "ogic which governs the #orces at wor$. These #orces that so are brought to bear in mechanica" industry are o# an ob2ective' impersona"' unconventiona" nature' o# course. They are o# the nature o# opa+ue #act. 6ecuniary gain is not one o# these impersona" #acts. 0ny consideration o# pecuniary gain that may be in2ected into the technician3s wor$ing p"ans wi"" come into the case as an intrusive and a"ien #actor' whose so"e e##ect is to de#"ect' retard' derange and curtai" the wor$ in hand. 0t the same time considerations o# pecuniary gain are the on"y agency brought into the case by the businessmen' and the on"y ground on which they e5ercise a contro" o# production.

10. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing (A) industrial organi!ation in the eighteenth century (B) the moti'es for pecuniary gain

LSAT

-51

(C) the technician4s place in mechanical industry ( ) the impersonal organi!ation of industry (#) the material contribution of physics in industrial society 11. The author of the passage suggests that businessmen in the mechanical industry are responsible mainly for (A) keeping the logic go'erning the forces at work (B) managing the profits (C) directing the acti'ities of the technicians ( ) employing the technological procedures of physics and chemistry (#) treating material gain as a spiritual truth 12. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would contradict the author4s belief that the role of technician is to be *the keeper of the logic+ (lines 01(02)% (A) All technicians are human beings with feelings and emotions. (B) An interest in pecuniary gain is the technician4s sole moti'e for participation in industry. (C) The technician4s working plans do not coincide with the technician4s pecuniary interests. ( ) Technicians are employed by businessmen to o'ersee the forces at work. (#) Technicians refuse to carry out the instructions of the businessmen. 1-. The author would probably most strongly agree with which one of the following statements about the e'olution of the industrial system% (A) The handicraft system of industry emerged in eighteenth(century #ngland and was subse"uently replaced by the machine industry. (B) The handicraft system of industrial production has gradually gi'en rise to a mechanistic technology that dominates contemporary industry. (C) The handicraft system emerged as the dominant factor of production in eighteenth(century #ngland but was soon replaced by mechanical techni"ues of production. ( ) The mechanical system of production that preceded the handicraft system was the precursor of contemporary means of production. (#) The industrial arts de'eloped as a result of the growth of the mechanical industry that followed the decline of the handicraft system of production. 16. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward scientific techni"ues% (A) critical (B) hostile (C) idealistic

-52

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

( ) ironic (#) neutral

(This passage was origina""y pub"ished in 19.-) The word democracy may stand #or a natura" socia" e+ua"ity in the body po"itic or #or a constitutiona" #orm o# government in which power "ies more or "ess direct"y in the peop"e3s hand. The #ormer may be ca""ed socia" democracy and the "ater democratic government. The two di##er wide"y' both in origin and in mora" princip"e. Aenetica""y considered' socia" democracy is something primitive' unintended' proper to communities where there is genera" competence and no mar$ed persona" eminence. There be no wi"" aristocracy' no prestige' but instead an inte""igent readiness to "end a hand and to do in unison whatever is done. /n other words' there wi"" be that most democratic o# governmentsno government at a"". &ut when pressure o# circumstances' danger' or inward stri#e ma$es recogni)ed and pro"onged guidance necessary to a socia" democracy' the #orm its government ta$es is that o# a rudimentary monarchy estab"ished by e"ection or genera" consent. 0 natura" "eader emerges and is instinctive"y obeyed. That "eader may indeed be #ree"y critici)ed and wi"" not be screened by any pomp or traditiona" mystery: he or she wi"" be easy to rep"ace and every citi)en wi"" #ee" essentia""y his or her e+ua". Det such a state is at the beginnings o# monarchy and aristocracy. 6o"itica" democracy' on the other hand' is a "ate and arti#icia" product. /t arises by a gradua" e5tension o# aristocratic privi"eges' through rebe""ion against abuses' and in answer to rest"essness on the peop"e3s part. /ts princip"e is not the absence o# eminence' but the discovery that e5isting eminence is no "onger genuine and representative. /t may retain many vestiges o# o"der and "ess democratic institutions. 7or under democratic governments the peop"e have not created the state: they mere"y contro" it. Their suspicions and 2ea"ousies are +uieted by assigning to them a voice' perhaps on"y a veto' in the administration. The peop"e3s "iberty consists not in their origina" responsibi"ity #or what e5ists' but mere"y in the #acu"ty they have ac+uired o# abo"ishing any detai" that may distress or wound them' and o# imposing any new measure' which' seen against the bac$ground o# e5isting "aws' may commend itse"# #rom time to time to their instinct and mind. /# we turn #rom origins to idea"s' the contrast between socia" and po"itica" democracy is no "ess mar$ed. ocia" democracy is a genera" ethica" idea"' "oo$ing to human e+ua"ity and brotherhood' and inconsistent' in its radica" #orm' with such institutions as the #ami"y and hereditary property. Femocratic government' on the contrary' is mere"y a means to an end' an e5pedient #or the better and smoother government o# certain states at certain 2unctures. /t invo"ves no specia" idea"s o# "i#e: it is a +uestion o# po"icy' name"y' whether the genera" interest wi"" be better served by granting a"" peop"e an e+ua" voice in e"ections. 7or po"itica" democracy must necessari"y be a government by deputy' and the +uestions actua""y submitted to the peop"e can be on"y very "arge rough matters o# genera" po"icy or o# con#idence in party "eaders.

1,. The author suggests that the lack of *marked personal eminence+ (line 11) is an important feature of a social democracy because (A) such a society is also likely to contain the seeds of monarchy and aristocracy

LSAT

-5.

(B) the absence of 'isible social leaders in such a society will probably impede the de'elopment of a political democracy (C) social democracy represents a more sophisticated form of go'ernment than political democracy ( ) a society that lacks recogni!ed leadership will be unable to accomplish its cultural ob<ecti'es (#) the absence of 'isible social leaders in such a community is likely to be accompanied by a spirit of cooperation 25. &hich one of the following forms of go'ernment does the author say is most likely to e'ol'e from a social democracy% (A) monarchy (B) go'ernment by deputy (C) political democracy ( ) representati'e democracy (#) constitutional democracy 21. The author of the passage suggests that a political democracy is likely to ha'e been immediately preceded by which one of the following forms of social organi!ation% (A) a social democracy in which the spirit of participation has been diminished by the need to maintain internal security (B) an aristocratic society in which go'ernment leaders ha'e grown insensiti'e to people4s interests (C) a primiti'e society that stresses the radical e"uality of all its members ( ) a state of utopian brotherhood in which no go'ernment e$ists (#) a go'ernment based on general ethical ideals 22. According to the passage/ *the people4s liberty+ (line 02) in a political democracy is best defined as (A) a willingness to accept responsibility for e$isting go'ernmental forms (B) a myth perpetrated by aristocratic leaders who refuse to grant political power to their sub<ects (C) the ability to impose radically new measures when e$isting go'ernmental forms are found to be inade"uate ( ) the ability to secure concessions from a go'ernment that may retain many aristocratic characteristics (#) the ability to elect leaders whom the people consider socially e"ual to themsel'es 2.. According to the author of this passage/ a social democracy would most likely adopt a formal system of go'ernment when

-50

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(A) recogni!ed leadership becomes necessary to deal with social problems (B) people lose the instincti'e ability to cooperate in sol'ing social problems (C) a ruling monarch decides that it is necessary to grant political concessions to the people ( ) citi!ens no longer consider their social leaders essentially e"ual to themsel'es (#) the human instinct to obey social leaders has been weakened by suspicion and <ealousy 20. According to the passage/ which one of the following is likely to occur as a result of the disco'ery that *e$isting eminence is no longer genuine and representati'e+ (lines .1(.2)% (A) Aristocratic pri'ileges will be strengthened/ which will result in a further loss of the people4s liberty. (B) The go'ernment will be forced to admit its responsibility for the inade"uacy of e$isting political institutions. (C) The remaining 'estiges of less democratic institutions will be banished from go'ernment. ( ) @eople will gain political concessions from the go'ernment and a 'oice in the affairs of state. (#) @eople will demand that political democracy conform to the ethical ideals of social democracy. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the practice of *go'ernment by deputy+ (line 20) in a political democracy probably has its origins in (A) aristocratic ideals (B) human instincts (C) a commitment to human e"uality ( ) a general ethical ideal (#) a policy decision 22. &hich one of the following statements/ if true/ would contradict the author4s notion of the characteristics of social democracy% (A) 8rgani!ed go'ernmental systems tend to arise spontaneously/ rather than in response to specific problem situations. (B) The presence of an organi!ed system of go'ernment stifles the e$pression of human e"uality and brotherhood. (C) ;ocial democracy represents a more primiti'e form of communal organi!ation than political democracy. ( ) @rolonged and formal leadership may become necessary in a social democracy when problems arise that cannot be resol'ed by recourse to the general competence of the people.

LSAT

-51

(#) Although political democracy and social democracy are radically different forms of communal organi!ation/ it is possible for both to contain elements of monarchy. LSAT 02 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 2' &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
There is substantia" evidence that by 191G' with the pub"ication o# The ,eary Blues' Eangston (ughes had bro$en with two we""-estab"ished traditions in 0#rican 0merican "iterature. /n The ,eary Blues' (ughes chose to modi#y the traditions that decreed that 0#rican 0merican "iterature must promote racia" acceptance and integration' and that' in order to do so' it must re#"ect an understanding and mastery o# 8estern =uropean "iterary techni+ues and sty"es. *ecessari"y e5c"uded by this decree' "inguistica""y and thematica""y' was the vast amount o# secu"ar #o"$ materia" in the ora" tradition that had been created by &"ac$ peop"e in the years o# s"avery and a#ter. /t might be pointed out that even the spiritua"s or ;sorrow songs< o# the s"aves!as distinct #rom their secu"ar songs and stories!had been =uropeani)ed to ma$e them acceptab"e within these 0#rican 0merican traditions a#ter the %ivi" 8ar. /n 18G1 northern 8hite writers had commented #avorab"y on the uni+ue and provocative me"odies o# these ;sorrow songs< when they #irst heard them sung by s"aves in the %aro"ina sea is"ands. &ut by 191G' ten years be#ore the pub"ication o# The ,eary Blues' (urry T. &ur"eigh' the &"ac$ baritone so"oist at *ew Dor$3s u"tra#ashionab"e aint Aeorge3s =piscopa" %hurch' had pub"ished !u$ilee ongs of the 2nited tates' with every spiritua" arranged so that a concert singer cou"d sing it ;in the manner o# an art song.< %"ear"y' the artistic wor$ o# &"ac$ peop"e cou"d be used to promote racia" acceptance and integration on"y on the condition that it became =uropeani)ed. =ven more than his rebe""ion against this restrictive tradition in 0#rican 0merican art' (ughes3s e5pression o# the vibrant #o"$ cu"ture o# &"ac$ peop"e estab"ished his writing as a "andmar$ in the history o# 0#rican 0merican "iterature. ?ost o# his #o"$ poems have the distinctive mar$s o# this #o"$ cu"ture3s ora" tradition> they contain many instances o# naming and enumeration' considerab"e hyperbo"e and understatement' and a strong in#usion o# street-ta"$ rhyming. There is a deceptive vei" o# art"essness in these poems. (ughes prided himse"# on being an impromptu and impressionistic writer o# poetry. (is' he insisted' was not an art#u""y constructed poetry. Det an ana"ysis o# his dramatic mono"ogues and other poems revea"s that his poetry was care#u""y and art#u""y cra#ted. /n his #o"$ poetry we #ind #eatures common to a"" #o"$ "iterature' such as dramatic e""ipsis' narrative compression' rhythmic repetition' and monosy""abic emphasis. The pecu"iar mi5ture o# irony and humor we #ind in his writing is a distinguishing #eature o# his #o"$ poetry. Together' these aspects o# (ughes3s writing he"ped to modi#y the previous restrictions on the techni+ues and sub2ect matter o# &"ac$ writers and conse+uent"y to broaden the "inguistic and thematic range o# 0#rican

-52

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

0merican "iterature.

1.

The author mentions which one of the following as an e$ample of the influence of Black folk culture on )ughes4s poetry% (A) his e$ploitation of ambiguous and decepti'e meanings (B) his care and craft in composing poems (C) his use of naming and enumeration ( ) his use of first(person narrati'e (#) his strong religious beliefs

2.

The author suggests that the *decepti'e 'eil+ (line 02) in )ughes4s poetry obscures (A) e'idence of his use of oral techni"ues in his poetry (B) e'idence of his thoughtful deliberation in composing his poems (C) his scrupulous concern for representati'e details in his poetry ( ) his incorporation of &estern #uropean literary techni"ues in his poetry (#) his engagement with social and political issues rather than aesthetic ones

..

&ith which one of the following statements regarding 6ubilee Songs o+ the 'nited States would the author be most likely to agree% (A) 3ts publication marked an ad'ance in the intrinsic "uality of African American art. (B) 3t pa'ed the way for publication of )ughes4s The &eary Blues by making African American art fashionable. (C) 3t was an authentic replication of African American spirituals and *sorrow songs+. ( ) 3t demonstrated the e$tent to which spirituals were adapted in order to make them more broadly accepted. (#) 3t was to the spiritual what )ughes4s The &eary Blues was to secular songs and stories.

0.

The author most probably mentions the reactions of northern &hite writers to non(#uropeani!ed *sorrow songs+ in order to (A) indicate that modes of e$pression acceptable in the conte$t of sla'ery in the ;outh were acceptable only to a small number of &hite writers in the 9orth after the Ci'il &ar (B) contrast &hite writers earlier appreciation of these songs with the growing tendency after the Ci'il &ar to regard #uropeani!ed 'ersions of the songs as more acceptable (C) show that the re"uirement that such songs be #uropeani!ed was internal to the African American tradition and was unrelated to the literary standards or attitudes of &hite writers

LSAT

-5-

( ) demonstrate that such songs in their non(#uropeani!ed form were more imaginati'e (#) suggest that &hite writers benefited more from e$posure to African American art forms than Black writers did from e$posure to #uropean art forms 1. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about the re"uirement that Black writers employ &estern #uropean literary techni"ues% (A) The re"uirement was imposed more for social than for aesthetic reasons. (B) The re"uirement was a relati'ely unimportant aspect of the African American tradition. (C) The re"uirement was the chief reason for )ughes4s success as a writer. ( ) The re"uirement was appropriate for some forms of e$pression but not for others. (#) The re"uirement was ne'er as strong as it may ha'e appeared to be. 2. &hich one of the following aspects of )ughes4s poetry does the author appear to 'alue most highly% (A) its no'elty compared to other works of African American literature (B) its subtle understatement compared to that of other kinds of folk literature (C) its 'irtuosity in adapting musical forms to language ( ) its e$pression of the folk culture of Black people (#) its uni'ersality of appeal achie'ed through the adoption of collo"uial e$pressions
(istorians genera""y agree that' o# the great modern innovations' the rai"road had the most #ar-reaching impact on ma2or events in the United tates in the nineteenth and ear"y twentieth centuries' particu"ar"y on the /ndustria" Revo"ution. There is' however' considerab"e disagreement among cu"tura" historians regarding pub"ic attitudes toward the rai"road' both at its inception in the 184.s and during the ha"# century between 188. and 194.' when the nationa" rai" system was comp"eted and reached the )enith o# its popu"arity in the United tates. /n a recent boo$' @ohn ti"goe has addressed this issue by arguing that the ;romanticera distrust< o# the rai"road that he c"aims was present during the 184.s vanished in the decades a#ter 188.. &ut the argument he provides in support o# this position is unconvincing. 8hat ti"goe ca""s ;romantic-era distrust< was in #act the reaction o# a minority o# writers' artistes' and inte""ectua"s who distrusted the rai"road not so much #or what it was as #or what it signified. Thoreau and (awthorne appreciated' even admired' an improved means o# moving things and peop"e #rom one p"ace to another. 8hat these writers and others were concerned about was not the new machinery as such' but the new $ind o# economy' socia" order' and cu"ture that it pre#igured. /n addition' ti"goe is wrong to imp"y that the critica" attitude o# these writers was typica" o# the period> their distrust was "arge"y a reaction against the prevai"ing attitude in the 184.s that the rai"road was an un+ua"i#ied improvement. ti"goe3s assertion that the ambiva"ence toward the rai"road e5hibited by writers "i$e

-56

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(awthorne and Thoreau disappeared a#ter the 188.s is a"so mis"eading. /n support o# this thesis' ti"goe has unearthed an impressive vo"ume o# materia"' the wor$ o# hitherto un$nown i""ustrators' 2ourna"ists' and nove"ists' a"" devotees o# the rai"road: but it is not c"ear what this new materia" proves e5cept perhaps that the wor$s o# popu"ar cu"ture great"y e5panded at the time. The vo"ume o# the materia" proves nothing i# ti"goe3s point is that the ear"ier distrust o# a minority o# inte""ectua"s did not endure beyond the 188.s' and' odd"y' much o# ti"goe3s other evidence indicates that it did. 8hen he g"ances at the treatment o# rai"roads by writers "i$e (enry @ames' inc"air Eewis' or 7. cott 7it)gera"d' what comes through in spite o# ti"goe3s ana"ysis is remar$ab"y "i$e Thoreau3s #ee"ing o# contrariety and ambiva"ence. ((ad he "oo$ed at the wor$ o# 7ran$ *orris' =ugene 93*ei""' or (enry 0dams' ti"goe3s case wou"d have been much stronger.) The point is that the sharp contrast between the enthusiastic supporters o# the rai"road in the 184.s and the minority o# inte""ectua" dissenters during that period e5tended into the 188.s and beyond.

-.

The passage pro'ides information to answer all of the following "uestions #DC#@TE (A) uring what period did the railroad reach the !enith of its popularity in the :nited ;tates% (B) )ow e$tensi'e was the impact of the railroad on the 3ndustrial =e'olution in the :nited ;tates/ relati'e to that of other modern inno'ations% (C) &ho are some of the writers of the 16.5s who e$pressed ambi'alence toward the railroad% ( ) 3n what way could ;tilgoe ha'e strengthened his argument regarding intellectuals4 attitudes toward the railroad in the years after the 1665s% (#) &hat arguments did the writers after the 1665s/ as cited by ;tilgoe/ offer to <ustify their support for the railroad%

6.

According to the author of the passage/ ;tilgoe uses the phrase *romantic(era distrust+ (line 1.) to imply that the 'iew he is referring to was (A) the attitude of a minority of intellectuals toward technological inno'ation that began after 16.5 (B) a commonly held attitude toward the railroad during the 16.5s (C) an ambi'alent 'iew of the railroad e$pressed by many poets and no'elists between 1665 and 1,.5 ( ) a criti"ue of social and economic de'elopments during the 16.5s by a minority of intellectuals (#) an attitude toward the railroad that was disseminated by works of popular culture after 1665

,.

According to the author/ the attitude toward the railroad that was reflected in writings of )enry Aames/ ;inclair Kewis/ and >. ;cott >it!gerald was (A) influenced by the writings of >rank 9orris/ #ugene 849eill/ and )enry Adams

LSAT

-5,

(B) similar to that of the minority of writers who had e$pressed ambi'alence toward the railroad prior to the 1665s (C) consistent with the public attitudes toward the railroad that were reflected in works of popular culture after the 1665s ( ) largely a reaction to the works of writers who had been se'erely critical of the railroad in the 16.5s (#) consistent with the pre'ailing attitude toward the railroad during the 16.5s 15. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author uses the phrase *works of popular culture+ (line 01) primarily to refer to the (A) work of a large group of writers that was published between 1665 and 1,.5 and that in ;tilgoe4s 'iew was highly critical of the railroad (B) work of writers who were hea'ily influenced by )awthorne and Thoreau (C) large 'olume of writing produced by )enry Adams/ ;inclair Kewis/ and #ugene 849eill ( ) work of <ournalists/ no'elists/ and illustrators who were responsible for creating enthusiasm for the railroad during the 16.5s (#) work of <ournalists/ no'elists/ and illustrators that was published after 1665 and that has recei'ed little attention from scholars other than ;tilgoe 11. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage regarding the work of >rank 9orris/ #ugene 849eill/ and )enry Adams% (A) Their work ne'er achie'ed broad popular appeal. (B) Their ideas were disseminated to a large audience by the popular culture of the early 1655s. (C) Their work e$pressed a more positi'e attitude toward the railroad than did that of )enry Aames/ ;inclair Kewis/ and >. ;cott >it!gerald. ( ) Although they were primarily no'elists/ some of their work could be classified as <ournalism. (#) Although they were influenced by Thoreau/ their attitude toward the railroad was significantly different from his. 12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ;tilgoe would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements regarding the study of cultural history% (A) 3t is impossible to know e$actly what period historians are referring to when they use the term *romantic era.+ (B) The writing of intellectuals often anticipates ideas and mo'ements that are later embraced by popular culture. (C) &riters who were not popular in their own time tell us little about the age in which they li'ed. ( ) The works of popular culture can ser'e as a reliable indicator of public attitudes toward modern inno'ations like the railroad.

-15

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(#) The best source of information concerning the impact of an e'ent as large as the 3ndustrial =e'olution is the pri'ate letters and <ournals of indi'iduals. 1.. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) e'aluate one scholar4s 'iew of public attitudes toward the railroad in the :nited ;tates from the early nineteenth to the early twentieth century (B) re'iew the treatment of the railroad in American literature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (C) sur'ey the 'iews of cultural historians regarding the railroad4s impact on ma<or e'ents in :nited ;tates history ( ) e$plore the origins of the public support for the railroad that e$isted after the completion of a national rail system in the :nited ;tates (#) define what historians mean when they refer to the *romantic(era distrust+ of the railroad
Three basic adaptive responses!regu"atory' acc"imatory' and deve"opmenta"!may occur in organisms as they react to changing environmenta" conditions. /n a"" three' ad2ustment o# bio"ogica" #eatures (morpho"ogica" ad2ustment) or o# their use (#unctiona" ad2ustment) may occur. Regu"atory responses invo"ve rapid changes in the organism3s use o# its physio"ogica" apparatus!increasing or decreasing the rates o# various processes' #or e5amp"e. 0cc"imation invo"ves morpho"ogica" change!thic$ening o# #ur or red b"ood ce"" pro"i#eration!which a"ters physio"ogy itse"#. uch structura" changes re+uire more time than regu"atory response changes. Regu"atory and acc"imatory responses are both reversib"e. Feve"opmenta" responses' however' are usua""y permanent and irreversib"e> they become #i5ed in the course o# the individua"3s deve"opment in response to environmenta" conditions at the time the response occurs. 9ne such response occurs in many $inds o# water bugs. ?ost water-bug species inhabiting sma"" "a$es and ponds have two generations per year. The #irst hatches during the spring' reproduces during the summer' then dies. The eggs "aid in the summer hatch and deve"op into adu"ts in "ate summer. They "ive over the winter be#ore breeding in ear"y spring. /ndividua"s in the second (overwintering) generation have #u""y deve"oped wings and "eave the water in autumn to overwinter in #orests' returning in spring to sma"" bodies o# water to "ay eggs. Their wings are abso"ute"y necessary #or this seasona" dispersa". The summer (ear"y) generation' in contrast' is usua""y dimorphic!some individua"s have norma" #unctiona" (macropterous) wings: others have much-reduced (micropterous) wings o# no use #or #"ight. The summer generation3s dimorphism is a compromise strategy' #or these individua"s usua""y do not "eave the ponds and thus genera""y have no use #or #u""y deve"oped wings. &ut sma"" ponds occasiona""y dry up during the summer' #orcing the water bugs to search #or new habitats' an eventua"ity that macropterous individua"s are we"" adapted to meet. The dimorphism o# micropterous and macropterous individua"s in the summer generation e5presses deve"opmenta" #"e5ibi"ity: it is not genetica""y determined. The individua"3s wing #orm is environmenta""y determined by the temperature to which deve"oping eggs are e5posed prior to their being "aid. =ggs maintained in a warm environment a"ways produce bugs with norma"

LSAT
wing' but e5posure to co"d produces micropterous individua"s. =ggs producing the

-11

overwintering brood are a"" #ormed during the "ate summer3s warm temperatures. (ence' a"" individua"s in the overwintering brood have norma" wings. =ggs "aid by the overwintering adu"ts in the spring' which deve"op into the summer generation o# adu"ts' are #ormed in ear"y autumn and ear"y spring. Those eggs #ormed in autumn are e5posed to co"d winter temperatures' and thus produce micropterous adu"ts in the summer generation. Those #ormed during the spring are never e5posed to co"d temperatures' and thus yie"d individua"s with norma" wing. 0du"t water bugs o# the overwintering generation brought into the "aboratory during the co"d months and $ept warm' produce on"y macropterous o##spring.

10. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) illustrate an organism4s functional adapti'e response to changing en'ironmental conditions (B) pro'e that organisms can e$hibit three basic adapti'e responses to changing en'ironmental conditions (C) e$plain the differences in form and function between micropterous and macropterous water bugs and analy!e the effect of en'ironmental changes on each ( ) discuss three different types of adapti'e responses and pro'ide an e$ample that e$plains how one of those types of responses works (#) contrast acclimatory responses with de'elopmental responses and suggest an e$planation for the e'olutionary purposes of these two responses to changing en'ironmental conditions 11. The passage supplies information to suggest that which one of the following would happen if a pond inhabited by water bugs were to dry up in Aune% (A) The number of de'elopmental responses among the water(bug population would decrease. (B) Both micropterous and macropterous water bugs would show an acclimatory response. (C) The generation of water bugs to be hatched during the subse"uent spring would contain an unusually large number of macropterous indi'iduals. ( ) The dimorphism of the summer generation would enable some indi'iduals to sur'i'e. (#) The dimorphism of the summer generation would be genetically transferred to the ne$t spring generation. 12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if the winter months of a particular year were unusually warm/ the (A) eggs formed by water bugs in the autumn would probably produce a higher than usual proportion of macropterous indi'iduals (B) eggs formed by water bugs in the autumn would probably produce an entire summer generation of water bugs with smaller than normal wings

-12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(C) eggs of the o'erwintering generation formed in the autumn would not be affected by this temperature change ( ) o'erwintering generation would not lea'e the ponds for the forest during the winter (#) o'erwintering generation of water bugs would most likely form fewer eggs in the autumn and more in the spring 1-. According to the passage/ the dimorphic wing structure of the summer generation of water bugs occurs because (A) the o'erwintering generation forms two sets of eggs/ one e$posed to the colder temperatures of winter and one e$posed only to the warmer temperatures of spring (B) the eggs that produce micropterous and macropterous adults are morphologically different (C) water bugs respond to seasonal changes by making an acclimatory functional ad<ustment in the wings ( ) water bugs hatching in the spring li'e out their life spans in ponds and ne'er need to fly (#) the o'erwintering generation/ which produces eggs de'eloping into the dimorphic generation/ spends the winter in the forest and the spring in small ponds 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following is an e$ample of a regulatory response% (A) thickening of the plumage of some birds in the autumn (B) increase in pulse rate during 'igorous e$ercise (C) gradual darkening of the skin after e$posure to sunlight ( ) gradual enlargement of muscles as a result of weight lifting (#) de'elopment of a hea'y fat layer in bears before hibernation 1,. According to the passage/ the generation of water bugs hatching during the summer is likely to (A) be made up of e"ual numbers of macropterous and micropterous indi'iduals (B) lay its eggs during the winter in order to e$pose them to cold (C) show a marked inability to fly from one pond to another ( ) e$hibit genetically determined differences in wing form from the early spring(hatched generation (#) contain a much greater proportion of macropterous water bugs than the early spring(hatched generation 25. The author mentions laboratory e$periments with adult water bugs (lines 2.(22) in order to illustrate which one of the following%

LSAT

-1.

(A) the function of the summer generation4s dimorphism (B) the irre'ersibility of most de'elopmental adapti'e responses in water bugs (C) the effect of temperature on de'eloping water(bug eggs ( ) the morphological difference between the summer generation and the o'erwintering generation of water bugs (#) the functional ad<ustment of water bugs in response to seasonal temperature 'ariation 21. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) Biological phenomena are presented/ e$amples of their occurrence are compared and contrasted/ and one particular e$ample is illustrated in detail. (B) A description of related biological phenomena is stated/ and two of those phenomena are e$plained in detail with illustrated e$amples. (C) Three related biological phenomena are described/ a hypothesis e$plaining their relationship is presented/ and supporting e'idence is produced. ( ) Three complementary biological phenomena are e$plained/ their causes are e$amined/ and one of them is described by contrasting its causes with the other two. (#) A new way of describing biological phenomena is suggested/ its applications are presented/ and one specific e$ample is e$amined in detail.
The %onstitution o# the United tates does not e5p"icit"y de#ine the e5tent o# the 6resident3s authority to invo"ve United tates troops in con#"icts with other nations in the absence o# a dec"aration o# war. /nstead' the +uestion o# the 6resident3s authority in this matter #a""s in the ha)y area o# concurrent power' where authority is not e5press"y a""ocated to either the 6resident or the %ongress. The %onstitution gives %ongress the basic power to dec"are war' as we"" as the authority to raise and support armies and a navy' enact regu"ations #or the contro" o# the mi"itary' and provide #or the common de#ense. The 6resident' on the other hand' in addition to being ob"igated to e5ecute the "aws o# the "and' inc"uding commitments negotiated by de#ense treaties' is named commander in chie# o# the armed #orces and is empowered to appoint envoys and ma$e treaties with the consent o# the enate. 0"though this a""ocation o# powers does not e5press"y address the use o# armed #orces short o# a dec"ared war' the spirit o# the %onstitution at "east re+uires that %ongress shou"d be invo"ved in the decision to dep"oy troops' and in passing the 8ar 6owers Reso"ution o# 1974' %ongress has at "ast rec"aimed a ro"e in such decisions. (istorica""y' United tates 6residents have not waited #or the approva" o# %ongress be#ore invo"ving United tates troops in con#"icts in which a state o# war was not dec"ared. 9ne scho"ar has identi#ied 199 mi"itary engagements that occurred without the consent o# %ongress' ranging #rom @e##erson3s con#"ict with the &arbary pirates to *i5on3s invasion o# %ambodia during the Bietnam con#"ict' which 6resident *i5on argued was 2usti#ied because his ro"e as commander in chie# a""owed him a"most un"imited discretion over the dep"oyment o# troops. (owever' the Bietnam con#"ict' never a dec"ared war' represented a turning point in %ongress3s to"erance o# presidentia" discretion in the dep"oyment o# troops in undec"ared

-10

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

wars. Aa"vani)ed by the human and monetary cost o# those hosti"ities and showing a new determination to #u"#i"" its proper ro"e' %ongress enacted the 8ar 6owers Reso"ution o# 1974' a statute designed to ensure that the co""ective 2udgment o# both %ongress and the 6resident wou"d be app"ied to the invo"vement o# United tates troops in #oreign con#"icts. The reso"ution re+uired the 6resident' in the absence o# a dec"aration o# war' to consu"t with %ongress ;in every possib"e instance< be#ore introducing #orces and to report to %ongress within H8 hours a#ter the #orces have actua""y been dep"oyed. ?ost important' the reso"ution a""ows %ongress to veto the invo"vement once it begins' and re+uires the 6resident' in most cases' to end the invo"vement within G. days un"ess %ongress speci#ica""y authori)es the mi"itary operation to continue. /n its #ina" section' by dec"aring the reso"ution is not intended to a"ter the constitutiona" authority o# either %ongress or the 6resident' the reso"ution asserts that congressiona" invo"vement in decisions to use armed #orce is in accord with the intent and spirit o# the %onstitution.

22. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) showing how the Cietnam conflict led to a new interpretation of the Constitution4s pro'isions for use of the military (B) arguing that the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. is an attempt to reclaim a share of constitutionally concurrent power that had been usurped by the @resident (C) outlining the history of the struggle between the @resident and Congress for control of the military ( ) pro'iding e$amples of conflicts inherent in the Constitution4s approach to a balance of powers (#) e$plaining how the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. alters the Constitution to eliminate an o'erlap of authority 2.. &ith regard to the use of :nited ;tates troops in a foreign conflict without a formal declaration of war by the :nited ;tates/ the author belie'es that the :nited ;tates Constitution does which one of the following% (A) assumes that the @resident and Congress will agree on whether troops should be used (B) pro'ides a clear(cut di'ision of authority between the @resident and Congress in the decision to use troops (C) assigns a greater role to the Congress than to the @resident in deciding whether troops should be used ( ) grants final authority to the @resident to decide whether to use troops (#) intends (;3B93>H/ ?#A9) that both the @resident and Congress should be in'ol'ed in the decision to use troops 20. The passage suggests that each of the following contributed to Congress4s enacting the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. #DC#@T (A) a change in the attitude in Congress toward e$ercising its role in the use of

LSAT

-11

armed forces (B) the failure of @residents to uphold commitments specified in defense treaties (C) Congress4s desire to be consulted concerning :nited ;tates military actions instigated by the @resident ( ) the amount of money spent on recent conflicts waged without a declaration of war (#) the number of li'es lost in Cietnam 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. is applicable only in *the absence of a declaration of war+ (lines 06(0,) because (A) Congress has enacted other laws that already set out presidential re"uirements for situations in which war has been declared (B) by 'irtue of declaring war/ Congress already implicitly participates in the decision to deploy troops (C) the @resident generally recei'es broad public support during wars that ha'e been formally declared by Congress ( ) Congress felt that the @resident should be allowed unlimited discretion in cases in which war has been declared (#) the :nited ;tates Constitution already e$plicitly defines the reporting and consulting re"uirements of the @resident in cases in which war has been declared 22. 3n can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. (A) is not in accord with the e$plicit roles of the @resident and Congress as defined in the Constitution (B) interferes with the role of the @resident as commander in chief of the armed forces (C) signals Congress4s commitment to fulfill a role intended for it by the Constitution ( ) fails e$plicitly to address the use of armed forces in the absence of a declaration of war (#) confirms the role historically assumed by @residents 2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements regarding the in'asion of Cambodia% (A) Because it was undertaken without the consent of Congress/ it 'iolated the intent and spirit of the Constitution. (B) Because it gal'ani!ed support for the &ar @owers =esolution/ it contributed indirectly to the e$pansion of presidential authority. (C) Because it was necessitated by a defense treaty/ it re"uired the consent of Congress.

-12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

( ) 3t ser'ed as a precedent for a new interpretation of the constitutional limits on the @resident4s authority to deploy troops. (#) 3t differed from the actions of past @residents in deploying :nited ;tates troops in conflicts without a declaration of war by Congress. 26. According to the pro'isions of the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. as described in the passage/ if the @resident percei'es that an international conflict warrants the immediate in'ol'ement of :nited ;tates armed forces/ the @resident is compelled in e'ery instance to (A) re"uest that Congress consider a formal declaration of war (B) consult with the leaders of both house of Congress before deploying armed forces (C) desist from deploying any troops unless e$pressly appro'ed by Congress ( ) report to Congress within 06 hours of the deployment of armed forces (#) withdraw any armed forces deployed in such a conflict within 25 days unless war is declared LSAT 03 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The e5tent o# a nation3s power over its coasta" ecosystems and the natura" resources in its coasta" waters has been de#ined by two internationa" "aw doctrines> #reedom o# the seas and ad2acent state sovereignty. Unti" the mid-twentieth century' most nations #avored app"ication o# broad open-seas #reedoms and "imited sovereign rights over coasta" waters. 0 nation had the right to inc"ude within its territoria" dominion on"y a very narrow band o# coasta" waters (genera""y e5tending three mi"es #rom the shore"ine)' within which it had the authority but not the responsibi"ity' to regu"ate a"" activities. &ut' because this area o# territoria" dominion was so "imited' most nations did not estab"ish ru"es #or management or protection o# their territoria" waters. Regard"ess o# whether or not nations en#orced regu"ations in their territoria" waters' "arge ocean areas remained #ree o# contro"s or restrictions. The citi)ens o# a"" nations had the right to use these unrestricted ocean areas #or any innocent purpose' inc"uding navigation and #ishing. =5cept #or contro"s over its own citi)ens' no nation had the responsibi"ity' "et a"one the uni"atera" authority' to contro" such activities in internationa" waters. 0nd' since there were #ew standards o# conduct that app"ied on the ;open seas<' there were #ew 2urisdictiona" con#"icts between nations. The "ac$ o# standards is traceab"e to popu"ar perceptions he"d be#ore the midd"e o# this century. &y and "arge' marine po""ution was not perceived as a signi#icant prob"em' in part

LSAT
because the adverse e##ect o# coasta" activities on ocean ecosystems was not wide"y

-1-

recogni)ed' and po""ution caused by human activities was genera""y be"ieved to be "imited to that caused by navigation. ?oreover' the #reedom to #ish' or over#ish' was an essentia" e"ement o# the traditiona" "ega" doctrine o# #reedom o# the seas that no maritime country wished to see "imited. 0nd #ina""y' the techno"ogy that "ater a""owed e5p"oitation o# other ocean resources' such as oi"' did not yet e5ist. To date' contro""ing po""ution and regu"ating ocean resources have sti"" not been comprehensive"y addressed by "aw' but internationa" "aw!estab"ished through the customs and practices o# nations!does not prec"ude such e##orts. 0nd two recent deve"opments may actua""y "ead to #uture internationa" ru"es providing #or ecosystem management. 7irst' the estab"ishment o# e5tensive #ishery )ones e5tending territoria" authority as #ar as 1.. mi"es out #rom a country3s coast' has provided the opportunity #or nations individua""y to manage "arger ecosystems. This opportunity' combined with nationa" se"#-interest in maintaining #ish popu"ations' cou"d "ead nations to reeva"uate po"icies #or management o# their #isheries and to address the prob"em o# po""ution in territoria" waters. econd' the internationa" community is beginning to understand the importance o# preserving the resources and eco"ogy o# internationa" waters and to show signs o# accepting responsibi"ity #or doing so. 0s an internationa" consensus regarding the need #or comprehensive management o# ocean resources deve"ops' it wi"" become more "i$e"y that internationa" standards and po"icies #or broader regu"ation o# human activities that a##ect ocean ecosystems wi"" be adopted and imp"emented.

1.

According to the passage/ until the mid(twentieth century there were few <urisdictional disputes o'er international waters because. (A) the nearest coastal nation regulated acti'ities (B) few controls or restrictions applied to ocean areas (C) the ocean areas were used for only innocent purposes ( ) the freedom of the seas doctrine settled all claims concerning na'igation and fishing (#) broad authority o'er international waters was shared e"ually among all nations

2.

According to the international law doctrines applicable before the mid(twentieth century/ if commercial acti'ity within a particular nation4s territorial waters threatened all marine life in those waters/ the nation would ha'e been (A) formally censured by an international organi!ation for not properly regulating marine acti'ities (B) called upon by other nations to establish rules to protect its territorial waters (C) able but not re"uired to place legal limits on such commercial acti'ities ( ) allowed to resol'e the problem at it own discretion pro'iding it could contain the threat to its own territorial waters (#) permitted to hold the commercial offenders liable only if they were citi!ens of

-16

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

that particular nation .. The author suggests that/ before the mid(twentieth century/ most nations4 actions with respect to territorial and international waters indicated that (A) managing ecosystems in either territorial or international waters was gi'en low priority (B) unlimited resources in international waters resulted in little interest in territorial waters (C) nations considered it their responsibility to protect territorial but not international waters ( ) a nation4s authority o'er its citi!enry ended at territorial lines (#) although nations could e$tend their territorial dominion beyond three miles from their shoreline/ most chose not to do so 0. The author cites which one of the following as an effect of the e$tension of territorial waters beyond the three(mile limit% (A) increased political pressure on indi'idual nations to establish comprehensi'e laws regulating ocean resources (B) a greater number of <urisdictional disputes among nations o'er the regulation of fishing on the open seas (C) the opportunity for some nations to manage large ocean ecosystems ( ) a new awareness of the need to minimi!e pollution caused by na'igation (#) a political incenti'e for smaller nations to sol'e the problems of pollution in their coastal waters 1. According to the passage/ before the middle of the twentieth century/ nations failed to establish rules protecting their territorial waters because (A) the waters appeared to be unpolluted and to contain unlimited resources (B) the fishing industry would be ad'ersely affected by such rules (C) the si!e of the area that would be sub<ect to such rules was insignificant ( ) the technology needed for pollution control and resource management did not e$ist (#) there were few <urisdictional conflicts o'er nations4 territorial waters 2. The passage as a whole can best be described as (A) a chronology of the e'ents that ha'e led up to present(day crisis (B) a legal in"uiry into the abuse of e$isting laws and the likelihood of reform (C) a political analysis of the problems inherent in directing national attention to an international issue ( ) a historical analysis of a problem that re"uires international attention (#) a proposal for adopting and implementing international standards to sol'e an ecological problem

LSAT

-1,

The human species came into being at the time o# the greatest bio"ogica" diversity in the history o# the =arth. Today' as human popu"ations e5pand and a"ter the natura" environment' they are reducing bio"ogica" diversity to its "owest "eve" since the end o# the ?eso)oic era' Gmi""ion years ago. The u"timate conse+uences o# this bio"ogica" co""ision are beyond ca"cu"ation' but they are certain to be harm#u". That' in essence' is the biodiversity crisis. The history o# g"oba" diversity can be summari)ed as #o""ows> a#ter the initia" #"owering o# mu"tice""u"ar anima"s' there was a swi#t rise in the number o# species in ear"y 6a"eo)oic times (between G.. and H4. mi""ion years ago)' then p"ateau"i$e stagnation #or the remaining 1.. mi""ion years o# the 6a"eo)oic era' and #ina""y a s"ow but steady c"imb through the ?eso)oic and %eno)oic eras to diversity3s a""-time high. This history suggests that bio"ogica" diversity was hard won and a "ong time in coming. 7urthermore' this pattern o# increase was set bac$ by #ive massive e5tinction episodes. The most recent o# these' during the %retaceous period' is by #ar the most #amous' because it ended the age o# the dinosaurs' con#erred hegemony on the mamma"s' and u"timate"y made possib"e the ascendancy o# the human species. &ut the cretaceous crisis was minor compared with the 6ermian e5tinctions 1H. mi""ion years ago' during which between 77 and 9G percent o# marine anima" species perished. /t too$ - mi""ion years' we"" into ?eso)oic times' #or species diversity to begin a signi#icant recovery. 8ithin the past 1.'... years bio"ogica" diversity has entered a who""y new era. (uman activity has had a devastating e##ect on species diversity' and the rate o# human-induced e5tinctions is acce"erating. (a"# o# the bird species o# 6o"ynesia have been e"iminated through hunting and the destruction o# native #orests. (undreds o# #ish species endemic to Ea$e Bictoria are now threatened with e5tinction #o""owing the care"ess introduction o# one species o# #ish' the *i"e perch. The "ist o# such biogeographic disasters is e5tensive. &ecause every species is uni+ue and irrep"aceab"e' the "oss o# biodiversity is the most pro#ound process o# environmenta" change. /ts conse+uences are a"so the "east predictab"e because the va"ue o# =arth3s biota (the #auna and #"ora co""ective"y) remains "arge"y unstudied and unappreciated: un"i$e materia" and cu"tura" wea"th' which we understand because they are the substance o# our everyday "ives' bio"ogica" wea"th is usua""y ta$en #or granted. This is a serious strategic error' one that wi"" be increasing"y regretted as time passes. The biota is not on"y part o# a country3s heritage' the product o# mi""ions o# years o# evo"ution centered on that p"ace: it is a"so a potentia" source #or immense untapped materia" wea"th in the #orm o# #ood' medicine' and other commercia""y important substance.

-.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) The reduction in biodi'ersity is an irre'ersible process that represents a setback both for science and for society as a whole. (B) The material and cultural wealth of a nation are insignificant when compared with the country4s biological wealth. (C) The enormous di'ersity of life on #arth could not ha'e come about without periodic e$tinctions that ha'e conferred preeminence on one species at the e$pense of another. ( ) The human species is in the process of initiating a massi'e e$tinction episode

-25

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

that may make past episodes look minor by comparison. (#) The current decline in species di'ersity is human(induced tragedy of incalculable proportions that has potentially gra'e conse"uences for the human species. 6. &hich one of the following situations is most analogous to the history of global di'ersity summari!ed in lines 15(16 of the passage% (A) The number of fish in a lake declines abruptly as a result of water pollution/ then makes a slow comeback after cleanup efforts and the passage of ordinances against dumping. (B) The concentration of chlorine in the water supply of large city fluctuates widely before stabili!ing at a constant and safe le'el. (C) An old(fashioned article of clothing goes in and out of style periodically as a result of features in fashion maga!ines and the popularity of certain period films. ( ) After 'aluable mineral deposits are disco'ered/ the population of a geographic region booms then le'els off and begins to decrease at a slow and steady pace. (#) The 'ariety of styles stocked by a shoe store increases rapidly after the store opens/ holds constant for many months/ and then gradually creeps upward. ,. The author suggests which one of the following about the Cretaceous crisis% (A) 3t was the second most de'astating e$tinction episode in history. (B) 3t was the most de'astating e$tinction episode up until that time. (C) 3t was less de'astating to species di'ersity than is the current biodi'ersity crisis. ( ) The rate of e$tinction among marine animal species as a result of the crisis did not approach -- percent. (#) The dinosaurs comprised the great ma<ority of species that perished during the crisis. 15. The author mentions the 9ile perch in order to pro'ide an e$ample of (A) a species that has become e$tinct through human acti'ity (B) the typical lack of foresight that has led to biogeographic disaster (C) a marine animal species that sur'i'ed the @ermian e$tinctions ( ) a species that is a potential source of material wealth (#) the kind of action that is necessary to re'erse the decline in species di'ersity 11. All of the following are e$plicitly mentioned in the passage as contributing to the e$tinction of species #DC#@T (A) hunting (B) pollution

LSAT

-21

(C) deforestation ( ) the growth of human populations (#) human(engineered changes in the en'ironment 12. The passage suggests which one of the following about material and cultural wealth% (A) Because we can readily assess the 'alue of material and cultural wealth/ we tend not to take them for granted. (B) Aust as the biota is a source of potential material wealth/ it is an untapped source of cultural wealth as well. (C) ;ome degree of material and cultural wealth may ha'e to be sacrificed if we are to protect our biological heritage. ( ) ?aterial and cultural wealth are of less 'alue than biological wealth because they ha'e e'ol'ed o'er a shorter period of time. (#) ?aterial wealth and biological wealth are interdependent in a way that material wealth and cultural wealth are not. 1.. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about the conse"uences of the biodi'ersity crisis% (A) The loss of species di'ersity will ha'e as immediate an impact on the material of nations as on their biological wealth. (B) The crisis will likely end the hegemony of the human race and bring about the ascendancy of another species. (C) The effects of the loss of species di'ersity will be dire/ but we cannot yet tell how dire. ( ) 3t is more fruitful to discuss the conse"uences of the crisis in terms of the potential loss to humanity than in strictly biological loss to humanity than in strictly biological terms. (#) The conse"uences of the crisis can be minimi!ed/ but the pace of e$tinctions can not be re'ersed.
8omen3s participation in the revo"utionary events in 7rance between 1789 and 179- has on"y recent"y been given nuanced treatment. =ar"y twentieth century historians o# the 7rench Revo"ution are typi#ied by @aures' who' though sympathetic to the women3s movement o# his own time' never even mentions its antecedents in revo"utionary 7rance. =ven today most genera" histories treat on"y cursori"y a #ew individua" women' "i$e ?arie 0ntoinette. The recent studies by Eandes' &adinter' Aodineau' and Roudinesco' however' shou"d signa" a muchneeded reassessment o# women3s participation. Aodineau and Roudinesco point to three signi#icant phases in that participation. The #irst' up to mid-1791' invo"ved those women who wrote po"itica" tracts. Typica" o# their orientation to theoretica" issues!in Aodineaus3s view' without practica" e##ect!is ?arie Aou)e3s -eclaration of the *ight of ,omen. The emergence o# voca" midd"e-c"ass women3s po"itica" c"ubs mar$s the second phase. 7ormed in 1791 as ad2uncts o# midd"e-c"ass ma"e po"itica"

-22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

c"ubs' and origina""y phi"anthropic in #unction' by "ate 1791 independent c"ubs o# women began to advocate mi"itary participation #or women. /n the #ina" phase' the #amine o# 179occasioned a mass women3s movement> women sei)ed #ood supp"ies' ho"d o##icia"s hostage' and argued #or the imp"ementation o# democratic po"itics. This phase ended in ?ay o# 179with the mi"itary suppression o# this mu"tic"ass movement. /n a"" three phases women3s participation in po"itics contrasted mar$ed"y with their participation be#ore 1789. &e#ore that date some nob"ewomen participated indirect"y in e"ections' but such participation by more than a narrow range o# the popu"ation!women or men!came on"y with the Revo"ution. 8hat ma$es the recent studies particu"ar"y compe""ing' however' is not so much their organi)ation o# chrono"ogy as their un#"inching wi""ingness to con#ront the reasons #or the co""apse o# the women3s movement. 7or Eandes and &adinter' the necessity o# women3s having to spea$ in the estab"ished vocabu"aries o# certain inte""ectua" and po"itica" tradition diminished the abi"ity o# the women3s movement to resist suppression. ?any women' and many men' they argue' "ocated their vision within the con#ining tradition o# @ean-@ac+ues Rousseau' who "in$ed ma"e and #ema"e ro"es with pub"ic and private spheres respective"y. &ut' when women went on to ma$e po"itica" a""iances with radica" @acobin men' &adinter asserts' they adopted a vocabu"ary and a vio"ent"y e5tremist viewpoint that un#ortunate"y was even more damaging to their po"itica" interests. =ach o# these scho"ars has di##erent po"itica" agenda and ta$es a di##erent approach! Aodineau' #or e5amp"e' wor$s with po"ice archives whi"e Roudinesco uses e5p"anatory schema #rom modern psycho"ogy. Det' admirab"y' each gives center stage to a group that previous"y has been margina"i)ed' or at best undi##erentiated' by historians. 0nd in the case o# Eandes and &adinter' the reader is "e#t with a sobering awareness o# the cost to the women o# the Revo"ution o# spea$ing in borrowed voices.

10. &hich one of the following best states the main point of the passage% (A) According to recent historical studies/ the participation of women in the re'olutionary e'ents of 1-6,(1-,1 can most profitably be 'iewed in three successi'e stages. (B) The findings of certain recent historical studies ha'e resulted from an earlier general reassessment/ by historians/ of women4s participation in the re'olutionary e'ents of 1-6,(1-,1. (C) Adopting the 'ocabulary and 'iewpoint of certain intellectual and political traditions resulted in no political ad'antage for women in >rance in the years 1-6,(1-,1. ( ) Certain recent historical studies ha'e pro'ided a much(needed description and e'aluation of the e'ol'ing roles of women in the re'olutionary e'ents of 1-6,(1-,1. (#) )istorical studies that seek to e$plain the limitations of the women4s mo'ement is more con'incing than are those that seek only to describe the general features of that mo'ement. 11. The passage suggests that Bodineau would be likely to agree with which one of

LSAT

-2.

the following statements about ?arie Bou!e4s eclaration of the =ights of &omen% (A) This work was not understood by many of Bou!e4s contemporaries. (B) This work indirectly inspired the formation of independent women4s political clubs. (C) This work had little impact on the world of political action. ( ) This work was the most compelling produced by a >rench woman between 1-6, and 1-,2. (#) This work is typical of the kind of writing >rench women produced between 1-,. and 1-,1. 12. According to the passage/ which one of the following is a true statement about the purpose of the women4s political cubs mentioned in line 25% (A) These clubs fostered a mass women4s mo'ement. (B) These clubs e'entually de'eloped a purpose different from their original purpose. (C) These clubs were founder to ad'ocate military participation for women. ( ) These clubs counteracted the original purpose of male political clubs. (#) These clubs lost their direction by the time of the famine of 1-,1. 1-. The primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is toE (A) outline the author4s argument about women4s roles in >rances between 1-6, and 1-,1 (B) anticipate possible challenges to the findings of the recent studies of women in >rance between 1-6, and 1-,1 (C) summari!e some long(standing e$planations of the role of indi'idual women in >rance between 1-6, and 1-,1 ( ) present a conte$t for the discussion of recent studies of women in >rance between 1-6, and 1-,1 (#) characteri!e 'arious eighteenth(century studies of women in >rance 16. The passage suggests that Kandes and Badinter would be likely to agree with which one of the following statements about the women4s mo'ement in >rance in the 1-,5s% (A) The mo'ement might ha'e been more successful if women had de'eloped their own political 'ocabularies. (B) The downfall of the mo'ement was probably unrelated to it alliance with Aacobin men. (C) The mo'ement had a great deal of choice about whether to adopt a =ousseauist political 'ocabulary. ( ) The mo'ement would ha'e triumphed if it had not been suppressed by

-20

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

military means. (#) The mo'ement 'iewed a =ousseauist political tradition/ rather than a Aacobin political ideology/ as detrimental to its interests. 1,. 3n the conte$t of the passage/ the word *cost+ in line 2. refers to the (A) dichotomy of pri'ate roles for women and public roles for men (B) almost none$istent political participation of women before 1-6, (C) historians4 lack of differentiation among 'arious groups of women ( ) political alliances women made with radical Aacobin men (#) collapse of the women4s mo'ement in the 1-,5s 25. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) critici!ing certain political and intellectual traditions (B) summari!ing the main points of se'eral recent historical studies and assessing their 'alue (C) establishing a chronological se"uence and arguing for its importance ( ) comparing and contrasting women4s political acti'ities before and after the >rench =e'olution (#) ree$amining a long(held point of 'iew and isolating its strengths and weaknesses
0rt historians3 approach to 7rench /mpressionism has changed signi#icant"y in recent years. 8hi"e a decade ago Rewa"d3s %istory of )m#ressionism' which emphasi)es /mpressionist painters3 sty"istic innovations' was uncha""enged' the "iterature on impressionism has now become a $ind o# ideo"ogica" batt"e#ie"d' in which more attention is paid to the sub2ect matter o# the paintings' and to the socia" and mora" issues raised by it' than to their sty"e. Recent"y' po"itica""y charged discussions that address the impressionists3 une+ua" treatment o# men and women and the e5c"usion o# modern industry and "abor #rom their pictures have tended to crowd out the sty"istic ana"ysis #avored by Rewa"d and his #o""owers. /n a new wor$ i""ustrating this trend' Robert E. (erbert dissociates himse"# #rom #orma"ists whose preoccupation with the sty"istic #eatures o# impressionist painting has' in (erbert3s view' "e#t the history out o# art history: his aim is to restore impressionist paintings ;to their sociocu"tura" conte5t.< (owever' his arguments are not #ina""y persuasive. /n attempting to p"ace impressionist painting in its proper historica" conte5t' (erbert has redrawn the traditiona" boundaries o# impressionism. Eimiting himse"# to the two decades between 18G. and 188.' he assemb"es under the impressionist banner what can on"y be described as a somewhat eccentric grouping o# painters. %e)anne' 6isarro' and is"ey are a"most entire"y ignored' "arge"y because their paintings do not suit (erbert3s emphasis on themes o# urban "i#e and suburban "eisure' whi"e ?anet' Fegas' and %ai""ebotte!who paint scenes o# urban "i#e but whom many wou"d hard"y characteri)e as impressionists dominate the #irst ha"# o# the boo$. 0"though this new description o# /mpressionist painting provides a more uni#ied conception o# nineteenth-century 7rench painting by grouping +uite disparate modernist painters together and emphasi)ing their common concerns rather than their sty"istic

LSAT
di##erence' it a"so #orces (erbert to over"oo$ some o# the most important genres o# impressionist painting!portraiture' pure "andscape' and sti""-"i#e painting. ?oreover' the rationa"e #or (erbert3s emphasis on the socia" and po"itica" rea"ities that /mpressionist paintings can be said to communicate rather than on their sty"e is #ina""y

-21

undermined by what even (erbert concedes was the #ai"ure o# /mpressionist painters to serve as particu"ar"y conscientious i""ustrators o# their socia" mi"ieu. They "e#t much ordinary e5perience!wor$ and poverty' #or e5amp"e!out o# their paintings and what they did put in was trans#ormed by a sty"e that had on"y an indirect re"ationship to the socia" rea"ities o# the wor"d they depicted. *ot on"y were their pictures inventions rather than photographs' they were inventions in which sty"e to some degree disrupted description. Their painting in e##ect have two "eve"s o# sub2ect> what is represented and how it is represented' and no art historian can a##ord to emphasi)e one at the e5pense o# the other.

21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage% (A) The style of impressionist paintings has only an indirect relation to their sub<ect matter. (B) The approach to impressionism that is illustrated by )erbert4s recent book is inade"uate. (C) The historical conte$t of impressionist paintings is not rele'ant to their interpretation. ( ) impressionism emerged from a historical conte$t of ideological conflict and change. (#) Any ade"uate future interpretation of impressionism will ha'e to come to terms with )erbert4s 'iew of this art mo'ement. 22. According to the passage/ =ewald4s book on impressionism was characteri!ed by which one of the following% (A) e'enhanded ob<ecti'ity about the achie'ements of impressionism (B) bias in fa'or of certain impressionist painters (C) an emphasis on the stylistic features of impressionist painting ( ) an idiosyncratic 'iew of which painters were to be classified as impressionists (#) a refusal to enter into the ideological debates that had characteri!ed earlier discussions of impressionism 2.. The author implies that )erbert4s redefinition of the boundaries of impressionism resulted from which one of the following% (A) an e$clusi'e emphasis on form and style (B) a bias in fa'or of the representation of modern industry (C) an attempt to place impressionism within a specific sociocultural conte$t ( ) a broadening of the term impressionism to include all nineteenth(century >rench painting (#) an insufficient familiarity with earlier interpretations of impressionism

-22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

20. The author states which one of the following about modern industry and labor as sub<ects for painting% (A) The impressionists neglected these sub<ects in their paintings. (B) )erbert4s book on impressionism fails to gi'e ade"uate treatment of these sub<ects. (C) The impressionists4 treatment of these sub<ects was ideali!ed. ( ) =ewald4s treatment of impressionist painters focused inordinately on their representations of these sub<ects. (#) ?odernist painters presented a distorted picture of these sub<ects. 21. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the structure of the author4s argument in the passage% (A) The first two paragraphs each present independent arguments for a conclusion that is drawn in the third paragraph. (B) A thesis is stated in the first paragraph and re'ised in the second paragraph and re'ised in the second paragraph/ and the re'ised thesis is supported with argument in the third paragraph. (C) The first two paragraphs discuss and critici!e a thesis/ and the third paragraph presents an alternati'e thesis. ( ) a claim is made in the first paragraph/ and the ne$t two paragraph/ and the ne$t two paragraphs each present reasons for accepting that claim. (#) An argument is presented in the first paragraph/ a counterargument is presented in the second paragraph/ and the third paragraph suggests a way to resol'e the dispute. 22. The author4s statement that impressionist paintings *were in'entions in which style to some degree disrupted description+ (lines 1-(1,) ser'es to (A) strengthen the claim that impressionist sought to emphasi!e the differences between painting and photography (B) weaken the argument that style is the only important feature of impressionist paintings (C) indicate that impressionists recogni!ed that they had been strongly influence by photography ( ) support the argument that an e$clusi'e emphasis on the impressionists sub<ect matter is mistaken (#) undermine the claim that impressionists neglected certain kinds of sub<ect matter 2-. The author would most likely regard a book on the impressionists that focused entirely on their style as (A) a product of the recent confusion caused by )erbert4s book on impressionism (B) emphasi!ing what impressionists themsel'es took to be their primary artistic

LSAT

-2-

concern (C) an o'erreaction against the traditional interpretation of impressionism ( ) neglecting the most inno'ati'e aspects of impressionism (#) addressing only part of what an ade"uate treatment should co'er LSAT 0( SECT ON )

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Aovernments o# deve"oping countries occasiona""y enter into economic deve"opment agreements with #oreign investors who provide capita" and techno"ogica" e5pertise that may not be readi"y avai"ab"e in such countries. &esides the norma" economic ris$ that accompanies such enterprises' investors #ace the additiona" ris$ that the host government may attempt uni"atera""y to change in its #avor the terms o# the agreement or even to terminate the agreement a"together and appropriate the pro2ect #or itse"#. /n order to ma$e economic deve"opment agreements more attractive to investors' some deve"oping countries have attempted to strengthen the security o# such agreements with c"auses speci#ying that the agreements wi"" be governed by ;genera" princip"es o# "aw recogni)ed by civi"i)ed nations<!a set o# "ega" princip"es or ru"es shared by the wor"d3s ma2or "ega" systems. (owever' advocates o# governments3 #reedom to modi#y or terminate such agreements argue that these agreements #a"" within a specia" c"ass o# contracts $nown as administrative contracts' a concept that originated in 7rench "aw. They assert that under the theory o# administrative contracts' a government retains inherent power to modi#y or terminate its own contract' and that this power indeed constitutes a genera" princip"e o# "aw. (owever' their argument is #"awed on at "east two counts. 7irst' in 7rench "aw not a"" government contracts are treated as administrative contracts. ome contracts are designated as administrative by speci#ic statute' in which case the contractor is made aware o# the app"icab"e "ega" ru"es upon entering into agreement with the government. 0"ternative"y' the contracting government agency can itse"# designate a contract as administrative by inc"uding certain terms not #ound in private civi" contracts. ?oreover' even in the case o# administrative contracts' 7rench "aw re+uires that in the event that the government uni"atera""y modi#ies the terms o# the contract' it must compensate the contractor #or any increased burden resu"ting #rom the government3s action. /n e##ect' the government is thus prevented #rom modi#ying those contractua" terms that de#ine the #inancia" ba"ance o# the contract. econd' the 7rench "aw o# administrative contracts' a"though adopted by severa" countries' is not so universa""y accepted that it can be embraced as a genera" princip"e o# "aw. /n both the United tates and the United Ningdom' government contracts are governed by the ordinary "aw o# contracts' with the resu"t that the government can reserve the power to modi#y

-26

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

or terminate a contract uni"atera""y on"y by writing such power into the contract as a speci#ic provision. /ndeed' the very #act that termination and modi#ication c"auses are common"y #ound in government contracts suggests that a government3s capacity to modi#y or terminate agreements uni"atera""y derives #rom speci#ic contract provisions' not #rom inherent state power.

1.

3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the following% (A) pointing out flaws in an argument pro'ided in support of a position (B) analy!ing the weaknesses inherent in the proposed solution to a problem (C) marshaling e'idence in support of a new e$planation of a phenomenon ( ) analy!ing the risks inherent in adopting a certain course of action (#) ad'ocating a new approach to a problem that has not been sol'ed by traditional means

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following assertions regarding the *general principles of law+ mentioned in lines 12(1- of the passage% (A) They fail to take into account the special needs and interests of de'eloping countries that enter into agreements with foreign in'estors. (B) They ha'e only recently been in'oked as criteria for ad<udicating disputes between go'ernments and foreign in'estors. (C) They are more compatible with the laws of >rance and the :nited ;tates than with those of the :nited Mingdom. ( ) They do not assert that go'ernments ha'e an inherent right to modify unilaterally the terms of agreements that they ha'e entered into with foreign in'estors. (#) They are not useful in ad<udicating disputes between de'eloping countries and foreign in'estors.

..

The author implies that which one of the following is true of economic de'elopment agreements% (A) They pro'ide greater economic benefits to the go'ernments that are parties to such agreements than to foreign in'estors. (B) They are interpreted differently by courts in the :nited Mingdom than they are by courts in the :nited ;tates. (C) They ha'e proliferated in recent years as a result of go'ernments4 attempts to make them more legally secure. ( ) They entail greater risk to in'estors when the go'ernments that enter into such agreements reser'e the right to modify unilaterally the terms of the agreements. (#) They ha'e become less attracti'e to foreign in'estors as an increasing number

LSAT

-2,

of go'ernments that enter into such agreements consider them go'erned by the law of ordinary contracts. 0. According to the author/ which one of the following is true of a contract that is designated by a >rench go'ernment agency as an administrati'e contract% (A) 3t re"uires the go'ernment agency to pay for unanticipated increases in the cost of deli'ering the goods and ser'ices specified in the contract. (B) 3t pro'ides the contractor with certain guarantees that are not normally pro'ided in pri'ate ci'il contracts. (C) 3t must be ratified by the passage of a statute. ( ) 3t discourages foreign companies from bidding on the contract. (#) 3t contains terms that distinguish it from a pri'ate ci'il contract. 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that under the *ordinary law of contracts+ (lines 1.(10)/ a go'ernment would ha'e the right to modify unilaterally the terms of a contract that it had entered into with a foreign in'estor if which one of the following were true% (A) The go'ernment undertook a greater economic risk by entering into the contract than did the foreign in'estor. (B) The cost to the foreign in'estor of abiding by the terms of the contract e$ceeded the original estimates of such costs. (C) The modification of the contract did not result in any increased financial burden for the in'estor. ( ) Both the go'ernment and the in'estor had agreed to abide by the general principles of law recogni!ed by ci'ili!ed nations. (#) The contract contains a specific pro'ision allowing the go'ernment to modify the contract. 2. 3n the last paragraph/ the author refers to go'ernment contracts in the :nited ;tates and the :nited Mingdom primarily in order to (A) Cite two go'ernments that often reser'e the right to modify unilaterally contracts that they enter into with foreign in'estors. (B) ;upport the assertion that there is no general principle of law go'erning contracts between pri'ate indi'iduals and go'ernments. (C) Cast doubt on the alleged uni'ersality of the concept of administrati'e contracts. ( ) @ro'ide e$amples of legal systems that might benefit from the concept of administrati'e contracts. (#) @ro'ide e$amples of characteristics that typically distinguish go'ernment contracts from pri'ate ci'il contracts. -. &hich one of the following best states the author4s main conclusion in the passage%

-.5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(A) @ro'iding that an international agreement be go'erned by general principles of law is not a 'iable method of guaranteeing the legal security of such an agreement. (B) >rench law regarding contracts is significantly different from those in the :nited ;tates and the :nited Mingdom. (C) Contracts between go'ernments and pri'ate in'estors in most nations are go'erned by ordinary contract law. ( ) An inherent power of a go'ernment to modify or terminate a contract cannot be considered a general principle of law. (#) Contracts between go'ernments and pri'ate in'estors can be secured only by reliance on general principles of law. 6. The author4s argument in lines 1-(22 would be most weakened if which one of the following were true% (A) The specific pro'isions of go'ernment contracts often contain e$plicit statements of what all parties to the contracts already agree are inherent state powers. (B) Bo'ernments are more fre"uently put in the position of ha'ing to modify or terminate contracts than are pri'ate indi'iduals. (C) ?odification clauses in economic de'elopment agreements ha'e fre"uently been challenged in international tribunals by foreign in'estors who were a party to such agreements. ( ) The general principles of law pro'ide that modification clauses cannot allow the terms of a contract to be modified in such a way that the financial balance of the contract is affected. (#) Termination and modification agreements are often interpreted differently by national courts than they are by international tribunals.
*ico 7ri2da writes that emotions are governed by a psycho"ogica" princip"e ca""ed the ;"aw o# apparent rea"ity<> emotions are e"icited on"y by events appraised as rea"' and the intensity o# these emotions corresponds to the degree to which these events are appraised as rea". This observation seems psycho"ogica""y p"ausib"e' but emotiona" responses e"icited by wor$s o# art raise countere5amp"es. 7ri2da3s "aw accounts #or my panic i# / am a#raid o# sna$es and see an ob2ect / correct"y appraise as a ratt"esna$e' and a"so #or my identica" response i# / see a coi"ed garden hose / mista$en"y perceive to be a sna$e. (owever' suppose / am watching a movie and see a sna$e g"iding toward its victim. ure"y / might e5perience the same emotions o# panic and distress' though / $now the sna$e is not rea". These responses e5tend even to phenomena not conventiona""y accepted as rea". 0 movie about ghosts' #or e5amp"e' may be terri#ying to a"" viewers' even those who #irm"y re2ect the possibi"ity o# ghosts' but this is not because viewers are con#using cinematic depiction with rea"ity. ?oreover' / can #ee" strong emotions in response to ob2ects o# art that are interpretations' rather than representations' o# rea"ity> / am moved by ?o)art3s *equiem' but / $now that / am not at a rea" #unera". (owever' i# 7ri2da3s

LSAT
"aw is to e5p"ain a"" emotiona" reactions' there shou"d be no emotiona" response at a"" to

-.1

aesthetic ob2ects or events' because we $now they are not rea" in the way a "iving ratt"esna$e is rea". ?ost psycho"ogists' perp"e5ed by the #ee"ings they ac$now"edge are aroused by aesthetic e5perience' have c"aimed that these emotions are genuine' but di##erent in $ind #rom nonaesthetic emotions. This' however' is a descriptive distinction rather than an empirica" observation and conse+uent"y "ac$s e5p"anatory va"ue. 9n the other hand' Aombrich argues that emotiona" responses to art are ersat): art triggers remembrances o# previous"y e5perienced emotions. These debates have prompted the psycho"ogist Rad#ord to argue that peop"e do e5perience rea" me"ancho"y or 2oy in responding to art' but that these are irrationa" responses precise"y because peop"e $now they are reacting to i""usory stimu"i. 7ri2da3s "aw does not he"p us to untang"e these positions' since it simp"y imp"ies that events we recogni)e as being represented rather than rea" cannot e"icit emotion in the #irst p"ace. 7ri2da does suggest that a vivid imagination has ;properties o# rea"ity<!imp"ying' without e5p"anation' that we ma$e aesthetic ob2ects or events ;rea"< in the act o# e5periencing them. (owever' as cruton argues' a necessary characteristic o# the imaginative construction that can occur in an emotiona" response to art is that the person $nows he or she is pretending. This is what distinguishes imagination #rom psychotic #antasy.

,.

&hich one of the following best states the central idea of the passage% (A) The law of apparent reality fails to account satisfactorily for the emotional nature of belief. (B) Theories of aesthetic response fail to account for how we distinguish unreasonable from reasonable responses to art. (C) The law of apparent reality fails to account satisfactorily for emotional responses to art. ( ) @sychologists ha'e been unable to determine what accounts for the changeable nature of emotional responses to art. (#) @sychologists ha'e been unable to determine what differentiates aesthetic from nonaesthetic emotional responses.

15. According to the passage/ >ri<da4s law asserts that emotional responses to e'ents are (A) unpredictable because emotional responses depend on how aware the person is of the reality of an e'ent (B) weaker if the person cannot distinguish illusion from reality (C) more or less intense depending on the degree to which the person percei'es the e'ent to be real ( ) more intense if the person percei'es an e'ent to be frightening (#) weaker if the person <udges an e'ent to be real but unthreatening 11. The author suggests that >ri<da4s notion of the role of imagination in aesthetic response is problematic because it

-.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(A) ignore the unselfconsciousness that is characteristic of emotional responses to art (B) ignores the distinction between genuine emotion and ersat! emotion (C) ignores the fact that a person who is imagining knows that he or she is imagining ( ) makes irrele'ant distinctions between 'i'id and weak imaginati'e capacities (#) suggests/ in reference to the obser'ation of art/ that there is no distinction between real and illusory stimuli 12. The passage supports all of the following statements about the differences between Bombrich and =adford #DC#@TE (A) =adfod4s argument relies on a notion of irrationality in a way that Bomgbrich4s argument does not. (B) Bmbrich4s position is closer to the position of the ma<ority of psychologists than is =adford4s. (C) Bombrich/ unlike =adford/ argues that we do not ha'e true emotions in response to art. ( ) Bombrich4s argument rests on a notion of memory in a way that =adford4s argument does not. (#) =adford4s argument/ unlike Bombrich4s/ is not focused on the artificial "uality of emotional responses to art. 1.. &hich one of the following best captures the progression of the author4s argument in lines ,(.1% (A) The emotional responses to e'ents ranging from the real to the depicted illustrate the irrationality of emotional response. (B) A series of e'ents that range from the real to the depicted con'eys the contrast between real e'ents and cinematic depiction. (C) An intensification in emotional response to a series of e'ents that range from the real to the depicted illustrates >ri<da4s law. ( ) A progression of e'ents that range from the real to the depicted e$amines the precise nature of panic in relation to feared ob<ect. (#) The consistency of emotional responses to e'ents that range from the real to the depicted challenges >ri<da4s law. 10. Author4s assertions concerning mo'ies about ghosts imply that all of the following statements are false #DC#@TE (A) ?o'ies about ghosts are terrifying in proportion to 'iewers4 beliefs in the phenomenon of ghosts. (B) ?o'ies about imaginary phenomena like ghosts may be <ust as terrifying as mo'ies about phenomena like snake. (C) ?o'ies about ghosts and snakes are not terrifying because people know that

LSAT

-..

what they 'iewing is not real. ( ) ?o'ies about ghosts are terrifying to 'iewers who pre'iously re<ected the possibility of ghosts because mo'ies permanently alter the 'iewers sense of reality. (#) ?o'ies about ghosts elicit a 'ery different emotional response from 'iewers who do not belie'e in ghosts than mo'ies about snakes elicit from 'iewers who are frightened by snakes. 11. &hich one of the following statements best e$emplifies the position of =adford concerning the nature of emotional response to art% (A) A person watching a mo'ie about guerrilla warfare irrationally belie'es that he or she is present at the battle. (B) A person watching a play about a kidnapping feels nothing because he or she rationally reali!es it is not a real e'ent. (C) A person gets particular en<oyment out of writing fictional narrati'es in which he or she figures as a main character. ( ) A person irrationally bursts into tears while reading a no'el about a destructi'e fire/ e'en while reali!ing that he or she is reading about a fictional e'ent. (#) A person who is afraid of snakes trips o'er a branch and irrationally panics.
0"though bacteria are unice""u"ar and among the simp"est autonomous #orms o# "i#e' they show a remar$ab"e abi"ity to sense their environment. They are attracted to materia"s they need and are repe""ed by harm#u" substances. ?ost types o# bacteria swim very erratica""y> short smooth runs in re"ative"y straight "ines are #o""owed by brie# tumb"es' a#ter which the bacteria shoot o## in random directions. This "eaves researchers with the +uestion o# how such bacteria #ind their way to an attractant such as #ood or' in the case o# photosynthetic bacteria' "ight' i# their swimming pattern consists on"y o# smooth runs and tumb"es' the "atter resu"ting in random changes in direction. 9ne c"ue comes #rom the observation that when a chemica" attractant is added to a suspension o# such bacteria' the bacteria swim a"ong a gradient o# the attractant' #rom an area where the concentration o# the attractant is wea$er to an area where it is stronger. 0s they do so' their swimming is characteri)ed by a decrease in tumb"ing and an increase in straight runs over re"ative"y "onger distances. 0s the bacteria encounter increasing concentrations o# the attractant' their tendency to tumb"e is suppressed' whereas tumb"ing increases whenever they move away #rom the attractant. The net e##ect is that runs in the direction o# higher concentrations o# the attractant become "onger and straighter as a resu"t o# the suppression o# tumb"ing' whereas runs away #rom it are shortened by an increased tendency o# the bacteria to tumb"e and change direction. &io"ogists have proposed two mechanisms that bacteria might use in detecting changes in the concentration o# a chemica" attractant. 7irst' a bacterium might compare the concentration o# a chemica" at the #ront and bac$ o# its ce"" body simu"taneous"y. /# the concentration is higher at the #ront o# the ce""' then it $nows it is moving up the concentration

-.0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

gradient' #rom an area where the concentration is "ower to an area where it is higher. 0"ternative"y' it might measure the concentration at one instant and again a#ter a brie# interva"' in which case the bacterium must retain a memory o# the initia" concentration. Researchers reasoned that i# bacteria do compare concentrations at di##erent times' then when sudden"y e5posed to a uni#orm"y high concentration o# an attractant' the ce""s wou"d behave as i# they were swimming up a concentration gradient' with "ong' smooth runs and re"ative"y #ew tumb"es. /#' on the other hand' bacteria detect a chemica" gradient by measuring it simu"taneous"y at two distinct points' #ront and bac$' on the ce"" body' they wou"d not respond to the 2ump in concentration because the concentration o# the attractant in #ront and bac$ o# the ce""s' though high' wou"d be uni#orm. =5perimenta" evidence suggests that bacteria compare concentrations at di##erent times.

12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following e$perimental results would suggest that bacteria detect changes in the concentration of an attractant by measuring its concentration in front and back of the cell body simultaneously% (A) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an attractant was uniformly low to one in which the concentration was uniformly high/ the tendency of the bacteria to tumble and undergo random changes in direction increased. (B) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an attractant was uniformly low to one in which the concentration was uniformly high/ the bacteria4s e$hibited no change in the pattern of their motion. (C) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an attractant was uniformly low to one in which the concentration was uniformly high/ the bacteria4s mo'ement was characteri!ed by a complete absence of tumbling. ( ) &hen placed in a medium in which the concentration of an attractant was in some areas low and in others high/ the bacteria e$hibited an increased tendency to tumble in those areas where the concentration of the attractant was high. (#) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an attractant was uniformly low to one that was completely free of attractants/ the bacteria e$hibited a tendency to suppress tumbling and mo'e in longer/ straighter lines. 1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a bacterium would increase the likelihood of its mo'ing away from an area where the concentration of a harmful substance is high if it did which one of the following% (A) 3ncreased the speed at which it swam immediately after undergoing the random changes in direction that result from tumbling. (B) etected the concentration gradient of an attractant toward which it could

LSAT

-.1

begin to swim. (C) =elied on the simultaneous measurement of the concentration of the substance in front and back of its body/ rather than on the comparison of the concentration at different points in time. ( ) #$hibited a complete cessation of tumbling when it detected increases in the concentration of substance. (#) #$hibited an increased tendency to tumble as it encountered increasing concentrations of the substance/ and suppressed tumbling as it detected decreases in the concentration of the substance. 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that when describing bacteria as *swimming up a concentration gradient+ (lines 0,(15)/ the author means that they were beha'ing as if they were swimming (A) Against a resistant medium that makes their swimming less efficient. (B) Away from a substance to which they are normally attracted. (C) Away from a substance that is normally harmful to them. ( ) >rom an area where the concentration of a repellent is weaker to an area where it is completely absent. (#) >rom an area where the concentration of a substance is weaker to an area where it is stronger. 1,. The passage indicates that the pattern that characteri!es a bacterium4s motion changes in response to (A) The kinds of chemical attractants present in different concentration gradients. (B) The mechanism that the bacterium adopts in determining the presence of an attractant. (C) The bacterium4s detection of changes in the concentration of an attractant. ( ) The e$tent to which neighboring bacteria are engaged in tumbling. (#) Changes in the inter'als of time that occur between the bacterium4s measurement of the concentration of an attractant. 25. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph of the passage% (A) Two approaches to a problem are discussed/ a test that would determine which is more efficient is described/ and a conclusion is made/ based on e$perimental e'idence. (B) Two hypotheses are described/ a way of determining which of them is more likely to be true is discussed/ and one said to be more accurate on the basis of e$perimental e'idence. (C) Two hypotheses are described/ the flaws inherent in one of them are elaborated/ and e$perimental e'idence confirming the other is cited. ( ) An assertion that a species has adopted two different mechanisms to sol'e a

-.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

particular problem is made/ and e'idence is then pro'ided in support of that assertion. (#) An assertion that one mechanism for sol'ing a particular problem is more efficient than another is made/ and e'idence is then pro'ided in support of that assertion. 21. The passage pro'ides information in support of which one of the following assertions% (A) The seemingly erratic motion e$hibited by a microorganism can in fact reflect a mechanism by which it is able to control its mo'ement. (B) Biologists often o'erstate the comple$ity of simple organisms such as bacteria. (C) A bacterium cannot normally retain a memory of a measurement of the concentration of an attractant. ( ) Bacteria now appear to ha'e less control o'er their mo'ement than biologists had pre'iously hypothesi!ed. (#) @hotosynthetic bacteria appear to ha'e more control o'er their mo'ement than do bacteria that are not photosynthetic.
0nthropo"ogist Favid ?ande"baum ma$es a distinction between "i#e-passage studies and "i#e-history studies which emerged primari"y out o# research concerning *ative 0mericans. Ei#e-passage studies' he says' ;emphasi)e the re+uirements o# society' showing how groups socia"i)e and encu"turate their young in order to ma$e them into viab"e members o# society.< Ei#e histories' however' ;emphasi)e the e5periences and re+uirements o# the individua"' how the person copes with society rather than how society copes with the stream o# individua"s.< Ei#e-passage studies bring out the genera" cu"tura" characteristics and commona"ities that broad"y de#ine a cu"ture' but are unconcerned with an individua"3s choices or how the individua" perceives and responds to the demands and e5pectations imposed by the constraints o# his or her cu"ture. This distinction can c"ear"y be seen in the autobiographies o# *ative 0merican women. 7or e5amp"e' some ear"y recorded autobiographies' such as The "uto$iogra#hy of a Fo3 )ndian ,oman' a "i#e passage recorded by anthropo"ogist Truman ?iche"son' emphasi)es prescribed ro"es. The narrator presents her story in a way that con#orms with triba" e5pectations. ?iche"son3s wor$ is va"uab"e as ethnography' as a re#"ection o# the day-to-day responsibi"ities o# ?es+ua$ie women' yet as is o#ten the case with "i#e-passage studies' it presents "itt"e o# the centra" character3s psycho"ogica" motivation. The 7o5 woman3s "i#e story #ocuses on her triba" education and integration into the ways o# her peop"e' and re"ates on"y what ?iche"son u"timate"y decided was worth preserving. The di##erence between the two types o# studies is o#ten the resu"t o# the amount o# contro" the narrator maintains over the materia": autobiographies in which there are no recorder-editors are #ar more re#"ective o# the "i#e-history category' #or there are no outsiders shaping the story to re#"ect their preconceived notions o# what the genera" cu"tura" patterns are. 7or e5amp"e' in ?aria %ampbe""3s account o# growing up as a %anadian ?etis who was

LSAT

-.-

in#"uenced strong"y' and o#ten negative"y' by the non-*ative 0merican wor"d around her' one "earns a great dea" about the "i#e o# *ative 0merican women' but %ampbe""3s individua" story' which is to"d to us direct"y' is a"ways the center o# her narrative. %"ear"y it is important to her to communicate to the audience what her e5periences as a *ative 0merican have been. Through %ampbe""3s story o# her #ami"y the reader "earns o# the e##ect o# poverty and pre2udice on a peop"e. The reader becomes an intimate o# %ampbe"" the writer' sharing her pain and ce"ebrating her sma"" victories. 0"though %ampbe""3s boo$ is written as a "i#e history (the dramatic moments' the #rustrations' and the #ears are c"ear"y hers)' it revea"s much about ethnic re"ations in %anada whi"e re#"ecting the period in which it was written.

22. &hich one of the following is the most accurate e$pression of the main point of the passage% (A) The contributions of life(history studies to anthropology ha'e made life( passage studies obsolete. (B) espite their dissimilar approaches to the study of culture/ life(history and life(passage studies ha'e similar goals. (C) The autobiographies of 9ati'e American women illustrate the differences between life(history and life(passage studies. ( ) The roots of ?aria Campbell4s autobiography can be traced to earlier narrati'es such as The Autobiography o+ a Fo, /ndian Wo-an. (#) espite its shortcomings/ the life(passage study is a more effecti'e tool than the life(history study for identifying important cultural patterns. 2.. The term *prescribed roles+ in line 20 of the passage refers to the (A) >unction of life(passage studies in helping ethnologists to understand cultural tradition. (B) >unction of life(history studies in helping ethnologists to gather information. (C) &ay in which a sub<ect of a life passage 'iews himself or herself. ( ) =oles clearly distinguishing the narrator of an autobiography from the recorder of an autobiography. (#) =oles generally adopted by indi'iduals in order to comply with cultural demands. 20. The reference to the *psychological moti'ation+ (line .5) of the sub<ect of The Autobiography o+ a Fo, /ndian Wo-an ser'es primarily to (A) ismiss as irrele'ant the personal perspecti'e in the life(history study. (B) 3dentify an aspect of e$perience that is not commonly a ma<or focus of life( passage studies. (C) Clarify the narrator4s self(acknowledged purpose in relating a life passage. ( ) ;uggest a common conflict between the goals of the narrator and those of the recorder in most life(passage studies. (#) Assert that de'eloping an understanding of an indi'idual4s psychological

-.6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

moti'ation usually undermines ob<ecti'e ethnography. 21. &hich one of following statements about ?aria Campbell can be inferred from material in the passage% (A) ;he was familiar with the 'ery early history of her tribe but lacked insight into the moti'ations of non(9ati'e Americans. (B) ;he was unfamiliar with ?ichelson4s work but had probably read a number of life(passage studies about 9ati'e Americans. (C) ;he had training as a historian but was not "ualified as an anthropologist. ( ) )er family influenced her beliefs and opinions more than the e'ents of her time did. (#) )er life history pro'ides more than a record of her personal e$perience. 22. According to the passage/ one way in which life history studies differ from life( passage studies is that life(history studies are (A) :sually told in the sub<ect4s nati'e language. (B) Kess reliable because they rely solely on the sub<ect4s recall. (C) ?ore likely to be told without the influence of an intermediary. ( ) ?ore creati'e in the way they interpret the sub<ect4s cultural legacy. (#) ?ore representati'e of the historian4s point of 'iew than of the ethnographer4s. 2-. &hich one of the following pairings best illustrates the contrast between life passages and life histories% (A) A study of the attitudes of a society toward a mainstream religion and an analysis of techni"ues used to instruct members of that religious group. (B) A study of how a preindustrial society maintains peace with neighboring societies and a study of how a postindustrial society does the same. (C) A study of the way a military organi!ation establishes and maintains discipline and a newly enlisted soldier4s narrati'e describing his initial responses to the military en'ironment. ( ) An analysis of a society4s means of subsistence and a study of how its members celebrate religious holidays. (#) A political history of a society focusing on leaders and parties and a study of how the electorate shaped the political landscape of the society. LSAT 05 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 2' &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and

LSAT
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Unti" recent"y many astronomers be"ieved that asteroids trave" about the so"ar system unaccompanied by sate""ites. These astronomers assumed this because they considered

-.,

asteroid-sate""ite systems inherent"y unstab"e. Theoreticians cou"d have to"d them otherwise> even minuscu"e bodies in the so"ar system can theoretica""y have sate""ites' as "ong as everything is in proper sca"e. /# a bow"ing ba"" were orbiting about the un in the asteroid be"t' it cou"d have a pebb"e orbiting it as #ar away as a #ew hundred radii (or about -. meters) without "osing the pebb"e to the un3s gravitationa" pu"". 9bservations now suggest that asteroid sate""ites may e5ists not on"y in theory but a"so in rea"ity. evera" astronomers have noticed' whi"e watching asteroids pass brie#"y in #ront o# stars' that something besides the $nown asteroid sometimes b"oc$s out the star as we"". /s that something a sate""iteC The most convincing such report concerns the asteroid (ercu"ina' which was due to pass in #ront o# a star in 1978. 0stronomers waiting #or the predicted event #ound not 2ust one occu"tation' or ec"ipse' o# the star' but two distinct drops in brightness. 9ne was the predicted occu"tation' e5act"y on time. The other' "asting about #ive seconds' preceded the predicted event by about two minutes. The presence o# a secondary body near (ercu"ina thus seemed strong"y indicated. To cause the secondary occu"tation' an unseen sate""ite wou"d have to be about H- $i"ometers in diameter' a +uarter o# the si)e o# (ercu"ina' and at a distance o# 99. $i"ometers #rom the asteroid at the time. These va"ues are within theoretica" bounds' and such an asteroid-sate""ite pair cou"d be stab"e. 8ith the (ercu"ina event' apparent secondary occu"tations became ;respectab"e<!and more common"y reported. /n #act' so common did reports o# secondary events become that they are now simp"y too numerous #or a"" o# them to be accurate. =ven i# every asteroid has as many sate""ites as can be #itted around it without an undue number o# co""isions' on"y one in every hundred primary occu"tations wou"d be accompanied by a secondary event (one in every thousand i# asteroid sate""ites system resemb"ed those o# the p"anets). Det even astronomers who #ind the case #or asteroid sate""ites unconvincing at present say they wou"d change their minds i# a photoe"ectric record were made o# a we""-behaved secondary event. &y ;we""-behaved< they mean that during occu"tation the observed brightness must drop sharp"y as the star win$s out and must rise sharp"y as it reappears #rom behind the obstructing ob2ect' but the brightness during the secondary occu"tation must drop to that o# the asteroid' no higher and no "ower. This wou"d ma$e it e5treme"y un"i$e"y that an airp"ane or a g"itch in the instruments was mas+uerading as an occu"ting body.

1.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) The obser'ation of )erculina represented the crucial e'ent that astronomical obser'ers and theoreticians had been waiting for to establish a con'incing case for the stability of asteroid(satellite systems. (B) Although astronomers long belie'ed that obser'ation supports the e$istence of stable asteroid(satellite systems/ numerous recent reports ha'e increased skepticism on this issue in astronomy.

-05

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(C) Theoreticians4 'iews on the stability of asteroid(satellite systems may be re'ised in the light of reports like those about )erculina. ( ) Astronomers continue to consider it respectable to doubt the stability of asteroid(satellite systems/ but new theoretical de'elopments may change their 'iews. (#) The )erculina e'ent suggests that theoreticians4 'iews about asteroid(satellite systems may be correct/ and astronomers agree about the kind of e'idence needed to clearly resol'e the issue. 2. &hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as pro'iding e'idence that )erculina has a satellite% (A) the diameter of a body directly obser'ed near )erculina (B) the distance between )erculina and planet nearest to it (C) the shortest possible time in which satellites of )erculina/ if any/ could complete a single orbit ( ) the occultation that occurred shortly before the predicted occultation by )erculina (#) the precise e$tent to which obser'ed brightness dropped during the occultation by )erculina .. According to the passage/ the attitude of astronomers toward asteroid satellites since the )erculina e'ent can best described as (A) open(mindedness combined with a concern for rigorous standards of proof (B) contempt for and impatience with the position held by theoreticians (C) bemusement at a chaotic mi$ of theory/ inade"uate or spurious data/ and calls for scientific rigor ( ) hardheaded skepticism/ implying re<ection of all data not recorded automatically by state(of(the(art instruments (#) admiration for the methodical process by which science progresses from initial hypothesis to incontro'ertible proof 0. The author implies that which one of the following was true prior to reports of the )erculina e'ent% (A) ;ince no good theoretical model e$isted/ all claims that reports of secondary occultations were common were disputed. (B) ;ome of the reported obser'ations of secondary occultations were actually obser'ations of collisions of satellites with one another. (C) 3f there were obser'ations of phenomena e$actly like the phenomena now labeled secondary occultations/ astronomers were less likely than to ha'e reported such obser'ations. ( ) The pre'ailing standards concerning what to classify as a well(beha'ed secondary e'ent were less stringent than they are now.

LSAT

-01

(#) Astronomers were eager to publish their obser'ations of occultations of stars by satellites of asteroids. 1. The information presented in the passage implies which one of the following about the fre"uency of reports of secondary occultations after the )erculina e'ent% (A) The percentage of reports of primary occultations that also included reports of secondary occultations increased tenfold compared to the time before the )erculina e'ent. (B) @rimary occultations by asteroids were reported to ha'e been accompanied by secondary occultations in about one out of e'ery thousand cases. (C) The absolute number of reports of secondary occultations increased tenfold compared to the time before the )erculina e'ent. ( ) @rimary occultations by asteroids were reported to ha'e been accompanied by secondary occultations in more than one out of e'ery hundred cases. (#) 3n more than one out of e'ery hundred cases/ primary occultations were reported to ha'e been accompanied by more than one secondary occultation. 2. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) cast doubts on e$isting reports of secondary occultations of stars (B) describe e$perimental efforts by astronomers to separate theoretically belie'able obser'ations of satellites of asteroids from spurious ones (C) re'iew the de'elopment of ideas among astronomers about whether or not satellites of asteroids e$ist ( ) bring a theoretician4s perspecti'e to bear on an incomplete discussion of satellites of asteroids (#) illustrate the limits of reasonable speculation concerning the occultation of stars -. The passage suggests that which one of the following would most help to resol'e the "uestion of whether asteroids ha'e satellites% (A) a re'iew of pre(1,-6 reports of secondary occultations (B) an impro'ed theoretical model of stable satellite systems (C) a photoelectric record of a well(beha'ed secondary occultation ( ) a more stringent definition of what constitutes a well(beha'ed secondary occultation (#) a powerful telescope that would permit a comparison of ground(based obser'ation with those made from airplanes
(istorians attempting to e5p"ain how scienti#ic wor$ was done in the "aboratory o# the seventeenth-century chemist and natura" phi"osopher Robert &oy"e must address a #undamenta" discrepancy between how such e5perimentation was actua""y per#ormed and the seventeenth-century rhetoric describing it. Eeaders o# the new Roya" ociety o# Eondon in the

-02

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

1GG.s insisted that authentic science depended upon actua" e5periments per#ormed' observed' and recorded by the scientists themse"ves. Re2ecting the traditiona" contempt #or manua" operations' these scientists' a"" members o# the =ng"ish upper c"ass' were not to thin$ themse"ves demeaned by the muc$ing about with chemica"s' #urnaces' and pumps: rather' the wi""ingness o# each o# them to become' as &oy"e himse"# said' a mere ;drudge< and ;under-bui"der< in the search #or Aod3s truth in nature was ta$en as a sign o# their nobi"ity and %hristian piety. This rhetoric has been so e##ective that one modern historian assures us that &oy"e himse"# actua""y per#ormed a"" o# the thousand or more e5periments he reported. /n #act' due to poor eyesight' #ragi"e hea"th' and #re+uent absences #rom his "aboratory' &oy"e turned over much o# the "abor o# obtaining and recording e5perimenta" resu"ts to paid technicians' a"though pub"ished accounts o# the e5periments rare"y' i# ever' ac$now"edged the technicians3 contributions. *or was &oy"e uni+ue in re"ying on technicians without pub"ic"y crediting their wor$. 8hy were the contributions o# these technicians not recogni)ed by their emp"oyersC 9ne reason is the historica" tendency' which has persisted into the twentieth century' to view scienti#ic discovery as resu"ting #rom momentary #"ashes o# individua" insight rather than #rom e5tended periods o# cooperative wor$ by individua"s with varying "eve"s o# $now"edge and s$i"". ?oreover' despite the c"amor o# seventeenth-century scienti#ic rhetoric commending a hands-on approach' science was sti"" overwhe"ming"y an activity o# the =ng"ish upper c"ass' and the traditiona" contempt that gentee" society maintained #or manua" "abor was pervasive and deep"y rooted. 7ina""y' a"" o# &oy"e3s technicians were ;servants'< which in seventeenthcentury usage meant anyone who wor$ed #or pay. To seventeenth-century sensibi"ities' the wage re"ationship was charged with po"itica" signi#icance. ervants' meaning wage earners' were e5c"uded #rom the #ranchise because they were perceived as u"timate"y dependent on their wages and thus contro""ed by the wi"" o# their emp"oyers. Technicians remained invisib"e in the po"itica" economy o# science #or the same reasons that under"ay servants3 genera" po"itica" e5c"usion. The technicians3 contribution' their observations and 2udgment' i# ac$now"edged' wou"d not have been perceived in the "arger scienti#ic community as ob2ective because the technicians were dependent on the wages paid to them by their emp"oyers. ervants might have made the apparatus wor$' but their contributions to the ma$ing o# scienti#ic $now"edge were "arge"y!and convenient"y!ignored by their emp"oyers.

6.

&hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage% (A) ;e'enteenth(century scientific e$perimentation would ha'e been impossible without the work of paid laboratory technicians. (B) ;e'enteenth(century social con'entions prohibited upper(class laboratory workers from taking public credit for their work. (C) ;e'enteenth(century 'iews of scientific disco'ery combined with social class distinctions to ensure that laboratory technicians4 scientific work was ne'er publicly acknowledged. ( ) ;e'enteenth(century scientists were far more dependent on their laboratory technicians than are scientists today/ yet far less willing to acknowledge

LSAT

-0.

technicians4 scientific contributions. (#) ;e'enteenth(century scientists liberated themsel'es from the stigma attached to manual labor by relying hea'ily on the work of laboratory technicians. ,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *se'enteenth(century rhetoric+ mentioned in line 2 would ha'e more accurately described the e$perimentation performed in Boyle4s laboratory if which one of the following were true% (A) :nlike many se'enteenth(century scientists/ Boyle recogni!ed that most scientific disco'eries resulted from the cooperati'e efforts of many indi'iduals. (B) :nlike many se'enteenth(century scientists/ Boyle maintained a deeply rooted and per'asi'e contempt for manual labor. (C) :nlike many se'enteenth(century scientists/ Boyle was a member of the =oyal ;ociety of Kondon. ( ) Boyle generously acknowledged the contribution of the technicians who worked in his laboratory. (#) Boyle himself performed the actual labor of obtaining and recording e$perimental results. 15. According to the author/ ser'ants of se'enteenth(century #ngland were e$cluded from the franchised because of the belief that (A) their interests were ade"uately represented by their employers (B) their education was inade"uate to make informed political decisions (C) the independence of their political <udgment would be compromised by their economic dependence on their employers ( ) their participation in the elections would be a polari!ing influence on the political process (#) the manual labor that they performed did not constitute a contribution to the society that was sufficient to <ustify their participation in elections 11. According to the author/ the =oyal ;ociety of Kondon insisted that scientists abandon the (A) belief that the primary purpose of scientific disco'ery was to re'eal the di'ine truth that could be found in nature (B) 'iew that scientific knowledge results largely from the insights of a few brilliant indi'iduals rather than from the cooperati'e efforts of many workers (C) se'enteenth(century belief that ser'ants should be denied the right to 'ote because they were dependent on wages paid to them by their employers ( ) traditional disdain for manual labor that was maintained by most members of the #nglish upper class during the se'enteenth(century (#) idea that the search for scientific truth was a sign of piety

-00

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

12. The author implies that which one of the following beliefs was held in both the se'enteenth and the twentieth centuries% (A) 3ndi'idual insights rather than cooperati'e endea'ors produce most scientific disco'eries. (B) )ow science is practiced is significantly influenced by the political beliefs and assumption of scientists. (C) ;cientific research undertaken for pay cannot be considered ob<ecti'e. ( ) ;cientific disco'ery can re'eal di'ine truth in nature. (#) ;cientific disco'ery often relies on the unacknowledged contributions of laboratory technicians. 1.. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph% (A) ;e'eral alternati'e answers are presented to a "uestion posed in the pre'ious paragraph/ and the last is adopted as the most plausible. (B) A "uestion regarding the cause of the phenomenon described in the pre'ious paragraph is posed/ two possible e$planations are re<ected/ and e'idence is pro'ided in support of a third. (C) A "uestion regarding the phenomenon described in the pre'ious paragraph is posed/ and se'eral incompatible 'iews are presented. ( ) A "uestion regarding the cause of the phenomenon described in the pre'ious paragraph is posed/ and se'eral contributing factors are then discussed. (#) ;e'eral answers to a "uestion are e'aluated in light of recent disco'eries cited earlier in the passage. 10. The author4s discussion of the political significance of the *wage relationship+ (line 06) ser'es to (A) place the failure of se'enteenth(century scientists to acknowledge the contributions of their technicians in the large conte$t of relations between workers and their employers in se'enteenth(century #ngland (B) pro'ide e'idence in support of the author4s more general thesis regarding the relationship of scientific disco'ery to the economic conditions of societies in which it takes place (C) pro'ide e'idence in support of the author4s e$planation of why scientists in se'enteenth(century #ngland were reluctant to rely on their technicians for the performance of anything but the most menial tasks ( ) illustrate political and economic changes in the society of se'enteenth( century #ngland that had a profound impact on how scientific research was conduced (#) undermine the 'iew that scientific disco'ery results from indi'idual enterprise rather than from the collecti'e endea'or of many workers 11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *the clamor of se'enteenth(century

LSAT

-01

scientific rhetoric+ (lines .,(05) refers to (A) the claim that scientific disco'ery results largely from the insights of brilliant indi'iduals working alone (B) ridicule of scientists who were members of the #nglish upper class and who were thought to demean themsel'es by engaging in the manual labor re"uired by their e$periments (C) criticism of scientists who publicly acknowledged the contributions of their technicians ( ) assertions by members of the =oyal ;ociety of Kondon that scientists themsel'es should be responsible for obtaining and recording e$perimental results (#) the claim by Boyle and his colleagues that the primary reason for scientific research is to disco'er e'idence of di'ine truth in the natural world
9ne type o# vio"ation o# the antitrust "aws is the abuse o# monopo"y power. ?onopo"y power is the abi"ity o# a #irm to raise its prices above the competitive "eve"!that is' above the "eve" that wou"d e5ist natura""y i# severa" #irms had to compete!without driving away so many customers as to ma$e the price increase unpro#itab"e. /n order to show that a #irm has abused monopo"y power' and thereby vio"ated the antitrust "aws' two essentia" #acts must be estab"ished. 7irst' a #irm must be shown to possess monopo"y power' and second' that power must have been used to e5c"ude competition in the monopo"i)ed mar$et or re"ated mar$ets. The price a #irm may charge #or its product is constrained by the avai"abi"ity o# c"ose substitutes #or the product. /# a #irm attempts to charge a higher price!a supracompetitive price!consumers wi"" turn to other #irms ab"e to supp"y substitute products at competitive prices. /# a #irm provides a "arge percentage o# the products actua""y or potentia""y avai"ab"e' however' customers may #ind it di##icu"t to buy #rom a"ternative supp"iers. %onse+uent"y' a #irm with a "arge share o# the re"evant mar$et o# substitutab"e products may be ab"e to raise its price without "osing many customers. 7or this reason courts o#ten use mar$et share as a rough indicator o# monopo"y power. upracompetitive prices are associated with a "oss o# consumers3 we"#are because such prices #orce some consumers to buy a "ess attractive mi5 o# products than they wou"d ordinari"y buy. upracompetitive prices' however' do not themse"ves constitute an abuse o# monopo"y power. 0ntitrust "aws do not attempt to counter the mere e5istence o# monopo"y power' or even the use o# monopo"y power to e5tract e5traordinari"y high pro#its. 7or e5amp"e' a #irm en2oying economies o# sca"e!that is' "ow unit production costs due to high vo"ume! does not vio"ate the antitrust "aws when it obtains a "arge mar$et share by charging prices that are pro#itab"e but so "ow that its sma""er riva"s cannot survive. /# the antitrust "aws posed disincentives to the e5istence and growth o# such #irms' the "aws cou"d impair consumers3 we"#are. =ven i# the #irm' upon ac+uiring monopo"y power' chose to raise prices in order to increase pro#its' it wou"d not be in vio"ation o# the antitrust "aws. The antitrust prohibitions #ocus instead on abuses o# monopo"y power that e5c"ude competition in the monopo"i)ed mar$et or invo"ve "everage!the use o# power in one mar$et to reduce competition in another. 9ne such #orbidden practice is a tying arrangement' in

-02

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

which a monopo"ist conditions the sa"e o# a product in one mar$et on the buyer3s purchase o# another product in a di##erent mar$et. 7or e5amp"e' a #irm en2oying a monopo"y in the communications systems mar$et might not se"" its products to a consumer un"ess that customer a"so buys its computer systems' which are competing with other #irms3 computer systems. The #ocus on the abuse o# monopo"y power' rather than on monopo"y itse"#' #o""ows #rom the primary purpose o# the antitrust "aws> to promote consumers3 we"#are through assurance o# the +ua"ity and +uantity o# products avai"ab"e to consumers.

12. &hich one of the following distinctions between monopoly power and the abuse of monopoly power would the author say underlies the antitrust laws discussed in the passage% (A) ?onopoly power is assessed in term of market share/ whereas abuse of monopoly power is assessed in term of market control. (B) ?onopoly power is easy to demonstrate/ whereas abuse of monopoly power is difficult to demonstrate. (C) ?onopoly power in'ol'es only one market/ whereas abuse of monopoly power in'ol'es at least two or more related markets. ( ) ?onopoly power is the ability to charge supracompetiti'e prices/ whereas abuse of monopoly power is the use of that ability. (#) ?onopoly power does not necessarily hurt consumer welfare/ whereas abuse of monopoly power does. 1-. &ould the use of le'erage meet the criteria for abuse of monopoly power outlined in the first paragraph% (A) 9o/ because le'erage in'ol'es a nonmonopoli!ed market. (B) 9o/ unless the le'erage in'ol'es a tying arrangement. (C) Hes/ because le'erage is a characteristic of monopoly power. ( ) Hes/ unless the firm using le'erage is charging competiti'e prices. (#) Hes/ because le'erage is used to eliminate competition in a related market. 16. &hat is the main purpose of the third paragraph (lines 26Q0-)% (A) to distinguish between supracompetiti'e prices and supracompetiti'e profits (B) to describe the positi'e use of monopoly power (C) to introduce the concept of economies of scale ( ) to distinguish what is not co'ered by the antitrust law under discussion from what is co'ered (#) to remind the reader of the issue of consumers welfare 1,. Bi'en only the information in the passage/ with which one of the following statements about competition would those responsible for the antitrust laws most likely agree%

LSAT

-0-

(A) Competition is essential to consumers4 welfare. (B) There are acceptable and unacceptable ways for firms to reduce their competition. (C) The preser'ation of competition is the principal aim of the antitrust laws. ( ) ;upracompetiti'e prices lead to reductions in competition. (#) Competition is necessary to ensure high("uality products at low prices. 25. &hich one of the following sentences would best complete the last paragraph of the passage% (A) By limiting consumers4 choices/ abuse of monopoly power reduces consumers4 welfare/ but monopoly alone can sometimes actually operate in the consumers4 best interest. (B) &hat is needed now is a set of related laws to deal with the negati'e impacts that monopoly itself has on consumers4 ability to purchase products at reasonable cost. (C) 8'er time/ the antitrust laws ha'e been 'ery effecti'e in ensuring competition and/ conse"uently/ consumers4 welfare in the 'olatile communications and computer systems industries. ( ) By controlling supracompetiti'e prices and corresponding supracompetiti'e profits/ the antitrust laws ha'e/ indeed/ gone a long way toward meeting that ob<ecti'e. (#) As noted abo'e/ the necessary restraints on monopoly itself ha'e been left to the market/ where competiti'e prices and economies of scale are rewarded through increased market share.
0msden has divided *ava2o weaving into #our distinct sty"es. (e argues that three o# them can be identi#ied by the type o# design used to #orm hori)onta" bands> co"ored strips' )ig)ags' or diamonds. The #ourth' or bordered' sty"e he identi#ies by a distinct border surrounding centra""y p"aced' dominating #igures. 0msden be"ieves that the diamond sty"e appeared a#ter 18G9 when' under 0ng"o in#"uence and encouragement' the b"an$et became a rug with "arger designs and bo"der "ines. The bordered sty"e appeared about 189.' and' 0msden argues' it re#"ects the greatest number o# 0ng"o in#"uences on the new"y emerging rug business. The 0ng"o desire that anything with a graphic designs have a top' bottom' and border is a cu"tura" pre#erence that the *ava2o abhorred' as evidenced' he suggests' by the #act that in ear"y bordered specimens strips o# co"or une5pected"y brea$ through the enc"osing pattern. 0msden argues that the bordered rug represents a radica" brea$ with previous sty"es. (e asserts that the border changed the artistic prob"em #acing weavers> a b"an$ area suggests the use o# iso"ated #igures' whi"e traditiona"' banded *ava2o designs were continuous and did not use iso"ated #igures. The o"d patterns a"ternated hori)onta" decorative )ones in a regu"ar order. 0msden3s view raises severa" +uestions. 7irst' what is invo"ved in a"tering artistic sty"esC

-06

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ome studies suggest that artisans3 motor habits and thought processes must be revised when a sty"e changes precipitous"y. /n the evo"ution o# *ava2o weaving' however' no radica" revisions in the way artic"es are produced need be assumed. 0#ter a""' a"" weaving subordinates design to the physica" "imitations created by the process o# weaving' which inc"udes creating an edge or border. The habits re+uired to ma$e decorative borders are' there#ore' "atent and easi"y brought to the sur#ace. econd' is the re"ationship between the banded and bordered sty"es as simp"e as 0msden suggestsC (e assumes that a brea$ in sty"e is a brea$ in psycho"ogy. &ut i# sty"e resu"ts #rom constant +uests #or invention' such sty"istic brea$s are inevitab"e. 8hen a sty"e has e5hausted the possibi"ities inherent in its princip"es' artists cast about #or new' but not necessari"y a"ien' princip"es. *ava2o weaving may have reached this turning point prior to 189.. Third' is there rea""y a signi#icant sty"istic gapC Two other sty"es "ie between the banded sty"es and the bordered sty"es. They suggest that disintegration o# the bands may have a"tered visua" and motor habits and prepared the way #or a border #i""ed with separate units. /n the %hie# 8hite 0nte"ope b"an$et' dated prior to 18G-' ten years be#ore the #irst 0ng"o trading post on the *ava2o reservation' who"e and partia" diamonds interrupt the #"owing design and become separate #orms. 6arts o# diamonds arranged vertica""y at each side may be seen to anticipate the border.

21. The author4s central thesis is that (A) the 9a'a<o re<ected the stylistic influences of Anglo culture (B) 9a'a<o wea'ing cannot be classified by Amsden4s categories (C) the 9a'a<o changed their style of wea'ing because they sought the challenge of new artistic problems ( ) original motor habits and thought processes limit the e$tent to which a style can be re'ised (#) the casual factors leading to the emergence of the bordered style are not as clear(cut as Amsden suggests 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Amsden 'iews the use of *strips of color+ (line 16) in the early bordered style as (A) a sign of resistance to a change in style (B) an echo of the diamond style (C) a feature deri'ed from Anglo culture ( ) an attempt to disintegrate the rigid form of the banded style (#) a means of differentiating the top of the wea'ing from the bottom 2.. The author4s 'iew of 9a'a<o wea'ing suggests which one of the following% (A) The appearance of the first trading post on the 9a'a<o reser'ation coincided with the appearance of the diamond style. (B) Traces of thought processes and motor habits of one culture can generally be

LSAT

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found in the art of another culture occupying the same period and region. (C) The bordered style may ha'e de'eloped gradually from the banded style as a result of 9a'a<o e$periencing with design. ( ) The influence of Anglo culture was not the only non(9ati'e American influence on 9a'a<o wea'ing. (#) )ori!ontal and 'ertical rows of diamond forms were transformed by the 9a'a<os into solid lines to create the bordered style. 20. According to the passage/ 9a'a<o wea'ings made prior to 16,5 typically were characteri!ed by all of the following #DC#@T (A) repetition of forms (B) o'erall patterns (C) hori!ontal bands ( ) isolated figures (#) use of color 21. The author would most probably agree with which one of the following conclusions about the stylistic de'elopment of 9a'a<o wea'ing% (A) The styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing changed in response to changes in 9a'a<o motor habits and thought processes. (B) The !ig!ag style was the result of stylistic influences from Anglo culture. (C) 9a'a<o wea'ing used isolated figures in the beginning/ but combined naturalistic and abstract designs in later styles. ( ) 9a'a<o wea'ing changed gradually from a style in which the entire surface was co'ered by hori!ontal bands to one in which central figures dominated the surface. (#) The styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing always contained some type of isolated figure. 22. The author suggests that Amsden4s claim that borders in 9a'a<o wea'ing were inspired by Anglo culture could be (A) concei'ed as a response to imagined correspondences between Anglo and 9a'a<o art (B) biased by Amsden4s feelings about Anglo culture (C) a result of Amsden4s failing to take into account certain aspects of 9a'a<o wea'ing ( ) based on a limited number of specimens of the styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing (#) based on a confusion between the stylistic features of the !ig!ag and diamond styles 2-. The author most probably mentions the Chief &hite Antelope blanket in order to (A) establish the credit influence of Anglo culture on the bordered style (B) cast doubts on the claim that the bordered style arose primarily from Anglo

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influence (C) cite an e$ample of a blanket with a central design and no border ( ) suggest that the Anglo influence produced significant changes in the two earliest styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing (#) illustrate how the 9a'a<o had e$hausted the stylistic possibilities of the diamond style 26. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) comparing and contrasting different styles (B) "uestioning a 'iew of how a style came into being (C) proposing alternati'e methods of in'estigating the e'olution of styles ( ) discussing the influence of one culture on another (#) analy!ing the effect of the interaction between two different cultures LSAT 06 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The Ta#t-(art"ey 0ct' passed by the United tates %ongress in 19H7' gave states the power to enact ;right-to-wor$< "egis"ation that prohibits union shop agreements. 0ccording to such an agreement' a "abor union negotiates wages and wor$ing conditions #or a"" wor$ers in a business' and a"" wor$ers are re+uired to be"ong to the union. ince 19H7' 1. states have adopted right-to-wor$ "aws. ?uch o# the "iterature concerning right-to-wor$ "aws imp"ies that such "egis"ation has not actua""y had a signi#icant impact. This point o# view' however' has not gone uncritici)ed. Thomas B %arro"" has proposed that the conc"usions drawn by previous researchers are attributab"e to their myopic #ocus on the premise that' un"ess right-to-wor$ "aws signi#icant"y reduce union membership within a state' they have no e##ect. %arro"" argues that the right-to-wor$ "aws ;do matter< in that such "aws generate di##erences in rea" wages across states. peci#ica""y' %arro"" indicates that whi"e right-to-wor$ "aws may not ;destroy< unions by reducing the abso"ute number o# unioni)ed wor$ers' they do impede the spread o# unions and thereby reduce wages within right-to-wor$ states. &ecause the countervai"ing power o# unions is wea$ened in right-to-wor$ states' manu#acturers and their supp"iers can act cohesive"y in competitive "abor mar$ers' thus "owering wages in the a##ected industries. uch a #inding has important imp"ications regarding the demographics o# emp"oyment and wages in right-to-wor$ states. peci#ica""y' i# right-to-wor$ "aws "ower wages by wea$ening union power' minority wor$ers can be e5pected to su##er a re"ative"y greater economic disadvantage in right-to-wor$ states than in union shop states. This is so because' contrary to what was once thought' union tend to have a signi#icant positive impact on the economic position o# minority wor$ers' especia""y &"ac$ wor$ers' re"ative to 8hite wor$ers. ?ost studies

LSAT

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concerned with the impact o# unionism on the &"ac$ wor$er3s economic position re"ative to the 8hite wor$er3s have concentrated on the changes in &"ac$ wages due to union membership. That is' they have concentrated on union versus nonunion groups. /n a pioneering study' however' 0shen#e"ter #inds that these studies over"oo$ an important #act> a"though cra#t unionism increase the di##erentia" between the wages o# 8hite wor$ers and &"ac$ wor$ers due to the traditiona" e5c"usion o# minority wor$ers #rom unions in the cra#t sectors o# the "abor mar$et' strong positive wage gains are made by &"ac$ wor$ers within industria" unions. /n #act' 0shen#e"ter estimates that industria" unionism decreases the di##erentia" between the wages o# &"ac$ wor$ers and 8hite wor$ers by about 4 percent. /# state right-to-wor$ "aws wea$en the economic power o# unions to raise wages' &"ac$ wor$ers wi"" e5perience a disproportionate dec"ine in their re"ative wage positions. &"ac$ wor$ers in right-to-wor$ states wou"d there#ore e5perience a dec"ine in their re"ative economic positions un"ess there is strong economic growth in right-to-wor$ states' creating "abor shortages and thereby driving up wages.

1.

The reasoning behind the *literature+ (line ,)/ as that reasoning is presented in the passage/ is most analogous to the reasoning behind which one of the following situations% (A) A law is proposed that benefits many but disad'antages a fewE those ad'ocating passage of the law argue that the disad'antages to few are not so serious that the benefits should be denied to many. (B) A new ta$ on certain categories of consumer items is proposedE those in fa'or of the ta$ argue that those affected by the ta$ are well able to pay it/ since the items ta$ed are lu$ury items. (C) A college sets strict course re"uirements that e'ery student must complete before graduatingI students already enrolled argue that it is unfair for the new re"uirements to apply to those enrolled before the change. ( ) The personnel office of a company designs a promotions become effecti'e on Aanuary 1E the managers protest that such a policy means that they cannot respond fast enough to changes in staffing needs. (#) A fare increase in a public transportation system does not significantly reduce the number of fares soldE the management of the public transportation system asserts/ therefore/ that the fare hike has had no negati'e effects.

2.

According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of Carroll4s study% (A) 3t implies that right(to(work laws ha'e had a negligible effect on workers in right(to(work states. (B) 3t demonstrates that right(to(work laws ha'e significantly decreased union membership from what it once was in right(to(work states. (C) 3t argues that right(to(work laws ha'e affected wages in right(to(work states. ( ) 3t supports the findings of most earlier researchers. (#) 3t e$plains the mechanisms by which collusion between manufacturers and suppliers is accomplished.

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..

3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which one of following about craft unions% (A) Craft unions ha'e been successful in ensuring that the wages of their members remain higher than the wages of nonunion workers in the same occupational groups. (B) The number of minority workers <oining craft unions has increased sharply in states that ha'e not adopted right(to(work legislation. (C) &ages for workers belonging to craft unions ha'e generally risen faster and more steadily than wages for workers belonging to industrial unions. ( ) The wages of workers belonging to craft unions ha'e not been significantly affected by right(to(work legislation/ although the wages of workers belonging to industrial unions ha'e been negati'ely affected. (#) The wages of workers belonging to craft unions are more likely to be dri'en up in the e'ent of labor shortages than are the wages of workers belonging to industrial unions.

0.

&hich one of the following best describes the effect industrial unionism has had on the wages of Black workers relati'e to those of &hite workers/ as that effect is presented in the passage% (A) @rior to 1,0-/ industrial unionism had little effect on the wages of Black workers relati'e to those of &hite workersE since 1,0-/ it has had a slight positi'e effect. (B) @rior to 1,0-/ industrial unionism had a strong positi'e effect on the wages of Black workers relati'e to those of &hite workersE since 1,0-/ it has had little effect. (C) @rior to 1,0-/ industrial unionism had a negati'e effect on the wages of Black workers relati'e to those of &hite workersE since 1,0-/ it has had a significant positi'e effect. ( ) 3ndustrial unionism has contributed moderately to an increase in the wage differential between Black workers and &hite workers. (#) 3ndustrial unionism has contributed strongly to a . percent decrease in the wage differential between Black workers and &hite workers.

1.

According to the passage/ which one of the following could counteract the effects of a decrease in unions4 economic power to raise wages in right(to(work states% (A) a decease in the number of union shop agreements (B) strong economic growth that creates labor shortages (C) a decrease in membership in craft unions ( ) the merging of large industrial unions (#) a decline in the craft sectors of the labor market

2.

&hich one of the following best describes the passage as a whole%

LSAT

-1.

(A) an o'er'iew of a problem in research methodology and a recommended solution to that problem (B) a comparison of two competing theories and a suggestion for reconciling them (C) a criti"ue of certain legislation and a proposal for modification of that legislation ( ) a re'iew of research that challenges the conclusions of earlier researchers (#) a presentation of a specific case that confirms the findings of an earlier study
/n the "ate nineteenth century' the need #or women physicians in missionary hospita"s in %anton' %hina' "ed to e5panded opportunities #or both 8estern women and %hinese women. The presence o# 8estern women as medica" missionaries in %hina was made possib"e by certain changes within the 8estern missionary movement. &eginning in the 187.s' increasing"y "arge numbers o# women were #orming women3s #oreign mission societies dedicated to the support o# women3s #oreign mission wor$. &eyond giving the women who organi)ed the societies a #orma" activity outside their home circ"es' these organi)ations enab"ed an increasing number o# sing"e women missionaries (as opposed to women who were part o# the more typica" husband-wi#e missionary teams) to wor$ abroad. &e#ore the #ormation o# these women3s organi)ations' mission #unds had been co""ected by ministers and other church "eaders' most o# whom emphasi)ed "oca" parish wor$. 8hat money was spent on #oreign missions was under the contro" o# e5c"usive"y ma"e #oreign mission boards whose members were uni#orm"y uneasy about the new idea o# sending sing"e women out into the mission #ie"d. &ut as women3s groups began raising impressive amounts o# money donated speci#ica""y in support o# sing"e women missionaries' the home churches bowed both to women3s changing ro"es at home and to increasing numbers o# sing"e pro#essiona" missionary women abroad. 0"though the idea o# emp"oying a woman physician was a daring one #or most 8estern missionaries in %hina' the advantages o# a we""-trained 8estern woman physician cou"d not be ignored by %anton mission hospita" administrators. 0 woman physician cou"d attend women patients without o##ending any o# the accepted conventions o# #ema"e modesty. =ventua""y' some o# these women were ab"e to #ound and head separate women3s medica" institutions' thereby gaining access to pro#essiona" responsibi"ities #ar beyond those avai"ab"e to them at home. These deve"opments a"so "ed to the attainment o# va"uab"e training and status by a signi#icant number o# %hinese women. The presence o# women physicians in %anton mission hospita"s "ed many %hinese women to avai" themse"ves o# 8estern medicine who might otherwise have #ai"ed to do so because o# their cu"ture3s emphasis on physica" modesty. /n order to provide enough women physicians #or these patients' growing numbers o# young %hinese women were given instruction in medicine. This enab"ed them to earn an independent income' something that was then "arge"y unavai"ab"e to women within traditiona" %hinese society. ?any women graduates were eventua""y ab"e to go out on their own into private practice' #reeing themse"ves o# dependence upon the mission community. The most important resu"t o# these opportunities was the estab"ishment o# c"ear evidence

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o# women3s abi"ities and strengths' c"ear reasons #or a##ording women e5panded opportunities' and c"ear ro"e mode"s #or how these abi"ities and responsibi"ities might be e5ercised.

-.

&hich one of the following statements about &estern women missionaries working abroad can be inferred from the passage% (A) There were 'ery few women in'ol'ed in foreign missionary work before the 16-5s. (B) ?ost women working abroad as missionaries before the 16-5s were financed by women4s foreign mission societies. (C) ?ost women employed in mission hospitals abroad before the 16-5s were trained as nurses rather than as physicians. ( ) The ma<ority of professional women missionaries working abroad before the 16-5s were located in Canton/ China. (#) ?ost women missionaries working abroad before the 16-5s were married to men who were also missionaries.

6.

The author mentions that most foreign mission boards were e$clusi'ely male most probably in order to (A) Contrast foreign mission boards with the boards of secular organi!ations sending aid to China. (B) #$plain the policy of foreign mission boards toward training Chinese women in medicine. (C) Austify the preference of foreign mission boards for professionally "ualified missionaries. ( ) )elp account for the attitude of foreign mission boards towards sending single women missionaries abroad. (#) ifferentiate foreign mission boards from boards directing parish work at home.

,.

&hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A situation is described/ conditions that brought about the situation are e$plained/ and results of the situation are enumerated. (B) An assertion is made/ statements supporting and refuting the assertion are e$amined/ and a conclusion is drawn. (C) An obstacle is identified/ a 'ariety of possible ways to o'ercome the obstacle are presented/ and an opinion is 'entured. ( ) A predicament is outlined/ factors leading up to the predicament are scrutini!ed/ and a tentati'e resolution of the predicament is recommended. (#) A de'elopment is analy!ed/ the drawbacks and ad'antages accompanying the de'elopment are contrasted/ and an e'entual outcome is predicted.

15. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most undermine the author4s analysis

LSAT

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of the reason for the increasing number of single women missionaries sent abroad beginning in the 16-5s% (A) The &estern church boards that sent the greatest number of single women missionaries abroad had not recei'ed any financial support from women4s au$iliary groups. (B) The women who were sent abroad as missionary physicians had been raised in families with a strong history of missionary commitment. (C) ?ost of the single missionary women sent abroad were trained as teachers and translators rather than as medical practitioners. ( ) The western church boards tended to send abroad single missionary women who had pre'iously been acti'e in local parish work. (#) 9one of the single missionary women who were sent abroad were acti'e members of foreign mission boards. 11. According to the passage/ which one of the following was a factor in the acceptance of &estern women as physicians in mission hospitals in Canton/ China% (A) The number of male physicians practicing in that region. (B) The specific women4s foreign mission society that supplied the funding. (C) The specific home parishes from which the missionary women came. ( ) The cultural con'entions of the host society. (#) The relations between the foreign mission boards and the hospital administrators. 12. The passage suggests which one of the following about medical practices in late( nineteenth(century Canton/ China% (A) There was great suspicion of non(Chinese medical practices. (B) ?edical care was more often administered in the home than in hospitals. (C) 3t was customary for women physicians to donate a portion of their income for the maintenance of their e$tended family. ( ) 3t was not customary for female patients to be treated by male physicians. (#) Houng women tended to be afforded as many educational opportunities in medicine as young men were.
/n recent years the ear"y music movement' which advocates per#orming a wor$ as it was per#ormed at the time o# its composition' has ta$en on the character o# a crusade' particu"ar"y as it has moved beyond the sphere o# medieva" and baro+ue music and into music #rom the "ate eighteenth and ear"y nineteenth centuries by composers such as ?o)art and &eethoven. Aranted' $now"edge about the e5perience o# p"aying o"d music on now-obso"ete instruments has been o# inestimab"e va"ue to scho"ars. *everthe"ess' the ear"y music approach to per#ormance raises pro#ound and troub"ing +uestions. =ar"y music advocates assume that composers write on"y #or the instruments avai"ab"e to

-12

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them' but evidence suggests that composers o# &eethoven3s stature imagined e5traordinari"y high and "ow notes as part o# their compositions' even when they recogni)ed that such notes cou"d not be p"ayed on instruments avai"ab"e at the time. /n the score o# &eethoven3s #irst piano concerto' there is a ;wrong< note' a high 7-natura" where the me"ody obvious"y ca""s #or a high 7-sharp' but pianos did not have this high an 7-sharp when &eethoven composed the concerto. &ecause &eethoven once e5pressed a desire to revise his ear"y wor$s to e5p"oit the e5tended range o# pianos that became avai"ab"e to him some years "ater' it seems "i$e"y that he wou"d have p"ayed the 7-sharp i# given the opportunity. To use a piano e5act"y contemporary with the wor$3s composition wou"d re+uire p"aying a note that was probab"y #rustrating #or &eethoven himse"# to have had to p"ay. /n addition' ear"y music advocates o#ten inadvertent"y divorce music and its per#ormance #rom the "i#e o# which they were' and are' a part. The discovery that (aydn3s and ?o)art3s symphonies were conducted during their "i#etimes by a pianist who p"ayed the chords to $eep the orchestra together has given rise to ear"y music recordings in which a piano can be heard obtrusive"y in the #oreground' despite evidence indicating that the orchestra" piano was virtua""y inaudib"e to audiences at eighteenth-century concerts and was dropped as musica""y unnecessary when a better way to beat time was #ound. 0nd a"though in the ear"y nineteenth century the #irst three movements (sections) o# ?o)art3s and &eethoven3s symphonies were o#ten p"ayed #aster' and the "ast movement s"ower than today' this di##erence can readi"y be e5p"ained by the #act that at that time audiences app"auded at the end o# each movement' rather than withho"ding app"ause unti" the end o# the entire wor$. 0s a resu"t' musicians were not #orced into e5tra bri""iance in the #ina"e in order to generate app"ause' as they are now. To restore the origina" tempo o# these symphonies represents an irrationa" denia" o# the #act that our concepts o# musica" intensity and e5citement have +uite simp"y' changed.

1.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that by *a piano e$actly contemporary+ (line .5) with the composition of Beetho'en4s first piano concerto/ the author means the kind of piano that was (A) esigned to be inaudible to the audience when used by conductors of orchestras. (B) 3ncapable of playing the high >(natural that is in the score of Beetho'en4s original 'ersion of the concerto. (C) :na'ailable to ?o!art and )aydn. ( ) 3ncapable of playing the high >(sharp that the melody of the concerto calls for. (#) 3nfluential in Beetho'en4s decision to re'ise his early compositions. 10. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) The early music mo'ement has yet to resol'e a number of troubling "uestions regarding its approach to the performance of music. (B) The early music mo'ement/ while largely successful in its approach to the performance of medie'al and baro"ue music/ has yet to <ustify its use of obsolete instruments in the performance of music by Beetho'en and ?o!art.

LSAT

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(C) The early music approach to performance often assumes that composers write music that is perfectly tailored to the limitations of the instruments on which it will be performed during their lifetimes. ( ) Although ad'ocates of early music know much about the instruments used to perform music at the time it was composed/ they lack information regarding how the style of such performances has changed since such music was written. (#) The early music mo'ement has not yet fully e$ploited the knowledge that it has gained from playing music on instruments a'ailable at the time such music was composed. 11. 3n the second paragraph/ the author discusses Beetho'en4s first piano concerto primarily in order to (A) 3llustrate how piano music began to change in response to the e$tended range of pianos that became a'ailable during Beetho'en4s lifetime. (B) 3llustrate how Beetho'en4s work failed to anticipate the changes in the design of instruments that were about to be made during his lifetime. (C) ;uggest that early music ad'ocates commonly perform music using scores that do not reflect re'isions made to the music years after it was originally composed. ( ) 3llustrate how composers like Beetho'en sometimes composed music that called for notes that could not be played on instruments that were currently a'ailable. (#) @ro'ide an e$ample of a piano composition that is especially amenable to being played on piano a'ailable at the time the music was composed. 12. The author suggests that the final mo'ements of symphonies by ?o!art and Beetho'en might be played more slowly by today4s orchestras if which one of the following were to occur% (A) 8rchestras were to use instruments no more ad'anced in design than those used by orchestras at the time ?o!art and Beetho'en composed their symphonies. (B) Audiences were to return to the custom of applauding at the end of each mo'ement of a symphony. (C) Audiences were to reser'e their most enthusiastic applause for the most brilliantly played finales. ( ) Conductors were to return to the practice of playing the chords on an orchestral piano to keep the orchestra together. (#) Conductors were to conduct the symphonies in the manner in which Beetho'en and ?o!art had conducted them. 1-. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph%

-16

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(A) A generali!ation is made e'idence undermining it is presented/ and a conclusion re<ecting it is then drawn. (B) A criticism is stated and then elaborated with two supporting e$amples. (C) An assumption is identified and then e'idence undermining its 'alidity is presented. ( ) An assumption is identified and then e'idence fre"uently pro'ided in support of it is then critically e'aluated. (#) Two specific cases are presented and then a conclusion regarding their significance is drawn. 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author4s e$planation in lines 15(10 would be most weakened if which one of the following were true% (A) ?usicians who perform in modern orchestras generally recei'e more e$tensi'e training than did their nineteenth(century counterparts. (B) Breaks between the mo'ements of symphonies performed during the early nineteenth century often lasted longer than they do today because nineteenth(century musicians needed to retune their instruments between each mo'ement. (C) #arly nineteenth(century orchestral musicians were generally as concerned with the audience4s response to their music as are the musicians who perform today in modern orchestras. ( ) #arly nineteenth(century audience applauded only perfunctorily after the first three mo'ements of symphonies and con'entionally withheld their most enthusiastic applause until the final mo'ement was completed. (#) #arly nineteenth(century audiences were generally more knowledgeable about music than are their modern counterparts. 1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following assertions regarding the early music recordings mentioned in the third paragraph% (A) These recordings fail to recogni!e that the last mo'ements of )aydn4s and ?o!art4s symphonies were often played slower in the eighteenth century than they are played today. (B) These recordings betray the influence of baro"ue musical style on those early music ad'ocates who ha'e recently turned their attention to the music of )aydn and ?o!art. (C) By making audible the sound of an orchestral piano that was inaudible in eighteenth century performances/ these recordings attempt to achie'e aesthetic integrity at the e$pense of historical authenticity. ( ) By making audible the sound of an orchestral piano that was inaudible in eighteenth century performances/ these recordings unwittingly create music that is unlike what eighteenth century audiences heard.

LSAT

-1,

(#) These recordings suggest that at least some ad'ocates of early music recogni!e that concepts of musical intensity and e$citement ha'e changed since )aydn and ?o!art composed their symphonies. 25. The author suggests that the modern audience4s tendency to withhold applause until the end of a symphony4s performance is primarily related to which one of the following% (A) The replacement of the orchestral piano as a method of keeping the orchestra together. (B) A gradual increase since the time of ?o!art and Beetho'en in audiences4 e$pectations regarding the ability of orchestral musicians. (C) A change since the early nineteenth century in audiences4 concepts of musical e$citement and intensity. ( ) A more sophisticated appreciation of the structural integrity of the symphony as a piece of music. (#) The tendency of orchestral musicians to employ their most brilliant effects in the early.
0"though the United tates stee" industry #aces wide"y pub"ici)ed economic prob"ems that have eroded its stee" production capacity' not a"" branches o# the industry have been e+ua""y a##ected. The stee" industry is not mono"ithic> it inc"udes integrated producers' minimi""s' and specia"ty-stee" mi""s. The integrated producers start with iron ore and coa" and produce a wide assortment o# shaped stee"s. The minimi""s reprocess scrap stee" into a "imited range o# "ow+ua"ity products' such as rein#orcing rods #or concrete. The specia"ty-stee" mi""s are simi"ar to minimi""s in that they tend to be sma""er than the integrated producers and are based on scrap' but they manu#acture much more e5pensive products than minimi""s do and common"y have an active in-house research-and-deve"opment e##ort. &oth minimi""s and specia"ty-stee" mi""s have succeeded in avoiding the worst o# the economic di##icu"ties that are a##"icting integrated stee" producers' and some o# the mi""s are +uite pro#itab"e. &oth ta$e advantage o# new techno"ogy #or re#ining and casting stee"' such as continuous casting' as soon as it becomes avai"ab"e. The minimi""s concentrate on producing a narrow range o# products #or sa"e in their immediate geographic area' whereas specia"tystee" mi""s preserve #"e5ibi"ity in their operations in order to #u"#i"" a customer3s particu"ar speci#ications. 0mong the #actors that constrain the competitiveness o# integrated producers are e5cessive "abor' energy' and capita" costs' as we"" as manu#acturing in#"e5ibi"ity. Their e+uipment is o"d and "ess automated' and does not incorporate many o# the "atest re#inement in stee"ma$ing techno"ogy. (7or e5amp"e' on"y about ha"# o# the United tates integrated producers have continuous casters' which combine pouring and ro""ing into one operation and thus save the cost o# separate ro""ing e+uipment.) 9ne might conc"ude that the o"der "aborintensive machinery sti"" operating in United tates integrated p"ants is at #au"t #or the poor per#ormance o# the United tates industry' but this cannot e5p"ain why @apanese integrated producers' who produce a higher-+ua"ity product using "ess energy and "abor' are a"so

-25

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

e5periencing economic troub"e. The #act is that the common techno"ogica" denominator o# integrated producers is an inherent"y ine##icient process that is sti"" rooted in the nineteenth century. /ntegrated producers have been unab"e to compete success#u""y with minimi""s because the minimi""s' "i$e specia"ty-stee" mi""s' have dispensed a"most entire"y with the archaic energy and capita"-intensive #ront end o# integrated stee"ma$ing> the iron-sme"ting process' inc"uding the mining and preparation o# the raw materia"s and the b"ast-#urnace operation. /n addition' minimi""s have #ound a pro#itab"e way to mar$et stee" products> as indicated above' they se"" their #inished products "oca""y' thereby reducing transportation costs' and concentrate on a "imited range o# shapes and si)es within a narrow group o# products that can be manu#actured economica""y. 7or these reasons' minimi""s have been ab"e to avoid the economic dec"ine a##ecting integrated stee" producers.

21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) :nited ;tates steel producers face economic problems that are shared by producers in other nations. (B) ?inimills are the most successful steel producers because they best meet market demands for cheap steel. (C) ?inimills and specialty(steel mills are more economically competiti'e than integrated producers because they use new technology and a'oid the costs of the iron(smelting process. ( ) :nited ;tates steel producers are e$periencing an economic decline that can be traced back to the nineteenth century. (#) 9ew steelmaking technologies such as continuous casting will replace blast( furnace operations to re'erse the decline in :nited ;tates steel production. 22. The author mentions all of the following as features of minimills #DC#@T (A) fle$ibility in their operations (B) local sale of their products (C) a'oidance of mining operations ( ) use of new steel(refining technology (#) a limited range of low("uality products 2.. The author of the passage refers to *Aapanese integrated producers+ (line 0.) primarily in order to support the 'iew that (A) different economic difficulties face the steel industries of different nations (B) not all integrated producers share a common technological denominator (C) labor(intensi'e machinery cannot be blamed for the economic condition of :nited ;tates integrated steel producers ( ) modern steelmaking technology is generally labor(and energy(efficient (#) labor(intensi'e machinery is an economic burden on :nited ;tates integrated steel producers

LSAT

-21

20. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph% (A) A hypothesis is proposed and supportedI then an opposing 'iew is presented and critici!ed. (B) A debate is described and illustratedE then a contrast is made and the debate is resol'ed. (C) A dilemma is described and cited as e'idence for a broader criticism. ( ) A proposition is stated and argued/ then re<ected in fa'or of a more general statement/ which is supported with additional e'idence. (#) Beneral statements are made and details gi'enI then an e$planation is proposed and re<ected/ and an alternati'e is offered. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that :nited ;tates specialty(steel mills generally differ from integrated steel producers in that the specialty(steel mills (A) sell products in a restricted geographical area (B) share the economic troubles of the minimills (C) resemble specialty(steel mills found in Aapan ( ) concentrate on producing a narrow range of products (#) do not operate blast furnaces 22. #ach of the following describes an industry facing a problem also e$perienced by :nited ;tated integrated steel producers #DC#@T (A) a paper(manufacturing company that e$periences difficulty in obtaining enough timber and other raw materials to meet its orders (B) a food(canning plant whose canning machines must constantly be tended by human operators (C) a te$tile firm that spends hea'ily on capital e"uipment and energy to process raw cotton before it is turned into fabric ( ) a window(glass manufacturer that is unable to produce "uickly different 'arieties of glass with special features re"uired by certain customers (#) a leather(goods company whose hand(operated cutting and stitching machines were manufactured in 3taly in the 1,25s 2-. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would best ser'e as supporting e'idence for the author4s e$planation of the economic condition of integrated steel producers% (A) Those nations that deri'e a larger percentage of their annual steel production from minimills than the :nited ;tates does also ha'e a smaller per capita trade deficit. (B) ?any integrated steel producers are as adept as the specialty(steel mills at producing high("uality products to meet customer specifications. (C) 3ntegrated steel producers in the :nited ;tates are rapidly adopting the

-22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

production methods of Aapanese integrated producers. ( ) 3ntegrated steel producers in the :nited ;tates are now attempting to de'elop a worldwide market by ad'ertising hea'ily. (#) Those nations in which iron(smelting operations are carried out independently of steel production must hea'ily subsidi!e those operations in order to make them profitable. LSAT 07 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The "abor #orce is o#ten organi)ed as i# wor$ers had no #ami"y responsibi"ities. 6reschoo"age chi"dren need #u""-time care: chi"dren in primary schoo" need care a#ter schoo" and during schoo" vacations. 0"though day-care services can reso"ve some schedu"ing con#"icts between home and o##ice' wor$ers cannot a"ways #ind or a##ord suitab"e care. =ven when they obtain such care' parents must sti"" cope with emergencies' such as i""nesses' that $eep chi"dren at home. ?oreover' chi"dren need more than tending: they a"so need meaning#u" time with their parents. %onventiona" #u""-time wor$days' especia""y when combined with unavoidab"e househo"d duties' are too in#"e5ib"e #or parents with primary chi"d-care responsibi"ity. 0"though a sma"" but increasing number o# wor$ing men are sing"e parents' those barriers against success#u" participation in the "abor mar$et that are re"ated to primary chi"d-care responsibi"ities main"y disadvantage women. =ven in #ami"ies where both parents wor$' cu"tura" pressures are traditiona""y much greater on mothers than on #athers to bear the primary chi"d-rearing responsibi"ities. /n reconci"ing chi"d-rearing responsibi"ities with participation in the "abor mar$et' many wor$ing mothers are #orced to ma$e compromises. 7or e5amp"e' appro5imate"y one-third o# a"" wor$ing mothers are emp"oyed on"y part-time' even though part-time 2obs are dramatica""y underpaid and o#ten "ess desirab"e in comparison to #u""-time emp"oyment. =ven though parttime wor$ is usua""y avai"ab"e on"y in occupations o##ering minima" emp"oyee responsibi"ity and "itt"e opportunity #or advancement or se"#-enrichment' such emp"oyment does a""ow many women the time and #"e5ibi"ity to #u"#i"" their #ami"y duties' but on"y at the e5pense o# the advantages associated with #u""-time emp"oyment. ?oreover' even mothers with #u""-time emp"oyment must compromise opportunities in order to ad2ust to barriers against parents in the "abor mar$et. ?any choose 2obs entai"ing "itt"e cha""enge or responsibi"ity or those o##ering #"e5ib"e schedu"ing' o#ten avai"ab"e on"y in poor"y paid positions' whi"e other wor$ing mothers' a"though wi""ing and ab"e to assume as much responsibi"ity as peop"e without chi"dren' #ind that their need to spend regu"ar and predictab"e time with their chi"dren inevitab"y causes them to "ose career opportunities to those without such demands. Thus' women in education are more "i$e"y to become teachers than schoo"

LSAT
administrators' whose more conventiona" #u""-time wor$ schedu"es do not correspond to the schedu"es o# schoo"-age chi"dren' whi"e #ema"e "awyers are more "i$e"y to practice "aw in

-2.

trusts and estates' where they can contro" their wor$ schedu"es' than in "itigation' where they cannot. *onpro#essiona" women are concentrated in secretaria" wor$ and department store sa"es' where their absences can be covered easi"y by substitutes and where they can enter and "eave the wor$ #orce with "itt"e "oss' since the 2obs o##er so "itt"e persona" gain. /ndeed' as "ong as the "abor mar$et remains hosti"e to parents' and #ami"y ro"es continue to be a""ocated on the basis o# gender' women wi"" be serious"y disadvantaged in that "abor mar$et.

1.

&hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage% (A) Current trends in the labor force indicate that working parents/ especially women/ may not always need to choose between occupational and child(care responsibilities. (B) 3n order for mothers to ha'e an e"ual opportunity for ad'ancement in the labor force/ traditional family roles ha'e to be ree$amined and re'ised. (C) Although single parents who work ha'e to balance parental and career demands/ single mothers suffer resulting employment disad'antages that single fathers can almost always a'oid. ( ) Although child(care responsibilities disad'antage many women in the labor force/ professional women (such as teachers and lawyers) are better able to o'ercome this problem than are nonprofessional women. (#) Traditional work schedules are too infle$ible to accommodate the child(care responsibilities of many parents/ a fact that se'erely disad'antages women in the labor force.

2.

&hich one of the following statements about part(time work can be inferred from the information presented in the passage% (A) 8ne(third of all part(time workers are working mothers. (B) @art(time work generally offers fewer opportunities for ad'ancement to working mothers than to women generally. (C) @art(time work/ in addition to ha'ing relati'ely poor wages/ often re"uires that employees work during holidays/ when their children are out of school. ( ) @art(time employment/ despite its disad'antages/ pro'ides working mothers with an opportunity to address some of the demands of caring for children. (#) ?any mothers with primary child(care responsibility choose part(time <obs in order to better e$ploit full(time career opportunities after their children are grown.

..

3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about working fathers in two(parent families% (A) They are e"ually burdened by the employment disad'antages placed upon all parentsQmale and femaleQin the labor market.

-20

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(B) They are so absorbed in their <obs that they often do not see the in<ustice going on around them. (C) They are shielded by the traditional allocation of family roles from many of the pressures associated with child(rearing responsibilities. ( ) They help compound the ine"uities in the labor market by keeping women form competing with men for career opportunities. (#) They are responsible for many of the problems of working mothers because of their insistence on traditional roles in the family. 0. 8f the following/ which one would the author most likely say is the most troublesome barrier facing working parents with primary child(care responsibility% (A) the lack of full(time <obs open to women (B) the infle$ibility of work schedules (C) the low wages of part(time employment ( ) the limited ad'ancement opportunities for nonprofessional employees (#) the practice of allocating responsibilities in the workplace on the basis of gender 1. The passage suggests that day care is at best a limited solution to the pressures associated with child rearing for all of the following reasons #DC#@TE (A) #'en the best day care a'ailable cannot guarantee that children will ha'e meaningful time with their parents. (B) ;ome parents cannot afford day(care ser'ices. (C) &orking parents sometimes ha'e difficulty finding suitable day care for their children. ( ) @arents who send their children to day care still need to pro'ide care for their children during 'acations. (#) #'en children who are in day care may ha'e to stay home when they are sick. 2. According to the passage/ many working parents may be forced to make any of the following types of career decisions #DC#@T (A) declining professional positions for nonprofessional ones/ which typically ha'e less con'entional work schedules (B) accepting part(time employment rather than full(time employment (C) taking <obs with limited responsibility/ and thus more limited career opportunities/ in order to ha'e a more fle$ible schedule ( ) pursuing career speciali!ations that allow them to control their work schedules instead of pursuing a more desirable speciali!ation in the same field (#) limiting the career potential of one parent/ often the mother/ who assumes

LSAT

-21

greater child(care responsibility -. &hich one of the following statements would most appropriately continue the discussion at the end of the passage% (A) At the same time/ most men will remain better able to en<oy the career and salary opportunities offered by the labor market. (B) 8f course/ men who are married to working mothers know of these employment barriers but seem unwilling to do anything about them. (C) 8n the other hand/ salary le'els may become more e"uitable between men and women e'en if the other career opportunities remain more accessible to men than to women. ( ) 8n the contrary/ men with primary child(rearing responsibilities will continue to en<oy more ad'antages in the workplace than their female counterparts. (#) Thus/ institutions in society that fa'or men o'er women will continue to widen the gap between the career opportunities a'ailable for men and for women.
%ritics have "ong been pu))"ed by the inner contradictions o# ma2or characters in @ohn 8ebster3s tragedies. /n his The -uchess of (alfi' #or instance' the Fuchess is ;good< in demonstrating the obvious tenderness and sincerity o# her "ove #or 0ntonio' but ;bad< in ignoring the wishes and we"#are o# her #ami"y and in ma$ing re"igion a ;c"oa$< hiding wor"d"y se"#-indu"gence. &oso"a is ;bad< in serving 7erdinand' ;good< in turning the Fuchess3 thoughts toward heaven and in p"anning to avenge her murder. The ancient Aree$ phi"osopher 0ristot"e imp"ied that such contradictions are virtua""y essentia" to the tragic persona"ity' and yet critics $eep coming bac$ to this e"ement o# inconsistency as though it were an eccentric #eature o# 8ebster3s own tragic vision. The prob"em is that' as an ="i)abethan p"aywright' 8ebster has become a prisoner o# our critica" presuppositions. 8e have' in recent years' been da))"ed by the way the ear"ier Renaissance and medieva" theater' particu"ar"y the mora"ity p"ay' i""uminates ="i)abethan drama. 8e now understand how the habit o# mind that saw the wor"d as a batt"eground between good and evi" produced the mora"ity p"ay. ?ora"ity p"ays a""egori)ed that con#"ict by presenting characters whose actions were de#ined as the embodiment o# good or evi". This mode" o# rea"ity "ived on' over"aid by di##erent conventions' in the most sophisticated ="i)abethan wor$s o# the #o""owing age. Det 8ebster seems not to have been as heavi"y in#"uenced by the mora"ity p"ay3s mode" o# rea"ity as were his ="i)abethan contemporaries: he was apparent"y more sensitive to the more mora""y comp"icated /ta"ian drama than to these =ng"ish sources. %onse+uent"y' his characters cannot be eva"uated according to reductive #ormu"as o# good and evi"' which is precise"y what modern critics have tried to do. They choose what seem to be the most promising o# the contradictor va"ues that are dramati)ed in the p"ay' and treat those va"ues as i# they were the on"y basis #or ana"y)ing the mora" deve"opment o# the p"ay3s ma2or characters' attributing the inconsistencies in a character3s behavior to artistic incompetence on 8ebster3s part. The "ac$ o# consistency in 8ebster3s characters can be better understood i# we recogni)e that the ambiguity at the heart o# his tragic vision "ies not in the e5terna" wor"d but in the dua"ity o# human nature. 8ebster

-22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

estab"ishes tension in his p"ays by setting up con#"icting systems o# va"ue that appear immora" on"y when one va"ue system is viewed e5c"usive"y #rom the perspective o# the other. (e presents us not on"y with characters that we condemn inte""ectua""y or ethica""y and at the same time impu"sive"y approve o#' but a"so with 2udgments we must accept as "ogica""y sound and yet #ind emotiona""y repu"sive. The di"emma is not on"y dramatic> it is tragic' because the con#"ict is irreconci"ab"e' and because it is ours as much as that o# the characters.

6.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) clarify an ambiguous assertion (B) pro'ide e'idence in support of a commonly held 'iew (C) analy!e an unresol'ed "uestion and propose an answer ( ) offer an alternati'e to a flawed interpretation (#) describe and categori!e opposing 'iewpoints

,.

The author suggests which one of the following about the dramatic works that most influenced &ebster4s tragedies% (A) They were not concerned with dramati!ing the conflict between good and e'il that was presented in morality plays. (B) They were not as sophisticated as the 3talian sources from which other #li!abethan tragedies were deri'ed. (C) They ha'e ne'er been ade"uately understood by critics. ( ) They ha'e only recently been used to illuminate the con'entions of #li!abethan drama. (#) They ha'e been considered by many critics to be the reason for &ebster4s apparent artistic incompetence.

15. The author4s allusion to Aristotle4s 'iew of tragedy in lines 11(1. ser'es which one of the following functions in the passage% (A) 3t introduces a commonly held 'iew of &ebster4s tragedies that the author plans to defend. (B) 3t supports the author4s suggestion that &ebster4s conception of tragedy is not idiosyncratic. (C) 3t pro'ides an e$ample of an approach to &ebster4s tragedies that the author critici!es. ( ) 3t establishes the similarity between classical and modern approaches to tragedy. (#) 3t supports the author4s assertion that #li!abethan tragedy cannot be fully understood without the help of recent scholarship. 11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that modern critics4 interpretations of &ebster4s tragedies would be more 'alid if (A) the ambiguity inherent in &ebster4s tragic 'ision resulted from the duality of

LSAT

-2-

human nature (B) &ebster4s conception of the tragic personality were similar to that of Aristotle (C) &ebster had been hea'ily influenced by the morality play ( ) #li!abethan dramatists had been more sensiti'e to 3talian sources of influence (#) the inner conflicts e$hibited by &ebster4s characters were similar to those of modern audiences 12. &ith which one of the following statements regarding #li!abethan drama would the author be most likely to agree% (A) The skill of #li!abethan dramatists has in recent years been o'erestimated. (B) The con'entions that shaped #li!abethan drama are best e$emplified by &ebster4s drama. (C) #li!abethan drama/ for the most part/ can be 'iewed as being hea'ily influenced by the morality play. ( ) 8nly by carefully e$amining the work of his #li!abethan contemporaries can &ebster4s achie'ement as a dramatist be accurately measured. (#) #li!abethan drama can best be described as influenced by a composite of 3talian and classical sources. 1.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that most modern critics assume which one of the following in their interpretation of &ebster4s tragedies% (A) &ebster4s play tended to allegori!e the conflict between good and e'il more than did those of his contemporaries. (B) &ebster4s plays were deri'ed more from 3talian than from #nglish sources. (C) The artistic flaws in &ebster4s tragedies were largely the result of his ignorance of the classical definition of tragedy. ( ) &ebster4s tragedies pro'ide no rele'ant basis for analy!ing the moral de'elopment of their characters. (#) 3n writing his tragedies/ &ebster was influenced by the same sources as his contemporaries. 10. The author implies that &ebster4s conception of tragedy was (A) artistically flawed (B) highly con'entional (C) largely deri'ed from the morality play ( ) somewhat different from the con'entional #li!abethan conception of tragedy (#) uninfluenced by the classical conception of tragedy
%u"tivation o# a sing"e crop on a given tract o# "and "eads eventua""y to decreased yie"ds. 9ne reason #or this is that harm#u" bacteria" phytopathogens' organisms parasitic on p"ant hosts' increase in the soi" surrounding p"ant roots. The prob"em can be cured by crop rotation' denying the pathogens a suitab"e host #or a period o# time. (owever' even i# crops are not

-26

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

rotated' the severity o# diseases brought on by such phytopathogens o#ten decreases a#ter a number o# years as the microbia" popu"ation o# the soi" changes and the soi" becomes ;suppressive< to those diseases. 8hi"e there may be many reasons #or this phenomenon' it is c"ear that "eve"s o# certain bacteria' such as Pseudomonas fluorescens' a bacterium antagonistic to a number o# harm#u" phytopathogens' are greater in suppressive than in nonsuppressive soi". This suggests that the presence o# such bacteria suppresses phytopathogens. There is now considerab"e e5perimenta" support #or this view. 8heat yie"d increases o# 17 percent have been obtained in #ie"d tria"s by treatment o# wheat seeds with #"uorescent pseudomonads. imi"ar treatment o# sugar beets' cotton' and potatoes has had simi"ar resu"ts. These improvements in crop yie"ds through the app"ication o# Pseudomonas fluorescens suggest that agricu"ture cou"d bene#it #rom the use o# bacteria genetica""y a"tered #or speci#ic purposes. 7or e5amp"e' a #orm o# phytopathogen a"tered to remove its harm#u" properties cou"d be re"eased into the environment in +uantities #avorab"e to its competing with and eventua""y e5c"uding the harm#u" norma" strain. ome e5periments suggest that de"iberate"y re"easing a"tered nonpathogenic Pseudomonas syringae cou"d crowd out the nona"tered variety that causes #rost damage. 9pponents o# such research have ob2ected that the de"iberate and "arge-sca"e re"ease o# genetica""y a"tered bacteria might have de"eterious resu"ts. 6roponents' on the other hand' argue that this particu"ar strain is a"tered on"y by the remova" o# the gene responsib"e #or the strain3s propensity to cause #rost damage' thereby rendering it sa#er than the phytopathogen #rom which it was derived. ome proponents have gone #urther and suggest that genetic a"teration techni+ues cou"d create organisms with tota""y new combinations o# desirab"e traits not #ound in nature. 7or e5amp"e' genes responsib"e #or production o# insecticida" compounds have been transposed #rom other bacteria into pseudomonads that co"oni)e corn roots. =5periments o# this $ind are di##icu"t and re+uire great care> such bacteria are deve"oped in high"y arti#icia" environments and may not compete we"" with natura" soi" bacteria. *everthe"ess' proponents contend that the prospects #or improved agricu"ture through such methods seem e5ce""ent. These prospects "ead many to hope that current e##orts to assess the ris$s o# de"iberate re"ease o# a"tered microorganisms wi"" success#u""y answer the concerns o# opponents and create a c"imate in which such research can go #orward without undue impediment.

11. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage% (A) =ecent field e$periments with genetically altered @seudomonas bacteria ha'e shown that releasing genetically altered bacteria into the en'ironment would not in'ol'e any significant danger. (B) #ncouraged by current research/ ad'ocates of agricultural use of genetically altered bacteria are optimistic that such use will e'entually result in impro'ed agriculture/ though opponents remain wary. (C) Current research indicates that adding genetically altered Pseudo-onas syringae bacteria to the soil surrounding crop plant roots will ha'e many beneficial effects/ such as the pre'ention of frost damage in certain crops. ( ) Benetic alteration of a number of harmful phytopathogens has been

LSAT

-2,

ad'ocated by many researchers who contend that these techni"ues will e'entually replace such outdated methods as crop rotation. (#) Benetic alteration of bacteria has been successful in highly artificial laboratory conditions/ but opponents of such research ha'e argued that these techni"ues are unlikely to produce organisms that are able to sur'i'e in natural en'ironments. 12. The author discusses naturally occurring Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria in the first paragraph primarily in order to do which one of the following% (A) pro'e that increases in the le'el of such bacteria in the soil are the sole cause of soil suppressi'ity (B) e$plain why yields increased after wheat fields were sprayed with altered Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria (C) detail the chemical processes that such bacteria use to suppress organisms parasitic to crop plants/ such as wheat/ sugar beets/ and potatoes ( ) pro'ide background information to support the argument that research into the agricultural use of genetically altered bacteria would be fruitful (#) argue that crop rotation is unnecessary/ since diseases brought on by phytopathogens diminish in se'erity and e'entually disappear on their own 1-. 3t can be inferred from the author4s discussion of Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria that which one of the following would be true of crops imper'ious to parasitical organisms% (A) Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria would be absent from the soil surrounding their roots. (B) They would crowd out and e'entually e$clude other crop plants if their growth were not carefully regulated. (C) Their yield would not be likely to be impro'ed by adding Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria to the soil. ( ) They would mature more "uickly than crop plants that were susceptible to parasitical organisms. (#) Ke'els of phytopathogenic bacteria in the soil surrounding their roots would be higher compared with other crop plants. 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that crop rotation can increase yields in part because (A) mo'ing crop plants around makes them hardier and more resistant to disease (B) the number of Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria in the soil usually increases when crops are rotated (C) the roots of many crop plants produce compounds that are antagonistic to phytopathogens harmful to other crop plants ( ) the presence of phytopathogenic bacteria is responsible for the ma<ority of

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plant diseases (#) phytopathogens typically attack some plant species but find other species to be unsuitable hosts 1,. According to the passage/ proponents of the use of genetically altered bacteria in agriculture argue that which one of the following is true of the altered bacteria used in the frost(damage e$periments% (A) The altered bacteria had a genetic constitution differing from that of the normal strain only in that the altered 'ariety had one less gene. (B) Although the altered bacteria competed effecti'ely with the nonaltered strain in the laboratory/ they were not as 'iable in natural en'ironments. (C) The altered bacteria were much safer and more effecti'e than the naturally occurring Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria used in earlier e$periments. ( ) The altered bacteria were antagonistic to se'eral types of naturally occurring phytopathogens in the soil surrounding the roots of frost(damaged crops. (#) The altered bacteria were released into the en'ironment in numbers sufficient to guarantee the 'alidity of e$perimental results. 25. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously weaken the proponents4 argument regarding the safety of using altered Pseudo-onas syringae bacteria to control frost damage% (A) Pseudo-onas syringae bacteria are primiti'e and ha'e a simple genetic constitution. (B) The altered bacteria are deri'ed from a strain that is parasitic to plants and can cause damage to crops. (C) Current genetic(engineering techni"ues permit the large(scale commercial production of such bacteria. ( ) 8ften genes whose presence is responsible for one harmful characteristic must be present in order to pre'ent other harmful characteristics. (#) The frost(damage e$periments with Pseudo-onas syringae bacteria indicate that the altered 'ariety would only replace the normal strain if released in sufficient numbers.
/n 1887 the Fawes 0ct "egis"ated wide-sca"e private ownership o# reservation "ands in the United tates #or *ative 0mericans. The act a""otted p"ots o# 8. acres to each *ative 0merican adu"t. (owever' the *ative 0mericans were not granted outright tit"e to their "ands. The act de#ined each grant as a ;trust patent'< meaning that the &ureau o# /ndian 0##airs (&/0)' the governmenta" agency in charge o# administering po"icy regarding *ative 0mericans' wou"d ho"d the a""otted "and in trust #or 1- years' during which time the *ative 0merican owners cou"d use' but not a"ienate (se"") the "and. 0#ter the 1--year period' the *ative 0merican a""ottee wou"d receive a ;#ee patent< awarding #u"" "ega" ownership o# the "and. Two main reasons were advanced #or the restriction on the *ative 0mericans3 abi"ity to se"" their "ands. 7irst' it was c"aimed that #ree a"ienabi"ity wou"d "ead to immediate trans#er o#

LSAT

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"arge amounts o# #ormer reservation "and to non-*ative 0mericans' conse+uent"y threatening the traditiona" way o# "i#e on those reservations. 0 second ob2ection to #ree a"ienation was that *ative 0mericans were unaccustomed to' and did not desire' a system o# private "andownership. Their custom' it was said' #avored communa" use o# "and. (owever' both o# these arguments bear on"y on the trans#er o# *ative 0merican "ands to non-*ative 0mericans> neither o##ers a reason #or prohibiting *ative 0mericans #rom trans#erring "and among themse"ves. e""ing "and to each other wou"d not threaten the *ative 0merican cu"ture. 0dditiona""y' i# communa" "and use remained pre#erab"e to *ative 0mericans a#ter a""otment' #ree a"ienabi"ity wou"d have a""owed a""ottees to se"" their "ands bac$ to the tribe. 8hen stated rationa"es #or government po"icies prove empty' using an interest-group mode" o#ten provides an e5p"anation. 8hi"e neither *ative 0mericans nor the potentia" non*ative 0merican purchasers bene#ited #rom the restraint on a"ienation contained in the Fawes 0ct' one c"ear"y de#ined group did bene#it> the &/0 bureaucrats. /t has been convincing"y demonstrated that bureaucrats see$ to ma5imi)e the si)e o# their sta##s and their budgets in order to compensate #or the "ac$ o# other sources o# #u"#i""ment' such as power and prestige. 0dditiona""y' po"iticians tend to #avor the growth o# governmenta" bureaucracy because such growth provides increased opportunity #or the e5ercise o# po"itica" patronage. The restraint on a"ienation vast"y increased the amount o# wor$' and hence the budgets' necessary to imp"ement the statute. Unti" a""otment was ended in 194H' granting #ee patents and "easing *ative 0merican "ands were among the principa" activities o# the United tates government. 9ne hypothesis' then' #or the temporary restriction on a"ienation in the Fawes 0ct is that it re#"ected a compromise between non-*ative 0mericans #avoring immediate a"ienabi"ity so they cou"d purchase "and and the &/0 bureaucrats who administered the privati)ation system.

21. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage% (A) :nited ;tates go'ernment policy toward 9ati'e Americans has tended to disregard their needs and consider instead the needs of non(9ati'e American purchasers of land. (B) 3n order to preser'e the uni"ue way of life on 9ati'e American reser'ations/ use of 9ati'e American lands must be communal rather than indi'idual. (C) The awes Act4s restriction on the right of 9ati'e Americans to sell their land may ha'e been implemented primarily to ser'e the interests of politicians and bureaucrats. ( ) The clause restricting free alienability in the awes Act greatly e$panded :nited ;tates go'ernmental acti'ity in the area of land administration. (#) ;ince passage of the awes Act in 166-/ 9ati'e Americans ha'e not been able to sell or transfer their former reser'ation land freely. 22. &hich one of the following statements concerning the reason for the end of allotment/ if true/ would pro'ide the most support for the author4s 'iew of politicians% (A) @oliticians reali!ed that allotment was damaging the 9ati'e American way of

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life. (B) @oliticians decided that allotment would be more congruent with the 9ati'e American custom of communal land use. (C) @oliticians belie'ed that allotment4s continuation would not enhance their opportunities to e$ercise patronage. ( ) @oliticians felt that the staff and budgets of the B3A had grown too large. (#) @oliticians were concerned that too much 9ati'e American land was falling into the hands of non(9ati'e Americans. 2.. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) The passage of a law is analy!ed in detail/ the benefits and drawbacks of one of its clauses are studied/ and a final assessment of the law is offered. (B) The history of a law is narrated/ the effects of one of its clauses on 'arious populations are studied/ and repeal of the law is ad'ocated (C) A law is e$amined/ the political and social backgrounds of one of its clauses are characteri!ed/ and the permanent effects of the law are studied. ( ) A law is described/ the rationale put forward for one of its clauses is outlined and dismissed/ and a different rationale for the clause is presented. (#) The legal status of an ethnic group is e$amined with respect to issues of landownership and commercial autonomy/ and the benefits to ri'al groups due to that status are e$plained. 20. The author4s attitude toward the reasons ad'anced for the restriction on alienability in the awes Act at the time of its passage can best be described as (A) completely credulous (B) partially appro'ing (C) basically indecisi'e ( ) mildly "uestioning (#) highly skeptical 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following was true of 9ati'e American life immediately before passage of the awes Act% (A) ?ost 9ati'e Americans supported themsel'es through farming. (B) 9ot many 9ati'e Americans personally owned the land on which they li'ed. (C) The land on which most 9ati'e Americans li'ed had been bought from their tribes. ( ) >ew 9ati'e Americans had much contact with their non(9ati'e American neighbors. (#) >ew 9ati'e Americans were willing to sell their land to non(9ati'e Americans. 22. According to the passage/ the type of landownership initially obtainable by

LSAT

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9ati'e Americans under the awes Act differed from the type of ownership obtainable after a 21(year period in that only the latter allowed (A) owners of land to farm it (B) owners of land to sell it (C) go'ernment some control o'er how owners disposed of land ( ) owners of land to build on it with relati'ely minor go'ernmental restrictions (#) go'ernment to charge owners a fee for de'eloping their land 2-. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the author4s argument regarding the true moti'ation for the passage of the awes Act% (A) The legislators who 'oted in fa'or of the awes Act owned land ad<acent to 9ati'e American reser'ations. (B) The ma<ority of 9ati'e Americans who were granted fee patents did not sell their land back to their tribes. (C) 9ati'e Americans managed to preser'e their traditional culture e'en when they were geographically dispersed. ( ) The legislators who 'oted in fa'or of the awes Act were hea'ily influenced by B3A bureaucrats. (#) 9on(9ati'e Americans who purchased the ma<ority of 9ati'e American lands consolidated them into larger farm holdings. LSAT 0' SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 2' &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The "aw-and-"iterature movement c"aims to have introduced a va"uab"e pedagogica" innovation into "ega" study> instructing students in techni+ues o# "iterary ana"ysis #or the purpose o# interpreting "aws and in the reciproca" use o# "ega" ana"ysis #or the purpose o# interpreting "iterary te5ts. The resu"ts' according to advocates' are not on"y conceptua" brea$throughs in both "aw and "iterature but a"so more sensitive and humane "awyers. 8hatever the truth o# this "ast c"aim' there can be no doubt that the movement is a success> "aw-and-"iterature is an accepted sub2ect in "aw 2ourna"s and in "eading "aw schoo"s. /ndeed' one indication o# the movement3s strength is the #act that its most distinguished critic' Richard 0. 6osner' parado5ica""y ends up e5pressing +ua"i#ied support #or the movement in a recent study in which he systematica""y re#utes the writings o# its "eading "ega" scho"ars and cooperating "iterary critics. %riti+uing the movement3s assumption that "awyers can o##er specia" insights into "iterature that dea"s with "ega" matters' 6osner points out that writers o# "iterature use the "aw

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"oose"y to convey a particu"ar idea or as a metaphor #or the wor$ings o# the society envisioned in their #iction. Eega" +uestions per se' about which a "awyer might instruct readers' are se"dom at issue in "iterature. This is why practitioners o# "aw-and-"iterature end up discussing the "aw itse"# #ar "ess than one might suppose. ?ovement "eader @ames 8hite' #or e5amp"e' in his discussion o# arguments in the )liad' bare"y touches on "aw' and then so genera""y as to render himse"# vu"nerab"e to 6osner3s devastating remar$ that ;any argument can be ana"ogi)ed to a "ega" dispute.< imi"ar"y' the notion that "iterary criticism can be he"p#u" in interpreting "aw is prob"ematic. 6osner argues that "iterary criticism in genera" aims at e5p"oring richness and variety o# meaning in te5ts' whereas "ega" interpretation aims at discovering a sing"e meaning. 0 "iterary approach can thus on"y con#use the tas$ o# interpreting the "aw' especia""y i# one adopts current #ashions "i$e deconstruction' which ho"ds that a"" te5ts are inherent"y uninterpretab"e. *everthe"ess' 6osner writes that "aw-and-"iterature is a #ie"d with ;promise<. 8hyC 6erhaps' recogni)ing the success o# a movement that' in the past' has sing"ed him out #or abuse' he is attempting to appease his detractors' paying obeisance to the movements institutiona" success by dec"aring that it ;deserves a p"ace in "ega" research< whi"e "eaving it to others to draw the conc"usion #rom his cogent ana"ysis that it is an entire"y #actitious underta$ing' deserving o# no inte""ectua" respect whatsoever. 0s a resu"t' his wor$ stands both as a rebutta" o# "aw-and-"iterature and as a tribute to the power it has come to e5ercise in academic circ"es.

1.

The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) assess the law(and(literature mo'ement by e$amining the position of one of its most prominent critics (B) assert that a mutually beneficial relationship e$ists between the study of law and the study of literature (C) pro'ide e$amples of the law(and(literature mo'ement in practice by discussing the work of its proponents ( ) dismiss a prominent critics recent study of the law(and(literature mo'ement (#) describe the role played by literary scholars in pro'iding a broader conte$t for legal issues

2.

@osner4s stated position with regard to the law(and(literature mo'ement is most analogous to which one of the following% (A) a musician who is trained in the classics but fre"uently plays modern music while performing on stage (B) a partisan who transfers allegiance to a new political party that demonstrates more promise but has fewer documented accomplishments (C) a sports fan who wholeheartedly supports the team most likely to win rather than his or her personal fa'orite ( ) an ideologue who remains committed to his or her own 'iew of a sub<ect in spite of compelling e'idence to the contrary

LSAT

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(#) a salesperson who describes the faults in a fashionable product while conceding that it may ha'e some 'alue .. The passage suggests that @osner regards legal practitioners as using an approach to interpreting law that (A) eschews disco'ery of multiple meanings (B) employs techni"ues like deconstruction (C) interprets laws in light of 'arying community standards ( ) is informed by the positions of literary critics (#) de(emphasi!es the social rele'ance of the legal tradition 0. The @assage suggests that @osner might find legal training useful in the interpretation of a literary te$t in which (A) a legal dispute symboli!es the relationship between two characters (B) an oppressi'e law is used to symboli!e an oppressi'e culture (C) one of the key issues in'ol'es the answer to a legal "uestion ( ) a legal contro'ersy is used to represent a moral conflict (#) the working of the legal system suggests something about the political character of a society 1. The author uses the word *success+ in line 11 to refer to the law(and(literature mo'ement4s (A) positi'e effect on the sensiti'ity of lawyers (B) widespread acceptance by law schools and law <ournals (C) ability to offer fresh insights into literary te$ts ( ) ability to encourage inno'ati'e approaches in two disciplines (#) response to recent criticism in law <ournals 2. According to the passage/ @osner argues that legal analysis is not generally useful in interpreting literature because (A) use of the law in literature is generally of a "uite different nature than use of the law in legal practice (B) law is rarely used to con'ey important ideas in literature (C) lawyers do not ha'e enough literary training to analy!e literature competently ( ) legal interpretations of literature tend to focus on legal issues to the e$clusion of other important elements (#) legal interpretations are only rele'ant to contemporary literature -. According to @osner/ the primary difficulty in using literary criticism to interpret law is that (A) the goals of the two disciplines are incompatible (B) there are few ad'ocates for the law(and(literature mo'ement in the literary

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profession (C) the task of interpreting law is too comple$ for the techni"ues of literary criticism ( ) the interpretation of law relies hea'ily on legal precedent (#) legal scholars are reluctant to adopt the practice in the classroom
0 recent generation o# historians o# science' #ar #rom portraying accepted scienti#ic views as ob2ective"y accurate re#"ections o# a natura" wor"d' e5p"ain the acceptance o# such views in terms o# the ideo"ogica" biases o# certain in#"uentia" scientists or the institutiona" and rhetorica" power such scientists wie"d. 0s an e5amp"e o# ideo"ogica" bias' it has been argued that 6asteur re2ected the theory o# spontaneous generation not because o# e5perimenta" evidence but because he re2ected the materia"ist ideo"ogy imp"icit in that doctrine. These historians seem to #ind a""ies in certain phi"osophers o# science who argue that scienti#ic views are not imposed by rea"ity but are #ree inventions o# creative minds' and that scienti#ic c"aims are never more than brave con2ectures' a"ways sub2ect to inevitab"e #uture #a"si#ication. 8hi"e these phi"osophers o# science themse"ves wou"d not be "i$e"y to have much truc$ with the recent historians' it is an easy step #rom their views to the e5tremism o# the historians. 8hi"e this re2ection o# the traditiona" be"ie# that scienti#ic views are ob2ective re#"ections o# the wor"d may be #ashionab"e' it is deep"y imp"ausib"e. 8e now $now' #or e5amp"e' that water is made o# hydrogen and o5ygen and that parents each contribute one-ha"# o# their chi"dren3s comp"ement o# genes. / do not be"ieve any serious-minded and in#ormed person can c"aim that these statements are not #actua" descriptions o# the wor"d or that they wi"" inevitab"y be #a"si#ied. (owever' science3s accumu"ation o# "asting truths about the wor"d is not by any means a straight#orward matter. 8e certain"y need to get beyond the naive view that the truth wi"" automatica""y revea" itse"# to any scientist who "oo$s in the right direction: most o#ten' in #act' a who"e series o# prior discoveries is needed to tease rea"ity3s truths #rom e5periment and observation. 0nd the phi"osophers o# science mentioned above are +uite right to argue that new scienti#ic ideas o#ten correct o"d ones by indicating errors and imprecision (as' say' *ewton3s ideas did to Nep"er3s). *or wou"d / deny that there are interesting +uestions to be answered about the socia" processes in which scienti#ic activity is embedded. The persuasive processes by which particu"ar scienti#ic groups estab"ish their e5perimenta" resu"ts as authoritative are themse"ves socia" activities and can be rewarding"y studied as such. /ndeed' much o# the new wor$ in the history o# science has been e5treme"y revea"ing about the institutiona" interactions and rhetorica" devices that he"p determine whose resu"ts achieve prominence. &ut one can accept a"" this without accepting the thesis that natura" rea"ity never p"ays any part at a"" in determining what scientists be"ieve. 8hat the new historians ought to be showing us is how those doctrines that do in #act #it rea"ity wor$ their way through the comp"e5 socia" processes o# scienti#ic activity to eventua""y receive genera" scienti#ic acceptance.

6.

3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following characteri!ations of scientific truth%

LSAT

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(A) 3t is often implausible. (B) 3t is sub<ect to ine'itable falsification. (C) 3t is rarely ob'ious and transparent. ( ) 3t is rarely disco'ered by creati'e processes. (#) 3t is less often established by e$perimentation than by the rhetorical power of scientists. ,. According to the passage/ Mepler4s ideas pro'ide an e$ample of scientific ideas that were (A) corrected by subse"uent in"uiries (B) dependent on a series of prior obser'ations (C) originally thought to be imprecise and then later confirmed ( ) established primarily by the force of an indi'iduals rhetorical power (#) specifically taken up for the purpose of falsification by later scientists 15. 3n the third paragraph of the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) presenting conflicting e$planations for a phenomenon (B) suggesting a field for possible future research (C) "ualifying a pre'iously e$pressed point of 'iew ( ) pro'iding an answer to a theoretical "uestion (#) attacking the assumptions that underlie a set of beliefs 11. The use of the words *any serious(minded and informed person4 (lines 26(2,) ser'es which one of the following functions in the conte$t of the passage% (A) to satiri!e chronologically earlier notions about the composition of water (B) to reinforce a pre'iously stated opinion about certain philosophers of science (C) to suggest the author4s reser'ations about the *traditional belief+ mentioned in line 22 ( ) to anticipate ob<ections from someone who would argue for an ob<ecti'ely accurate description of the world (#) to discredit someone who would argue that certain scientific assertions do not factually describe reality 12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely agree with which one of the following statements about the relationship between the 'iews of *certain philosophers of science+ (lines l2(1.) and those of the recent historians% (A) These two 'iews are difficult to differentiate. (B) These two 'iews share some similarities. (C) The 'iews of the philosophers ought to be seen as the source of the historians4 'iews.

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( ) Both 'iews emphasi!e the rhetorical power of scientists. (#) The historians e$plicitly acknowledge that their 'iews are indebted to those of the philosophers. 1.. &hich one of the following best characteri!es the author4s assessment of the opinions of the new historians of science/ as these opinions are presented in the passage% (A) They lack any credibility. (B) They themsel'es can be rewardingly studied as social phenomena. (C) They are least con'incing when they concern the actions of scientific groups. ( ) Although they are gross o'erstatements/ they lead to some 'aluable insights. (#) Although they are now popular/ they are likely to be refused soon. 10. 3n concluding the passage/ the author does which one of the following% (A) offers a prescription (B) presents a parado$ (C) makes a prediction ( ) concedes an argument (#) anticipates ob<ections 11. The authors attitude toward the *thesis+ mentioned in line 12 is re'ealed in which one of the following pairs of words% (A) *biases+ (line 1) and *rhetorical+ (line 2) (B) *wield+ (line -) and *falsification+ (line 1-) (C) *con<ectures+ (line l2) and *truck with+ (line 1,) ( ) *e$tremism+ (line 25) and *implausible+ (line 20) (#) *nai'e+ (line .1) and *errors4 (line 02)
Unti" recent"y' it was thought that the %hero$ee' a *ative 0merican tribe' were compe""ed to assimi"ate =uro-0merican cu"ture during the 181.s. Furing that decade' it was supposed' 8hite missionaries arrived and' together with their part-%hero$ee intermediaries' imposed the bene#its o# ;civi"i)ation< on %hero$ee tribes whi"e the United tates government active"y promoted accu"tura"i)ation by encouraging the %hero$ee to switch #rom hunting to sett"ed agricu"ture. This view was based on the assumption that the end o# a *ative 0merican group3s economic and po"itica" autonomy wou"d automatica""y mean the end o# its cu"tura" autonomy as we"". 8i""iam A. ?cEaugh"in has recent"y argued that not on"y did %hero$ee cu"ture #"ourish during and a#ter the 181.s' but the %hero$ee themse"ves active"y and continua""y reshaped their cu"ture. ?issionaries did have a decisive impact during these years' he argues' but that impact was #ar #rom what it was intended to be. The missionaries3 tendency to cater to the interests o# an accu"turating part-%hero$ee e"ite (who comprised the bu"$ o# their converts) at the e5pense o# the more traditiona"ist #u""-%hero$ee ma2ority created great intratriba" tensions.

LSAT

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0s the e"ite initiated re#orms designed to "egitimi)e their own and the %hero$ee *ation3s p"ace in the new repub"ic o# the United tates' antimission %hero$ee reacted by #ostering reviva"s o# traditiona" re"igious be"ie#s and practices. (owever' these reviva"s did not' according to ?cEaugh"in' undermine the e"itist re#orms' but supp"emented them with popu"ar traditiona"ist counterparts. Traditiona"ist %hero$ee did not re2ect the e"itist re#orms outright' ?cEaugh"in argues' simp"y because they recogni)ed that there was more than one way to use the s$i""s the missionaries cou"d provide them. 0s he +uotes one group as saying' ;8e want our chi"dren to "earn =ng"ish so that the 8hite man cannot cheat us.< ?any traditiona"ists %hero$ee we"comed the missionaries #or another reason> they perceived that it wou"d be use#u" to have 8hite a""ies. /n the end' ?cEaugh"in asserts' most members o# the %hero$ee counci"' inc"uding traditiona"ists' supported a move which preserved many o# the re#orms o# the part%hero$ee e"ite but "imited the activities and in#"uence o# the missionaries and other 8hite sett"ers. 0ccording to ?cEaugh"in' the identity and cu"ture that resu"ted were distinctive"y %hero$ee' yet re#"ected the "arger po"itica" and socia" setting in which they #"ourished. &ecause his wor$ concentrates on the nineteenth century' ?cEaugh"in un#ortunate"y over"oo$s ear"ier sources o# in#"uence' such as eighteen-century 8hite resident traders and neighbors' thus obscuring the re"ative impact o# the missionaries o# the 181.s in contributing to both accu"tura"i)ation and resistance to it among the %hero$ee. (owever' ?cEaugh"in is undoubted"y correct in recogni)ing that cu"ture is an ongoing process rather than a static entity' and he has made a signi#icant contribution to our understanding o# how %hero$ee cu"ture changed whi"e retaining its essentia" identity a#ter con#ronting the missionaries.

12. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage% (A) ?cKaughlin4s studies of the impact of missionaries on Cherokee culture during the 1625s are fundamentally flawed/ since ?cKaughlin ignores the greater impact of &hite resident traders in the eighteenth century. (B) Though his work is limited in perspecti'e/ ?cKaughlin is substantially correct that changes in Cherokee culture in the 1625s were mediated by the Cherokee themsel'es rather than simply imposed by the missionaries. (C) Although ?cKaughlin is correct in asserting that cultural changes among the Cherokee were autonomous and so not a result of the presence of missionaries/ he o'eremphasi!es the role of intertribal conflicts. ( ) ?cKaughlin has shown that Cherokee culture not only flourished during and after the 1625s/ but that changes in Cherokee culture during this time de'eloped naturally from elements already present in Cherokee culture. (#) Although ?cKaughlin o'erlooks a number of rele'ant factors in Cherokee cultural change in the 1625s/ he con'incingly demonstrates that these changes were fostered primarily by missionaries. 1-. &hich one of the following statements regarding the Cherokee council in the 1625s can be inferred from the passage% (A) ?embers of the Cherokee council were elected democratically by the entire

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Cherokee 9ation. (B) 3n order for a policy to come into effect for the Cherokee 9ation/ it had to ha'e been appro'ed by a unanimous 'ote of the Cherokee council. (C) espite the fact that the Cherokee were dominated politically and economically by the :nited ;tates in the 1625s/ the Cherokee council was able to o'erride policies set by the :nited ;tates go'ernment. ( ) Though it did not ha'e complete autonomy in go'erning the Cherokee 9ation/ it was able to set some policies affecting the acti'ities of &hite people li'ing in tribal areas. (#) The proportions of traditionalist and acculturating Cherokee in the Cherokee council were determined by the proportions of traditionalist and acculturating Cherokee in the Cherokee population. 16. &hich one of the following statements regarding the attitudes of traditionalist Cherokee toward the reforms that were instituted in the 1625s can be inferred from the passage% (A) They supported the reforms merely as a way of placating the increasingly 'ocal acculturating elite. (B) They thought that the reforms would lead to the destruction of traditional Cherokee culture but felt powerless to stop the reforms. (C) They supported the reforms only because they thought that they were ine'itable and it was better that the reforms appear to ha'e been initiated by the Cherokee themsel'es. ( ) They belie'ed that the reforms were a natural e$tension of already e$isting Cherokee traditions. (#) They 'iewed the reforms as a means of preser'ing the Cherokee 9ation and protecting it against e$ploitation. 1,. According to the passage/ ?cKaughlin cites which one of the following as a contributing factor in the re'i'al of traditional religious beliefs among the Cherokee in the 1625s% (A) ?issionaries were gaining con'erts at an increasing rate as the 1625s progressed. (B) The traditionalist Cherokee ma<ority thought that most of the reforms initiated by the missionaries4 con'erts would corrupt Cherokee culture. (C) ?issionaries unintentionally created conflict among the Cherokee by fa'oring the interests of the acculturating elite at the e$pense of the more traditionalist ma<ority. ( ) Traditionalist Cherokee recogni!ed that only some of the reforms instituted by a small Cherokee elite would be beneficial to all Cherokee. (#) A small group of Cherokee con'erted by missionaries attempted to institute reforms designed to ac"uire political supremacy for themsel'es in the

LSAT

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Cherokee council. 25. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine ?cKaughlin4s account of the course of reform among the Cherokee during the 1625s% (A) Traditionalist Cherokee gained control o'er the ma<ority of seats on the Cherokee council during the 1625s. (B) The :nited ;tates go'ernment took an acti'e interest in political and cultural de'elopments within 9ati'e American tribes. (C) The missionaries li'ing among the Cherokee in the 1625s were strongly in fa'or of the cultural reforms initiated by the acculturating elite. ( ) =e'i'als of traditional Cherokee religious beliefs and practices began late in the eighteenth century/ before the missionaries arri'ed. (#) The acculturating Cherokee elite of the 1625s did not 'iew the reforms they initiated as beneficial to all Cherokee. 21. 3t can be inferred from the author4s discussion of ?cKaughlin4s 'iews that the author thinks that Cherokee acculturali!ation in the 1625s (A) was re'ersed in the decades following the 1625s (B) may ha'e been part of an already(e$isting process of acculturali!ation (C) could ha'e been the result of earlier contacts with missionaries ( ) would not ha'e occurred without the encouragement of the :nited ;tates go'ernment (#) was primarily a result of the influence of &hite traders li'ing near the Cherokee
/n the history o# nineteenth-century "andscape painting in the United tates' the Euminists are distinguished by their #ocus on atmosphere and "ight. The accepted view o# Euminist paintings is that they are basica""y spiritua" and imp"y a tran+ui" mysticism that contrasts with ear"ier 0merican artists3 concept o# nature as dynamic and energetic. 0ccording to this view' the Euminist atmosphere' characteri)ed by ;pure and constant "ight'< guides the on"oo$er toward a "ucid transcendenta"ism' an idea"i)ed vision o# the wor"d. 8hat this view #ai"s to do is to identi#y the true signi#icance o# this transcendenta" atmosphere in Euminist paintings. The prosaic #actors that are revea"ed by a c"oser e5amination o# these wor$s suggest that the g"owing appearance o# nature in Euminism is actua""y a sign o# nature3s domestication' its adaptation to human use. The idea"i)ed Euminist atmosphere thus seems to convey' not an intensi#ication o# human responses to nature' but rather a muting o# those emotions' "i$e awe and #ear' which untamed nature e"icits. 9ne critic' in describing the spiritua" +ua"ity o# harbor scenes by 7it) (ugh Eane' an important Euminist' care#u""y notes that ;at the pea$ o# Euminist deve"opment in the 18-.s and 18G.s' spiritua"ism in 0merica was e5treme"y widespread.< /t is a"so true' however' that the 18-.s and 18G.s were a time o# trade e5pansion. 7rom 18H8 unti" his death in 18G-' Eane "ived in a house with a view o# the harbor o# A"oucester' ?assachusetts' and he made short

-62

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trips to ?aine' *ew Dor$' &a"timore' and probab"y 6uerto Rico. /n a"" o# these p"aces he painted the harbors with their ships!the instruments o# e5panding trade. Eane usua""y depicts p"aces "i$e *ew Dor$ (arbor' with ships at anchor' but even when he depicts more remote' "ess commercia""y active harbors' nature appears pastora" and domesticated rather than primitive or une5p"ored. The ships' rather than the surrounding "andscapes!inc"uding the sea!are genera""y the active e"ement in his pictures. 7or Eane the sea is' in e##ect' a cana" or a trade route #or commercia" activity' not a #ree power#u" e"ement' as it is in the ear"y pictures o# his predecessor' %o"e. 7or Eane nature is subdued' even when storms are approaching: thus' the sea is a"ways a viab"e highway #or the transport o# goods. /n sum' / consider Eane3s sea simp"y an environment #or human activity!nature no "onger invio"ate. The "uminescence that Eane paints symbo"i)es nature3s humb"ed state' #or the "ight itse"# is as doci"e as the Euminist sea' and its tran+ui"ity in a sense signi#ies no more than good conditions on the highway to progress. 6rogress' probab"y even more than transcendence' is the secret message o# Euminism. /n a sense' Euminist pictures are an ideo"ogica" 2usti#ication o# the atmosphere necessary #or business' i# a"so an e5aggerated' idea"istic rendering o# that atmosphere.

22. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing (A) the importance of religion to the art of a particular period (B) the way one artist4s work illustrates a tradition of painting (C) the significance of the sea in one artist4s work ( ) differences in the treatment of nature as a more acti'e or a less acti'e force (#) 'ariations in the artistic treatment of light among nineteenth(century landscape painters 2.. The author argues that nature is portrayed in Kane4s pictures as (A) wild and une$plored (B) ideali!ed and distant (C) continually changing ( ) difficult to understand (#) subordinate to human concerns 20. The passage contains information to suggest that the author would most probably agree with which one of the following statements% (A) The pre'ailing religious principles of a gi'en time can be reflected in the art of that time. (B) 3n order to interest 'iewers/ works of art must depict familiar sub<ects in detail. (C) Because commerce is unusual as a sub<ect in art/ the painter of commercial acti'ity must tra'el and obser'e it widely. ( ) Mnowing about the en'ironment in which an artist li'ed can aid in an understanding of a work by that artist.

LSAT

-6.

(#) The most popular works of art at a gi'en time are de'oted to furthering economic or social progress. 21. According to the author/ a supporter of the 'iew of Kuminism described in the first paragraph would most likely (A) be unimpressed by the paintings glowing light (B) consider Kuminist scenes to be undomesticated and wild (C) interpret the Kuminist depiction of nature incorrectly ( ) see Kuminist paintings as practical rather than mystical (#) focus on the paintings4 sub<ect matter instead of an atmosphere and light 22. According to the author/ the sea is significant in Kane4s paintings because of its association with (A) e$ploration (B) commerce (C) canals ( ) idealism (#) mysticism 2-. The author4s primary purpose is to (A) refute a new theory (B) replace an inade"uate analysis (C) summari!e current critics4 attitudes ( ) support another critic4s e'aluation (#) describe the history of a misinterpretation 26. The author "uotes a critic writing about Kane (lines 21(2-) most probably in order to (A) suggest that Kuminism was the dominant mode of painting in the 1615s and 1625s (B) support the idea that Kane was interested in spiritualism (C) pro'ide an e$ample of the primary cultural factors that influenced the Kuminists ( ) e$plain why the de'elopment of Kuminism coincided with that of spiritualism (#) illustrate a common misconception concerning an important characteristic of Kane4s paintings LSAT 09 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one

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of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
0#ter thirty years o# investigation into ce"" genetics' researchers made start"ing discoveries in the 19G.s and ear"y 197.s which cu"minated in the deve"opment o# processes' co""ective"y $nown as recombinant deo5yribonuc"eic acid (rF*0) techno"ogy' #or the active manipu"ation o# a ce""3s genetic code. The techno"ogy has created e5citement and controversy because it invo"ves a"tering F*0!which contains the bui"ding b"oc$s o# the genetic code. Using rF*0 techno"ogy' scientists can trans#er a portion o# the F*0 #rom one organism to a sing"e "iving ce"" o# another. The scientist chemica""y ;snips< the F*0 chain o# the host ce"" at a predetermined point and attaches another piece o# F*0 #rom a donor ce"" at that p"ace' creating a comp"ete"y new organism. 6roponents o# rF*0 research and deve"opment c"aim that it wi"" a""ow scientists to #ind cures #or disease and to better understand how genetic in#ormation contro"s an organism3s deve"opment. They a"so see many other potentia""y practica" bene#its' especia""y in the pharmaceutica" industry. ome corporations emp"oying the new techno"ogy even c"aim that by the end o# the century a"" ma2or diseases wi"" be treated with drugs derived #rom microorganisms created through rF*0 techno"ogy. 6harmaceutica" products a"ready deve"oped' but not yet mar$eted' indicate that these predictions may be rea"i)ed. 6roponents a"so cite nonmedica" app"ications #or this techno"ogy. =nergy production and waste disposa" may bene#it> genetica""y a"tered organisms cou"d convert sewage and other organic materia" into methane #ue". 0gricu"ture might a"so ta$e advantage o# rF*0 techno"ogy to produce new varieties o# crops that resist #ou" weather' pests' and the e##ects o# poor soi". 0 ma2or concern o# the critics o# rF*0 research is that genetica""y a"tered microorganisms might escape #rom the "aboratory. &ecause these microorganisms are "aboratory creations that' in a"" probabi"ity' do not occur in nature' their interaction with the natura" wor"d cannot be predicted with certainty. /t is possib"e that they cou"d cause previous"y un$nown' perhaps incurab"e diseases. The e##ect o# genetica""y a"tered microorganisms on the wor"d3s microbio"ogica" predator-prey re"ationships is another potentia""y serious prob"em pointed out by the opponents o# rF*0 research. /ntroducing a new species may disrupt or even destroy the e5isting ecosystem. The co""apse o# interdependent re"ationships among species' e5trapo"ated to its e5treme' cou"d eventua""y resu"t in the destruction o# humanity. 9pponents o# rF*0 techno"ogy a"so cite ethica" prob"ems with it. 7or e5amp"e' it gives scientists the power to instant"y cross evo"utionary and species boundaries that nature too$ mi""ennia to estab"ish. The imp"ications o# such power wou"d become particu"ar"y pro#ound i# genetic engineers were to tin$er with human genes' a practice that wou"d bring us one step c"oser to 0"dous (u5"ey3s grim vision in Brave +ew ,orld o# a tota"itarian society that engineers human beings to #u"#i"" speci#ic ro"es.

1.

3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the following% (A) e$plaining the process and applications of r 9A technology

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(B) ad'ocating continued r 9A research and de'elopment (C) pro'iding e'idence indicating the need for regulation of r 9A research and de'elopment ( ) summari!ing the contro'ersy surrounding r 9A research and de'elopment (#) arguing that the en'ironmental risks of r 9A technology may outweigh its medical benefits 2. According to the passage/ which one of the following is an accurate statement about research into the genetic code of cells% (A) 3t led to the de'elopment of processes for the manipulation of 9A. (B) 3t was initiated by the disco'ery of r 9A technology. (C) 3t led to the use of new treatments for ma<or diseases. ( ) 3t was uni'ersally heralded as a great benefit to humanity. (#) 3t was moti'ated by a desire to create new organisms. .. The potential benefits of r 9A technology referred to in the passage include all of the following #DC#@T (A) new methods of waste treatment (B) new biological knowledge (C) enhanced food production ( ) de'elopment of less e$pensi'e drugs (#) increased energy production 0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most weaken an argument of opponents of r 9A technology% (A) 9ew safety procedures de'eloped by r 9A researchers make it impossible for genetically altered microorganisms to escape from laboratories. (B) A genetically altered microorganism accidentally released from a laboratory is successfully contained. (C) A particular r 9A(engineered microorganism introduced into an ecosystem attracts predators that keep its population down. ( ) Benetically altered organisms designed to process sewage into methane cannot sur'i'e outside the waste treatment plant. (#) A specific hereditary disease that has plagued humankind for generations is successfully eradicated. 1. The author4s reference in the last sentence of the passage to a society that engineers human beings to fulfill specific roles ser'es to (A) emphasi!e the potential medical dangers of r 9A technology (B) ad'ocate research on the use of r 9A technology in human genetics (C) warn of the possible disasters that could result from upsetting the balance of

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nature ( ) present %ra$e Ne( World as an e$ample of a work of fiction that accurately predicted technological de'elopments (#) illustrate the sociopolitical ramifications of applying genetic engineering to humans 2. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen an argument of the opponents of r 9A technology% (A) Agricultural products de'eloped through r 9A technology are no more attracti'e to consumers than are traditional crops. (B) Benetically altered microorganisms ha'e no natural predators but can prey on a wide 'ariety of other microorganisms. (C) rugs produced using r 9A technology cost more to manufacture than drugs produced with traditional technologies. ( ) #cosystems are impermanent systems that are often liable to collapse/ and occasionally do so. (#) Benetically altered microorganisms generally cannot sur'i'e for more than a few hours in the natural en'ironment.
Aray mar$eting' the se""ing o# trademar$ed products through channe"s o# distribution not authori)ed by the trademar$ ho"der' can invo"ve distribution o# goods either within a mar$et region or across mar$et boundaries. Aray mar$eting within a mar$et region (;channe" #"ow diversion<) occurs when manu#acturer-authori)ed distributors se"" trademar$ed goods to unauthori)ed distributors who then se"" the goods to consumers within the same region. 7or e5amp"e' +uantity discounts #rom manu#acturers may motivate authori)ed dea"ers to enter the gray mar$et because they can purchase "arger +uantities o# a product than they themse"ves intend to stoc$ i# they can se"" the e5tra units through gray mar$eting channe"s. 8hen gray mar$eting occurs across mar$et boundaries' it is typica""y in an internationa" setting and may be ca""ed ;para""e" importing.< ?anu#acturers o#ten produce and se"" products in more than one country and estab"ish a networ$ o# authori)ed dea"ers in each country. 6ara""e" importing occurs when trademar$ed goods intended #or one country are diverted #rom proper channe"s (channe" #"ow diversion) and then e5ported to unauthori)ed distributors in another country. Trademar$ owners 2usti#iab"y argue against gray mar$eting practices since such practices c"ear"y 2eopardi)e the goodwi"" estab"ished by trademar$ owners> consumers who purchase trademar$ed goods in the gray mar$et do not get the same ;e5tended product'< which typica""y inc"udes pre- and postsa"e service. =+ua""y important' authori)ed distributors may cease to promote the product i# it becomes avai"ab"e #or much "ower prices through unauthori)ed channe"s. %urrent debate over regu"ation o# gray mar$eting #ocuses on three disparate theories in trademar$ "aw that have been various"y and con#using"y app"ied to para""e" importation cases> universa"ity' e5haustion' and territoria"ity. The theory o# universa"ity ho"ds that a trademar$ is on"y an indication o# the source or origin o# the product. This theory does not recogni)e the

LSAT

-6-

goodwi"" #unctions o# a trademar$. 8hen the courts app"y this theory' gray mar$eting practices are a""owed to continue because the origin o# the product remains the same regard"ess o# the speci#ic route o# the product through the channe" o# distribution. The e5haustion theory ho"ds that a trademar$ owner re"in+uishes a"" rights once a product has been so"d. 8hen this theory is app"ied' gray mar$eting practices are a""owed to continue because the trademar$ owners3 rights cease as soon as their products are so"d to a distributor. The theory o# territoria"ity ho"ds that a trademar$ is e##ective in the country in which it is registered. Under the theory o# territoria"ity' trademar$ owners can stop gray mar$eting practices in the registering countries on products bearing their trademar$s. ince on"y the territoria"ity theory a##ords trademar$ owners any rea" "ega" protection against gray mar$eting practices' / be"ieve it is inevitab"e as we"" as desirab"e that it wi"" come to be consistent"y app"ied in gray mar$eting cases.

-.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage% (A) Bray marketing is unfair to trademark owners and should be legally controlled. (B) Bray marketing is practiced in many different forms and places/ and legislators should recogni!e the futility of trying to regulate it. (C) The mechanisms used to control gray marketing across markets are different from those most effecti'e in controlling gray marketing within markets. ( ) The three trademark law theories that ha'e been applied in gray marketing cases lead to different case outcomes. (#) Current theories used to interpret trademark laws ha'e resulted in increased gray marketing acti'ity.

6.

The function of the passage as a whole is to (A) critici!e the moti'es and methods of those who practice gray marketing (B) e'aluate the effects of both channel flow di'ersion and parallel importation (C) discuss the methods that ha'e been used to regulate gray marketing and e'aluate such methods4 degrees of success ( ) describe a contro'ersial marketing practice and e'aluate se'eral legal 'iews regarding it (#) discuss situations in which certain marketing practices are common and analy!e the economic factors responsible for their de'elopment

,.

&hich one of the following does the author offer as an argument against gray marketing% (A) ?anufacturers find it difficult to monitor the effecti'eness of promotional efforts made on behalf of products that are gray marketed. (B) Bray marketing can discourage product promotion by authori!ed distributors. (C) Bray marketing forces manufacturers to accept the low profit margins that result from "uantity discounting. ( ) Bray marketing discourages competition among unauthori!ed dealers.

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(#) Nuality standards in the manufacture of products likely to be gray marketed may decline. 15. The information in the passage suggests that proponents of the theory of territoriality would probably differ from proponents of the theory of e$haustion on which one of the following issues% (A) the right of trademark owners to enforce/ in countries in which the trademarks are registered/ distribution agreements intended to restrict distribution to authori!ed channels (B) the right of trademark owners to sell trademarked goods only to those distributors who agree to abide by distribution agreements (C) the legality of channel flow di'ersion that occurs in a country other than the one in which a trademark is registered ( ) the significance consumers attach to a trademark (#) the usefulness of trademarks as marketing tools 11. The author discusses the impact of gray marketing on goodwill in order to (A) fault trademark owners for their unwillingness to offer a solution to a ma<or consumer complaint against gray marketing (B) indicate a way in which manufacturers sustain damage against which they ought to be protected (C) highlight one way in which gray marketing across markets is more problematic than gray marketing within a market ( ) demonstrate that gray marketing does not always benefit the interests of unauthori!ed distributors (#) argue that consumers are unwilling to accept a reduction in price in e$change for elimination of ser'ice 12. The author4s attitude toward the possibility that the courts will come to e$ercise consistent control o'er gray marketing practices can best be characteri!ed as one of (A) resigned tolerance (B) utter dismay (C) reasoned optimism ( ) unbridled fer'or (#) cynical indifference 1.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that some channel flow di'ersion might be eliminated if (A) profit margins on authori!ed distribution of goods were less than those on goods marketed through parallel importing (B) manufacturers relie'ed authori!ed channels of all responsibility for product

LSAT

-6,

promotion (C) manufacturers charged all authori!ed distributors the same unit price for products regardless of "uantity purchased ( ) the postsale ser'ice policies of authori!ed channels were controlled by manufacturers (#) manufacturers refused to pro'ide the *e$tended product+ to consumers who purchase goods in the gray market
0ny study o# autobiographica" narratives that appeared under the ostensib"e authorship o# 0#rican 0merican writers between 17G. and 18G- inevitab"y raises concerns about authenticity and interpretation. hou"d an autobiography whose written composition was "itera""y out o# the hands o# its narrator be considered as the "iterary e+uiva"ent o# those autobiographies that were authored independent"y by their sub2ectsC /n many cases' the so-ca""ed edited narrative o# an e5-s"ave ought to be treated as a ghostwritten account inso#ar as "iterary ana"ysis is concerned' especia""y when it was composed by its editor #rom ;a statement o# #acts< provided by an 0#rican 0merican sub2ect. &"assingame has ta$en pains to show that the editors o# severa" o# the more #amous antebe""um s"ave narratives were ;noted #or their integrity< and thus were un"i$e"y to distort the #acts given them by s"ave narrators. 7rom a "iterary standpoint' however' it is not the mora" integrity o# these editors that is at issue but the "inguistic' structura"' and tona" integrity o# the narratives they produces. =ven i# an editor #aith#u""y reproduced the #acts o# a narrator3s "i#e' it was sti"" the editor who decided what to ma$e o# these #acts' how they shou"d be emphasi)ed' in what order they ought to be presented' and what was e5traneous or germane. Readers o# 0#rican 0merican autobiography then and now have too readi"y accepted the presumption o# these eighteenth- and nineteenth-century editors that e5perientia" #acts recounted ora""y cou"d be recorded and sorted by an amanuensis-editor' ta$en out o# their origina" conte5ts' and then pub"ished with editoria" pre#aces' #ootnotes' and appended commentary' a"" without compromising the va"idity o# the narrative as a product o# an 0#rican 0merican consciousness. Transcribed narratives in which an editor e5p"icit"y de"imits his or her ro"e undoubted"y may be regarded as more authentic and re#"ective o# the narrator3s thought in action than those edited wor$s that #"esh out a statement o# #acts in ways unaccounted #or. ti""' it wou"d be naYve to accord dictated ora" narratives the same status as autobiographies composed and written by the sub2ects o# the stories themse"ves. This point is i""ustrated by an ana"ysis o# 8or$s 6rogress 0dministration interviews with e5-s"aves in the 194.s that suggests that narrators o#ten to"d interviewers what they seemed to want to hear. /# it seemed impo"itic #or #ormer s"aves to te"" a"" they $new and thought about the past to interviewers in the 194.s' the same cou"d be said o# escaped s"aves on the run in the antebe""um era. Fictated narratives' there#ore' are "iterary te5ts whose authenticity is di##icu"t to determine. 0na"ysts shou"d reserve c"ose ana"ytic readings #or independent"y authored te5ts. Fiscussion o# co""aborative te5ts shou"d ta$e into account the conditions that governed their production.

10. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main point of the passage% (A) The personal integrity of an autobiography4s editor has little rele'ance to its

-,5

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'alue as a literary work. (B) Autobiographies dictated to editors are less 'aluable as literature than are autobiographies authored by their sub<ects. (C) The facts that are recorded in an autobiography are less important than the personal impressions of its author. ( ) The circumstances under which an autobiography was written should affect the way it is interpreted as literature. (#) The autobiographies of African Americans written between 1-25 and 1621 deser'e more careful study than they ha'e so far recei'ed. 11. The information in the passage suggests that the role of the *editor+ (lines 2.(20) is most like that of (A) an artist who wishes to in'ent a uni"ue method of con'eying the emotional impact of a scene in a painting (B) a worker who must interpret the instructions of an employer (C) a critic who must pro'ide e'idence to support opinions about a play being re'iewed ( ) an architect who must make the best use of a natural setting in designing a public building (#) a historian who must decide how to direct the reenactment of a historical e'ent 12. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s opinion about applying literary analysis to edited autobiographies% (A) The author is adamantly opposed to the application of literary analysis to edited autobiographies. (B) The author is skeptical of the 'alue of close analytical reading in the case of edited autobiographies. (C) The author belie'es that literary analysis of the prefaces/ footnotes/ and commentaries that accompany edited autobiographies would be more useful than an analysis of the te$t of the autobiographies. ( ) The author belie'es that an e$clusi'ely literary analysis of edited autobiographies is more 'aluable than a reading that emphasi!es their historical import. (#) The author belie'es that the literary analysis of edited autobiographies would enhance their linguistic/ structural/ and tonal integrity. 1-. The passage supports which one of the following statements about the readers of autobiographies of African Americans that were published between 1-25 and 1621% (A) They were more concerned with the personal details in the autobiographies than with their historical significance.

LSAT

-,1

(B) They were unable to distinguish between ghostwritten and edited autobiographies. (C) They were less naT'e about the facts of sla'e life than are readers today. ( ) They presumed that the editing of the autobiographies did not affect their authenticity. (#) They had little interest in the moral integrity of the editors of the autobiographies. 16. &hen one of the following words/ as it is used in the passage/ best ser'es to underscore the author4s concerns about the authenticity of the autobiographies discussed% (A) *ostensible+ (line 2) (B) *integrity+ (line 16) (C) *e$traneous+ (line 2-) ( ) *delimits+ (line .,) (#) *impolitic+ (line 11) 1,. According to the passage/ close analytic reading of an autobiography is appropriate only when the (A) autobiography has been dictated to an e$perienced amanuensis(editor (B) autobiography attempts to reflect the narrator4s thought in action (C) autobiography was authored independently by its sub<ect ( ) moral integrity of the autobiography4s editor is well established (#) editor of the autobiography collaborated closely with its sub<ect in its editing 25. 3t can be inferred that the discussion in the passage of Blassingame4s work primarily ser'es which one of the following purposes% (A) 3t adds an authority4s endorsement to the author4s 'iew that edited narrati'es ought to be treated as ghostwritten accounts. (B) 3t pro'ides an e$ample of a mistaken emphasis in the study of autobiography. (C) 3t presents an account of a new method of literary analysis to be applied to autobiography. ( ) 3t illustrates the inade"uacy of traditional approaches to the analysis of autobiography. (#) 3t emphasi!es the importance of the relationship between editor and narrator.
0 conventiona" view o# nineteenth-century &ritain ho"ds that iron manu#acturers and te5ti"e manu#acturers #rom the north o# =ng"and became the wea"thiest and most power#u" peop"e in society a#ter about 1841. 0ccording to ?ar5ist historians' these industria"ists were the target o# the wor$ing c"ass in its strugg"e #or power. 0 new study by Rubinstein' however' suggests that the rea" wea"th "ay with the ban$ers and merchants o# Eondon. Rubinstein does not deny that a northern industria" e"ite e5isted but argues that it was consistent"y

-,2

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outnumbered and outdone by a Eondon-based commercia" e"ite. (is c"aims are provocative and deserve consideration. Rubinstein3s c"aim about the "ocation o# wea"th comes #rom his investigation o# probate records. These indicate the va"ue o# persona" property' e5c"uding rea" property (bui"dings and "and)' "e#t by individua"s at death. /t does seem as i# "arge #ortunes were more #re+uent"y made in commerce than in industry and' within industry' more #re+uent"y #rom a"coho" or tobacco than #rom te5ti"es or meta". (owever' such records do not une+uivoca""y ma$e Rubinstein3s case. Uncertainties abound about how the probate ru"es #or va"uing assets were actua""y app"ied. ?i""s and #actories' being rea" property' were c"ear"y e5c"uded> machinery may a"so have been' #or the same reason. 8hat the va"uation conventions were #or stoc$-in-trade (goods #or sa"e) is a"so uncertain. /t is possib"e that their probate va"ues were much "ower than their actua" mar$et va"ue> cash or near-cash' such as ban$ ba"ances or stoc$s' were' on the other hand' invariab"y considered at #u"" #ace va"ue. 0 #urther comp"ication is that probate va"uations probab"y too$ no notice o# a business3s goodwi"" (#avor with the pub"ic) which' since it represents e5pectations about #uture pro#it-ma$ing' wou"d today very o#ten be a "arge #raction o# mar$et va"ue. 8hether #actors "i$e these introduced systematic biases into the probate va"uations o# individua"s with di##erent types o# businesses wou"d be worth investigating. The orthodo5 view that the wea"thiest individua"s were the most power#u" is a"so +uestioned by Rubinstein3s study. The prob"em #or this orthodo5 view is that Rubinstein #inds many mi""ionaires who are tota""y un$nown to nineteenth-century historians> the reason #or their obscurity cou"d be that they were not power#u". /ndeed' Rubinstein dismisses any notion that great wea"th had anything to do with entry into the governing e"ite' as represented by bishops' higher civi" servants' and chairmen o# manu#acturing companies. The on"y re+uirements were university attendance and a #ather with a midd"e-c"ass income. Rubinstein' in another study' has begun to buttress his #indings about the "ocation o# wea"th by ana"y)ing income ta5 returns' which revea" a geographica" distribution o# midd"ec"ass incomes simi"ar to that o# wea"thy incomes revea"ed by probate records. &ut unti" #urther con#irmatory investigation is done' his c"aims can on"y be considered partia""y convincing.

21. The main idea of the passage is that (A) the ?ar$ist interpretation of the relationship between class and power in nineteenth(century Britain is no longer 'iable (B) a simple e"uation between wealth and power is unlikely to be supported by new data from nineteenth(century British archi'es (C) a recent historical in'estigation has challenged but not dispro'ed the orthodo$ 'iew of the distribution of wealth and the relationship of wealth to power in nineteenth(century Britain ( ) probate records pro'ide the historian with a re'ealing but incomplete glimpse of the e$tent and location of wealth in nineteenth(century Britain (#) an attempt has been made to confirm the findings of a new historical study of nineteenth(century Britain/ but complete confirmation is likely to remain

LSAT

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elusi'e 22. The author of the passage implies that probate records as a source of information about wealth in nineteenth(century Britain are (A) self(contradictory and misleading (B) ambiguous and outdated (C) contro'ersial but readily a'ailable ( ) re'ealing but difficult to interpret (#) widely used by historians but fully understandable only by specialists 2.. The author suggests that the total probate 'aluations of the personal property of indi'iduals holding goods for sale in nineteenth(century Britain may ha'e been (A) affected by the 'aluation con'entions for such goods (B) less accurate than the 'aluations for such goods pro'ided by income ta$ returns (C) less/ on a'erage/ if such goods were tobacco(related than if they were alcohol(related ( ) greater/ on a'erage/ than the total probate 'aluations of those indi'iduals who held bank balances (#) dependent on whether such goods were held by industrialists or by merchants or bankers 20. According to the passage/ =ubinstein has pro'ided e'idence that challenges which one of the following claims about nineteenth(century Britain% (A) The distribution of great wealth between commerce and industry was not e"ual. (B) Karge incomes were typically made in alcohol and tobacco rather than in te$tiles and metal. (C) A Kondon(based commercial elite can be identified. ( ) An official go'erning elite can be identified. (#) There was a necessary relationship between great wealth and power. 21. The author mentions that goodwill was probably e$cluded from the probate 'aluation of a business in nineteenth(century Britain most likely in order to (A) gi'e an e$ample of a business asset about which little was known in the nineteenth century (B) suggest that the probate 'aluations of certain businesses may ha'e been significant underestimations of their true market 'alue (C) make the point that this e$clusion probably had an e"ual impact on the probate 'aluations of all nineteenth(century British businesses ( ) indicate that e$pectations about future profit(making is the single most important factor in determining the market 'alue of certain businesses

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(#) argue that the twentieth(century method of determining probate 'aluations of a business may be consistently superior to the nineteenth(century method 22. &hich one of the following studies would pro'ide support for =ubinstein4s claims% (A) a study that indicated that many members of the commercial elite in nineteenth(century Kondon had insignificant holdings of real property (B) a study that indicated that in the nineteenth century/ industrialists from the north of #ngland were in fact a target for working(class people (C) a study that indicated that/ in nineteenth(century Britain/ probate 'alues of goods for sale were not as high as probate 'alues of cash assets ( ) a study that indicated that the wealth of nineteenth(century British industrialists did not appear to be significantly greater when the full 'alue of their real property holdings was actually considered (#) a study that indicated that at least some members of the official go'erning elite in nineteenth(century Britain owned more real property than had pre'iously been thought to be the case 2-. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would cast the most doubt on =ubinstein4s argument concerning wealth and the official go'erning elite in nineteenth(century Britain% (A) #ntry into this elite was more dependent on uni'ersity attendance than on religious background. (B) Attendance at a prestigious uni'ersity was probably more crucial than a certain minimum family income in gaining entry into this elite. (C) Bishops as a group were somewhat wealthier/ at the point of entry into this elite/ than were higher ci'il ser'ants or chairmen of manufacturing companies. ( ) The families of many members of this elite owned few/ if any/ shares in iron industries and te$tile industries in the north of #ngland. (#) The composition of this elite included 'ice(chancellors/ many of whom held office because of their wealth. LSAT 10 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
?any argue that recent deve"opments in e"ectronic techno"ogy such as computers and videotape have enab"ed artists to vary their #orms o# e5pression. 7or e5amp"e' video art can

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now achieve images whose e##ect is produced by ;digita"i)ation<> brea$ing up the picture using computeri)ed in#ormation processing. uch new techno"ogies create new ways o# seeing and hearing by adding di##erent dimensions to o"der #orms' rather than rep"acing those #orms. %onsider 'ocale' a #i"m about a modern dance company. The camera operator wore a teadicamT?' an uncomp"icated device that a""ows a camera to be mounted on a person so that the camera remains steady no matter how the operator moves. The teadicamT? captures the dance in ways impossib"e with traditiona" mounts. uch new e+uipment a"so a""ows #or the preservation o# previous"y unrecordab"e aspects o# per#ormances' thus enriching archives. &y %ontrast' others c"aim that techno"ogy subverts the artistic enterprise> that artistic e##orts achieved with machines preempt human creativity' rather than being inspired by it. The origina"ity o# musica" per#ormance' #or e5amp"e' might su##er' as musicians wou"d be deprived o# the opportunity to spontaneous"y change pieces o# music be#ore "ive audiences. ome even worry that techno"ogy wi"" e"iminate "ive per#ormance a"together: per#ormances wi"" be recorded #or home viewing' abo"ishing the re"ationship between per#ormer and audience. &ut these negative views assume both that techno"ogy poses an unprecedented cha""enge to the arts and that we are not committed enough to the artistic enterprise to preserve the "ive per#ormance' assumptions that seem unnecessari"y cynica". /n #act' techno"ogy has traditiona""y assisted our capacity #or creative e5pression and can re#ine our notions o# any give art #orm. 7or e5amp"e' the portab"e camera and the snapshot were deve"oped at the same time as the rise o# impressionist painting in the nineteenth century. These photographic techno"ogies encouraged a new appreciation. /n addition' impressionist artists "i$e Fegas studied the e"ements o# "ight and movement captured by instantaneous photography and used their new understanding o# the way our perceptions distort rea"ity to try to more accurate"y capture rea"ty in their wor$. ince photos can capture the ;moments< o# a movement' such as a hand partia""y raised in a gesture o# greeting' /mpressionist artists were inspired to paint such moments in order to more e##ective"y convey the +ua"ity o# spontaneous human action. 6hotography #reed artists #rom the preconception that a sub2ect shou"d be painted in a static' arti#icia" entirety' and inspired them to capture the random and #ragmentary +ua"ities o# our wor"d. 7ina""y' since photography preempted painting as the means o# obtaining portraits' painters had more #reedom to vary their sub2ect matter' thus giving rise to the abstract creations characteristic o# modern art.

1.

&hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) The progress of art relies primarily on technology. (B) Technological inno'ation can be beneficial to art. (C) There are risks associated with using technology to create art. ( ) Technology will transform the way the public responds to art. (#) The relationship between art and technology has a lengthy history.

2.

3t can be inferred from the passage that the author shares which one of the

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following opinions with the opponents of the use of new technology in art% (A) The li'e performance is an important aspect of the artistic enterprise. (B) The public4s commitment to the artistic enterprise is "uestionable. (C) =ecent technological inno'ations present an entirely new sort of challenge to art. ( ) Technological inno'ations of the past ha'e been 'ery useful to artists. (#) The performing arts are especially 'ulnerable to technological inno'ation. .. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most undermine the position held by opponents of the use of new technology in art concerning the effect of technology on li'e performance% (A) ;ur'eys show that when recordings of performances are made a'ailable for home 'iewing/ the public becomes far more knowledgeable about different performing artists. (B) ;ur'eys show that some people feel comfortable responding spontaneously to artistic performances when they are 'iewing recordings of those performances at home. (C) After a li'e performance/ sales of recordings for home 'iewing of the particular performing artist generally increase. ( ) The distribution of recordings of artists4 performances has begun to attract many new audience members to their li'e performances. (#) ?usicians are less apt to make creati'e changes in musical pieces during recorded performances than during li'e performances. 0. The author uses the e$ample of the ;teadicamT? primarily in order to suggest that (A) the filming of performances should not be limited by inade"uate e"uipment (B) new technologies do not need to be 'ery comple$ in order to benefit art (C) the interaction of a traditional art form with a new technology will change attitudes toward technology in general ( ) the replacement of a traditional technology with a new technology will transform definitions of a traditional art form (#) new technology does not so much preempt as enhance a traditional art form 1. According to the passage/ proponents of the use of new electronic technology in the arts claim that which one of the following is true% (A) ?ost people who re<ect the use of electronic technology in art forget that machines re"uire a person to operate them. (B) #lectronic technology allows for the e$pansion of archi'es because longer performances can be recorded. (C) #lectronic technology assists artists in finding new ways to present their

LSAT

-,-

material. ( ) #lectronic technology makes the practice of any art form more efficient by speeding up the creati'e process. (#) ?odern dance is the art form that will probably benefit most from the use of electronic technology. 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would agree with which one of the following statements regarding changes in painting since the nineteenth century% (A) The artistic e$periments of the nineteenth century led painters to use a 'ariety of methods in creating portraits/ which they then applied to other sub<ect matter. (B) The nineteenth(century knowledge of light and mo'ement pro'ided by photography inspired the abstract works characteristic of modern art. (C) 8nce painters no longer felt that they had to paint con'entional portraits/ they turned e$clusi'ely to abstract portraiture. ( ) 8nce painters were less limited to the impressionist style/ they were able to e$periment with a 'ariety of styles of abstract art. (#) 8nce painters painted fewer con'entional portraits/ they had greater opportunity to mo'e beyond the literal depiction of ob<ects.
Furing the 19H.s and 19-.s the United tates government deve"oped a new po"icy toward *ative 0mericans' o#ten $nown as ;read2ustment.< &ecause the increased awareness o# civi" rights in these decades he"ped rein#orce the be"ie# that "i#e on reservations prevented *ative 0mericans #rom e5ercising the rights guaranteed to citi)ens under the United tates %onstitution' the read2ustment movement advocated the end o# the #edera" government3s invo"vement in *ative 0merican a##airs and encouraged the assimi"ation o# *ative 0mericans as individua"s into mainstream society. (owever' the same years a"so saw the emergence o# a *ative 0merican "eadership and e##orts to deve"op triba" instructions and rea##irm triba" identity. The c"ash o# these two trends may be traced in the attempts on the part o# the &ureau o# /ndian 0##airs (&/0) to convince the 9neida tribe o# 8isconsin to accept read2ustment. The cu"mination o# &/0 e##orts to sway the 9neida occurred at a meeting that too$ p"ace in the #a"" o# 19-G. The &/0 suggested that it wou"d be to the 9neida3s bene#it to own their own property and' "i$e other homeowners' pay rea" estate ta5es on it. The &/0 a"so emphasi)ed that' a#ter read2ustment' the government wou"d not attempt to restrict *ative 0mericans3 abi"ity to se"" their individua""y owned "ands. The 9neida were then o##ered a one-time "ump-sum payment o# ,G.'... in "ieu o# the ,..-1 annuity guaranteed in perpetuity to each member o# the tribe under the %anandaigua Treaty. The e##orts o# the &/0 to ;se""< read2ustment to the tribe #ai"ed because the 9neida rea"i)ed that they had heard simi"ar o##ers be#ore. The 9neida de"egates reacted negative"y to the &/03s #irst suggestion because ta5ation o# *ative 0merican "ands had been one past vehic"e #or dispossessing the 9neida> a#ter the distribution o# some triba" "ands to individua" *ative 0mericans in the "ate nineteenth century' *ative 0merican "ands became sub2ect to

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ta5ation' resu"ting in new and impossib"e #inancia" burdens' #orec"osures' and subse+uent ta5 sa"es o# property. The 9neida de"egates were e+ua""y suspicious o# the &/03s emphasis on the rights o# individua" "andowners' since in the "ate nineteenth century many individua" *ative 0mericans had been convinced by unscrupu"ous specu"ators to se"" their "ands. 7ina""y' the o##er o# a "ump-sum payment was unanimous"y opposed by the 9neida de"egates' who saw that changing the terms o# a treaty might 2eopardi)e the many pending "and c"aims based upon the treaty. 0s a resu"t o# the 19-G meeting' the 9neida re2ected read2ustment. /nstead' they determined to improve triba" "i#e by "obbying #or #edera" monies #or postsecondary education' #or the improvement o# drainage on triba" "ands' and #or the bui"ding o# a conva"escent home #or triba" members. Thus' by "earning the "essons o# history' the 9neida were ab"e to survive as a tribe in their home"and.

-.

&hich one of the following would be most consistent with the policy of read<ustment described in the passage% (A) the establishment among 9ati'e Americans of a tribal system of a elected go'ernment (B) the creation of a national pro<ect to preser'e 9ati'e American language and oral history (C) the establishment of programs to encourage 9ati'e Americans to mo'e from reser'ations to urban areas ( ) the de'elopment of a large(scale effort to restore 9ati'e American lands to their original tribes (#) the reaffirmation of federal treaty obligations to 9ati'e American tribes

6.

According to the passage/ after the 1,12 meeting the 8neida resol'ed to (A) obtain impro'ed social ser'ices and li'ing conditions for members of the tribe (B) pursue litigation designed to reclaim tribal lands (C) secure recognition of their uni"ue status as a self(go'erning 9ati'e American nation within the :nited ;tates ( ) establish new kinds of tribal institutions (#) culti'ate a life(style similar to that of other :nited ;tates citi!ens

,.

&hich one of the following best describes the function of the first paragraph in the conte$t of the passage as a whole% (A) 3t summari!es the basis of a conflict underlying negotiations described elsewhere in the passage. (B) 3t presents two positions/ one of which is defended by e'idence pro'ided in succeeding paragraphs. (C) 3t compares competing interpretations of a historical conflict. ( ) 3t analy!es the causes of a specific historical e'ent and predicts a future

LSAT

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de'elopment. (#) 3t outlines the history of a go'ernment agency. 15. The author refers to the increased awareness of ci'il rights during the 1,05s and 1,15s most probably in order to (A) contrast the read<ustment mo'ement with other social phenomena (B) account for the stance of the 9ati'e American leadership (C) help e$plain the impetus for the read<ustment mo'ement ( ) e$plain the moti'es of B3A bureaucrats (#) foster support for the policy of read<ustment 11. The passage suggests that ad'ocates of read<ustment would most likely agree with which one of the following statements regarding the relationship between the federal go'ernment and 9ati'e Americans% (A) The federal go'ernment should work with indi'idual 9ati'e Americans to impro'e life on reser'ations. (B) The federal go'ernment should be no more in'ol'ed in the affaires of 9ati'e Americans than in the affairs of other citi!ens. (C) The federal go'ernment should assume more responsibility for pro'iding social ser'ices to 9ati'e Americans. ( ) The federal go'ernment should share its responsibility for maintaining 9ati'e American territories with tribal leaders. (#) The federal go'ernment should obser'e all pro'isions of treaties made in the past with 9ati'e Americans. 12. The passage suggests that the 8neida delegates 'iewed the Canandaigua Treaty as (A) a 'aluable safeguard of certain 8neida rights and pri'ileges (B) the source of many past problems for the 8neida tribe (C) a model for the type of agreement they hoped to reach with the federal go'ernment ( ) an important step toward recognition of their status as an independent 9ati'e American nation (#) an obsolete agreement without rele'ance for their current condition 1.. &hich one of the following situations most closely parallels that of the 8neida delegates in refusing to accept a lump(sum payment of 725/555% (A) A uni'ersity offers s a student a four(year scholarship with the stipulation that the student not accept any outside employmentI the student refuses the offer and attends a different school because the amount of the scholarship would not ha'e co'ered li'ing e$penses. (B) A company seeking to reduce its payroll obligations offers an employee a large bonus if he will accept early retirementI the employee refuses because

655

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he does not want to compromise an outstanding worker4s compensation suit. (C) @arents of a teenager offer to pay her at the end of the month for performing weekly chores rather than paying her on a weekly basisI the teenager refuses because she has a number of financial obligations that she must meet early in the month. ( ) A car dealer offers a customer a 7155 cash payment for buying a new carI the customer refuses because she does not want to pay ta$es on the amount/ and re"uests instead that her monthly payments be reduced by a proportionate amount. (#) A landlord offers a tenant se'eral months rent(free in e$change for the tenant4s agreeing not to demand that her apartment be painted e'ery two years/ as is re"uired by the leaseI the tenant refuses because she would ha'e to spend her own time painting the apartment.
Firect observation o# contemporary societies at the thresho"d o# widespread "iteracy has not assisted our understanding o# how such "iteracy a"tered ancient Aree$ society' in particu"ar its po"itica" cu"ture. The discovery o# what Aoody has ca""ed the ;enab"ing e##ects< o# "iteracy in contemporary societies tends to seduce the observer into con#using o#ten rudimentary $now"edge o# how to read with popu"ar access to important boo$s and documents> this con#usion is then pro2ected onto ancient societies. ;/n ancient Areece'< Aoody writes' ;a"phabetic reading and writing was important #or the deve"opment o# po"itica" democracy.< 0n e5amination o# the ancient Aree$ city 0thens e5emp"i#ies how this sort o# con#usion is detrimenta" to understanding ancient po"itics. /n 0thens' the ear"y deve"opment o# a written "aw code was retrospective"y mytho"ogi)ed as the critica" #actor in brea$ing the power monopo"y o# the o"d aristocracy> hence the Aree$ tradition o# the ;"aw-giver'< which has captured the imaginations o# scho"ars "i$e Aoody. &ut the app"ication and e##icacy o# a"" "aw codes depend on their interpretation by magistrates and courts' and un"ess the right o# interpretation is ;democrati)ed'< the mere e5istence o# written "aws changes "itt"e. /n #act' never in anti+uity did any but the e"ite consu"t documents and boo$s. =ven in Aree$ courts the 2uries heard on"y the re"evant statutes read out during the proceedings' as they heard verba" testimony' and they then rendered their verdict on the spot' without the bene#it o# any discussion among themse"ves. True' in 0thens the 2uries were representative o# a broad spectrum o# the popu"ation' and these 2uries' drawn #rom diverse socia" c"asses' both interpreted what they had heard and determined matters o# #act. (owever' they guided so"e"y by the speeches prepared #or the parties by pro#essiona" p"eaders and by the +uotations o# "aws or decrees within the speeches' rather than by their own access to any $ind o# document or boo$. Aranted' peop"e today a"so re"y heavi"y on a tru"y $now"edgeab"e minority #or in#ormation and its interpretation' o#ten transmitted ora""y. Det this is sti"" #undamenta""y di##erent #rom an ancient society in which there was no ;popu"ar "iterature'< i.e.' no newspapers' maga)ines' or other media that dea"t with sociopo"itica" issues. 0n ancient "aw code wou"d have been ana"ogous to the Eatin &ib"e' a venerated document but a c"osed boo$. The resistance o# the

LSAT
medieva" %hurch to vernacu"ar trans"ations o# the &ib"e' in the 8est at "east' is there#ore a pointer to the rea"ities o# ancient "iteracy. 8hen #undamenta" documents are accessib"e #or

651

study on"y to an e"ite' the rest o# the society is sub2ect to the e"ite3s interpretation o# the ru"es o# behavior' inc"uding right po"itica" behavior. 0thens' inso#ar as it #unctioned as a democracy' did so not because o# widespread "iteracy' but because the e"ite had chosen to accept democratic institutions.

10. &hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) emocratic political institutions grow organically from the traditions and con'entions of a society. (B) emocratic political institutions are not necessarily the outcome of literacy in a society. (C) =eligious authority/ like political authority/ can determine who in a gi'en society will ha'e access to important books and documents. ( ) Those who are best educated are most often those who control the institutions of authority in a society. (#) Those in authority ha'e a 'ested interest in ensuring that those under their control remain illiterate. 11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author assumes which one of the following about societies in which the people possess a rudimentary reading ability% (A) They are more politically ad'anced than societies without rudimentary reading ability. (B) They are unlikely to e$hibit the positi'e effects of literacy. (C) They are rapidly e'ol'ing toward widespread literacy. ( ) ?any of their people might not ha'e access to important documents and books. (#) ?ost of their people would not participate in political decision(making. 12. The author refers to the truly knowledgeable minority in contemporary societies in the conte$t of the fourth paragraph in order to imply which one of the following% (A) Because they ha'e a popular literature that closes the gap between the elite and the ma<ority/ contemporary societies rely far less on the knowledge of e$perts than did ancient societies. (B) Contemporary societies rely on the knowledge of e$perts/ as did ancient societies/ because contemporary popular literature so fre"uently con'eys specious information. (C) Although contemporary societies rely hea'ily on the knowledge of e$perts/ access to popular literature makes contemporary societies less dependent on

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e$perts for information about rules of beha'ior than were ancient societies. ( ) &hile only some members of the elite can become e$perts/ popular literature gi'es the ma<ority in contemporary society an opportunity to become members of such an elite. (#) Access to popular literature distinguishes ancient from contemporary societies because it relies on a le'el of educational achie'ement attainable only be a contemporary elite. 1-. According to the passage/ each of the following statements concerning ancient Breek <uries is true #DC#@TE (A) They were somewhat democratic insofar as they were composed largely of people from the lowest social classes. (B) They were e$posed to the law only insofar as they heard rele'ant statutes read out during legal proceedings. (C) They ascertained the facts of a case and interpreted the laws. ( ) They did not ha'e direct access to important books and documents that were a'ailable to the elite. (#) They rendered 'erdicts without benefit of pri'ate discussion among themsel'es. 16. The author characteri!es the Breek tradition of the *law(gi'er+ (line 21) as an effect mythologi!ing most probably in order to (A) illustrate the ancient Breek tendency to memoriali!e historical e'ents by transforming them into myths (B) con'ey the historical importance of the de'elopment of the early Athenian written law code (C) con'ey the high regard in which the Athenians held their legal tradition ( ) suggest that the de'elopment of a written law code was not primarily responsible for diminishing the power of the Athenian aristocracy (#) suggest that the Breek tradition of the *law(gi'er+ should be understood in the larger conte$t of Breek mythology 1,. The author draws an analogy between the Katin Bible and an early law code (lines 0,(11) in order to make which one of the following points% (A) ocuments were considered authoritati'e in premodern society in proportion to their inaccessibility to the ma<ority. (B) ocuments that were percei'ed as highly influential in premodern societies were not necessarily accessible to the society4s ma<ority. (C) &hat is most re'ered in a nondemocratic society is what is most fre"uently misunderstood. ( ) @olitical documents in premodern societies e$erted a social influence similar to that e$erted by religious documents.

LSAT

65.

(#) @olitical documents in premodern societies were inaccessible to the ma<ority of the population because of the language in which they were written. 25. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) argue that a particular method of obser'ing contemporary societies is inconsistent (B) point out the weaknesses in a particular approach to understanding ancient societies (C) present the disad'antages of a particular approach to understanding the relationship between ancient and contemporary societies ( ) e$amine the importance of de'eloping an appropriate method for understanding ancient societies (#) con'ey the difficulty of accurately understanding attitudes in ancient societies
The =ng"ish who in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries inhabited those co"onies that wou"d "ater become the United tates shared a common po"itica" vocabu"ary with the =ng"ish in =ng"and. teeped as they were in the =ng"ish po"itica" "anguage' these co"onia"s #ai"ed to observe that their e5perience in 0merica had given the words a signi#icance +uite di##erent #rom that accepted by the =ng"ish with whom they debated: in #act' they c"aimed that they were more "oya" to the =ng"ish po"itica" tradition than were the =ng"ish in =ng"and. /n many respects the po"itica" institutions o# =ng"and were reproduced in these 0merican co"onies. &y the midd"e o# eighteenth century' a"" o# these co"onies e5cept #our were headed by Roya" Aovernors appointed by the Ning and perceived as bearing a re"ation to the peop"e o# the co"ony simi"ar to that o# the Ning to the =ng"ish peop"e. ?oreover' each o# these co"onies en2oyed a representative assemb"y' which was conscious"y mode"ed' in powers and practices' a#ter the =ng"ish 6ar"iament. /n both =ng"and and these co"onies' on"y property ho"ders cou"d vote. *everthe"ess' though =ng"ish and co"onia" institutions were structura""y simi"ar' attitudes toward those institutions di##ered. 7or e5amp"e' =ng"ish "ega" deve"opment #rom the ear"y seventeenth century had been moving steadi"y toward the abso"ute power o# 6ar"iament. The most unmista$ab"e sign o# this tendency was the "ega" assertion that the Ning was sub2ect to the "aw. Together with this reso"ute denia" o# the abso"ute right o# $ings went the assertion that 6ar"iament was un"imited in its power> it cou"d change even the %onstitution by its ordinary acts o# "egis"ation. &y the eighteenth century the =ng"ish had accepted the idea that the par"iamentary representatives o# the peop"e were omnipotent. The citi)ens o# these co"onies did not "oo$ upon the =ng"ish 6ar"iament with such #ond eyes' nor did they concede that their own assemb"ies possessed such wide powers. There were good historica" reasons #or this. To the =ng"ish the word ;constitution< meant the who"e body o# "aw and "ega" custom #ormu"ated since the beginning o# the $ingdom' whereas to these co"onia"s a constitution was a speci#ic written document' enumerating speci#ic powers. This distinction in meaning can be traced to the #act that the #oundations o# government in the various co"onies were written charters granted by the %rown. These e5press authori)ations to govern were tangib"e' de#inite things. 9ver the years these co"onia" had o#ten repaired to the

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charters to 2usti#y themse"ves in the strugg"e against tyrannica" governors or o##icia"s o# the %rown. ?ore than a century o# government under written constitutions convinced these co"onists o# the necessity #or and e##icacy o# protecting their "iberties against governmenta" encroachment by e5p"icit"y de#ining a"" governmenta" powers in a document.

21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) The colonials and the #nglish mistakenly thought that they shared a common political 'ocabulary. (B) The colonials and the #nglish shared a 'ariety of institutions. (C) The colonials and the #nglish had conflicting interpretations of the language and institutional structures that they shared. ( ) Colonial attitudes toward #nglish institutions grew increasingly hostile in the eighteenth century. (#) ;e'enteenth(century #nglish legal de'elopment accounted for colonial attitudes toward constitutions. 22. The passage supports all of the following statements about the political conditions present by the middle of the eighteenth century in the American colonies discussed in the passage #DC#@TE (A) Colonials who did not own property could not 'ote. (B) All of these colonies had representati'e assemblies modeled after the British @arliament. (C) ;ome of these colonies had =oyal Bo'ernors. ( ) =oyal Bo'ernors could be remo'ed from office by colonial assemblies. (#) 3n these colonies/ =oyal Bo'ernors were regarded as ser'ing a function like that of a king. 2.. The passage implies which one of the following about #nglish kings prior to the early se'enteenth century% (A) They were the source of all law. (B) They fre"uently flouted laws made by @arliament. (C) Their power relati'e to that of @arliament was considerably greater than it was in the eighteenth century. ( ) They were more often the sources of legal reform than they were in the eighteenth century. (#) They had to combat those who belie'ed that the power of @arliament was absolute. 20. The author mentions which one of the following as e'idence for the eighteenth( century #nglish attitude toward @arliament% (A) The #nglish had become uncomfortable with institutions that could claim absolute authority.

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651

(B) The #nglish reali!ed that their interests were better guarded by @arliament than by the Ming. (C) The #nglish allowed @arliament to make constitutional changes by legislati'e enactment. ( ) The #nglish felt that the Ming did not possess the knowledge that could enable him to rule responsibly. (#) The #nglish had decided that it was time to reform their representati'e go'ernment. 21. The passage implies that the colonials discussed in the passage would ha'e considered which one of the following to be a source of their debates with #ngland% (A) their changed use of the #nglish political 'ocabulary (B) #nglish commitment to parliamentary representation (C) their uni"uely #nglish e$perience ( ) their refusal to adopt any #nglish political institutions (#) their greater loyalty to the #nglish political traditions 22. According to the passage/ the #nglish attitude toward the #nglish Constitution differed from the colonial attitude toward constitutions in that the #nglish regarded their Constitution as (A) the legal foundation of the kingdom (B) a document containing a collection of customs (C) a cumulati'e corpus of legislation and legal traditions ( ) a record alterable by royal authority (#) an unchangeable body of go'ernmental powers 2-. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) e$pose the misunderstanding that has characteri!ed descriptions of the relationship between se'enteenth and eighteenth(century #ngland and certain of its American colonies (B) suggest a reason for #ngland4s treatment of certain of its American colonies in the se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries (C) settle an ongoing debate about the relationship between #ngland and certain of its American colonies in the se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries ( ) interpret the e'ents leading up to the independence of certain of #ngland4s American colonies in the eighteenth century (#) e$plain an aspect of the relationship between #ngland and certain of its American colonies in the se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries LSAT 11 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

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Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
9i" companies needs o##shore p"at#orms primari"y because the oi" or natura" gas the companies e5tract #rom the ocean #"oor has to be processed be#ore pumps can be used to move the substances ashore. &ut because processing crude (unprocessed oi" or gas) on a p"at#orm rather than at #aci"ities onshore e5poses wor$ers to the ris$s o# e5p"osion and to an unpredictab"e environment' researchers are attempting to diminish the need #or human "abor on p"at#orms and even to e"iminate p"at#orms a"together by redesigning two $inds o# pumps to hand"e crude. These pumps cou"d then be used to boost the natura" pressure driving the #"ow o# crude' which' by itse"#' is su##icient on"y to bring the crude to the p"at#orm' "ocated 2ust above the we""head. %urrent"y' pumps that cou"d boost this natura" pressure su##icient"y to drive the crude through a pipe"ine to the shore do not wor$ consistent"y because o# the crude3s content. %rude may consist o# oi" or natura" gas in mu"tiphase states!combinations o# "i+uids' gases' and so"ids under pressure!that do not reach the we""head in constant proportions. The #"ow o# crude oi"' #or e5amp"e' can change +uic$"y #rom G. percent "i+uid to 7. percent gas. This surge in gas content causes "oss o# ;head<' or pressure inside a pump' with the resu"t that a pump can no "onger impart enough energy to transport the crude mi5ture through the pipe"ine and to the shore. 9# two pumps being redesigned' the positive-disp"acement pump is promising because it is immune to sudden shi#ts in the proportion o# "i+uid to gas in the crude mi5ture. &ut the pump3s design' which consists o# a sing"e or twin screw pushing the #"uid #rom one end o# the pump to the other' brings crude into c"ose contact with most parts o# the pump' and thus re+uires that it be made o# e5pensive' corrosion-resistant materia". The a"ternative is the centri#uga" pump' which has a rotating impe""er that suc$s #"uid in at one end and #orces #"uid out at the other. 0"though this pump has a proven design and has wor$ed #or years with "itt"e maintenance in waste-disposa" p"ants' researchers have discovered that because the swir" o# its impe""er separates gas out #rom the oi" that norma""y accompanies it' signi#icant reductions in head can occur as it operates. Research in the deve"opment o# these pumps is #ocused main"y on trying to reduce the cost o# the positive-disp"acement pump and attempting to ma$e the centri#uga" pump more to"erant o# gas. 9ther researchers are "oo$ing at ways o# adapting either $ind o# pump #or use underwater' so that crude cou"d be moved direct"y #rom the sea bottom to processing #aci"ities onshore' e"iminating p"at#orms.

1.

&hich one of following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) 8il companies are e$perimenting with technologies that may help diminish the danger to workers from offshore crude processing. (B) 8il companies are seeking methods of installing processing facilities underwater. (C) =esearchers are de'eloping se'eral new pumps designed to enhance human

LSAT

65-

labor efficiency in processing facilities. ( ) =esearchers are seeking to de'elop e"uipment that would preempt the need for processing facilities onshore. (#) =esearchers are seeking ways to separate li"uids from gases in crude in order to enable safer processing. 2. The passage supports which one of the following statements about the natural pressure dri'ing the flow of crude% (A) 3t is higher than that created by the centrifugal pump. (B) 3t is constant regardless of relati'e proportions of gas and li"uid. (C) 3t is able to carry the crude only as far as the wellhead. ( ) 3t is able to carry the crude to the platform. (#) 3t is able to carry the crude to the shore. .. &hich one of the following best describes the relationship of the second paragraph to the passage as a whole% (A) 3t offers concrete detail designed to show that the argument made in the first paragraph is flawed. (B) 3t pro'ides detail that e$pands upon the information presented in the first paragraph. (C) 3t enhances the author4s discussion by ob<ecti'ely presenting in detail the pros and cons of a claim made in the first paragraph. ( ) 3t detracts from the author4s discussion by presenting 'arious problems that "ualify the goals presented. (#) 3t modifies an obser'ation made in the first paragraph by detailing 'iewpoints against it. 0. &hich one of the following phrases/ if substituted for the word *head+ in line 0-/ would K#A;T change the meaning of the sentence% (A) the flow of the crude inside the pump (B) the 'olume of oil inside the pump (C) the 'olume of gas inside the pump ( ) the speed of the impeller mo'ing the crude (#) the pressure inside of the pump 1. &ith which one of the following statements regarding offshore platforms would the author most likely agree% (A) 3f a reduction of human labor on offshore platform is achie'ed/ there is no real need to eliminate platforms altogether. (B) =educing human labor on offshore platforms is desirable because researchers4 knowledge about the transportation of crude is dangerously incomplete. (C) The dangers in'ol'ed in working on offshore platforms make their

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elimination a desirable goal. ( ) The positi'e(displacement pump is the better alternati'e for researchers/ because it would allow them to eliminate platforms altogether. (#) Though researchers ha'e succeeded in reducing human labor on offshore platforms/ they think that it would be inad'isable to eliminate platforms altogether/ because these platforms ha'e other uses. 2. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about pumps that are currently a'ailable to boost the natural pressure of crude% (A) The efficiency of these pumps depends on there being no gas in the flow of crude. (B) These pumps are more efficient when the crude is less sub<ect to sudden increases in the proportion of gas to li"uid. (C) A sudden change from solid to li"uid in the flow of crude increases the efficiency of these pumps. ( ) The proportion of li"uid to gas in the flow of crude does not affect the efficiency of these pumps. (#) A sudden change from li"uid to gas in the flow of crude increases the risk of e$plosion due to rising pressure inside these pumps. -. The passage implies that the positi'e(displacement pump differs from the centrifugal pump in that the positi'e(displacement pump (A) is more promising/ but it also is more e$pensi'e and demands more maintenance (B) is especially well research/ since it has been used in other settings (C) in'ol'es the use of a single or twin screw that sucks fluid in at one end of the pump ( ) is problematic because it cause rapid shifts from li"uid to gas content in crude (#) in'ol'es e$posure of many parts of the pump to crude 6. The passage implies that the current state of technology necessitates that crude be mo'ed to shore (A) in a multiphase state (B) in e"ual proportions of gas to li"uid (C) with small proportions of corrosi'e material ( ) after ha'ing been processed (#) largely in the form of a li"uid
To critics accustomed to the sty"e o# #i#teenth-century narrative paintings by /ta"ian artists #rom Tuscany' the Benetian e5amp"es o# narrative paintings with re"igious sub2ects that 6atricia 7ortini &rown ana"y)es in a recent boo$ wi"" come as a great surprise. 8hi"e the Tuscan paintings present "arge-sca"e #igures' c"ear narratives' and simp"e settings' the

LSAT

65,

Benetians #i""ed their pictures with do)ens o# sma"" #igures and e"aborate bui"ding' in addition to a wea"th o# care#u""y observed anecdota" detai" o#ten irre"evant to the paintings3 principa" sub2ects!the re"igious stories they narrate. 0"though it occasiona""y obscured these stories' this accumu"ation o# circumstantia" detai" #rom Benetian "i#e!the inc"usion o# prominent Benetian citi)ens' #or e5amp"e!was considered appropriate to the narration o# historica" sub2ects and under"ined the authenticity o# the historica" events depicted. /ndeed' &rown argues that the distinctive sty"e o# the Benetian paintings!what she ca""s the ;eyewitness sty"e<!was in#"uenced by Benetian a##inity #or a strong"y parochia" type o# historica" writing' consisting a"most e5c"usive"y o# vernacu"ar chronic"es o# "oca" events embroidered with a"" $inds o# inconse+uentia" detai". 0nd yet' whi"e Benetian attitudes toward history that are re#"ected in their art account in part #or the di##erence in sty"e between Benetian and Tuscan narrative paintings' &rown has over"oo$ed some practica" in#"uences' such as c"imate. Tuscan churches are #i""ed with #rescoes that' in contrast to Benetian narrative paintings' consist main"y o# "arge #igures and easi"y recogni)ed re"igious stories' as one wou"d e5pect o# paintings that are norma""y viewed #rom a distance and are designed primari"y to remind the #aith#u" o# their re"igious tenets. /n Benice' where the damp c"imate is unsuited to #resco' narrative #rescoes in churches were a"most none5istent' with the resu"t that Benetian artists and their pub"ic had no practica" e5perience o# the "arge-sca"e representation o# #ami"iar re"igious stories. Their mode" #or painted stories was the cyc"e o# secu"ar historica" paintings in the Benetian magistrate3s pa"ace' which were indeed the counterpart o# written history and were made a"" the more authoritative by a pro"i#eration o# circumstantia" detai". ?oreover' because painting #rescoes re+uires an unusua""y sure hand' particu"ar"y in the representation o# human #orm' the deve"opment o# drawing s$i"" was centra" to artistic training in Tuscany' and by 1-.. the pub"ic there tended to distinguish artists on the basis o# how we"" they cou"d draw human #igures. /n Benice' a city virtua""y without #rescoes' this $ind o# s$i"" was ac+uired and appreciated much "ater. Aenti"e &e""ini' #or e5amp"e' a"though regarded as one o# the supreme painters o# the day' was #eeb"e at drawing. 9n the other hand' the emphasis on architecture so evident in the Benetian narrative paintings was something that "oca" painters obvious"y pri)ed' "arge"y because painting architecture in perspective was seen as a particu"ar test o# the Benetian painter3s s$i"".

,.

&hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage% (A) Tuscan painters4 use of fresco e$plains the prominence of human figures in the narrati'e paintings that they produced during the fifteenth century. (B) 3n addition to fifteenth(century Cenetian attitudes toward history/ other factors may help to e$plain the characteristic features of Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects produced during that period. (C) The inclusion of authentic detail from Cenetian life distinguished fifteenth( century Cenetian narrati'e paintings from those that were produced in Tuscany. ( ) Cenetian painters were generally more skilled at painting buildings than Tuscan painters were at drawing human forms.

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(#) The cycle of secular historical paintings in the Cenetian magistrate4s palace was the primary narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects. 15. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) @ointing out the superiority of one painting style o'er another. (B) Citing e'idence that re"uires a ree'aluation of a con'entionally held 'iew. (C) iscussing factors that e$plain a difference in painting styles. ( ) 8utlining the strengths and weaknesses of two opposing 'iews regarding the e'olution of a painting style. (#) Arguing for the irrele'ance of one theory and for its replacement by a more plausible alternati'e. 11. As it is described in the passage/ Brown4s e$planation of the use of the eyewitness style in Cenetian narrati'e painting suggests that (A) The painting of architecture in perspecti'e re"uires greater drawing skill than does the representation of a human form in a fresco. (B) Certain characteristics of a style of painting can reflect a style of historical writing that was common during the same period. (C) The eyewitness style in Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects was largely the result of the influence of Tuscan artists who worked primarily in fresco. ( ) The historical detail in Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects can be traced primarily to the influence of the paintings in the Cenetian magistrate4s palace. (#) A style of painting can be dramatically transformed by a sudden influ$ of artists from another region. 12. The author suggests that fifteenth(century Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects were painted by artists who (A) were able to draw human figures with more skill after they were apprenticed to painters in Tuscany (B) assumed that their paintings would typically be 'iewed from a distance (C) were a ma<or influence on the artists who produced the cycle of historical paintings in the Cenetian magistrate4s palace ( ) were reluctant to paint frescoes primarily because they lacked the drawing skill that painting frescoes re"uired (#) were better at painting architecture in perspecti'e than they were at drawing human figures 1.. The author implies that Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects included the representation of elaborate buildings in part because (A) the ability to paint architecture in perspecti'e was seen in Cenice as proof of a

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611

painter4s skill (B) the sub<ects of such paintings were often religious stories (C) large frescoes were especially conduci'e to representing architecture in perspecti'e ( ) the architecture of Cenice in the fifteenth century was more elaborate than was the architecture of Tuscany (#) the paintings were imitations of a kind of historical writing that was popular in Tuscany 10. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s contention that fifteenth(century Cenetian artists *had no practical e$perience of the large( scale representation of familiar religious stories+ (line 05(02)% (A) The style of secular historical paintings in the palace of the Cenetian magistrate was similar to that of Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects. (B) The style of the historical writing produced by fifteenth(century Cenetian authors was similar in its inclusion of anecdotal details to secular paintings produced during that century in Tuscany. (C) ?any of the artists who produced Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects ser'ed as apprentices in Tuscany/ where they had become familiar with the techni"ue of painting of frescoes. ( ) >ew of the frescoes painted in Tuscany during the fifteenth century had secular sub<ects/ and those that did often betrayed the artist4s inability to represent elaborate architecture in perspecti'e. (#) >ew of the Cenetian narrati'e paintings produced toward the end of the fifteenth century show e'idence of the enhanced drawing skill that characteri!ed the paintings produced in Cenice a century later.
%urrent"y' "ega" scho"ars agree that in some cases "ega" ru"es do not speci#y a de#inite outcome. These scho"ars be"ieve that such indeterminacy resu"ts #rom the vagueness o# "anguage> the boundaries o# the app"ication o# a term are o#ten unc"ear. *everthe"ess' they maintain that the system o# "ega" ru"es by and "arge rests on c"ear core meanings that do determine de#inite outcomes #or most cases. %ontrary to this view' an ear"ier group o# "ega" phi"osophers' ca""ed ;rea"ists'< argued that indeterminacy pervades every part o# the "aw. The rea"ists he"d that there is a"ways a c"uster o# ru"es re"evant to the decision in any "itigated case. 7or e5amp"e' deciding whether an aunt3s promise to pay her niece a sum o# money i# she re#rained #rom smo$ing is en#orceab"e wou"d invo"ve a number o# ru"es regarding such issues as o##er' acceptance' and revocation. Einguistic vagueness in any one o# these ru"es wou"d a##ect the outcome o# the case' ma$ing possib"e mu"tip"e points o# indeterminacy' not 2ust one or two' in any "ega" case. 7or the rea"ists' an even more damaging $ind o# indeterminacy stems #rom the #act that in a common-"aw system based on precedent' a 2udge3s decision is he"d to be binding on 2udges

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in subse+uent simi"ar cases. @udicia" decisions are e5pressed in written opinions' common"y he"d to consist o# two parts> the ho"ding (the decision #or or against the p"ainti## and the essentia" grounds or "ega" reasons #or it' that is' what subse+uent 2udges are bound by)' and the dicta (everything in an opinion not essentia" to the decision' #or e5amp"e' comments about points o# "aw not treated as the basis o# the outcome). The rea"ists argued that in practice the common-"aw system treats the ;ho"dingKdicta< distinction "oose"y. They pointed out that even when the 2udge writing an opinion characteri)es part o# it as ;the ho"ding'< 2udges writing subse+uent opinions' a"though un"i$e"y to dispute the decision itse"#' are not bound by the origina" 2udge3s perception o# what was essentia" to the decision. Eater 2udges have tremendous "eeway in being ab"e to rede#ine the ho"ding and the dicta in a precedentia" case. This "eeway enab"es 2udges to choose which ru"es o# "aw #ormed the basis o# the decision in the ear"ier case. 8hen 2udging a"most any case' then' a 2udge can #ind a re"evant precedentia" case which' in subse+uent opinions' has been read by one 2udge as stating one "ega" ru"e' and by another 2udge as stating another' possib"y contradictory one. 0 2udge thus #aces an indeterminate "ega" situation in which he or she has to choose which ru"es are to govern the case at hand.

11. According to the passage/ the realists argued that which one of the following is true of a common(law system% (A) 3t gi'es rise to numerous situations in which the decisions of earlier <udges are found to be in error by later <udges. (B) 3t possesses a clear set of legal rules in theory/ but in practice most <udges are unaware of the strict meaning of those rules. (C) 3ts strength lies in the re"uirement that <udges decide cases according to precedent rather than according to a set of abstract principles. ( ) 3t would be impro'ed if <udges refrained from willfully misinterpreting the written opinions of prior <udges. (#) 3t treats the difference between the holding and the dicta in a written opinion rather loosely in practice. 12. According to the passage/ which one of the following best describes the relationship between a <udicial holding and a <udicial decision% (A) The holding is not commonly considered binding on subse"uent <udges/ but the decision is. (B) The holding formally states the outcome of the case/ while the decision e$plains it. (C) The holding e$plains the decision but does not include it. ( ) The holding consists of the decision and the dicta. (#) The holding sets forth and <ustifies a decision. 1-. The information in the passage suggests that the realists would most likely ha'e agreed with which one of the following statements about the reaction of <udges to past interpretations of a precedential case/ each of which states a different legal

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rule% (A) The <udges would most likely disagree with one or more of the interpretations and o'erturn the earlier <udges4 decisions. (B) The <udges might differ from each other concerning which of the interpretations would apply in a gi'en case. (C) The <udges probably would consider themsel'es bound by all the legal rules stated in the interpretations. ( ) The <udges would regard the lack of unanimity among interpretations as e'idence that no precedents e$isted. (#) The <udges would point out in their holdings the inherent contradictions arising from the earlier <udges4 differing interpretations. 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that most legal scholars today would agree with the realists that (A) Kinguistic 'agueness can cause indeterminacy regarding the outcome of a litigated case. (B) 3n any litigated case/ se'eral different and possibly contradictory legal rules are rele'ant to the decision of the case. (C) The distinction between holding and dicta in a written opinion is usually difficult to determine in practice. ( ) The boundaries of applicability of terms may sometimes be difficult to determine/ but the core meanings of the terms are well established. (#) A common(law system gi'es <udges tremendous leeway in interpreting precedents/ and contradictor readings of precedential cases can usually be found. 1,. The passage suggests that the realists belie'ed which one of the following to be true of the dicta in a <udge4s written opinion% (A) The <udge writing the opinion is usually careful to specify those parts of the opinion he or she considers part of the dicta. (B) The appropriateness of the <udge4s decision would be disputed by subse"uent <udges on the basis of legal rules e$pressed in the dicta. (C) A consensus concerning what constitutes the dicta in a <udge4s opinion comes to be fi$ed o'er time as subse"uent similar cases are decided. ( ) ;ubse"uent <udges can consider parts of what the original <udge saw as the dicta to be essential to the original opinion. (#) The <udge4s decision and the grounds for it are usually easily distinguishable from the dicta. 25. &hich one of the following best describes the o'erall organi!ation of the passage% (A) A traditional point of 'iew is e$plained and problems arising from it are

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described. (B) Two conflicting systems of thought are compared point for point and then e'aluated. (C) A legal concept is defined and arguments <ustifying that definition are refuted. ( ) Two 'iewpoints on an issue are briefly described and one of those 'iewpoints is discussed at greater length. (#) A theoretical description of how a system de'elops is contrasted with the actual practices characteri!ing the system. 21. &hich one of the following titles best reflects the content of the passage% (A) Kegal 3ndeterminacyE The ebate Continues (B) )olding Cersus ictaE A istinction &ithout a ifference (C) Kinguistic CaguenessE 3s 3t Circumscribed in Kegal Terminology% ( ) Kegal 3ndeterminacyE The =ealist4s Ciew of 3ts ;cope (#) Kegal =ules and the @recedential ;ystemE )ow Audges 3nterpret the @recedents
Dears a#ter the movement to obtain civi" rights #or b"ac$ peop"e in the United tates made its most important gains' scho"ars are reaching #or a theoretica" perspective capab"e o# c"ari#ying its momentous deve"opments. *ew theories o# socia" movements are being discussed' not 2ust among socia" psycho"ogists' but a"so among po"itica" theorists. 9# the many competing #ormu"ations o# the ;c"assica"< socia" psycho"ogica" theory o# socia" movement' three are prominent in the "iterature on the civi" rights movement> ;rising e5pectations'< ;re"ative deprivation'< and ;@-curve.< =ach con#orms to a causa" se+uence characteristic o# c"assica" socia" movement theory' "in$ing some unusua" condition' or ;system strain'< to the generation o# unrest. 8hen these versions o# the c"assica" theory are app"ied to the civi" rights movement' the source o# strain is identi#ied as a change in b"ac$ socioeconomic status that occurred short"y be#ore the widespread protest activity o# the movement. 7or e5amp"e' the theory o# rising e5pectations asserts that protest activity was a response to psycho"ogica" tensions generated by gains e5perienced immediate"y prior to the civi" rights movement. 0dvancement did not satis#y ambition' but created the desire #or #urther advancement. 9n"y s"ight"y di##erent is the theory o# re"ative deprivation. (ere the impetus to protest is identi#ied as gains achieved during the premovement period' coup"ed with simu"taneous #ai"ure to ma$e any appreciab"e headway re"ative to the dominant group. The @curve theory argues that the movement occurred because a pro"onged period o# rising e5pectations and grati#ication was #o""owed by a sharp reversa". 6o"itica" theorists have been dismissive o# these app"ications o# c"assica" theory to the civi" rights movement. Their arguments rest on the conviction that' imp"icit"y' the c"assica" theory trivia"i)es the po"itica" ends o# movement participants' #ocusing rather on presumed psycho"ogica" dys#unctions> reduction o# comp"e5 socia" situations to simp"e paradigms o# stimu"us and response obviates the re"evance o# a"" but the shortest-term ana"ysis.

LSAT

611

7urthermore' the theories "ac$ predictive va"ue> ;strain< is a"ways present to some degree' but socia" movement is not. (ow can we $now which strain wi"" provo$e upheava"C These very "egitimate comp"aints having #re+uent"y been made' it remains to #ind a means o# testing the strength o# the theories. 6rob"ematica""y' whi"e proponents o# the various theories have contradictory interpretations o# socioeconomic conditions "eading to the civi" rights movement' e5amination o# various statistica" records regarding the materia" status o# b"ac$ 0mericans yie"ds amp"e evidence to support any o# the three theories. The steady rise in median b"ac$ #ami"y income supports the rising e5pectations hypothesis: the stabi"ity o# the economic position o# b"ac$ vis-Z-vis white 0mericans "ends credence to the re"ative deprivation interpretation: unemp"oyment data are consistent with the @-curve theory. 0 better test is the comparison o# each o# these economic indicators with the #re+uency o# movementinitiated events reported in the press: unsurprising"y' none corre"ates signi#icant"y with the pace o# reports about movement activity.

22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the classical theory of social mo'ement would not be appropriately applied to an annual general election because such an election (A) may focus on personalities rather than on political issues (B) is not pro'oked primarily by an unusual condition (C) may be decided according to the psychological needs of 'oters ( ) may not entail momentous de'elopments (#) actually entails two or more distinct social mo'ements 2.. According to the passage/ the *rising e$pectations+ and *relati'e depri'ation+ models differ in which one of the following ways% (A) They predict different responses to the same socioeconomic conditions. (B) They disagree about the rele'ance of psychological e$planations for protest mo'ements. (C) They are meant to e$plain different kinds of social change. ( ) They describe the moti'ation of protesters in slightly different ways. (#) They disagree about the rele'ance of socioeconomic status to system strain. 20. The author implies that political theorists attribute which one of the following assumptions to social psychologists who apply the classical theory of social mo'ements to the ci'il rights mo'ement% (A) @articipants in any gi'en social mo'ement ha'e conflicting moti'ations. (B) ;ocial mo'ements are ultimately beneficial to society. (C) 8nly strain of a socioeconomic nature can pro'oke a social mo'ement. ( ) The political ends of mo'ement participants are best analy!ed in terms of participants4 psychological moti'ations. (#) @sychological moti'ations of mo'ement participants better illuminate the causes of social mo'ements than do participants4 political moti'ations.

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21. &hich one of the following statements is supported by the results of the *better test+ discussed in the last paragraph of the passage% (A) The test confirms the three classical theories discussed in the passage. (B) The test pro'ides no basis for deciding among the three classical theories discussed in the passage. (C) The test shows that it is impossible to apply any theory of social mo'ements to the ci'il rights mo'ement. ( ) The test indicates that press co'erage of the ci'il rights mo'ement was biased. (#) The test 'erifies that the ci'il rights mo'ement generated socioeconomic progress. 22. The 'alidity of the *better test+ (line 21) as proposed by the author might be undermined by the fact that (A) the press is selecti'e about the mo'ement acti'ities it chooses to co'er (B) not all economic indicators recei'e the same amount of press co'erage (C) economic indicators often contradict one another ( ) a mo'ement(initiated e'ent may not correlate significantly with any of the three economic indicators (#) the pace of mo'ement(initiated e'ents is difficult to anticipate 2-. The main purpose of the passage is to (A) @ersuade historians of the indispensability of a theoretical framework for understanding recent history. (B) @resent a new model of social mo'ement. (C) Account for a shift in a theoretical debate. ( ) ;how the unity underlying the di'erse classical models of social mo'ement. (#) iscuss the reasoning behind and shortcomings of certain social psychological theories. LSAT 12 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
*ear"y every writer on the phi"osophy o# civi" rights activist ?artin Euther Ning' @r.' ma$es a connection between Ning and (enry Favid Thoreau' usua""y via Thoreau3s #amous essay' ;%ivi" Fisobedience< (18H9). /n his boo$ tride Toward Freedom (19-8)' Ning himse"# stated that Thoreau3s essay was his #irst inte""ectua" contact with the theory o# passive resistance to

LSAT
governmenta" "aws that are perceived as mora""y un2ust. (owever' this emphasis on

61-

Thoreau3s in#"uence on Ning is un#ortunate> #irst' Ning wou"d not have agreed with many other aspects o# Thoreau3s phi"osophy' inc"uding Thoreau3s u"timate acceptance o# vio"ence as a #orm o# protest: second' an overemphasis on the in#"uence o# one essay has $ept historians #rom noting other correspondences between Ning3s phi"osophy and transcendenta"ism. ;%ivi" Fisobedience< was the on"y e5amp"e o# transcendenta"ist writing with which Ning was #ami"iar' and in many other transcendenta"ist writings' inc"uding wor$s by Ra"ph 8a"do =merson and ?argaret 7u""er' Ning wou"d have #ound ideas more near"y a$in to his own. The $ind o# civi" disobedience Ning had in mind was' in #act' +uite di##erent #rom Thoreau3s view o# civi" disobedience. Thoreau' "i$e most other transcendenta"ists' was primari"y interested in re#orm o# the individua"' whereas Ning was primari"y interested in re#orm o# society. 0s a protest against the ?e5ican 8ar' Thoreau re#used to pay ta5es' but he did not hope by his action to #orce a change in nationa" po"icy. 8hi"e he encouraged others to adopt simi"ar protests' he did not attempt to mount any mass protest action against un2ust "aws. /n contrast to Thoreau' Ning began to advocate the use o# mass civi" disobedience to e##ect revo"utionary changes within the socia" system. (owever' Ning3s writings suggest that' without rea"i)ing it' he was an incipient transcendenta"ist. ?ost transcendenta"ists subscribed to the concept o# ;higher "aw< and inc"uded civi" disobedience to un2ust "aws as part o# their strategy. They o#ten invo$ed the concept o# higher "aw to 2usti#y their opposition to s"avery and to advocate disobedience to the strengthened 7ugitive "ave Eaw o# 18-.. /n his second ma2or boo$' Ning3s discussion o# 2ust and un2ust "aws and the responsibi"ity o# the individua" is very simi"ar to the transcendenta"ists3 discussion o# higher "aw. /n re#erence to how one can advocate brea$ing some "aws and obeying others' Ning notes that there are two types o# "aws' 2ust and un2ust: he describes a 2ust "aw as a ;code that s+uares with the mora" "aw< and an un2ust "aw as a ;code that is out o# harmony with the mora" "aw.< Thus' Ning3s opposition to the in2ustice o# "ega"i)ed segregation in the twentieth century is phi"osophica""y a$in to the transcendenta"ists3 opposition to the 7ugitive "ave Eaw in the nineteenth century.

1.

&hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage% (A) Ming4s philosophy was more influenced by Thoreau4s essay on ci'il disobedience than by any other writing of the transcendentalists. (B) &hile historians may ha'e o'erestimated Thoreau4s influence on Ming/ Ming was greatly influenced by a number of the transcendentalist philosophers. (C) Thoreau4s and Ming4s 'iews on ci'il disobedience differed in that Ming was more concerned with the social reform than with the economic reform of society. ( ) Although historians ha'e o'eremphasi!ed Thoreau4s influence on Ming/ there are parallels between Ming4s philosophy and transcendentalism that ha'e not been fully appreciated. (#) Ming4s ideas about law and ci'il disobedience were influenced by transcendentalism in general and Thoreau4s essays in particular.

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2.

&hich one of the following statements about *Ci'il isobedience+ would the author consider most accurate% (A) 3t was not Ming4s first contact with the concept of passi'e resistance to un<ust laws. (B) 3t was one of many e$amples of transcendentalist writing with which Ming was familiar. (C) 3t pro'ided Ming with a model for using passi'e resistance to effect social change. ( ) 3t contains a number of ideas with which other transcendentalists strongly disagreed. (#) 3t influenced Ming4s philosophy on passi'e resistance to un<ust laws.

..

3n the first paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) chronicling the de'elopment of Ming4s philosophy on passi'e resistance to un<ust law (B) suggesting that a common emphasis on one influence on Ming4s philosophy has been misleading (C) pro'iding new information about the influence of twentieth(century philosophers on Ming4s work ( ) summari!ing the work of historians of the most important influences on Ming4s philosophy (#) pro'iding background information about nineteenth(century transcendentalist philosophers

0.

According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of4 #merson and >uller% (A) ;ome of their ideas were less typical of transcendentalism than were some of Thoreau4s ideas. (B) They were more concerned with the reform of society than with the reform of the indi'idual. (C) They would ha'e been more likely than Thoreau to agree with Ming on the necessity of mass protest in ci'il disobedience. ( ) Their ideas about ci'il disobedience and un<ust laws are as well known as Thoreau4s are. (#) ;ome of their ideas were more similar to Ming4s than were some of Thoreau4s.

1.

According to the passage/ Ming differed from most transcendentalists in that he (A) opposed 'iolence as a form of ci'il protest (B) opposed war as an instrument of foreign policy under any circumstances (C) belie'ed that <ust laws had an inherent moral 'alue ( ) was more interested in reforming society than in reforming the indi'idual

LSAT

61,

(#) protested social and legal in<ustice in :nited ;tates society rather than :nited ;tates foreign policy 2. The passage suggests which one of the following about Thoreau% (A) )e was the first to de'elop fully the theory of ci'il disobedience. (B) )is work has had a greater influence on contemporary thinkers than has the work of #merson and >uller. (C) )is philosophy does not contain all of the same elements as the philosophies of the other transcendentalists. ( ) )e ad'ocated using ci'il disobedience to force the federal go'ernment to change its policies on war. (#) )e is better known for his ideas on social and legal reform than for his ideas on indi'idual reform. -. The passage pro'ides support for which one of the following statements about the "uotations in lines 12(11% (A) They are an e$ample of a way in which Ming4s ideas differed from Thoreau4s but were similar to the ideas of other transcendentalists. (B) They pro'ide e'idence that pro'es that Ming4s philosophy was affected by transcendentalist thought. (C) They suggest that Ming/ like the transcendentalists/ <udged human laws by ethical standards. ( ) They suggest a theoretical basis for Ming4s philosophy of go'ernment. (#) They pro'ide a paraphrase of Thoreau4s position on <ust and un<ust laws.
/n -emocracies and its Critics' Robert Fah" de#ends both democratic va"ue and p"ura"ist democracies' or po"yarchies (a rough shorthand term #or 8estern po"itica" systems). Fah" argues convincing"y that the idea o# democracy rests on po"itica" e+ua"ity!the e+ua"ity capacity o# a"" citi)ens to determine or in#"uence co""ective decisions. 9# course' as Fah" recogni)es' i# hierarchica" ordering is inevitab"e in any structure o# government' and i# no society can guarantee per#ect e+ua"ity in the resources that may give rise to po"itica" in#"uence' the democratic princip"e o# po"itica" e+ua"ity is incapab"e o# #u"" rea"i)ation. o actua" systems can be deemed democratic on"y as appro5imations to the idea". /t is on these grounds that Fah" de#ends po"yarchy. 0s a representative system in which e"ected o##icia"s both determine government po"icy and are accountab"e to a broad-based e"ectorate' po"yarchy rein#orces a di##usion o# power away #rom any sing"e center and toward a variety o# individua"s' groups' and organi)ations. /t is this centri#uga" characteristic' Fah" argues' that ma$es po"yarchy the nearest possib"e appro5imation to the democratic idea". 6o"yarchy achieves this di##usion o# power through party competition and the operation o# pressure groups. %ompeting #or votes' parties see$ to o##er di##erent sections o# the e"ectorate what they most want: they do not as$ what the ma2ority thin$s o# an issue' but what po"icy commitments wi"" sway the e"ectora" decisions o# particu"ar groups. =+ua""y' groups that have strong #ee"ings about an issue can organi)e in

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pressure groups to in#"uence pub"ic po"icy. Furing the 19G.s and 197.s' criticism o# the theory o# p"ura"ist democracy was vigorous. ?any critics pointed to a gap between the mode" and the rea"ity o# 8estern po"itica" systems. They argued that the distribution o# power resources other than the vote was so uneven that the po"itica" order systematica""y gave added weight to those who were a"ready richer or organi)ationa""y more power#u". o the power o# some groups to e5c"ude issues a"together #rom the po"itica" agenda e##ective"y countered any di##usion o# in#"uence on decision-ma$ing. 0"though such criticism became subdued during the 198.s' Fah" himse"# seems to support some o# the ear"ier criticism. 0"though he regrets that some 8estern inte""ectua"s demand more democracy #rom po"yarchies than is possib"e' and is cautious about the possibi"ity o# #urther democrati)ation' he neverthe"ess ends his boo$ by as$ing what changes in structures and consciousness might ma$e po"itica" "i#e more democratic in present po"yarchies. 9ne answer' he suggests' is to "oo$ at the economic order o# po"yarchies #rom the point o# view o# the citi)en as we"" as #rom that o# producers and consumers. This wou"d re+uire a critica" e5amination o# both the distribution o# those economic resources that are at the same time po"itica" resources' and the re"ationship between po"itica" structures and economic enterprises.

6.

The characteri!ation of polyarchies as *centrifugal+ (line 22) emphasi!es the (A) way in which political power is decentrali!ed in a polyarchy (B) central role of power resources in a polyarchy (C) kind of concentrated power that political parties generate in a polyarchy ( ) dynamic balance that e$ists between economic enterprises and elected officials in a polyarchy (#) dynamic balance that e$ists between 'oters and elected officials in a polyarchy

,.

3n the third paragraph/ the author of the passage refers to criticism of the theory of polyarchy democracy primarily in order to (A) refute ahl4s statement that &estern intellectuals e$pect more democracy from polyarchies than is possible (B) ad'ocate the need for rethinking the basic principles on which the theory of democracy rests (C) suggest that the structure of go'ernment within pluralist democracies should be changed ( ) point out a flaw in ahl4s argument that the principle of political e"uality cannot be fully reali!ed (#) point out an ob<ection to ahl4s defense of polyarchy

15. According to the passage/ the aim of a political party in a polyarchy is to do which one of the following% (A) determine what the position of the ma<ority of 'oters is on a particular issue

LSAT

621

(B) determine what position on an issue will earn the support of particular groups of 'oters (C) organi!e 'oters into pressure groups in order to influence public policy on a particular issue ( ) ensure that elected officials accurately represent the position of the party on specific issue (#) ensure that elected officials accurately represent the position of the electorate on specific issues 11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ahl assumes which one of the following in his defense of polyarchies% (A) @olyarchies are limited in the e$tent to which they can embody the idea of democracy. (B) The structure of polyarchical go'ernments is free of hierarchical ordering. (C) The citi!ens of a polyarchy ha'e e"ual access to the resources that pro'ide political influence. ( ) @olyarchy is the best political system to foster the growth of political parties. (#) @olyarchy is a form of go'ernment that is not influenced by the interests of economic enterprises. 12. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to pluralist democracies as they are described in relation to the democratic principle of political e"uality% (A) an e$act copy of an ancient artifact that is on display in a museum (B) a performance of a musical score whose range of tonality cannot be completely captured by any actual instruments (C) a lecture by a former astronaut to a class of young students who would like to be astronauts ( ) the commemoration of a historical e'ent each year by a historian presenting a lecture on a topic related to the e'ent (#) the mold from which a number of identical castings of a sculpture are made 1.. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen ahl4s defense of polyarchy% (A) The political agenda in a polyarchy is strongly influenced by how power resources other than the 'ote are distributed. (B) The outcome of elections is more often determined by the financial resources candidates are able to spend during campaigns than by their stands on political issue. (C) @ublic policy in a polyarchy is primarily determined by decision(makers who are not accountable to elected officials. ( ) @olitical parties in a polyarchy help concentrate political power in the central go'ernment.

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(#) ;mall and di'erse pressure groups are able to e$ert as much influence on public policy in a polyarchy as are large and powerful groups. 10. The passage can best be described as (A) an in"uiry into how present(day polyarchies can be made more democratic (B) a commentary on the means pressure groups employ to e$ert influence within polyarchies (C) a description of the relationship between polyarchies and economic enterprises ( ) a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of polyarchy as a form of democracy (#) an o'er'iew of the similarities between political parties and pressure groups in a polyarchy
The o"d be"ie# that c"imatic stabi"ity accounts #or the high "eve" o# species diversity in the 0ma)on River basin o# outh 0merica emerged' strange"y enough' #rom observations o# the deep sea. anders discovered high diversity among the mud-dwe""ing anima"s o# the deep ocean. (e argued that such diversity cou"d be attributed to the absence o# signi#icant #"uctuations in c"imate and physica" conditions' without which the e5tinction o# species shou"d be rare. /n the course o# time new species wou"d continue to evo"ve' and so the rate o# speciation wou"d be greater than the rate o# e5tinction' resu"ting in the accumu"ation o# great diversity. anders argued that the 0ma)on tropica" rain #orest is ana"ogous to the deep sea> because the rain #orest has a stab"e c"imate' e5tinction shou"d be rare. =vidence that some species o# rain-#orest trees have persisted #or some 4. mi""ion years in the 0ma)on basin' added to the absence o# winter and g"aciation' supports this view. Recent"y however' severa" observations have cast doubt on the va"idity o# the stabi"ity hypothesis and suggest that the c"imate o# the 0ma)on basin has #"uctuated signi#icant"y in the past. (a##er noted that di##erent species o# birds inhabit di##erent corners o# the basin in spite o# the #act that essentia""y unbro$en green #orest spreads #rom the western edge to the eastern edge o# the region. This pattern presented a pu))"e to bio"ogists studying the distributions o# p"ants and anima"s> why wou"d di##erent species inhabit di##erent parts o# the #orest i# the habitat in which they "ived had a stab"e c"imateC (a##er proposed a compe""ing e5p"anation #or the distribution o# species. 9bserving that species #ound on high ground are di##erent #rom those on "ow ground and $nowing that in the 0ma)on "ow"ands are drier than up"ands' he proposed that during the ice ages the 0ma)on "ow"ands became a near-desert arid p"ain: meanwhi"e' the more e"evated regions became is"ands o# moisture and hence served as re#uges #or the #auna and #"ora o# the rain #orest. 6opu"ations that were once continuous diverged and became permanent"y separated. (a##er3s hypothesis appears to e5p"ain the distribution o# species as we"" as the unusua" species diversity. The ice-age re#uges wou"d have protected e5isting species #rom e5tinction. &ut the periodic geographic iso"ation o# re"ated popu"ations (there have been an estimated 14 ice ages to date) wou"d have #aci"itated the deve"opment o# new species as e5isting species on the "ow"ands adapted to changing c"imates.

LSAT
0"though no conc"usive proo# has yet been #ound to support (a##er3s hypothesis' it has

62.

"ed other researchers to gauge the e##ects o# c"imatic changes' such as storms and #"ooding' on species diversity in the 0ma)on basin. Their research suggests that c"imatic disturbances he"p account #or the sp"endid diversity o# the 0ma)on rain #orest.

11. As discussed in the first paragraph of the passage/ ;anders4 analogy between the deep sea and the Ama!on basin in'ol'es which one of the following assumptions% (A) Both the Ama!on basin and the deep sea support an unusually high rate of speciation. (B) Both the rain(forest trees in the Ama!on basin and the mud(dwelling animals in the deep sea ha'e sur'i'ed for .5 million years. (C) Both the deep sea and the Ama!on basin ha'e not e$perienced dramatic changes in climate or physical conditions. ( ) A dependable supply of water to the Ama!on basin and the deep sea has moderated the rate of e$tinction in both habitats. (#) The rate of speciation in the Ama!on basin is e"ui'alent to the rate of speciation in the deep sea. 12. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which one of the following statements about )affer4s hypothesis% (A) 3t pro'ides an intriguing and complete e$planation for the high rate of species di'ersity in the Ama!on basin. (B) 3t is partially correct in that a number of climatic disturbances account for species di'ersity in the Ama!on basin. (C) 3t has not yet been 'erified/ but it has had an influential effect on current research on species di'ersity in the Ama!on basin. ( ) 3t is better than ;anders4 theory in accounting for the low rate of species e$tinction in the Ama!on basin. (#) 3t pro'ides a compelling e$planation for the distribution of species in the Ama!on basin but does not account for the high species di'ersity. 1-. According to the passage/ lowlands in the Ama!on basin currently differ from uplands in which one of the following respects% (A) Kowlands are desertlike/ whereas uplands are lush. (B) Kowlands are less 'ulnerable to glaciation during the ice ages than are uplands. (C) :plands support a greater di'ersity of species than do lowlands. ( ) :plands are wetter than are lowlands. (#) :plands are more densely populated than are lowlands. 16. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%

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(A) A hypothesis is discussed/ e'idence that undercuts that hypothesis is presented and a new hypothesis that may account for the e'idence is described. (B) A recently obser'ed phenomenon is described/ an e$planation for that phenomenon is discussed/ and the e$planation is e'aluated in light of pre'ious research findings. (C) ;e'eral hypotheses that may account for a pu!!ling phenomenon are described and discounted/ and a more promising hypothesis is presented. ( ) A hypothesis and the assumptions on which it is based are described/ and e'idence is pro'ided to suggest that the hypothesis is only partially correct. (#) Two alternati'e e$planations for a phenomenon are presented and compared/ and e$periments designed to test each theory are described. 1,. The author of the passage mentions the number of ice ages in the third paragraph most probably in order to (A) pro'ide proof that cooler and drier temperatures are primarily responsible for the distribution of species in the Ama!on (B) e$plain how populations of species were protected from e$tinction in the Ama!on basin (C) e$plain how most e$isting species were able to sur'i'e periodic climatic disturbances in the Ama!on basin ( ) suggest that certain kinds of climatic disturbances cause more species di'ersity than do other kinds of climatic disturbances (#) suggest that geographic isolation may ha'e occurred often enough to cause high species di'ersity in the Ama!on basin 25. The passage suggests that which one of the following is true of ;anders4 hypothesis% (A) )e underestimated the effects of winter and glaciation in the Ama!on basin on the tropical rain forest. (B) )e failed to recogni!e the similarity in physical conditions of the Ama!on lowlands and the Ama!on uplands. (C) )e failed to take into a count the relati'ely high rate of e$tinction during the ice ages in the Ama!on basin. ( ) )e o'erestimated the length of time that species ha'e sur'i'ed in the Ama!on basin. (#) )e failed to account for the distribution of species in the Ama!on basin. 21. &hich one of the following is e'idence that would contribute to the *proof+ mentioned in line 10% (A) Accurately dated sediment cores from a freshwater lake in the Ama!on indicate that the lake4s water le'el rose significantly during the last ice age.

LSAT

621

(B) ata based on radiocarbon dating of fossils suggest that the Ama!on uplands were too cold to support rain forests during the last ice age. (C) Computer models of climate during global ice ages predict only insignificant reductions of monsoon rains in tropical areas such as the Ama!on. ( ) >ossils preser'ed in the Ama!on uplands during the last ice age are found together with minerals that are the products of an arid landscape. (#) >ossili!ed pollen from the Ama!on lowlands indicates that during the last ice age the Ama!on lowlands supported 'egetation that needs little water rather than the rain forests they support today.
0"though surveys o# medieva" "egis"ation' gui"d organi)ation' and termino"ogy used to designate di##erent medica" practitioners have demonstrated that numerous medica" specia"ties were recogni)ed in =urope during the ?idd"e 0ges' most historians continue to e+uate the term ;woman medica" practitioner'< wherever they encounter it in medieva" records' with ;midwi#e.< This common practice obscures the #act that' a"though women were not represented on a"" "eve"s o# medicine e+ua""y' they were represented in a variety o# specia"ties throughout the broad medica" community. 0 re"iab"e study by 8ic$ersheimer and @ac+uart documents that o# 7'GH7 medica" practitioners in 7rance during the twe"#th through #i#teenth centuries' 111 were women: o# these' on"y HH were identi#ied as midwives' whi"e the rest practiced as physicians' surgeons' apothecaries' barbers' and other hea"ers. 8hi"e preserving termino"ogica" distinctions somewhat increases the +ua"ity o# the in#ormation e5tracted #rom medieva" documents concerning women medica" practitioners' scho"ars must a"so reopen the who"e +uestion o# why documentary evidence #or women medica" practitioners comprises such a tiny #raction o# the evidence historians o# medieva" medicine usua""y present. /s this due to the "imitations o# the historica" record' as has been c"aimed' or does it a"so resu"t #rom the methods historians useC Aranted' apart #rom medica" "icenses' the principa" sources o# in#ormation regarding medica" practitioners avai"ab"e to researchers are wi""s' property trans#ers' court records' and simi"ar documents' a"" o# which typica""y underrepresent women because o# restrictive medieva" "ega" traditions. *onethe"ess' the parameters researchers choose when they de#ine their investigations may contribute to the prob"em. tudies #ocusing on the upper eche"ons o# ;"earned< medicine' #or e5amp"e' tend to e5c"ude hea"ers on the "ega" and socia" #ringes o# medica" practice' where most women wou"d have been #ound. The advantages o# broadening the scope o# such studies is immediate"y apparent in 6e""ing and 8ebster3s study o# si5teenth-century Eondon. /nstead o# #ocusing so"e"y on o##icia""y recogni)ed and "icensed practitioners' the researchers de#ined a medica" practitioner as ;any individua" whose occupation is basica""y concerned with the care o# the sic$.< Using this de#inition' they #ound primary source in#ormation suggesting that there were G. women medica" practitioners in the city o# Eondon in 1-G.. 0"though this #igure may be s"ight"y e5aggerated' the evidence contrasts stri$ing"y with that o# Aott#ried' whose ear"ier survey identi#ied on"y 18 women medica" practitioners in a"" o# =ng"and between 144. and 1-4.. 7ina""y' such studies provide on"y statistica" in#ormation about the variety and preva"ence o# women3s medica" practice in medieva" =urope. 7uture studies might a"so ma$e pro#itab"e

622

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use o# ana"yses deve"oped in other areas o# women3s history as a basis #or e5p"oring the socia" conte5t o# women3s medica" practice. /n#ormation about economic riva"ry in medicine' women3s "iteracy' and the contro" o# medica" $now"edge cou"d add much to our growing understanding o# women medica" practitioners3 ro"e in medieva" society.

22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage% (A) =ecent studies demonstrate that women medical practitioners were more common in #ngland than in the rest of &estern #urope during the ?iddle Ages. (B) The "uantity and "uality of the information historians unco'er concerning women4s medical practice in medie'al #urope would be impro'ed if they changed their methods of study. (C) The sparse e'idence for women medical practitioners in studies dealing with the ?iddle Ages is due primarily to the limitations of the historical record. ( ) Mnowledge about the social issues that influenced the role women medical practitioners played in medie'al society has been enhanced by se'eral recent studies. (#) Analyses de'eloped in other areas of women4s history could probably be used to pro'ide more information about the social conte$t of women4s medical practice during the ?iddle Ages. 2.. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the error the author belie'es historians make when they e"uate the term *woman medical practitioner+ with *midwife+% (A) e"uating pear with apple (B) e"uating science with biology (C) e"uating super'isor with subordinate ( ) e"uating member with nonmember (#) e"uating instructor with trainee 20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following assertions regarding Bottfried4s study% (A) Bottfried4s study would ha'e recorded a much larger number of women medical practitioners if the time frame co'ered by the study had included the late si$teenth century. (B) The small number of women medical practitioners identified in Bottfried4s study is due primarily to problems caused by inaccurate sources. (C) The small number of women medical practitioners identified in Bottfried4s study is due primarily to the loss of many medie'al documents. ( ) The results of Bottfried4s study need to be considered in light of the social changes occurring in &estern #urope during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

LSAT

62-

(#) 3n setting the parameters for his study. Bottfried appears to ha'e defined the term *medical practitioner+ 'ery narrowly. 21. The passage suggests that a future study that would be more informati'e about medie'al women medical practitioners might focus on which one of the following% (A) the effect of social change on the political and economic structure of medie'al society (B) the effect of social constraints on medie'al women4s access to a medical education (C) the types of medical specialties that de'eloped during the ?iddle Ages ( ) the reasons why medie'al historians tend to e"uate the term *woman medical practitioner+ with midwife (#) the historical de'elopments responsible for the medie'al legal tradition4s restrictions on women 22. The author refers to the study by &ickersheimer and Aac"uart in order to (A) demonstrate that numerous medical specialties were recogni!ed in &estern #urope during the ?iddle Ages (B) demonstrate that women are often underrepresented in studies of medie'al medical practitioners (C) pro'e that midwi'es were officially recogni!ed as members of the medical community during the ?iddle Ages ( ) pro'e that midwi'es were only a part of a larger community of women medical practitioners during the ?iddle Ages (#) pro'e that the e$istence of midwi'es can be documented in &estern #urope as early as the twelfth century 2-. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the following% (A) describing new methodological approaches (B) re'ising the definitions of certain concepts (C) comparing two different analyses ( ) arguing in fa'or of changes in method (#) chronicling certain historical de'elopments LSAT 13 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and

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blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

?odern architecture has been critici)ed #or emphasi)ing practica" and technica" issues at the e5pense o# aesthetic concerns. The high-rise bui"dings constructed throughout the industria"i)ed wor"d in the 19G.s and 197.s provide amp"e evidence that cost-e##iciency and uti"ity have became the overriding concerns o# the modern architect. (owever' 9tto 8agner3s semina" te5t on modern architecture' #irst pub"ished in Aermany in 189G' indicates that the #ai"ure o# modern architecture cannot be b"amed on the idea"s o# its #ounders. 8agner3s (odern "rchitecture ca""ed #or a new sty"e based on modern techno"ogies and mode"s o# construction. (e insisted that there cou"d be no return to traditiona"' preindustria" mode"s: on"y by accepting who"ehearted"y the po"itica" and techno"ogica" revo"utions o# the nineteenth century cou"d the architect estab"ish the #orms appropriate to a modern' urban society. ;0"" modern creation'< 8agner wrote' ;must correspond to the new materia"s and demands o# the presentVmust i""ustrate our own better' democratic' se"#-con#ident' idea" nature'< and must incorporate the new ;co"ossa" technica" and scienti#ic achievements< o# the age. This wou"d indeed seem to be the basis o# a pure"y materia"ist de#inition o# architecture' a prototype #or the simp"istic #orm-#o""ows-#unction dogma that opponents have identi#ied as the inte""ectua" basis o# modern architecture. &ut the picture was more comp"e5' #or 8agner was a"ways care#u" to distinguish between art and engineering. U"timate"y' he envisaged the architect deve"oping the s$i""s o# the engineer without "osing the powers o# aesthetic 2udgment that 8agner #e"t were uni+ue to the artist. ; ince the engineer is se"dom a born artist and the architect must "earn as a ru"e to be an engineer' architects wi"" in time succeed in e5tending their in#"uence into the rea"m occupied by the engineers' so that "egitimate aesthetic demands can be met in a satis#actory way.< /n this symbiotic re"ationship essentia" to ?odernism' art was to e5ercise the contro""ing in#"uence. *o other prospect was imaginab"e #or 8agner' who was #irm"y rooted as a designer and' indeed' as a teacher in the %"assica" tradition. The apparent inconsistency o# a con#essed %"assicist advising against the mechanica" imitation o# historica" mode"s and arguing #or new #orms appropriate to the modern age created e5act"y the tension that made 8agner3s writings and bui"dings so interesting. 8hi"e he 2usti#ied' #or e5amp"e' the choice o# a circu"ar ground p"an #or churches in terms o# optima" sight-"ines and the techno"ogy o# the gasometer' the true inspiration was derived #rom the centra"i)ed churches o# the /ta"ian Renaissance. (e ac$now"edged as rationa"ist that there was no way bac$ to the socia" and techno"ogica" conditions that had produced the wor$ o# ?iche"ange"o or 7ischer von =r"ach' but he recogni)ed his emotiona" attachment to the great wor$s o# the /ta"ian Renaissance and 0ustrian &aro+ue.

1.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) ?odern architecture has been critici!ed for emphasi!ing practical and technical issues and for failing to focus on aesthetic concerns. (B) Critics ha'e failed to take into account the technological inno'ations and aesthetic features that architects ha'e incorporated into modern buildings.

LSAT

62,

(C) &agner4s *odern Architecture pro'ides architects with a chronicle of the origins of modern architecture. ( ) &agner4s *odern Architecture indicates that the founders of modern architecture did not belie'e that practical issues should supersede the aesthetic concerns of the past. (#) &agner4s seminal te$t/ *odern Architecture/ pro'ides the intellectual basis for the purely materialistic definition of modern architecture. 2. According to the passage/ &agner asserts which one of the following about the roles of architect and engineer% (A) The architect should make decision about aesthetic issues and lea'e decision about technical matters to the engineers. (B) The engineer has often de'eloped the powers of aesthetic <udgment pre'iously thought to be uni"ue to the architect. (C) The <udgment of the engineer should be as important as the <udgment of the architect when decisions are made about aesthetic issues. ( ) The technical <udgment of the engineer should pre'ail o'er the aesthetic <udgment of the architect in the design of modern buildings. (#) The architect should ac"uire the knowledge of technical matters typically held by the engineer. .. The passage suggests that &agner would be K#A;T likely to agree with which one of the following statements about classical architecture and the modern architect% (A) The modern architect should a'oid the mechanical imitation of the models of the 3talian =enaissance and Austrian Baro"ue. (B) The modern architect cannot design buildings appropriate to a modern/ urban society and still retain emotional attachments to the forms of the 3talian =enaissance and Austrian Baro"ue. (C) The modern architect should possess knowledge of engineering as well as of the architecture of the past. ( ) The modern architect should not base designs on the technological conditions that underlay the design of the models of the 3talian =enaissance and Austrian Baro"ue. (#) The designs of modern architects should reflect political ideals different from those reflected in the designs of classical architecture. 0. The passage suggests which one of the following about the "uotations from *odern Architecture cited in the second paragraph% (A) They represent the part of &agner4s work that has had the least influence on the architects who designed the high(rise buildings of the 1,25s and 1,-5s. (B) They describe the part of &agner4s work that is most often e'oked by

6.5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

proponents of &agner4s ideas on art and technology. (C) They do not ade"uately reflect the comple$ity of &agner4s ideas on the use of modern technology in architecture. ( ) They reflect &agner4s acti'e participation in the political re'olutions of the nineteenth century. (#) They pro'ide an o'er'iew of &agner4s ideas on the relationship between art and technology. 1. The author of the passage states which one of the following about the concerns of modern architecture% (A) Cost(efficiency/ utility/ and aesthetic demands are the primary concerns of the modern architect. (B) @ractical issues supersede aesthetic concerns in the design of many modern buildings. (C) Cost(efficiency is more important to the modern architects than are other practical concerns. ( ) The design of many new buildings suggests that modern architects are still inspired by architectural forms of the past. (#) ?any modern architects use current technology to design modern buildings that are aesthetically pleasing. 2. The author mentions &agner4s choice of a *circular ground plan for churches+ (line 10) most likely in order to (A) pro'ide an e$ample of the kinds of technological inno'ations &agner introduced into modern architecture (B) pro'ide an e$ample of &agner4s dismissal of historical forms from 3talian =enaissance (C) pro'ide an e$ample of a modern building where technological issues were much less significant than aesthetic demands ( ) pro'ide e'idence of &agner4s tendency to imitate 3talian =enaissance and Austrian Baro"ue models (#) pro'ide e'idence of the tension between &agner4s commitment to modern technology and to the Classical tradition -. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) summari!ing the history of a debate (B) e$plaining a traditional argument (C) describing and e'aluating a recent approach ( ) <ustifying a recent criticism by presenting new e'idence (#) supporting an assertion by discussing an important work
/n order to e5p"ain the socioeconomic achievement' in the #ace o# disadvantages due to

LSAT
racia" discrimination' o# %hinese and @apanese immigration to the United tates and their

6.1

descendants' socio"ogists have typica""y app"ied either cu"tura""y based or structura""y based theories!but never both together. To use an economic metaphor' cu"tura""y based e5p"anations assert the importance o# the supp"y side o# the "abor mar$et' emphasi)ing the +ua"ities immigrant groups bring with them #or competition in the United tates "abor mar$et. uch e5p"anations re#"ect a human-capita" perspective in which status attainment is seen as a resu"t o# individua"s3 abi"ity to generate resources. tructura""y based e5p"anations' on the other hand' e5amine the mar$et condition o# the immigrants3 host society' particu"ar"y its discriminatory practices and their impact on the status attainment process o# immigrant groups. /n the economic metaphor' structura" e5p"anations assert the importance o# the demand side o# the "abor mar$et. /n order to understand the socioeconomic mobi"ity o# %hinese and @apanese immigrants and their descendants' on"y an ana"ysis o# supp"y-side and demand-side #actors together' in the conte5t o# historica" events' wi"" su##ice. 9n the cu"tura" or supp"y side' di##erences in immigration pattern and #ami"y #ormation resu"ted in di##erent rates o# socioeconomic achievement #or %hinese and @apanese immigrants. 7or various reasons' %hinese immigrants remained so2ourners and did not (e5cept #or urban merchants) estab"ish #ami"ies. They were a"so hampered by ethnic con#"ict in the "abor mar$et. @apanese immigrants' on the other hand' were "ess constrained' made the transition #rom so2ourner to sett"er within the #irst two decades o# immigration' and "e#t "ow-wage "abor to estab"ish sma"" businesses based on a househo"d mode o# production. %hinese so2ourners without #ami"ies were more vu"nerab"e to demora"i)ation' whereas @apanese immigrants #aced societa" hosti"ity with the emotiona" resources provide by a stab"e #ami"y "i#e. 9nce %hinese immigrants began to estab"ish nuc"ear #ami"ies and produce a second generation' instituting househo"d production simi"ar to that estab"ished by @apanese immigrants' their socioeconomic attainment soon para""e"ed that o# @apanese immigrants and their descendants. 9n the structura" or demand side' changes in institutiona" constraints' immigration "aws' "abor mar$ets' and societa" hosti"ity were rooted in the dynamics o# capita"ist economic deve"opment. =ar"y capita"ist deve"opment generated a demand #or "ow-wage "abor that cou"d not be #u"#i""ed. =ar"y %hinese and @apanese emigration was a response to this demand. /n an advanced capita"ist economy' the demand #or immigrant "abor is more di##erentiated> s$i""ed pro#essiona" and technica" "abor #i""s empty positions in the primary "abor mar$et and' with the traditiona" uns$i""ed "ow-wage "abor' creates two immigrant streams. The high "eve"s o# education attained by the descendants o# %hinese and @apanese immigrants and their concentration in strategic states such as %a"i#ornia paved the way #or the movement o# the second generation into the e5panding primary "abor mar$et in the advanced capita"ist economy that e5isted a#ter the econd 8or"d 8ar.

6.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) The socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their descendants is best e$plained by a historical e$amination of the economic structures pre'alent in the :nited ;tates when such immigrant groups arri'ed.

6.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(B) The socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their descendants is best e$plained by an e$amination of their cultural backgrounds/ in particular their le'el of educational attainment. (C) The socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their descendants has taken place in the conte$t of a culturally based emphasis on the economic welfare of the nuclear family. ( ) 8nly the market structure of the capitalist economy of the :nited ;tates in which supply has historically been regulated by demand can account for the socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their descendants. (#) 8nly an analysis that combines an e$amination of the culture of Chinese and Aapanese immigrant groups and the socioeconomic structure of the host country can ade"uately e$plain the socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their descendants. ,. &hich one of the following can best be described as a supply(side element in the labor market/ as such elements are e$plained in the passage% (A) concentration of small businesses in a gi'en geographical area (B) need for workers with 'arying degrees of skill (C) high 'alue placed by immigrants on work ( ) e$pansion of the primary labor market (#) de'elopment of an ad'anced capitalist economy 15. &hich one of the following best states the function of the author4s mention of *two immigration streams+ (line 22)% (A) 3t demonstrates the effects of changes in human capital. (B) 3t illustrates the operation of the primary labor market. (C) 3t e$plains the nature of early Chinese and Aapanese immigration. ( ) 3t characteri!es the result of changing demand(side factors. (#) 3t underscores an influence on the labor market. 11. 3t can be inferred that the author4s analysis of the socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their descendants differs from that of most sociologists primarily in that most sociologists (A) address the effects of the interaction of causal factors (B) e$clude the factor of a de'eloping capitalist economy (C) do not apply an economic metaphor ( ) emphasi!e the disad'antageous effects of racial discrimination (#) focus on a single type of theoretical e$planation 12. 3t can be inferred that which one of the following was an element of the e$perience of both Chinese and Aapanese immigrants in the :nited ;tates%

LSAT

6..

(A) initial status as so<ourners (B) slow accumulation of capital (C) "uick transition from laborer to manager ( ) rapid establishment of nuclear families (#) rapid ac"uisition of technical skills 1.. The author is primarily concerned with (A) ad'ancing a synthesis of approaches to an issue (B) challenging a tentati'e answer to a "uestion (C) e'aluating the soundness of theories ( ) resol'ing the differences between schools of thought (#) outlining the achie'ements of a group
0"though the "ega" systems o# =ng"and and the United tates are super#icia""y simi"ar' they di##er pro#ound"y in their approaches to and uses o# "ega" reasons> substantive reasons in the United tates' whereas in =ng"and the reverse is true. This distinction re#"ects a di##erence in the visions o# "aw that prevai" in the two counties. /n =ng"and the "aw has traditiona""y been viewed as a system o# ru"es: the United tates #avors a vision o# "aw as an outward e5pression o# the community3s sense o# right and 2ustice. ubstantive reasons' as app"ied to "aw' are based on mora"' economic' po"itica"' and other considerations. These reasons are #ound both ;in the "aw< and ;outside the "aw'< so to spea$. ubstantive reasons in#orm the content o# a "arge part o# the "aw> constitutions' statutes' contracts' verdicts' and the "i$e. %onsider' #or e5amp"e' a statute providing (to ma$e a proviso or stipu"ation) that ;no vehic"es sha"" be ta$en into pub"ic par$s<. uppose that no speci#ic rationa"es or purposes were e5p"icit"y written into this statute' but that it was c"ear (#rom its "egis"ative history) that the substantive purpose o# the statute was to ensure +uiet and sa#ety in the par$. *ow suppose that a veterans3 group mounts a 8or"d 8ar // 2eep (in running order but without a battery) as a war memoria" on a concrete s"ab in the par$' and charges are brought against its members. ?ost 2udges in the United tates wou"d #ind the de#endants not gui"ty because what they did had no adverse e##ect on par$ +uiet and sa#ety. 7orma" reasons are di##erent in that they #re+uent"y prevent substantive reasons #rom coming into p"ay' even when substantive reasons are e5p"icit"y incorporated into the "aw at hand. 7or e5amp"e' when a document #ai"s to comp"y with stipu"ated re+uirements' the court may render the document "ega""y ine##ective. 0 wi"" re+uiring written witness may be dec"ared nu"" and void and there#ore' unen#orceab"e #or the #orma" reason that the re+uirement was not observed. 9nce the "ega" ru"e!that a wi"" is inva"id #or "ac$ o# proper witnessing!has been c"ear"y estab"ished' and the "ega"ity o# the ru"e is not in +uestion' app"ication o# that ru"e prec"udes #rom consideration substantive arguments in #avor o# the wi""3s va"idity or en#orcement. Eega" scho"ars in =ng"and and the United tates have "ong bemused themse"ves with e5treme e5amp"es o# #orma" and substantive reasoning. 9n the one hand' #orma" reasoning in =ng"and has "ed to wooden interpretations o# statutes and an unwi""ingness to deve"op the

6.0

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common "aw through 2udicia" activism. 9n the other hand' #reewhee"ing substantive reasoning in the United tates has resu"ted in statutory interpretations so "ibera" that the te5ts o# some statutes have been ignored a"together.

10. &hich one of the following best describes the content of the passage as a whole% (A) an analysis of similarities and differences between the legal systems of #ngland and the :nited ;tates (B) a ree'aluation of two legal systems with the use of e$amples (C) a contrast between the types of reasons embodied in the :nited ;tates and #ngland legal systems ( ) an e$planation of how two distinct 'isions of the law shaped the de'elopment of legal reasoning (#) a presentation of two types of legal reasons that shows the characteristics they ha'e in common 11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that #nglish <udges would be likely to find the 'eterans4 group discussed in the second paragraph guilty of 'iolating the statute because (A) not to do so would encourage others to act as the group did (B) not to do so would be to 'iolate the substanti'e reasons underlying the law (C) the 'eterans failed to comply with the substanti'e purpose of the statute ( ) the 'eterans failed to demonstrate that their acti'ities had no ad'erse effect on the public (#) the 'eterans failed to comply with the stipulated re"uirements of the statute 12. >rom the discussion of wills in the third paragraph it can be inferred that substanti'e arguments as to the 'alidity of a will might be considered under which one of the following circumstances% (A) The legal rule re"uiring that a will be witnessed in writing does not stipulate the format of the will. (B) The legal rule re"uiring that a will be witnessed stipulates that the will must be witnessed in writing by two people. (C) The legal rule re"uiring that a will be witnessed in writing stipulates that the witnessing must be done in the presence of a <udge. ( ) A <udge rules that the law re"uires a will to be witnessed in writing regardless of e$tenuating circumstances. (#) A <udge rules that the law can be interpreted to allow for a 'erbal witness to a will in a case in'ol'ing a medical emergency. 1-. The author of the passage makes use of all of the following in presenting the discussion of the #nglish and the :nited ;tates legal systems #DC#@T (A) comparison and contrast

LSAT

6.1

(B) generali!ation (C) e$plication of term ( ) a chronology of historical de'elopments (#) a hypothetical case 16. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph of the passage% (A) 3t presents the conse"uences of e$treme interpretations of the two types of legal reasons discussed by the author. (B) 3t shows how legal scholars can incorrectly use e$treme e$amples to support their 'iews. (C) 3t corrects inaccuracies in legal scholars4 'iews of the nature of the two types of legal systems. ( ) 3t suggests how characteri!ations of the two types of legal reasons can become con'oluted and inaccurate. (#) 3t presents scholars4 characteri!ations of both legal systems that are only partially correct. 1,. The author of the passage suggests that in #nglish law a substanti'e interpretation of a legal rule might be warranted under which one of the following circumstances% (A) ;ocial conditions ha'e changed to the e$tent that to continue to enforce the rule would be to decide contrary to present(day social norms. (B) The composition of the legislature has changed to the e$tent that to enforce the rule would be contrary to the 'iews of the ma<ority in the present legislati'e assembly. (C) The legality of the rule is in "uestion and its enforcement is open to <udicial interpretation. ( ) 3ndi'iduals who ha'e 'iolated the legal rule argue that application of the rule would lead to unfair <udicial interpretations. (#) ;uperior court <udges ha'e consistently ruled in decisions regarding the interpretation of the legal rule. 25. According to the passage/ which one of the following statements about substanti'e reasons is true% (A) They may be written into laws/ but they may also e$ert an e$ternal influence on the law. (B) They must be e$plicitly written into the law in order to be rele'ant to the application of the law. (C) They are legal in nature and determine particular applications of most laws. ( ) They often pro'ide <udges with specific rationales for disregarding the laws of the land.

6.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(#) They are peripheral to the law/ whereas formal reasons are central to the law.
(ow does the brain $now when carbohydrates have been or shou"d be consumedC The answer to this +uestion is not $nown' but one e"ement in the e5p"anation seems to be the neurotransmitter serotonin' one o# a c"ass o# chemica" mediators that may be re"eased #rom a presynaptic neuron and that cause the transmission o# a nerve impu"se across a synapse to an ad2acent postsynaptic neuron. /n genera"' it has been #ound that drugs that se"ective"y #aci"itate serotonin-mediated neurotransmission tend to cause weight "oss' whereas drugs that b"oc$ serotonin-mediated transmission o#ten have the opposite e##ect> they o#ten induce carbohydrate craving and conse+uent weight gain. erotonin is a derivative o# tryptophan' an amino acid that is norma""y present at "ow "eve"s in the b"oodstream. The rate o# conversion is a##ected by the proportion o# carbohydrates in an individua"3s diet> carbohydrates stimu"ate the secretion o# insu"in' which #aci"itates the upta$e o# most amino acids into periphera" tissues' such as musc"es. &"ood tryptophan "eve"s' however' are una##ected by insu"in' so the proportion o# tryptophan in the b"ood re"ative to the other amino acids increases when carbohydrates are consumed. ince tryptophan competes with other amino acids #or transport across the b"ood-brain barrier into the brain' insu"in secretion indirect"y speeds tryptophan3s entry into the centra" nervous system where' in a specia" c"uster o# neurons' it is converted into serotonin. The "eve" o# serotonin in the brain in turn a##ects the amount o# carbohydrate an individua" chooses to eat. Rats that are a""owed to choose among synthetic #oods containing di##erent proportions o# carbohydrate and protein wi"" norma""y a"ternate between #oods containing most"y protein and those containing most"y carbohydrate. (owever' i# rats are given drugs that enhance the e##ect o# serotonin' the rats3 carbohydrate inta$e is reduced. 9n the other hand' when rats are given drugs that interrupt serotonin-mediated neurotransmission' their brains #ai" to respond when carbohydrates are eaten' so the desire #or them persists. /n human beings a serotonin"i$e drug' d-#en#"uramine (which re"ease serotonin into brain synapses and then pro"ong its action by b"oc$ing its reabsorption into the presynaptic neuron)' se"ective"y suppresses carbohydrate snac$ing (and its associated weight gain) in peop"e who crave carbohydrates. /n contrast' drugs that b"oc$ serotonin-mediated transmission or that interact with neurotransmitters other than serotonin have the opposite e##ect> they o#ten induce carbohydrate craving and subse+uent weight gain. 6eop"e who crave carbohydrates report #ee"ing re#reshed and invigorated a#ter eating a carbohydrate-rich mea" (which wou"d be e5pected to increase brain serotonin "eve"s)' in contrast' those who do not crave carbohydrates become s"eepy #o""owing a high-carbohydrate mea". These #indings suggest that serotonin has other e##ects that may be use#u" indicators o# serotonin "eve"s in human beings.

21. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage (A) The body4s need for carbohydrates 'aries with the le'el of serotonin in the blood. (B) The body4s use of carbohydrates can be regulated by the administration of serotoninlike drugs.

LSAT

6.-

(C) The role of serotonin in regulating the consumption of carbohydrates is similar in rats and in humans. ( ) The body4s desire for carbohydrates can be influenced by serotonin or serotoninlike drugs. (#) Tryptophan initiates a chain of e'ents that regulates the body4s use of carbohydrates. 22. The term *rate+ (line 1-) refers to the rate at which (A) serotonin is produced from tryptophan (B) carbohydrates are taken into the body (C) carbohydrates stimulate the secretion of insulin ( ) insulin facilitates the uptake of amino acids into peripheral tissues (#) tryptophan enters the bloodstream 2.. 3t can be inferred that a person is likely to car'e carbohydrates when (A) the amount of insulin produced is too high (B) the amount of serotonin in the brain is too low (C) more tryptophan than usual crosses the blood(brain barrier ( ) neurotransmission by neurotransmitters other than serotonin is interrupted (#) amino acids other than tryptophan are taken up by peripheral tissues 20. The information in the passage indicates that if human beings were gi'en a drug that inhibits the action of serotonin/ which one of the following might be e$pected to occur% (A) ;ub<ects would probably show a preference for carbohydrate(rich snacks rather than protein(rich snacks. (B) ;ub<ects would probably become sleepy after eating a carbohydrate(rich meal. (C) ;ub<ects would be more likely to lose weight than before they took the drug. ( ) ;ub<ects4 blood tryptophan le'els would probably increase. (#) ;ub<ects4 desire for both carbohydrates and proteins would increase. 21. The primary purpose of the second paragraph in the passage is to (A) pro'ide an o'er'iew of current research concerning the effect of serotonin on carbohydrate consumption (B) contrast the role of tryptophan in the body with that of serotonin (C) discuss the role of serotonin in the transmission of neural impulses ( ) e$plain how the brain knows that carbohydrates should be consumed (#) establish a connection between carbohydrate intake and the production of serotonin 22. 3t can be inferred that after a person has taken d(fenflurarmine/ he or she will

6.6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

probably be (A) inclined to gain weight (B) sleepy much of the time (C) unlikely to cra'e carbohydrates ( ) unable to sleep as much as usual (#) likely to secrete more insulin than usual 2-. The author4s primary purpose is to (A) defend a point of 'iew (B) correct a misconception (C) assess conflicting e'idence ( ) suggest new directions for in'estigation (#) pro'ide information that helps e$plain a phenomenon LSAT 1( SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
0 ma2or tenet o# the neurosciences has been that a"" neurons (nerve ce""s) in the brains o# vertebrate anima"s are #ormed ear"y in deve"opment. 0n adu"t vertebrate' it was be"ieved' must ma$e do with a #i5ed number o# neurons> those "ost through disease or in2ury are not rep"aced' and adu"t "earning ta$es p"ace not through generation o# new ce""s but through modi#ication o# connections among e5isting ones. (owever' new evidence #or neurogenesis (the birth o# new neurons) has come #rom the study o# canary song. Doung canaries and other songbirds "earn to sing much as humans "earn to spea$' by imitating mode"s provided by their e"ders. evera" wee$s a#ter birth' a young bird produces its #irst rudimentary attempts at singing: over the ne5t #ew months the song becomes more structured and stab"e' reaching a #u""y deve"oped state by the time the bird approaches its #irst breeding season. &ut this repertoire o# song is not permanent"y "earned. 0#ter each breeding season' during "ate summer and #a""' the bird "oses mastery o# its deve"oped ;vocabu"ary'< and its song becomes as unstab"e as that o# a 2uveni"e bird. Furing the #o""owing winter and spring' however' the canary ac+uires new songs' and by the ne5t breeding season it has deve"oped an entire"y new repertoire. Recent neuro"ogica" research into this "earning and re"earning process has shown that the two most important regions o# the canary3s brain re"ated to the "earning o# songs actua""y vary in si)e at di##erent times o# the year. /n the spring' when the bird3s song is high"y deve"oped and uni#orm' the regions are rough"y twice as "arge as they are in the #a"". 7urther e5periments tracing individua" nerve ce""s within these regions have shown that the number o#

LSAT

6.,

neurons drops by about 48 percent a#ter the breeding season' but by the #o""owing breeding season' new ones have been generated to rep"ace them. 0 possib"e e5p"anation #or this continua" rep"acement o# nerve ce""s may have to do with the canary3s re"ative"y "ong "i#e span and the re+uirements o# #"ight. /ts brain wou"d have to be substantia""y "arger and heavier than might be #easib"e #or #"ying i# it had to carry a"" the brain ce""s needed to process and retain a"" the in#ormation gathered over a "i#etime. 0"though the idea o# neurogenesis in the adu"t mamma"ian brain is sti"" not genera""y accepted' these #indings might he"p uncover a mechanism that wou"d enab"e the human brain to repair itse"# through neurogenesis. 8hether such rep"acement o# neurons wou"d disrupt comp"e5 "earning processes or "ong-term memory is not $nown' but songbird research cha""enges scientists to identi#y the genes or hormones that orchestrate neurogenesis in the young human brain and to "earn how to activate them in the adu"t brain.

1.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) 9ew e'idence of neurogenesis in canaries challenges an established neurological theory concerning brain cells in 'ertebrates and suggests the possibility that human brains may repair themsel'es. (B) The brains of canaries differ from the brains of other 'ertebrate animals in that the brains of adult canaries are able to generate neurons. (C) =ecent studies of neurogenesis in canaries/ building on established theories of 'ertebrate neurology/ pro'ide important clues as to why researchers are not likely to disco'er neurogenesis in adult humans. ( ) =ecent research into neurogenesis in canaries refutes a long(held belief about the limited supply of brain cells and pro'ides new information about neurogenesis in the adult human brain. (#) 9ew information about neurogenesis in canaries challenges older hypotheses and clarifies the importance of the yearly cycle in learning processes and neurological replacement among 'ertebrates.

2.

According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of the typical adult canary during the late summer and fall% (A) The canary4s song repertoire takes on a fully structured and stable "uality. (B) A process of neurogenesis replaces the song(learning neurons that were lost during the preceding months. (C) The canary begins to learn an entirely new repertoire of songs based on the models of other canaries. ( ) The regions in the canary4s brain that are central to the learning of song decrease in si!e. (#) The canary performs slightly modified 'ersions of the songs it learned during the preceding breeding season.

..

3nformation in the passage suggests that the author would most likely regard which one of the following as K#A;T important in future research on

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

neurogenesis in humans% (A) research on possible similarities between the neurological structures of humans and canaries (B) studies that compare the ratio of brain weight to body weight in canaries to that in humans (C) neurological research on the genes or hormones that acti'ate neurogenesis in the brain of human infants ( ) studies about the ways in which long(term memory functions in the human brain (#) research concerning the processes by which humans learn complicated tasks 0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the e$planation proposed by the author in the third paragraph% (A) A number of songbird species related to the canary ha'e a shorter life span than the canary and do not e$perience neurogenesis. (B) The brain si!e of se'eral types of airborne birds with life spans similar to those of canaries has been shown to 'ary according to a two(year cycle of neurogenesis. (C) ;e'eral species of airborne birds similar to canaries in si!e are known to ha'e brains that are substantially hea'ier than the canary4s brain. ( ) 3ndi'idual canaries that ha'e larger(than(a'erage repertoires of songs tend to ha'e better de'eloped muscles for flying. (#) 3ndi'idual canaries with smaller and lighter brains than the a'erage tend to retain a smaller(than(a'erage repertoire of songs. 1. The use of the word *'ocabulary+ (line 2.) ser'es primarily to (A) demonstrate the presence of a rudimentary grammatical structure in canary song (B) point out a similarity between the patterned groupings of sounds in a canary4s song and the syllabic structures of words (C) stress the stability and uniformity of canary4s song throughout its lifetime ( ) suggest a similarity between the possession of a repertoire of words among humans and a repertoire of songs among canaries (#) imply that the comple$ity of the canary4s song repertoire is e"ual to that of human language 2. According to the passage/ which one of the following factors may help account for the occurrence of neurogenesis in canaries% (A) the life span of the a'erage canary (B) the process by which canaries learn songs (C) the fre"uency of canary breeding seasons

LSAT

601

( ) the number of regions in the canary brain related to song learning (#) the amount of time an a'erage canary needs to learn a repertoire of songs -. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph% (A) A theory is presented/ analy!ed/ and modified/ and a <ustification for the modification is offer. (B) =esearch results are ad'anced and reconciled with results from other studies/ and a shared principle is described. (C) =esearch results are presented/ further details are pro'ided/ and a hypothesis is offered to e$plain the results. ( ) =esearch results are reported/ their implications are e$plained/ and an application to a related field is proposed. (#) =esearch results are reported/ their significance is clarified/ and they are reconciled with pre'iously established neurological tenets. 6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely describe the current understanding of neurogenesis as (A) e$hausti'e (B) progressi'e (C) incomplete ( ) anti"uated (#) incorrect
7or too many years scho"ars o# 0#rican 0merican history #ocused on the harm done by s"aveho"ders and by the institution o# s"avery' rather than on what 0#ricans in the United tates were ab"e to accomp"ish despite the e##ects o# that institution. /n (yne 4wne .round' T. (. &reen and tephen /nnes contribute signi#icant"y to a recent' we"come shi#t #rom a whitecentered to a b"ac$-centered in+uiry into the ro"e o# 0#rican 0mericans in the 0merican co"onia" period. &reen and /nnes #ocus not on s"aves' but on a sma"" group o# #reed indentured servants in *orthampton %ounty (in the %hesapea$e &ay region o# Birginia) who' according to the authors' maintained their #reedom' secured property' and interacted with persons o# di##erent races and economic standing #rom 1G1. through the 1G7.s. 0#rican 0mericans "iving on the %hesapea$e were to some e5tent disadvantaged' say &reen and /nnes' but this did not prec"ude the attainment o# status rough"y e+ua" to that o# certain white p"anters o# the area. %ontinuous"y acting within b"ac$ socia" networ$s' and #orming economic re"ationships with white p"anters' "oca" *ative 0mericans' indentured servants' and white sett"ers outside the gentry c"ass' the #ree 0#rican 0mericans o# *orthampton %ounty he"d their own in the roughhewn wor"d o# %hesapea$e &ay. The authors emphasi)e that in this ear"y period' when the percentage o# 0#rican 0mericans in any given %hesapea$e county was sti"" no more than 1. percent o# the popu"ation' very "itt"e was predetermined so #ar as racia" status or race re"ations were concerned. &y schoo"ing themse"ves in the "oca" "ega" process and by wor$ing prodigious"y on

602

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

the "and' 0#rican 0mericans ac+uired property' estab"ished #ami"ies' and warded o## contentious white neighbors. &reen and /nnes do ac$now"edge that po"itica" power on the %hesapea$e was asymmetrica""y distributed among b"ac$ and white residents. (owever' they underemphasi)e much evidence that customary "aw' on"y gradua""y embodies in statutory "aw' was c"osing in on #ree 0#rican 0mericans we"" be#ore the 1G7.s> during the 1GG.s' when the proportion o# 0#rican 0mericans in Birginia increased dramatica""y' Birginia tightened a "aw regu"ating interracia" re"ations (1GG1) and enacted a statute prohibiting baptism #rom a"tering s"ave status (1GG7). 0nthony @ohnson' a "eader in the community o# #ree 0#rican 0mericans in the %hesapea$e &ay region' so"d the "and he had cu"tivated #or more than twenty years and moved north with his #ami"y around 1GG-' an action that the authors attribute to a search #or ;#resh' more productive "and.< &ut the answer to why the @ohnsons "e#t that area where they had "abored so "ong may "ie in their rea"i)ation that their white neighbors were a"ready beginning the transition #rom a "arge"y white indentured "abor #orce to re"iance on a "arge"y b"ac$ s"ave "abor #orce' and that the institution o# s"avery was threatening their descendants3 chances #or #reedom and success in Birginia.

,.

The author of the passage ob<ects to many scholarly studies of African American history for which one of the following reasons% (A) Their emphases ha'e been on statutory law rather than on customary law. (B) They ha'e ignored specific historical situations and personages in fa'or of broad interpretations. (C) They ha'e focused on the least e'entful periods in African American history. ( ) They ha'e underemphasi!ed the economic system that was the basis of the institution of sla'ery. (#) They ha'e failed to focus to a sufficient e$tent on the achie'ements of African Americans.

15. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning the relationship between the African American population and the law in the Chesapeake Bay region of Cirginia Between 1215 and 12-5% (A) The laws affecting black citi!ens were embodies in statutes much more gradually than were lays affecting white citi!ens. (B) As the percentage of black citi!ens in the population grew/ the legal restrictions placed on them also increased. (C) Because of discriminatory laws/ black farmers suffered more economic setbacks than did white farmers. ( ) Because of legal constraints on hiring indentured ser'ants/ black farmers faced a chronic labor shortage on their farms. (#) The adherence to customary law was more rigid in regions with relati'ely large numbers of free black citi!ens. 11. The author of the passage most probably refers to Anthony Aohnson and his family in order to

LSAT

60.

(A) pro'ide a specific e$ample of the potential shortcomings of Breen and 3nnes4 interpretation of historical e'ents (B) pro'ide a specific e$ample of rele'ant data o'erlooked by Breen and 3nnes in their discussion of historical e'ents (C) pro'ide a specific e$ample of data that Breen and 3nnes might profitably ha'e used in pro'ing their thesis ( ) argue that the standard interpretation of historical e'ents is superior to Breen and 3nnes4 re'isionist interpretation (#) argue that a new historiographical method is needed to pro'ide a full and coherent reading of historical e'ents 12. The attitude of the author of the passage toward Breen and 3nnes4 study can best be described as one of (A) condescending dismissal (B) wholehearted acceptance (C) contentious challenge ( ) "ualified appro'al (#) sincere pu!!lement 1.. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) summari!e pre'ious interpretations (B) ad'ocate a new approach (C) propose and then illustrate a thesis ( ) present and e'aluate an interpretation (#) describe a historical e'ent
Eate nineteenth-century boo$s about the 7rench artist 8atteau (1G8H-1711) betray a curious b"ind spot> more than any sing"e artist be#ore or since' 8atteau provided his age with an in#"uentia" image o# itse"#' and nineteenth-century writers accepted this image as genuine. This was "arge"y due to the enterprise o# 8atteau3s #riends who' soon a#ter his death' organi)ed the printing o# engraved reproductions o# the great bu"$ o# his wor$!both his paintings and his drawings!so that 8atteau3s tota" artistic output became and continued to be more accessib"e than that o# any other artist unti" the twentieth-century advent o# art monographs i""ustrated with photographs. These engravings presented aristocratic (and wou"d-be aristocratic) eighteenth-century 7rench society with an image o# itse"# that was high"y acceptab"e and wide"y imitate by other artists' however "itt"e re"ationship that image bore to rea"ity. &y 188H' the bicentenary o# 8atteau3s birth' it was standard practice #or biographers to re#er to him as ;the personi#ication o# the witty and amiab"e eighteenth century.< /n #act' 8atteau saw "itt"e enough o# that ;witty and amiab"e< century #or which so much nosta"gia was genera""y #e"t between about 187. and 191.' a period during which enthusiasm #or the artist reached its pea$. The eighteenth century3s #irst decades' the period o# his artistic

600

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

activity' were #air"y ca"amitous ones. Furing his short "i#e' 7rance was a"most continua""y at war> his native region was overrun with #oreign troops' and 6aris was threatened by siege and by a rampaging army rabb"e. The dread#u" winter o# 17.9' the year o# 8atteau3s #irst 6aris successes' was mar$ed by mi"itary de#eat and a disastrous #amine. ?ost o# 8atteau3s nineteenth-century admirers simp"y ignored the grim bac$ground o# the wor$s they #ound so "yrica" and charming. Those who too$ the inconvenient historica" #acts into consideration did so on"y in order to re#ute the wide"y he"d deterministic view that the content and sty"e o# an artist3s wor$ were abso"ute"y dictated by heredity and environment. (7or 8atteau admirers' such determinism was unthin$ab"e> the artist was born in a 7"emish town on"y si5 years a#ter it #irst became part o# 7rance' yet 8atteau was +uintessentia""y 7rench. 0s one patriotic 7rench biographer put it' ;/n Freden' 6otsdam' and &er"in / have never come across a 8atteau without #ee"ing re#reshed by a breath o# native air.< =ven such writers' however' persisted in according 8atteau3s canvases a privi"eged status as representative ;personi#ications< o# the eighteenth century. The discrepancy between historica" #act and artistic vision' use#u" in re#uting the e5treme deterministic position' mere"y #orced these writers to see$ a new #ormu"a that a""owed them to preserve the desired identity between image and rea"ity' this time a rather suspicious"y psychic one> 8atteau did not record the society he $new' but rather ;#oresaw< a society that deve"oped short"y a#ter his death.

10. &hich one of the following best describes the o'erall organi!ation of the passage% (A) A particular phenomenon is discussed/ the reasons that it is atypical are put forward/ and these reasons are e'aluated and refined. (B) An assumption is made/ results deri'ing from it are compared with what is known to be true/ and the assumption is finally re<ected as counterfactual. (C) A point of 'iew is described/ one hypothesis accounting for it is introduced and re<ected/ and a better hypothesis is offered for consideration. ( ) A general characteri!ation is offered/ e$amples supporting it are introduced/ and its special applicability to a particular group is asserted. (#) A particular 'iewpoint is e$plained/ its shortcomings are discussed/ and its persistence in the face of these is noted. 11. The passage suggests that late(nineteenth(century biographers of &atteau considered the eighteenth century to be *witty and amiable+ in large part because of (A) what they saw as &atteau4s typical eighteenth(century talent for transcending reality through art (B) their opposition to the determinism that dominated late(nineteenth(century >rench thought (C) a lack of access to historical source material concerning the early eighteenth century in >rance ( ) the nature of the image con'eyed by the works of &atteau and his many

LSAT

601

imitators (#) their political bias in fa'or of aristocratic regimes and societies 12. According to the passage/ e$planations of artistic production based on determinism were unthinkable to &atteau admirers for which one of the following reasons% (A) 3f such e$planations were widely accepted/ too many people who would otherwise ha'e admired &atteau would cease to appreciate &atteau4s works. (B) 3f such e$planations were adopted/ they would make it difficult for &atteau admirers to e$plain why &atteau4s works were purchased and admired by foreigners. (C) 3f such e$planations were correct/ many artists who/ like &atteau/ considered themsel'es >rench would ha'e to e$cluded from histories of >rench art. ( ) 3f such simple e$planations were offered/ other more comple$ arguments concerning what made &atteau4s works especially charming would go une$plored. (#) 3f such e$planations were true/ &atteau4s works would reflect a *>lemish+ sensibility rather than the especially *>rench+ one these admirers saw in them. 1-. The phrase *curious blind spot+ (line 2 (.) can best be interpreted as referring to which one of the following% (A) some biographers4 persistent inability to appreciate what the author considers a particularly admirable e"uality (B) certain writers4 surprising lack of awareness of what the author considers an ob'ious discrepancy (C) some writers4 willful refusal to e'aluate properly what the author considers a 'aluable source of information about the past ( ) an ine$plicable tendency on the part of some writers to under'alue an artist whom the author considers e$tremely influential (#) a marked bias in fa'or of a certain painter and a concomitant pre<udice against contemporaries the author considers e"ually talented 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author4s 'iew of &atteau4s works differs most significantly from that of most late(nineteen(century &atteau admirers in which one of the following ways% (A) :nlike most late(nineteenth(century &atteau admirers/ the author appreciates the importance of &atteau4s artistic accomplishment. (B) The author finds &atteau4s works to be much less lyrical and charming than did most late(nineteenth(century admirers of the works. (C) 3n contrast to most late(nineteenth(century &atteau admirers/ the author finds it misleading to see &atteau4s works as accurately reflecting social reality.

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( ) The author is much more willing to entertain deterministic e$planations of the origins of &atteau4s works than were most late(nineteenth(century &atteau admirers. (#) :nlike most late(nineteenth(century admirers of &atteau/ the author considers it impossible for any work of art to personify or represent a particular historical period. 1,. The author asserts that during the period of &atteau4s artistic acti'ity >rench society was e$periencing which one of the following% (A) widespread social uphea'al caused by war (B) a per'asi'e sense of nostalgia for an ideali!ed past (C) increased domination of public affairs by a powerful aristocracy ( ) rapid adoption by the middle classes of aristocratic manners and life(style (#) a need to reconcile the >rench self(image with >rench social realities 25. The information gi'en in the passage suggests that which one of the following principles accurately characteri!es the relationship between an artist4s work and the impact it is likely to ha'e on a society% (A) An artist4s recognition by society is most directly determined by the degree to which his or her works are percei'ed as lyrical and charming. (B) An artist will ha'e the greatest influence on a society that 'alues art particularly highly. (C) The works of an artist who captures the true and essential nature of a gi'en society will probably ha'e a great impact on that society. ( ) The degree of influence an artist4s 'ision will ha'e on a society is conditional on the 'isibility of the artist4s work. (#) An artist who is much imitate by contemporaries will usually fail to ha'e an impact on a society unless the imitators are talented.
7aced with the prob"ems o# insu##icient evidence' o# con#"icting evidence' and o# evidence re"ayed through the #"awed perceptua"' retentive' and narrative abi"ities o# witnesses' a 2ury is #orced to draw in#erences in its attempt to ascertain the truth. &y app"ying the same cognitive too"s they have deve"oped and used over a "i#etime' 2urors engage in the in#erentia" e5ercise that "awyers ca"" #act-#inding. /n certain decision-ma$ing conte5ts that are re"evant to the tria" o# "awsuits' however' these norma""y re"iab"e cognitive too"s may cause 2urors to commit in#erentia" errors that distort rather than revea" the truth. 0"though 2uries can ma$e a variety o# in#erentia" errors' most o# these mista$es in 2udgment invo"ve the drawing o# an unwarranted conc"usion #rom the evidence' that is' deciding that the evidence proves something that' in rea"ity' it does not prove. 7or e5amp"e' evidence that the de#endant in a crimina" prosecution has a prior conviction may encourage 2urors to presume the de#endant3s gui"t' because o# their preconception that a person previous"y convicted o# a crime must be inc"ined toward repeated crimina" behavior. That common"y he"d be"ie# is at "east a partia" distortion o# rea"ity: not a"" #ormer convicts engage in

LSAT

60-

repeated crimina" behavior. 0"so' 2ury may give more probative weight than ob2ective ana"ysis wou"d a""ow to vivid photographic evidence depicting a shooting victim3s wounds' or may underestimate the weight o# de#ense testimony that is not de"ivered in a su##icient"y #orce#u" or persuasive manner. 7ina""y' comp"e5 or vo"uminous evidence might be so con#using to a 2ury that its members wou"d draw tota""y unwarranted conc"usions or even ignore the evidence entire"y. Recent empirica" research in cognitive psycho"ogy suggests that peop"e tend to commit in#erentia" errors "i$e these under certain predictab"e circumstances. &y e5amining the avai"ab"e in#ormation' the situation' and the type o# decision being made' cognitive psycho"ogists can describe the $inds o# in#erentia" errors a person or group is "i$e"y to ma$e. These patterns o# human decision-ma$ing may provide the courts with a guide to eva"uating the e##ect o# evidence on the re"iabi"ity o# the 2ury3s in#erentia" processes in certain situations. The notion that 2uries can commit in#erentia" errors that 2eopardi)e the accuracy o# the #act-#inding process is not un$nown to the courts. /n #act' one o# a presiding 2udge3s duties is to minimi)e 2ury in#erentia" error through e5p"anation and c"ari#ication. *onethe"ess' most 2udges now emp"oy on"y a "imited and primitive concept o# 2ury in#erentia" error> "imited because it #ai"s to recogni)e the potentia" #or error outside certain traditiona" situations' primitive because it ignores the research and conc"usions o# psycho"ogists in #avor o# notions about human cognition he"d by "awyers.

21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) &hen making decisions in certain predictable situations/ <uries may commit inferential errors that obscure rather than re'eal the truth. (B) The 'iews of human cognition taken by cogniti'e psychologists on the one hand and by the legal profession on the other are demonstrably dissimilar. (C) &hen confronting powerful preconceptions/ particularly shocking e'idence/ or comple$/ situation/ <urors make errors in <udgment. ( ) The problem of inferential error by <uries is typical of the difficulties with cogniti'e processes that people face in their e'eryday li'es. (#) Auries would probably make more reliable decisions if cogniti'e psychologists/ rather than <udges/ instructed them about the problems inherent in drawing unwarranted conclusions. 22. 8f the following hypothetical reforms in trial procedure/ which one would the author be most likely to support as the best way to address the problem of <ury inferential error% (A) a mo'e away from <ury trial (B) the institution of minimum formal educational re"uirements for <urors (C) the de'elopment of strict guidelines for defense testimony ( ) specific training for <udges in the area of <ury instruction (#) restrictions on lawyers4 use of psychological research 2.. 3n the second paragraph/ the author4s primary purpose is to

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(A) refute the idea that the fact(finding process is a complicated e$ercise (B) emphasi!e how carefully e'idence must be presented in order to a'oid <ury inferential error (C) e$plain how commonly held beliefs affect the <ury4s ability to ascertain the truth ( ) pro'ide e$amples of situations that may precipitate <ury errors (#) recommend a method for minimi!ing mistakes by <uries 20. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward the ma<ority of <udges today% (A) apprehensi'e about whether they are consistent in their instruction of <uries (B) doubtful of their ability to draw consistently correct conclusions based on the e'idence (C) critical of their failure to take into account potentially helpful research ( ) pessimistic about their willingness to make significant changes in trial procedure (#) concerned about their allowing the presentation of comple$ and 'oluminous e'idence in the courtroom 21. &hich one of the following statements/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the author4s suggestion about the use of current psychological research in the courtroom% (A) All guidelines about human beha'ior must take account of 'ariations in the patterns of human decision(making. (B) Current models of how humans make decisions apply reliably to indi'iduals but do not hold for decisions made by groups. (C) The current conception of <ury inferential error employed by <udges has been in use for nearly a century. ( ) 3nferential errors can be more easily predicted in controlled situations such as the trial of lawsuits than in other kinds of decision(making processes. (#) 3n certain predictable circumstances/ <uries are less susceptible to inferential errors than they are in other circumstances. 22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following generali!ations about lawyers% (A) They ha'e a less sophisticated understanding of human cognition than do psychologists. (B) They often present comple$ or 'oluminous information merely in order to confuse a <ury. (C) They are no better at making logical inferences from the testimony at a trial than are most <udges.

LSAT

60,

( ) They ha'e worked to help <udges minimi!e <ury inferential error. (#) They are unrealistic about the ability of <urors to ascertain the truth. 2-. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following generali!ations about a <ury4s decision(making process% (A) The more e'idence that a <ury has/ the more likely it is that the <ury will reach a reliable 'erdict. (B) Auries usually o'erestimate the 'alue of 'isual e'idence such as photographs. (C) Aurors ha'e preconceptions about the beha'ior of defendants that pre'ent them from making an ob<ecti'e analysis of the e'idence in a criminal trial. ( ) ?ost of the <urors who make inferential errors during a trial do so because they are unaccustomed to ha'ing to make difficult decisions based on inferences. (#) The manner in which e'idence is presented to a <ury may influence the <ury either to o'erestimate or to underestimate the 'alue of that e'idence. LSAT 15 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
/t is a #undamenta" tenet o# geophysics that the =arth3s magnetic #ie"d can e5ist in either o# two po"arity states> a ;norma"< state' in which north-see$ing compass need"es point to the geographic north' and a ;reverse< state' in which they point to the geographic south. Aeo"ogica" evidence shows that periodica""y the #ie"d3s po"arity reverses' and that these reversa"s have been ta$ing p"ace at an increasing rate. =vidence a"so indicates that the #ie"d does not reverse instantaneous"y #rom one po"arity state to another: rather' the process invo"ves a transition period that typica""y spans a #ew thousand years. Though this much is $nown' the under"ying causes o# the reversa" phenomenon are not we"" understood. /t is genera""y accepted that the magnetic #ie"d itse"# is generated by the motion o# #ree e"ectrons in the outer core' a s"ow"y churning mass o# mo"ten meta" sandwiched between the =arth3s mant"e (the region o# the =arth3s interior "ying be"ow the crust) and its so"id inner core. /n some way that is not comp"ete"y understood' gravity and the =arth3s rotation' acting on temperature and density di##erences within the outer core #"uid' provide the driving #orces behind the generation o# the #ie"d. The reversa" phenomenon may be triggered when something disturbs the heat circu"ation pattern o# the outer core #"uid' and with it the magnetic #ie"d. evera" e5p"anations #or this phenomenon have been proposed. 9ne proposa"' the ;heattrans#er hypothesis'< is that the triggering process is intimate"y re"ated to the way the outer core vents its heat into the mant"e. 7or e5amp"e' such heat trans#er cou"d create hotter (rising)

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

or coo"er (descending) b"obs o# materia" #rom the inner and outer boundaries o# the #"uid core' thereby perturbing the main heat-circu"ation pattern. 0 more controversia" a"ternative proposa" is the asteroid-impact hypothesis. /n this scenario an e5tended period o# co"d and dar$ness resu"ts #rom the impact o# an asteroid "arge enough to send a great c"oud o# dust into the atmosphere. 7o""owing this c"imatic change' ocean temperatures drop and the po"ar ice caps grow' redistributing the =arth3s seawater. This redistribution increases the rotationa" acce"eration o# the mant"e' causing #riction and turbu"ence near the outer core-mant"e boundary and initiating reversa" o# the magnetic #ie"d. (ow we"" do these hypotheses account #or such observations as the "ong-term increase in the #re+uency o# reversa"C /n support o# the asteroid-impact mode"' it had been argued that the gradua" coo"ing o# the average ocean temperature wou"d enab"e progressive"y sma""er asteroid impacts (which are $nown to occur more #re+uent"y than "arger impacts) to coo" the =arth3s c"imate su##icient"y to induce ice-cap growth and reversa"s. &ut theories that depend on e5traterrestria" intervention seem "ess convincing than theories "i$e the #irst' which account #or the phenomenon so"e"y by means o# the thermodynamic state o# the outer core and its e##ect on the mant"e.

1.

&hich one of the following statements regarding the #arth4s outer core is best supported by information presented in the passage% (A) )eat circulation in the outer core controls the growth and diminution of the polar ice caps. (B) 3mpact of asteroids on the #arth4s surface alters the way in which the outer core 'ents its heat into the mantle. (C) ?otion of electrons within the metallic fluid in the outer core produces the #arth4s magnetic field. ( ) >riction and turbulence near the boundary between the outer core and the mantle are typically caused by asteroid impacts. (#) Cessation of heat circulation within the outer core brings on multiple re'ersals in the #arth4s magnetic field.

2.

The author4s ob<ection to the second hypothesis discussed in the passage is most applicable to which one of the following e$planations concerning the e$tinction of the dinosaurs% (A) The e$tinction of the dinosaurs was the result of gradual changes in the composition of the #arth4s atmosphere that occurred o'er millions of years. (B) The dinosaurs became e$tinct when their food supply was disrupted following the emergence of mammals. (C) The dinosaurs succumbed to the new/ colder en'ironment brought about by a buildup of 'olcanic ash in the atmosphere. ( ) After massi'ely o'erpopulation the planet/ dinosaurs disappeared due to widespread star'ation and the rapid spread of disease. (#) After radical climatic changes resulted from the impact of a comet/ dinosaurs

LSAT

611

disappeared from the #arth. .. The author mentions the creation of blobs of different temperatures in the #arth4s outer core (lines .0(.6) primarily in order to (A) present a way in which the 'enting of heat from the outer core might disturb the heat(circulation pattern within the outer core (B) pro'ide proof for the proposal that 'entilation of heat from the outer core into the mantle triggers polarity re'ersal (C) gi'e an e$ample of the way in which heat circulates between the #arth4s outer core and the #arth4s e$terior ( ) describe how the outer core maintains its temperature by 'enting its e$cess heat into the #arth4s mantle (#) argue in fa'or of the theory that heat circulation in the #arth4s interior produces the magnetic field 0. &hich one of the following statements regarding the polarity of the #arth4s magnetic field is best supported by information in the passage% (A) ?ost/ but not all/ geophysicists agree that the #arth4s magnetic field may e$ist in two distinct polarity states. (B) Changes in the polarity of the #arth4s magnetic field ha'e occurred more often in the recent past that in the distant past. (C) )eat transfer would cause re'ersals of the polarity of the #arth4s magnetic field to occur more "uickly than would asteroid impact. ( ) Beophysicists4 understanding of the re'ersal of the #arth4s magnetic field has increased significantly since the introduction of the heat(transfer hypothesis. (#) >riction near the boundary of the inner and outer cores brings on re'ersal of the polarity of the geomagnetic field. 1. &hich one of the following can be inferred regarding the two proposals discussed in the passage% (A) ;ince their introduction they ha'e sharply di'ided the scientific community. (B) Both were formulated in order to e$plain changes in the fre"uency of polarity re'ersal. (C) Although no firm conclusions regarding them ha'e yet been reached/ both ha'e been e$tensi'ely in'estigated. ( ) They are not the only proposals scientists ha'e put forward to e$plain the phenomenon of polarity re'ersal. (#) Both were introduced some time ago and ha'e since fallen into disfa'or among geophysicists. 2. The author mentions each of the following as possible contributing causes to re'ersals of the #arth4s magnetic field #DC#@T

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(A) changes in the way heat circulates within the outer core fluid (B) e$tended periods of colder temperatures on the #arth4s surface (C) the creation of circulation blobs of outer core material of different temperatures ( ) changes in circulation patterns in the #arth4s oceans (#) clouding of the #arth4s atmosphere by a large amount of dust
/nnovations in "anguage are never comp"ete"y new. 8hen the words used #or #ami"iar things change' or words #or new things enter the "anguage' they are usua""y borrowed or adapted #rom stoc$. 0ssuming new ro"es' they drag their o"d meanings a"ong behind them "i$e #"ic$ering shadow. This seems especia""y true o# the "anguage o# the contemporary schoo" o# "iterary criticism that now pre#ers to describe its wor$ simp"y and rather presumptuous"y as theory but is sti"" popu"ar"y re#erred to as poststructura"ism o# deconstruction. The #irst neo"ogisms adopted by this movement were signifier and signified' emp"oyed to distinguish arbitrariness o# the term we choose. The use o# these particu"ar terms (rather than' respective"y' words and thing) under"ined the seriousness o# the naming process and its c"aim on our attention. ince in =ng"ish ;to signi#y< can a"so mean ;to portend'< these terms a"so suggest that words predict coming events. 8ith the use o# the term deconstruction we move into another and more comp"e5 rea"m o# meaning. The most common use o# the terms construction and deconstruction is in the bui"ding trades' and their borrowing by "iterary theorists #or a new type o# criticism cannot he"p but have certain overtones to the outsider. 7irst' the usage suggests that the creation and critica" interpretation o# "iterature are not organic but mechanica" processes: that the author o# any piece o# writing is not an inspired' intuitive artist' but mere"y a "aborer who cobb"es e5isting materia"s (words) into more or "ess conventiona" structures. The term deconstruction imp"ies that the te5t has been put together "i$e a bui"ding or a piece o# machinery' and that it is in need o# being ta$en apart' not so much in order to repair it as to demonstrate under"ying inade+uacies' #a"se assumptions' and inherent contradictions. This process can supposed"y be repeated many times and by many "iterary hard hats: it is e5pected that each deconstruction wi"" revea" additiona" #"aws and e5pose the i""usions or bad #aith o# the bui"der. The #act that deconstructionists pre#er to describe their activities as deconstruction rather than criticism is a"so revea"ing. Criticism and critic derive #rom the Aree$ 0ritikos' ;s$i""#u" in 2udging' decisive.< Feconstruction' on the other hand' has no overtones o# s$i"" or wisdom: it mere"y suggests demo"ition o# an e5isting bui"ding. /n popu"ar usage criticism suggests censure but not change. /# we #ind #au"t with a bui"ding' we may condemn it' but we do not carry out the demo"ition ourse"ves. The deconstructionist' by imp"ication' is both 2udge and e5ecutioner who "eaves a te5t tota""y dismant"ed' i# not reduced to a pi"e o# rubb"e.

-.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) 3mplicit in the terminology of the school of criticism known as deconstruction are meanings that re'eal the true nature of the deconstructionist4s endea'or. (B) The appearance of the terms signi+ier and signi+ied in the field of literary

LSAT

61.

theory anticipated the appearance of an e'en more radical idea known as deconstruction. (C) 3nno'ations in language and relations between old and new meanings of terms are a special concern of the new school of criticism known as deconstruction. ( ) econstructionists maintain that it is insufficient merely to <udge a workE the critic must acti'ely dismantle it. (#) @rogress in the field of literary theory is best achie'ed by looking for new terms like signi+ier and deconstruction that might suggest new critical approaches to a work. 6. &hich one of the following is a claim that the author of the passage makes about deconstructionists% (A) econstructionists would not ha'e been able to formulate their 'iews ade"uately without the terms signi+ier and signi+ied. (B) econstructionists had no particular purpose in mind in choosing to use neologisms. (C) econstructionists do not recogni!e that their own theory contains inherent contradictions. ( ) econstructionists find little interest in the relationship between words and their referents. (#) econstructionists use the terms signi+ier and signi+ied to stress the importance of the process of naming. ,. &hich one of the following generali!ations about in'entions is most analogous to the author4s point about inno'ation in language% (A) A new in'ention usually consists of components that are specifically manufactured for the new in'ention. (B) A new in'ention is usually behind the times/ ne'er making as much use of all the a'ailable modern technology as it could. (C) A new in'ention usually consists of components that are already a'ailable but are made to function in new ways. ( ) A new in'ention is most useful when it is created with attention to the historical tradition established by implements pre'iously used to do the same <ob. (#) A new in'ention is rarely used to its full potential because it is surrounded by out(of(date technology that hinder its application. 15. The author of the passage uses the word *criticism+ in lines 02(12 primarily in order to (A) gi'e an e$ample (B) introduce a contrast

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(C) undermine an argument ( ) codify a system (#) dismiss an ob<ection 11. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the second paragraph within the passage as a whole% (A) 3t introduces a hypothesis that the author later e$pands upon. (B) 3t "ualifies a claim made earlier by the author. (C) 3t de'elops an initial e$ample of the author4s general thesis. ( ) 3t predicts a de'elopment. (#) 3t presents a contrasting 'iew. 12. The passage suggests that the author most probably holds the 'iew that an important characteristic of literary criticism is that it (A) demonstrate false assumptions and inherent contradictions (B) employ skill and insight (C) be carried out by one critic rather than many ( ) re'eal how a te$t is put together like a building (#) point out the superiority of con'entional te$t structures 1.. The passage suggests that which one of the following most accurately describes the author4s 'iew of deconstructionist thought% (A) The author is guardedly optimistic about the ability of deconstruction to re'eal the intentions and biases of a writer. (B) The author endorses the utility of deconstruction for re'ealing the role of older meanings of words. (C) The author is enthusiastic about the significant neologisms that deconstruction has introduced into literary criticism. ( ) The author regards deconstruction4s tendency to focus only on the problems and faults of literary te$ts as too mechanical. (#) The author condemns deconstruction4s attempts to define literary criticism as a creati'e act.
(The #o""owing passage was written in 198G) The "egis"ation o# a country recent"y considered a bi"" designed to reduce the uncertainty inherent in the ownership o# art by speci#ying certain conditions that must be met be#ore an a""eged"y sto"en wor$ o# art can be rec"aimed by a p"ainti##. The bi"" p"aces the burden o# proo# in rec"amation "itigation entire"y on the p"ainti##' who must demonstrate that the ho"der o# an item $new at the time o# purchase that it had been sto"en. 0dditiona""y' the bi"" creates a uni#orm nationa" statute o# "imitations #or rec"amation o# sto"en cu"tura" property. Testi#ying in support o# the bi""' @ames F' &ur$e' a citi)en o# the country and one o# its "eading art museum directors' specia""y praised the inc"usion o# a statute o# "imitations:

LSAT

611

otherwise' he said' other countries cou"d see$ to rec"aim va"uab"e art ob2ects' no matter how "ong they have been he"d by the current owner or how "egitimate"y they were ac+uired. 0ny country cou"d enact a patrimony "aw stating that anything ever made within the boundaries o# that country is its cu"tura" property. &ur$e e5pressed the #ear that "ead to ruinous "ega" de#ense costs #or museums. (owever' because such rec"amation suits have not yet been a prob"em' there is "itt"e basis #or &ur$e3s concern. /n #act' the proposed "egis"ation wou"d estab"ish too many un2usti#iab"e barriers to the "ocation and recovery o# sto"en ob2ects. The main barrier is that the bi"" considers the announcement o# an art transaction in a museum pub"ication to be ade+uate evidence o# an attempt to noti#y a possib"e owner. There are #ar too many such pub"ications #or the victim o# a the#t to survey' and with on"y this #orm o# disc"osure' a sto"en ob2ect cou"d easi"y remain un"ocated even i# assiduous"y searched #or. 0nother stipu"ation re+uires that a purchaser show the ob2ect to a scho"ar #or veri#ication that it is not sto"en' but it is a rare academic who is aware o# any but the most pub"ici)ed art the#ts. ?oreover' the time "imit speci#ied by the statute o# "imitations is very short' and the re+uirement that the p"ainti## demonstrate that the ho"der had $now"edge o# the the#t is unrea"istic. Typica""y' sto"en art changes hands severa" times be#ore rising to the "eve" in the mar$etp"ace where a curator or co""ector wou"d see it. 0t that point' the ob2ect bears no trace o# the initia" transaction between the thie# and the #irst purchaser' perhaps the on"y one in the chain who $nowing"y ac+uired a sto"en wor$ o# art. Thus' the need #or new "egis"ation to protect ho"ders o# art is not obvious. Rather' what is necessary is "egis"ation remedying the di##icu"ties that "egitimate owners o# wor$s o# art' and countries #rom which such wor$s have been sto"en' have in "ocating and rec"aiming these sto"en wor$s.

10. &hich one of the following most accurately summari!es the main point of the passage% (A) Carious legal disputes ha'e recently arisen that demonstrate the need for legislation clarifying the legal position of museums in suits in'ol'ing the repossession of cultural property. (B) A bill intended to pre'ent other go'ernments from reco'ering cultural property was recently introduced into the legislature of a country at the behest of its museum directors. (C) A bill intended to protect good(faith purchasers of works of art from reclamation litigation is unnecessary and fails to address the needs of legitimate owners attempting to reco'er stolen art works. ( ) Clashes between museum professionals and members of the academic community regarding go'ernmental legislation of the arts can best be resol'ed by negotiation and arbitration/ not by litigation. (#) The desire of some go'ernments to use legislation and litigation to reco'er cultural property stolen from their countries has led to abuses in international patrimony legislation.

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11. The uncertainty mentioned in line 2 of the passage refers to the (A) doubt that owners of works of art often harbor o'er whether indi'iduals ha'e a moral right to possess great art (B) concern that owners of works of art often ha'e that their possession of such ob<ects may be legally challenged at any time (C) "uestions that owners of works of art often ha'e concerning the correct identification of the age and origin of their ob<ects ( ) disputes that often arise between cultural institutions 'ying for the opportunity to purchase a work of art (#) apprehension that owners of works of art often feel concerning the possibility that their ob<ects may be damaged or stolen from them 12. &hich one of the following is an e$ample of the kind of action that Burke feared would pose a serious threat to museums in his country% (A) the passage of a law by another country forbidding the future e$port of any archaeological ob<ects unco'ered at sites within its territory (B) an international accord establishing strict criteria for determining whether a work of art can be considered stolen and specifying the circumstances under which it must be returned to its country of origin (C) the passage of a law by another country declaring that all ob<ects created by its aboriginal people are the sole property of that country ( ) an increase in the ac"uisition of culturally significant works of art by pri'ate collectors/ who are more capable than museums of bearing the cost of litigation but who rarely display their collections to the public (#) the recommendation of a :nited 9ations committee studying the problem of art theft that all international sales of cultural property be coordinated by a central regulatory body 1-. According to the passage/ Burke en'isaged the most formidable potential ad'ersaries of his country4s museums in reclamation litigation to be (A) commercial dealers in art (B) law enforcement officials in his own country (C) go'ernments of other countries ( ) pri'ate collectors of art (#) museums in other countries 16. The author suggests that in the country mentioned in line 1/ litigation in'ol'ing the reclamation of stolen works of art has been (A) less common than Burke fears it will become without passage of a national stature of limitations for reclamation of stolen cultural property (B) increasing as a result of the passage of legislation that aids legitimate owners of art in their attempts to reco'er stolen works

LSAT

61-

(C) a serious threat to museums and cultural institutions that ha'e unwittingly added stolen artifacts to their collections ( ) a signal of the legitimate frustrations of 'ictims of at theft (#) increasing as a result of an increase in the amount of art theft 1,. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude towards the proposed bill% (A) impassioned support (B) measured ad'ocacy (C) fearful apprehension ( ) reasoned opposition (#) reluctant appro'al 25. &hich one of the following best e$emplifies the sort of legislation considered necessary by the author of the passage% (A) a law re"uiring museums to notify foreign go'ernments and cultural institutions of all the catalogs and scholarly <ournals that they publish (B) a law pro'iding for the creation of a national warehouse for storage of works of art that are the sub<ect of litigation (C) a law instituting a national fund for assisting museums to bear the e$penses of defending themsel'es against reclamation suits ( ) A law declaring in'alid all sales of culture property during the last ten years by museums of one country to museums of another (#) A law re"uiring that a central archi'e be established for collecting and distributing information concerning all reported thefts of cultural property
Unti" recent"y' #ew historians were interested in ana"y)ing the simi"arities and di##erences between ser#dom in Russia and s"avery in the United tates. =ven 0"e5is de Toc+uevi""e' who recogni)ed the signi#icant comparabi"ity o# the two nations' never compared their systems o# servitude' despite his interest in United tates s"avery. ?oreover' the a"most simu"taneous abo"ition o# Russian ser#dom and United tates s"avery in the 18G.s!a riveting coincidence that shou"d have drawn more modern scho"ars to a comparative study o# the two systems o# servitude!has #ai"ed to arouse the interest o# scho"ars. Though some historians may have been put o## by the #orbidding po"itica" di##erences between nineteenth-century Russia and the United tates!one an imperia" monarchy' the other a #edera" democracy!a recent study by 6eter No"chin identi#ies di##erences that are i""uminating' especia""y with regard to the di##erent $inds o# rebe""ion e5hibited by s"aves and ser#s. No"chin points out that nob"es owning ser#s in Russia constituted on"y a tiny proportion o# the popu"ation' whi"e in the southern United tates' about a +uarter o# a"" 8hite peop"e were members o# s"ave-owning #ami"ies. 0nd a"though in the southern United tates on"y 1 percent o# s"aves wor$ed on p"antations where more than a hundred s"aves wor$ed' in Russia a"most 8. percent o# the ser#s wor$ed #or nob"es who owned more than a hundred ser#s. /n Russia most ser#s rare"y saw their owners who tended to re"y on intermediaries to manage their

616

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

estates' whi"e most southern p"anters "ived on their "and and interacted with s"aves on a regu"ar basis. These di##erences in demographics part"y e5p"ain di##erences in the $inds o# resistance that s"aves and ser#s practiced in their respective countries. &oth ser#s and s"aves engaged in a wide variety o# rebe""ious activity' #rom si"ent sabotage' much o# which has escaped the historica" record' to organi)ed armed rebe""ions' which were more common in Russia. The practice o# absentee ownership' combined with the "arge numbers in which ser#s were owned' probab"y contributed signi#icant"y to the #our great rebe""ions that swept across Russia at rough"y #i#ty-year interva"s in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The "ast o# these' occurring between 1774 and 177H' en"isted more than a mi""ion ser#s in a #uti"e attempt to overthrow the Russian nobi"ity. Russian ser#s a"so participated in sma""er acts o# co""ective de#iance ca""ed the volnenie' which typica""y started with a group o# ser#s who comp"ained o# grievances by petition and went out on stri$e. %on#rontations between s"aves and p"antation authorities were a"so common' but they tended to be much "ess co""ective in nature than those that occurred in Russia' probab"y in part because the number o# wor$ers on each estate was sma""er in the United tates than was the case in Russia.

21. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage% (A) ifferences in the demographics of :nited ;tates sla'ery and =ussian serfdom can help e$plain the different kinds of resistance practiced by sla'es and serfs in their respecti'e countries. (B) )istorians ha'e yet to undertake an ade"uate comparison and contrast of =ussian serfdom and :nited ;tates sla'ery. (C) =e'olts by =ussian serfs were commonly characteri!ed by collecti'e action. ( ) A recent study has "uestioned the 'alue of comparing :nited ;tates sla'ery to =ussian serfdom/ especially in light of the significant demographic and cultural differences between the two countries. (#) e Toc"ue'ille failed to recogni!e the fundamental differences between =ussian serfdom and :nited ;tates sla'ery which more recent historians ha'e identified. 22. According to the author/ de Toc"ue'ille was similar to many modern historians in his (A) interest in the demographic differences between =ussia and the :nited ;tates during the nineteenth century (B) failure to undertake a comparison of =ussian serfdom and :nited ;tates sla'ery (C) inability to e$plain why :nited ;tates sla'ery and =ussian serfdom were abolished during the same decade ( ) o'erestimation of the significance of the political differences between =ussia and the :nited ;tates (#) recognition of the essential comparability of =ussia and the :nited ;tates

LSAT

61,

2.. &hich one of the following assertions/ if true/ would pro'ide the most support for Molchin4s principal conclusion regarding the relationship of demographics to rebellion among =ussian serfs and :nited ;tates sla'es% (A) Collecti'e defiance by serfs during the nineteenth century was confined almost e$clusi'ely to their participation in the $olnenie. (B) The rebellious acti'ity of :nited ;tates sla'es was more likely to escape the historical record than was the rebellious acti'ity of =ussian serfs. (C) 8rgani!ed rebellions by sla'es in the &estern )emisphere during the nineteenth century were most common in colonies with large estates that normally employed more than a hundred sla'es. ( ) 3n the southern :nited ;tates during the nineteenth century/ those estates that were managed by intermediaries rather than by the owner generally relied upon the labor of at least a hundred sla'es. (#) The intermediaries who managed estates in =ussia during the nineteenth century were in general much more competent as managers than the owners of the estates that they managed. 20. The fact that :nited ;tates sla'ery and =ussian serfdom were abolished during the same decade is cited by the author in the first paragraph primarily in order to (A) emphasi!e that rebellions in both countries e'entually led to the demise of the two institutions (B) cite a coincidence that de Toc"ue'ille should ha'e been able to foresee (C) suggest one reason why more historians should ha'e been drawn to a comparati'e study of the two institutions ( ) cite a coincidence that Molchin4s study has failed to e$plain ade"uately (#) emphasi!e the underlying similarities between the two institutions 21. The author cites which one of the following as a factor that might ha'e discouraged historians from undertaking a comparati'e study of =ussian serfdom and :nited ;tates sla'ery% (A) ma<or differences in the political systems of the two countries (B) ma<or differences in the demographics of the two countries (C) the failure of de Toc"ue'ille to address the sub<ect ( ) differences in the si!e of the estates on which sla'es and serfs labored (#) the comprehensi'eness of Molchin4s own work 22. According to the passage/ Molchin4s study asserts that which one of the following was true of =ussian nobles during the nineteenth century% (A) They agreed to the abolition of serfdom in the 1625s largely as a result of their ha'ing been influenced by the abolition of sla'ery in the :nited ;tates. (B) They became more directly in'ol'ed in the management of their estates as a result of the rebellions that occurred in the pre'ious century.

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(C) They commonly agreed to at least some of the demands that arose out of the $olnenie. ( ) They had relati'ely little direct contact with the serfs who worked on their estates. (#) They hastened the abolition of serfdom by failing to de'ise an effecti'e response to the collecti'e nature of the serfs4 rebellious acti'ity. 2-. The passage suggests that which one of the following was true of southern planters in the :nited ;tates% (A) They were as prepared for collecti'e protest as were their =ussian counterparts. (B) >ew of them owned plantations on which fewer than a hundred sla'es worked. (C) They managed their estates more efficiently than did their =ussian counterparts. ( ) >ew of them relied on intermediaries to manage their estates. (#) The si!e of their estates was larger on a'erage than the si!e of =ussian estates. LSAT 16 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Unti" the 198.s' most scientists be"ieved that noncatastrophic geo"ogica" processes caused the e5tinction o# dinosaurs that occurred appro5imate"y GG mi""ion years ago' at the end o# the %retaceous period. Aeo"ogists argued that a dramatic drop in sea "eve" coincided with the e5tinction o# the dinosaurs and cou"d have caused the c"imatic changes that resu"ted in this e5tinction as we"" as the e5tinction o# many ocean species. This view was serious"y cha""enged in the 198.s by the discovery o# "arge amounts o# iridium in a "ayer o# c"ay deposited at the end o# the %retaceous period. &ecause iridium is e5treme"y rare in roc$s on the =arth3s sur#ace but common in meteorites' researchers theori)ed that it was the impact o# a "arge meteorite that dramatica""y changed the earth3s c"imate and thus triggered the e5tinction o# the dinosaurs. %urrent"y avai"ab"e evidence' however' o##ers more support #or a new theory' the vo"canic-eruption theory. 0 vast eruption o# "ava in /ndia coincided with the e5tinctions that occurred at the end o# the %retaceous period' and the re"ease o# carbon dio5ide #rom this episode o# vo"canism cou"d have caused the c"imatic change responsib"e #or the demise o# the dinosaurs. uch outpourings o# "ava are caused by instabi"ity in the "owest "ayer o# the =arth3s mant"e' "ocated 2ust above the =arth3s core. 0s the roc$ that constitutes this "ayer is heated by the =arth3s core' it becomes "ess dense and portions o# it eventua""y escape

LSAT

621

upward as b"obs or mo"ten roc$' ca""ed ;diapirs'< that can' under certain circumstances' erupt vio"ent"y through the =arth3s crust. ?oreover' the vo"canic-eruption theory' "i$e the impact theory' accounts #or the presence o# iridium in sedimentary deposits: it a"so e5p"ains matters that the meteorite-impact theory does not. 0"though iridium is e5treme"y rare on the =arth3s sur#ace' the "ower regions o# the =arth3s mant"e have rough"y the same composition as meteorites and contain "arge amounts o# iridium' which in the case o# a diapir eruption wou"d probab"y be emitted as iridium he5a#"uoride' a gas that wou"d disperse more uni#orm"y in the atmosphere than the iridiumcontaining matter thrown out #rom a meteorite impact. /n addition' the vo"canic-eruption theory may e5p"ain why the end o# the %retaceous period was mar$ed by a gradua" change in sea "eve". 7ossi" records indicate that #or severa" hundred thousand years prior to the re"ative"y sudden disappearance o# the dinosaurs' the "eve" o# the sea gradua""y #e""' causing many marine organisms to die out. This change in sea "eve" might we"" have been the resu"t o# a distortion in the =arth3s sur#ace that resu"ted #rom the movement o# diapirs upward toward the =arth3s crust' and the more catac"ysmic e5tinction o# the dinosaurs cou"d have resu"ted #rom the e5p"osive vo"canism that occurred as materia" #rom the diapirs erupted onto the =arth3s sur#ace.

1.

The passage suggests that during the 1,65s researchers found meteorite impact a con'incing e$planation for the e$tinction of dinosaurs/ in part because (A) earlier theories had failed to account for the gradual e$tinction of many ocean species at the end of the Cretaceous period (B) geologists had/ up until that time/ underestimated the amount of carbon dio$ide that would be released during an episode of e$plosi'e 'olcanism (C) a meteorite could ha'e ser'ed as a source of the iridium found in a layer of clay deposited at the end of the Cretaceous period ( ) no theory relying on purely geological processes had/ up until that time/ e$plained the cause of the precipitous drop in sea le'el that occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period (#) the impact of a large meteorite could ha'e resulted in the release of enough carbon dio$ide to cause global climatic change

2.

According to the passage/ the lower regions of the #arth4s mantle are characteri!ed by (A) a composition similar to that of meteorites (B) the absence of elements found in rocks on the #arth4s crust (C) a greater stability than that of the upper regions ( ) the presence of large amounts of carbon dio$ide (#) a uniformly lower density than that of the upper regions

..

3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following was true of the la'a that erupted in 3ndia at the end of the Cretaceous period% (A) 3t contained less carbon dio$ide than did the meteorites that were striking the

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

#arth4s surface during that period. (B) 3t was more dense than the molten rock/ located <ust abo'e the #arth4s core. (C) 3t released enough iridium he$afluoride into the atmosphere to change the #arth4s climate dramatically. ( ) 3t was richer in iridium than rocks usually found on the #arth4s surface. (#) 3t was richer in iridium than were the meteorites that were striking the #arth4s surface during that period. 0. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the following% (A) describing three theories and e$plaining why the latest of these appears to be the best of the three (B) attacking the assumptions inherent in theories that until the 1,65s had been largely accepted by geologists (C) outlining the inade"uacies of three different e$planations of the same phenomenon ( ) pro'iding concrete e$amples in support of the more general assertion that theories must often be re'ised in light of new e'idence (#) citing e'idence that appears to confirm the skepticism of geologists regarding a 'iew held prior to the 1,65s 1. The author implies that if the theory described in the third paragraph is true/ which one of the following would ha'e been true of iridium in the atmosphere at the end of the Cretaceous period% (A) 3ts le'el of concentration in the #arth4s atmosphere would ha'e been high due to a slow but steady increase in the atmospheric iridium that began in the early Cretaceous period. (B) 3ts concentration in the #arth4s atmosphere would ha'e increased due to the dramatic decrease in sea le'el that occurred during the Cretaceous period. (C) 3t would ha'e been directly responsible for the e$tinction of many ocean species. ( ) 3t would ha'e been more uniformly dispersed than iridium whose source had been the impact of a meteorite on the #arth4s surface. (#) 3t would ha'e been more uniformly dispersed than indium released into the atmosphere as a result of normal geological processes that occur on #arth. 2. The passage supports which one of the following claims about the 'olcanic( eruption theory% (A) 3t does not rely on assumptions concerning the temperature of molten rock at the lowest pan of the #arth4s mantle. (B) 3t may e$plain what caused the gradual fall in sea le'el that occurred for hundreds of thousands of years prior to the more sudden disappearance of

LSAT

62.

the dinosaurs. (C) 3t bases its e$planation on the occurrence of periods of increased 'olcanic acti'ity similar to those shown to ha'e caused earlier mass e$tinctions. ( ) 3t may e$plain the relati'e scarcity of iridium in rocks on the #arth4s surface compared to its abundance in meteorites. (#) 3t accounts for the relati'ely une'en distribution of iridium in the layer of clay deposited at the end of the Cretaceous period. -. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would cast the most doubt on the theory described in the last paragraph of the passage% (A) >ragments of meteorites that ha'e struck the #arth are e$amined and found to ha'e only minuscule amounts of iridium he$afluoride trapped inside of them. (B) ?ost diapir eruptions in the geological history of the #arth ha'e been similar in si!e to the one that occurred in 3ndia at the end of the Cretaceous period and ha'e not been succeeded by periods of climatic change. (C) There ha'e been se'eral periods in the geological history of the #arth/ before and after the Cretaceous period/ during which large numbers of marine species ha'e perished. ( ) The fre"uency with which meteorites struck the #arth was higher at the end of the Cretaceous period than at the beginning of the period. (#) ?arine species tend to be much more 'ulnerable to e$tinction when e$posed to a dramatic and relati'ely sudden change in sea le'el than when they are e$posed to a gradual change in sea le'el similar to the one that preceded the e$tinction of the dinosaurs.
/t has become something o# a truism in #o"$"ore studies that unti" recent"y the "ore was more o#ten studied than the #o"$. That is' #o"$"orists concentrated on the #o"$"ore!the songs' ta"es' and proverbs themse"ves!and ignored the peop"e who transmitted that "ore as part o# their ora" cu"ture. (owever' since the ear"y 197.s' #o"$"ore studies have begun to regard #o"$ per#ormers as peop"e o# creativity who are as worthy o# attention as are artists who transmit their ideas in writing. This shi#t o# emphasis has a"so encouraged a growing interest in women #o"$ per#ormers. Unti" recent"y' #o"$"orists tended to co""ect #o"$"ore #rom women on on"y a #ew topics such as hea"th and games. /n other areas' as 8eig"e and 7arrer have noted' i# #o"$"orists ;had a choice between a story as to"d by a man or as to"d by a woman' the man3s version was chosen.< /t is sti"" too ear"y to te"" how pro#ound"y this situation has changed' but one can point to severa" recent studies in which women per#ormers p"ay centra" ro"es. 6erhaps more te""ing is the #ocus o# the most recent"y pub"ished ma2or #o"$"ore te5tboo$' The -ynamics of Folklore. 8hereas ear"ier te5tboo$s gave "itt"e attention to women and their #o"$"ore' this boo$ devotes many pages to women #o"$ per#ormers. Recognition o# women as important bearers o# #o"$"ore is not entire"y a recent phenomenon. 0s ear"y as 19.4' a #ew outstanding women #o"$ per#ormers were the #ocus o#

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

scho"ar"y attention. &ur the scho"arship devoted to these women tended to #ocus primari"y on presenting the per#ormer3s repertoire. Recent wor$s about women #o"$ artists' however' have been more biographica""y oriented. @uha 6enti$ainen3s study o# ?arina To$a"o' a 7innish hea"er and narrator o# #o"$ta"es' is especia""y e5tensive and probing. Though interested in the prob"ems o# repertoire ana"ysis' 6enti$ainen gives considerab"e attention to the detai"s o# To$a"o3s "i#e and cu"tura" bac$ground' so that a #u"" picture o# a woman and her #o"$"ore emerges. 0nother notab"e wor$ is Roger 0braham3s boo$' which presents a very c"ear picture o# the signi#icance o# traditiona" singing in the "i#e o# noted ba""ad singer 0"meda Ridd"e. Un#ortunate"y' un"i$e 6enti$ainen3s study' 0braham3s study contains "itt"e repertoire ana"ysis. These recent boo$s re#"ect the current interest o# #o"$"orists in viewing #o"$"ore in conte5t and thus answering +uestions about what #o"$"ore means to the peop"e who use it. 9ne une5pected resu"t o# this "ine o# study has been the discovery that women may use the same #o"$"ore that men use' but #or very di##erent purposes. This rea"i)ation has potentia" importance #or #uture #o"$"ore studies in ca""ing greater attention to the type o# study re+uired i# a #o"$"orist wants tru"y to understand the ro"e #o"$"ore p"ays in a particu"ar cu"ture.

6.

&hich one of the following best describes the main point of the passage% (A) 3t is only since the early 1,-5s that folklore studies ha'e begun to recogni!e women as important bearers of folklore. (B) A careful analysis of the repertoires of women folk performers has led to a new disco'ery with important implications for future folklore studies. (C) =ecent studies of women folk performers ha'e focused primarily on the problems of repertoire analysis to the e$clusion of a discussion of the culture within which the folklore was de'eloped. ( ) The emphasis in folklore studies has shifted from a focus on the life and the cultural background of the folk performers themsel'es to a broader understanding of the role folklore plays in a culture. (#) A change in the focus of folklore studies has led to increased interest in women folk performers and to a new understanding of the importance of the conte$t in which folklore is produced.

,.

The author of the passage refers to The !yna-ics o+ Folklore primarily in order to (A) support the idea that it is too soon to tell whether or not folklorists are gi'ing greater attention to women4s folklore (B) refute &eigle and >arrer4s contention that folklorists prefer to collect folklore from men rather than from women (C) support the assertion that scholarship de'oted to women folk performers tends to focus primarily on repertoire ( ) present an e$ample of the new emphasis in folklore studies on the performer rather than on the folklore (#) suggest that there are some signs that women folk performers are gaining

LSAT

621

increased critical attention in the field of folklore 15. The focus of which one of the following books would most clearly reflect the current interest of the folklorists mentioned in the last paragraph% (A) an anthology of tales and songs collected e$clusi'ely from women in different cultures (B) a compilation of tales and songs from both men and women co'ering a great 'ariety of traditional and nontraditional topics (C) a study of the purpose and meaning of a tale or song for the men and women in a particular culture ( ) an analysis of one particular tale or song that documents changes in the te$t of the folklore o'er a period of time (#) a comparison of the creati'e process of performers who transmit folklore with that of artists who transmit their ideas in writing 11. According to the passage/ which one of the following changes has occurred in the field of folklore since the early 1,-5s% (A) increased recognition of the similar ways in which men and women use folklore (B) increased recognition of folk performers as creati'e indi'iduals (C) increased emphasis on the need for repertoire analysis ( ) less emphasis on the relationship between cultural influences and folklore (#) less emphasis on the indi'idual performers and more emphasis on the meaning of folklore to a culture 12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that early folklorists assumed that which one of the following was true% (A) The people who transmitted the folklore did not play a creati'e role in the de'elopment of that folklore. (B) The people who transmitted the folklore were not consciously aware of the way in which they creati'ely shaped that folklore. (C) The te$t of a song or tale did not change as the folklore was transmitted from one generation to another. ( ) &omen were not in'ol'ed in transmitting folklore e$cept for songs or tales dealing with a few traditional topics. (#) The meaning of a piece of folklore could differ depending on whether the tale or song was transmitted by a man or by a woman. 1.. Based on the information in the passage/ which one of the following is most closely analogous to the type of folklore studies produced before the early 1,-5s% (A) An anthropologist studies the implements currently used by an isolated culture/ but does not in'estigate how the people of that culture designed and

622

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

used those implements. (B) A manufacturer hires a consultant to determine how e$isting e"uipment in a plant might be modified to impro'e efficiency/ but does not ask employees for their suggestions on how to impro'e efficiency. (C) A historian studies different types of documents dealing with a particular historical e'ent/ but decides not to re'iew newspaper accounts written by <ournalists who li'ed through that e'ent. ( ) An archaeologist studies the artifacts of an ancient culture to reconstruct the life(style of that culture/ but does not actually 'isit the site where those artifacts were unearthed. (#) An architect designs a pri'ate home for a client/ but ignores many of the client4s suggestions concerning minor details about the final design of the home. 10. The author of the passage uses the term *conte$t+ (line 15) to refer to (A) a holistic assessment of a piece of folklore rather than a critical analysis of its parts (B) a study that e$amines a piece of folklore in light of earlier interpretations pro'ided by other folklorists (C) the parts of a piece of folklore that can shed light on the meaning of the entire piece ( ) the en'ironment and circumstances in which a particular piece of folklore is used (#) the location in which the story line of a piece of folklore is set 11. The author4s attitude toward =oger Abraham4s book can best be described as one of (A) wholehearted appro'al (B) "ualified admiration (C) uneasy ambi'alence ( ) e$treme skepticism (#) trenchant criticism
@. A. 0. 6ococ$3s numerous investigations have a"" revo"ved around the #ruit#u" assumption that a wor$ o# po"itica" thought can on"y be understood in "ight o# the "inguistic constraints to which its author was sub2ect' #or these prescribed both the choice o# sub2ect matter and the author3s conceptua"i)ation o# this sub2ect matter. 9n"y the occasiona" epic theorist' "i$e ?achiave""i or (obbes' succeeded in brea$ing out o# these bonds by rede#ining o"d terms and inventing new ones. The tas$ o# the modern commentator is to identi#y the ;"anguage< or ;vocabu"ary< with and within which the author operated. 8hi"e historians o# "iterature have a"ways been aware that writers wor$ within particu"ar traditions' the app"ication o# this notion to the history o# po"itica" ideas #orms a sharp contrast to the assumptions o# the

LSAT

62-

19-.s' when it was naive"y thought that the c"ose reading o# a te5t by an ana"ytic phi"osopher was su##icient to estab"ish its meaning' even i# the phi"osopher had no $now"edge o# the period o# the te5t3s composition. The "anguage 6ococ$ has most c"ose"y investigated is that o# ;civic humanism.< 7or much o# his career he has argued that eighteenth-century =ng"ish po"itica" thought shou"d be interpreted as a con#"ict between riva" versions o# the ;virtue< centra" to civic humanism. 9n the one hand' he argues' this virtue is described by representatives o# the Tory opposition using a vocabu"ary o# pub"ic spirit and se"#-su##iciency. 7or these writers the societa" idea" is the sma""' independent "andowner in the countryside. 9n the other hand' 8hig writers describe such virtue using a vocabu"ary o# commerce and economic progress: #or them the idea" is the merchant. /n ma$ing such "inguistic discriminations 6ococ$ has disassociated himse"# #rom historians "i$e *amier' who deride a"" eighteenth-century =ng"ish po"itica" "anguage as ;cant.< &ut whi"e 6ococ$3s ideas have proved #erti"e when app"ied to =ng"and' they are more controversia" when app"ied to the "ate-eighteenth-century United tates. 6ococ$3s assertion that @e##erson3s attac$s on the commercia" po"icies o# the 7edera"ists simp"y echo the "anguage o# the Tory opposition in =ng"and is at odds with the #act that @e##erson re2ected the e"itist imp"ications o# that group3s notion o# virtue and asserted the right o# a"" to participate in commercia" society. /ndeed' a#ter promptings by Ouentin $inner' 6ococ$ has admitted that a counter"anguage!one o# rights and "iberties!was probab"y as important in the po"itica" discourse o# the "ate-eighteenth-century United tates as the "anguage o# civic humanism. 7ortunate"y' it is not necessary to ran$ the re"ative importance o# a"" the di##erent vocabu"aries in which eighteenth-century po"itica" argument was conducted. /t is su##icient to recogni)e that any interesting te5t is probab"y a mi5ture o# severa" o# these vocabu"aries' and to app"aud the historian who' though gui"ty o# some e5aggeration' has done the most to ma$e us aware o# their importance.

12. The main idea of the passage is that (A) ci'ic humanism/ in any of its manifestations/ cannot entirely e$plain eighteenth(century political discourse (B) eighteenth(century political te$ts are less likely to reflect a single 'ocabulary than to combine se'eral 'ocabularies (C) @ocock4s linguistic approach/ though not applicable to all eighteenth(century political te$ts/ pro'ides a useful model for historians of political theory ( ) @ocock has more successfully accounted for the nature of political thought in eighteenth(century #ngland than in the eighteenth(century :nited ;tates (#) @ocock4s notion of the importance of language in political te$ts is a logical e$tension of the insights of historians of literature 1-. According to the passage/ @ocock most clearly associates the use of a 'ocabulary of economic progress with (A) Aefferson (B) >ederalists

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(C) #nglish &higs ( ) #nglish Tories rural (#) #nglish landowners 16. The author4s attitude toward @ocock is best re'ealed by which of the following pairs of words% (A) *fruitful+ (line 2) and *cant+ (line .,) (B) *sharp+ (line 12) and *elitist+ (line 02) (C) *nai'ely+ (line 1-) and *contro'ersial+ (line 01) ( ) *fertile+ (line 05) and *applaud+ (line 25) (#) *simply+ (line 00) and *importance+ (line 11) 1,. The passage suggests that one of the *assumptions of the 1,15s+ (line 1-) regarding the meaning of a political te$t was that this meaning (A) could be established using an approach similar to that used by literary historians (B) could be definiti'ely established without reference to the te$t4s historical background (C) could be closely read in se'eral different ways depending on one4s philosophic approach ( ) was constrained by certain linguistic preconceptions held by the te$t4s author (#) could be e$pressed most clearly by an analytic philosopher who had studied its historical conte$t 25. The author of the passage would most likely agree that which one of the following is a weakness found in @ocock4s work% (A) the use of the term *language+ to describe the e$pressi'e features of se'eral di'erse kinds of discourse (B) the o'eremphatic denigration of the role of the analytic philosopher in establishing the meaning of a political/ or indeed any/ te$t (C) the emphasis on the o'erriding importance of ci'ic humanism in eighteenth( century #nglish political thought ( ) the insistence on a single linguistic dichotomy to account for political thought in eighteenth(century #ngland and the :nited ;tates (#) the assignment of certain 'ocabularies to particular parties in eighteenth( century #ngland without taking note of how these 'ocabularies o'erlapped 21. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A description of a thesis is offered/ specific cases are considered/ and an e'aluation is gi'en. (B) A thesis is brought forward/ the thesis is "ualified/ and e'idence that calls the "ualification into "uestion is stated.

LSAT

62,

(C) A hypothesis is described/ e$amples that suggest it is incorrect are summari!ed/ and supporting e$amples are offered. ( ) A series of e'aluations are gi'en/ concrete reasons are put forward/ and a future direction for research is suggested. (#) Comparisons and contrasts are made/ some categories of e'aluation are suggested/ and a framework for applying these categories is implied.
/n 19GH the United tates #edera" government began attempts to e"iminate racia" discrimination in emp"oyment and wages> the United tates %ongress enacted Tit"e B// o# the %ivi" Rights 0ct' prohibiting emp"oyers #rom ma$ing emp"oyment decisions on the basis o# race. /n 19G- 6resident @ohnson issued =5ecutive 9rder 11'1HG' which prohibited discrimination by United tates government contractors and emphasi)ed direct monitoring o# minority representation in contractors3 wor$ #orces. *onethe"ess' proponents o# the ;continuous change< hypothesis be"ieve that United tates #edera" "aw had a margina" impact on the economic progress made by b"ac$ peop"e in the United tates between 19H. and 197-. /nstead they emphasi)e s"ow"y evo"ving historica" #orces' such as "ong-term trends in education that improved segregated schoo"s #or b"ac$ students during the 19H.s and were operative during and a#ter the 19G.s. They argue that as the +ua"ity o# b"ac$ schoo"s improved re"ative to that o# white schoo"s' the earning potentia" o# those attending b"ac$ schoo"s increased re"ative to the earning potentia" o# those attending white schoo"s. (owever' there is no direct evidence "in$ing increased +ua"ity o# under#unded segregated b"ac$ schoo"s to these improvements in earning potentia". /n #act' even the evidence on re"ative schoo"ing +ua"ity is ambiguous. 0"though in the mid-19H.s term "ength at b"ac$ schoo"s was approaching that in white schoo"s' the rapid growth in another important measure o# schoo" +ua"ity' schoo" e5penditures' may be e5p"ained by increases in teachers3 sa"aries' and historica""y' such increases have not necessari"y increased schoo" +ua"ity. 7ina""y' b"ac$ individua"s in a"" age groups' even those who had been educated at segregated schoo"s be#ore the 19H.s' e5perienced post-19G. increases in their earning potentia". /# improvements in the +ua"ity o# schoo"ing were an important determinant o# increased returns' on"y those wor$ers who cou"d have bene#ited #rom enhanced schoo" +ua"ity shou"d have received higher returns. The re"ative improvement in the earning potentia" o# educated b"ac$ peop"e o# a"" age groups in the United tates is more consistent with a dec"ine in emp"oyment discrimination. 0n additiona" prob"em #or continuity theorists is how to e5p"ain the rapid acce"eration o# b"ac$ economic progress in the United tates a#ter 19GH. =ducation a"one cannot account #or the rate o# change. Rather' the coincidence o# increased United tates government antidiscrimination pressure in the mid-19G.s with the acce"eration in the rate o# b"ac$ economic progress beginning in 19G- argues against the continuity theorists3 view. True' corre"ating #edera" intervention and the acce"eration o# b"ac$ economic progress might be incorrect. 9ne cou"d argue that changing a"titudes about emp"oyment discrimination spar$ed both the adoption o# new #edera" po"icies and the rapid acce"eration in b"ac$ economic progress. /ndeed' the shi#t in nationa" attitude that made possib"e the enactment o# Tit"e B//

6-5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

was in part produced by the persistence o# racia" discrimination in the southern United tates. (owever' the #act that the "aw had its greatest e##ect in the outh' in spite o# the vigorous resistance o# many outhern "eaders' suggests its importance #or b"ac$ economic progress.

22. According to the passage/ Title C33 of the 1,20 Ci'il =ights Act differs from #$ecuti'e 8rder 11. 202 in that Title C33 (A) monitors employers to ensure minority representation (B) assesses the work forces of go'ernment contractors (C) eliminates discriminatory disparities in wages ( ) focuses on determining minority representation in go'ernment (#) go'erns hiring practices in a wider 'ariety of workplaces 2.. &hich one of the following statements about schooling in the :nited ;tates during the mid(1,05s can be inferred from the passage% (A) ;chool e$penditures decreased for white schools. (B) The teachers in white schools had more time to co'er material during a school year than did teachers in black schools. (C) The basic curriculum of white schools was similar to the curriculum at black schools. ( ) &hite schools did not change substantially in "uality. (#) Although the salaries of teachers in black schools increased/ they did not keep pace with the salaries of teachers in white schools. 20. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) e$plain why an argument about black economic progress is incomplete (B) describe the impact of education on black economic progress (C) refute an argument about the factors influencing black economic progress ( ) describe black economic progress before and after the 1,25s (#) clarify the current 'iew about the factors influencing black economic progress 21. &hich one of the following best states the position of proponents of the *continuous change+ hypothesis regarding the relationship between law and racial discrimination% (A) 3ndi'iduals cannot be forced by legal means to beha'e in nondiscriminatory ways. (B) iscriminatory practices in education ha'e been effecti'ely altered by legal means. (C) Kegislation alone has had little effect on racially discriminatory beha'ior. ( ) Kegislation is necessary/ but not sufficient/ to achie'e changes in racial altitudes. (#) Kegislation can only e$acerbate conflicts about racially discriminatory beha'ior.

LSAT

6-1

22. The author concedes that *correlating federal inter'ention and the acceleration of black economic progress might be incorrect+ (lines 16(25) primarily in order to (A) strengthen the o'erall argument by anticipating an ob<ection (B) introduce another factor that may ha'e influenced black economic progress (C) concede a point to the continuity theorists ( ) change the o'erall argument in light of the 'iews of the continuity theorists (#) introduce a discussion about the impact of federal inter'ention on discrimination 2-. The *continuous change+ hypothesis/ as it is presented in the passage/ can best be applied to which one of the following situations% (A) )omes are found for many low(income families because the go'ernment funds a pro<ect to build subsidi!ed housing in an economically depressed area. (B) A depressed economy does not cause the closing of small businesses in a local community because the go'ernment pro'ides special grants to aid these businesses. (C) :nemployed people are able to obtain <obs because pri'ate contractors recei'e ta$ incenti'es for constructing office buildings in an area with a high unemployment rate. ( ) A housing shortage is remedied because the changing state of the economy permits pri'ate in'estors to finance construction in a depressed area. (#) A community4s sanitation needs are met because neighborhood organi!ations lobby aggressi'ely for go'ernment assistance. LSAT 17 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
7or the poet 6hi"ips 8hite"y' who was brought to co"onia" *ew =ng"and as a s"ave in 17G1' the #orma" "iterary code o# eighteenth-century =ng"ish was thrice removed> by the initia" barrier o# the un#ami"iar =ng"ish "anguage' by the discrepancy between spo$en and "iterary #orms o# =ng"ish' and by the 0#rican tradition o# ora" rather than written verba" art. 8heat"ey transcended these barriers!she "earned the =ng"ish "anguage and =ng"ish "iterary #orms so +uic$"y and we"" that she was composing good poetry in =ng"ish within a #ew years o# her arriva" in *ew =ng"and. 8heat"ey3s e5perience e5emp"i#ies the meeting o# ora" and written "iterary cu"tures. The aesthetic princip"es o# the 0#rican ora" tradition were preserved in 0merica by #o"$ artists in

6-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

wor$ songs' dancing' #ie"d ho""ers' re"igious music' the use o# the drum' and' a#ter the drum was #orbidden' in the perpetuation o# drum e##ects in song. 0#rican "anguages and the #unctions o# "anguage in 0#rican societies not on"y contributed to the emergence o# a distinctive &"ac$ =ng"ish but a"so e5erted demonstrab"e e##ects on the manner in which other 0mericans spo$e =ng"ish. Aiven her 0#rican heritage and her #aci"ity with =ng"ish and the conventions o# =ng"ish poetry' 8heat"ey3s wor$ had the potentia" to app"y the ideas o# a written "iterature to an ora" "iterary tradition in the creation o# an 0#rican 0merican "iterary "anguage. &ut this was a potentia" that her poetry un#ortunate"y did not e5p"oit. The standards o# eighteenth-century =ng"ish poetry' which itse"# re#"ected "itt"e o# the 0merican "anguage' "ed 8heat"ey to deve"op a notion o# poetry as a c"osed system' derived #rom imitation o# ear"ier written wor$s. *o p"ace e5isted #or the rough-and-ready 0mericani)ed =ng"ish she heard in the streets' #or the =ng"ish spo$en by &"ac$ peop"e' or #or 0#ricanisms. The conventions o# eighteenth-century neoc"assica" poetry ru"ed out casua" ta"$: her choice and #ee"ings had to be genera"i)ed according to ru"es o# poetic diction and characteri)ation: the particu"ars o# her 0#rican past' i# they were to be dea"t with at a""' had to be subordinated to the reigning conventions. 0#rican poetry did not count as poetry in her new situation' and 0#rican aesthetic canons were irre"evant to the new conte5t because no "inguistic or socia" #ramewor$ e5isted to rein#orce them. 8heat"ey adopted a #oreign "anguage and a #oreign "iterary tradition: they were not e5tensions o# her past e5perience' but rep"acements. Thus "imited by the eighteenth-century =ng"ish "iterary code' 8heat"ey3s poetry contributed "itt"e to the deve"opment o# a distinctive 0#rican 0merican "iterary "anguage. Det by the standards o# the "iterary conventions in which she chose to wor$' 8heat"ey3s poetry is undeniab"y accomp"ished' and she is 2ust"y ce"ebrated as the #irst &"ac$ 0merican poet.

1.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) >olk artists employed more principles of African oral tradition in their works than did @hillis &heatley in her poetry. (B) Although @hillis &heatley had to o'ercome significant barriers in learning #nglish/ she mastered the literary con'entions of eighteen(century #nglish as well as African aesthetic canons. (C) @hillis &heatley4s poetry did not fulfill the potential inherent in her e$perience but did represent a significant accomplishment. ( ) The e'olution of a distincti'e African American literary language can be traced from the creations of African American folk artists to the poetry of @hillis &heatley. (#) @hillis &heatley <oined with African American folk artists in preser'ing the principles of the African oral tradition.

2.

The approach to poetry taken by a modern(day 3talian immigrant in America would be most analogous to @hillis &heatley4s approach/ as it is described in the passage/ if the immigrant (A) translated 3talian literary forms into the American idiom

LSAT

6-.

(B) combined 3talian and American literary traditions into a new form of poetic e$pression (C) contributed to the de'elopment of a distincti'e 3talian American literary style ( ) defined artistic e$pression in terms of eighteenth(century 3talian poetic con'entions (#) adopted the language and forms of modern American poetry .. According to the passage/ African languages had a notable influence on (A) the religious music of colonists in 9ew #ngland (B) the folk art of colonists in 9ew #ngland (C) formal written #nglish ( ) American speech patterns (#) eighteen(century aesthetic principles 0. By a *closed system+ of poetry (line .0(.1)/ the author most probably means poetry that (A) cannot be written by those who are not raised knowing its con'entions (B) has little influence on the way language is actually spoken (C) substitutes its own con'entions for the aesthetic principles of the past ( ) does not admit the use of street language and casual talk (#) is ultimately re<ected because its con'entions lea'e little room for further de'elopment 1. According to the passage/ the standards of eighteenth century #nglish poetry permitted &heatley to include which one of the following in her poetry% (A) generali!ed feelings (B) Americani!ed #nglish (C) themes from folk art ( ) casual talk (#) Black speech 2. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s argument concerning the role that &heatley played in the e'olution of an African American literary language% (A) &heatley4s poetry was admired in #ngland for its faithfulness to the con'entions of neoclassical poetry. (B) &heatley compiled a history in #nglish of her family4s e$periences in Africa and America. (C) The language barriers that &heatley o'ercame were e'entually transcended by all who were brought from Africa as sla'es. ( ) ;e'eral modern African American poets acknowledge the importance of

6-0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

&heatley4s poetry to American literature. (#) ;cholars trace themes and e$pressions in African American poetry back to the poetry of &heatley. -. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would most probably ha'e praised @hillis &heatley4s poetry more if it had (A) affected the manner in which sla'es and freed Black people spoke #nglish (B) defined African American artistic e$pression in terms of earlier works (C) adopted the standards of eighteenth(century #nglish poetry ( ) combined elements of the #nglish literary tradition with those of the African oral tradition (#) focused on the barriers that written #nglish literary forms presented to Black artists 6. &hich one of the following most accurately characteri!es the author4s attitude with respect to @hillis &heatley4s literary accomplishments% (A) enthusiastic ad'ocacy (B) "ualified admiration (C) dispassionate impartiality ( ) detached ambi'alence (#) perfunctory dismissal
9ne scienti#ic discip"ine' during its ear"y stages o# deve"opment' is o#ten re"ated to another as an antithesis to its thesis. The thesis discip"ine tend to concern itse"# with discovery and c"assi#ication o# phenomena' to o##er ho"istic e5p"anations emphasi)ing pattern and #orm' and to use e5isting theory to e5p"ain the widest possib"e range o# phenomena. The paired or antidiscip"ine' on the other hand' can be characteri)ed by a more #ocused approach' concentrating on the units o# construction' and by a be"ie# that the discip"ine can be re#ormu"ated in terms o# the issues and e5p"anations o# the antidiscip"ine. The re"ationship o# cyto"ogy (ce"" bio"ogy) to biochemistry in the "ate nineteenth century' when both discip"ines were growing at a rapid pace' e5emp"i#ies such a pattern. Researchers in ce"" bio"ogy #ound mounting evidence o# an intricate ce"" architecture. They a"so deduced the mysterious choreography o# the chromosomes during ce"" division. ?any biochemists' on the other hand' remained s$eptica" o# the idea that so much structure e5isted' arguing that the chemica" reactions that occur in cyto"ogica" preparations might create the appearance o# such structures. 0"so' they stood apart #rom the debate then raging over whether protop"asm' the comp"e5 o# "iving materia" within a ce""' is homogeneous' networ$"i$e' granu"ar' or #oam"i$e. Their interest "ay in the core ;#undamenta"< issues o# the chemica" nature o# protop"asm' especia""y the new"y #ormu"ated en)yme theory o# "i#e. /n genera"' biochemists 2udged cyto"ogists to be too ignorant o# chemistry to grasp the basic processes' whereas cyto"ogists considered the methods o# biochemists inade+uate to characteri)e the structures o# the "iving ce"". The renewa" o# ?ende"ian genetics and' "ater' progress in chromosome mapping did "itt"e at #irst to e##ect a synthesis.

LSAT

6-1

&oth sides were essentia""y correct. &iochemistry has more than 2usti#ied its e5travagant ear"y c"aims by e5p"aining so much o# the ce""u"ar machinery. &ut in achieving this #eat (most"y since 19-.) it has been partia""y trans#ormed into the new discip"ine o# mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy! biochemistry that dea"s with spatia" arrangements and movements o# "arge mo"ecu"es. 0t the same time cyto"ogy has metamorphosed into modern ce""u"ar bio"ogy. 0ided by e"ectron microscopy' it has become more simi"ar in "anguage and out"oo$ to mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy. The interaction o# a discip"ine and its antidiscip"ine has moved both sciences toward a synthesis' name"y mo"ecu"ar genetics. This interaction between paired discip"ines can have important resu"ts. /n the case o# "ate nineteenth-century ce"" research' progress was #ue"ed by competition among the various attitudes and issues derived #rom ce"" bio"ogy and biochemistry. @oseph 7ruton' a biochemist' has suggested that such competition and the resu"ting tensions among researchers are a principa" source o# vita"ity and ;are "i$e"y to "ead to une5pected and e5citing nove"ties in the #uture' as they have in the past.<

,.

&hich one of the following best states the central idea of the passage% (A) Antithetical scientific disciplines can both stimulate and hinder one another4s research in comple$ ways. (B) Antithetical scientific disciplines often interact with one another in ways that can be highly useful. (C) As disciplines such as cytology and biochemistry ad'ance/ their interaction necessarily leads to a synthesis of their approaches. ( ) Cell research in the late nineteenth century was plagued by disagreements between cytologists and biochemists. (#) 3n the late nineteenth century/ cytologists and biochemists made many 'aluable disco'eries that ad'anced scientific understanding of the cell.

15. The passage states that in the late nineteenth century cytologists deduced the (A) maps of chromosomes (B) chemical nature of protoplasm (C) spatial relationship of molecules within the cell ( ) role of en!ymes in biological processes (#) se"uence of the mo'ement of chromosomes during cell di'ision 11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in the late nineteenth century the debate o'er the structural nature of protoplasm (line 21(2,) was most likely carried on (A) among cytologists (B) among biochemists (C) between cytologists and biochemists ( ) between cytologists and geneticists (#) between biochemists and geneticists

6-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

12. According to the passage/ cytologists in the late nineteenth century were critical of the cell research of biochemists because cytologists belie'ed that (A) the methods of biochemistry were inade"uate to account for all of the chemical reactions that occurred in cytological preparations (B) the methods of biochemistry could not ade"uately disco'er and e$plain the structures of li'ing cells (C) biochemists were not interested in the nature of protoplasm ( ) biochemists were not interested in cell di'ision (#) biochemists were too ignorant of cytology to understand the basic processes of the cell 1.. The author "uotes >ruton (lines 22(20) primarily in order to (A) restate the author4s own conclusions (B) pro'ide new e'idence about the relationship of cytology to biochemistry (C) summari!e the position of the biochemists described in the passage ( ) illustrate the difficulties encountered in the synthesis of disciplines (#) emphasi!e the ascendancy of the theories of biochemists o'er those of cytologists 10. &hich one of the following inferences about when the en!yme theory of life was formulated can be drawn from the passage% (A) The theory was formulated before the appearance of molecular biology. (B) The theory was formulated before the initial disco'ery of cell architecture. (C) The theory was formulated after the completion of chromosome mapping. ( ) The theory was formulated after a synthesis of the ideas of cytologists and biochemists had occurred. (#) The theory was formulated at the same time as the beginning of the debate o'er the nature of protoplasm. 11. &hich one of the following statements about cells is most compatible with the 'iews of late nineteenth(century biochemists as those 'iews are described in the passage% (A) The secret of cell function resides in the structure of the cell. (B) 8nly by disco'ering the chemical composition of protoplasm can the processes of the cell be understood. (C) ;cientific knowledge about the chemical composition of the cell can help to e$plain beha'ioral patterns in organisms. ( ) The most important issue to be resol'ed with regard to the cell is determining the physical characteristics of protoplasm. (#) The methods of chemistry must be supplemented before a full account of the cell4s structures can be made.

LSAT

6--

12. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the material presented in the passage% (A) An account of a process is gi'en/ and then the reason for its occurrence is stated. (B) A set of e$amples is pro'ided and then a conclusion is drawn from them. (C) A general proposition is stated/ and then an e$ample is gi'en. ( ) A statement of principles is made/ and then a rationale for them is debated. (#) A problem is analy!ed/ and then a possible solution is discussed.
There are two ma2or systems o# crimina" procedure in the modern wor"d!the adversaria" and the in+uisitoria". &oth systems were historica""y preceded by the system o# private vengeance in which the victim o# a crime #ashioned a remedy and administered it private"y' either persona""y or through an agent. The modern adversaria" system is on"y one historica" step removed #rom the private vengeance system and sti"" remains some o# its characteristic #eature. 7or e5amp"e' even though the right to initiate "ega" action against a crimina" has now been e5tended to a"" members o# society (as represented by the o##ice o# the pub"ic prosecutor)' and even though the po"ice department has e##ective"y assumed the pretria" investigative #unctions on beha"# o# the prosecution' the adversaria" system sti"" "eaves the de#endant to conduct his or her own pretria" investigation. The tria" is views as a #orensic due" between two adversaries' presided over by a 2udge who' at the start' has no $now"edge o# the investigative bac$ground o# the case. /n the #ina" ana"ysis the adversaria" system o# crimina" procedure symbo"i)es and regu"ari)es punitive combat. &y contrast' the in+uisitoria" system begins historica""y where the adversaria" system stopped its deve"opment. /t is two historica" steps removed #rom the system o# private vengeance. 7rom the standpoint o# "ega" anthropo"ogy' then' it is historica""y superior to the adversaria" system. Under the in+uisitoria" system' the pub"ic prosecutor has the duty to investigate not 2ust on beha"# o# society but a"so on beha"# o# the de#endant. 0dditiona""y' the pub"ic prosecutor has the duty to present the court not on"y evidence that wou"d convict the de#endant' but a"so evidence that cou"d prove the de#endant3s innocence. The system mandates that both parties permit #u"" pretria" discovery o# the evidence in their possession. 7ina""y' an aspect o# the system that ma$es the tria" "ess "i$e a due" between two adversaria" parties is that the in+uisitoria" system mandates that the 2udge ta$e an active part in the conduct o# the tria"' with a ro"e that is both directive and protective. 7act-#inding is at the heart o# the in+uisitoria" system. This system operate on the phi"osophica" premise that in a crimina" action the crucia" #actor is the body o# #acts' not the "ega" ru"e (in contrast to the adversaria" system )' and the goa" o# the entire procedure is to attempt to recreate' in the mind o# the court' the commission o# the a""eged crime. &ecause o# the in+uisitoria" system3s thoroughness in conducting its pretria" investigation' it can be conc"uded that' i# given the choice' a de#endant who is innocent wou"d pre#er to be tried under the in+uisitoria" system' whereas a de#endant who is gui"ty wou"d pre#er to be tried under the adversaria" system.

6-6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the crucial factor in a trial under the ad'ersarial system is (A) rules of legality (B) dramatic reenactments of the crime (C) the search for rele'ant facts ( ) the 'ictim4s personal pursuit of re'enge (#) police testimony about the crime 16. The author sees the <udge4s primary role in a trial under the in"uisitorial system as that of (A) passi'e obser'er (B) biased referee (C) unin'ol'ed administrator ( ) aggressi'e in'estigator (#) in'ol'ed manager 1,. According to the passage/ a central distinction between the system of pri'ate 'engeance and the two modern criminal procedure systems was the shift in responsibility for initiating legal action against a criminal from the (A) defendant to the courts (B) 'ictim to society (C) defendant to the prosecutor ( ) courts to a law enforcement agency (#) 'ictim to the <udge 25. All of the following are characteristics of the in"uisitorial system that the author cites #DC#@T (A) 3t is based on cooperation rather than conflict. (B) 3t encourages full disclosure of e'idence. (C) 3t re"uires that the <udge play an acti'e role in the conduct of the trial. ( ) 3t places the defendant in charge of his or her defense. (#) 3t fa'ors the innocent. 21. The author4s attitude toward the in"uisitorial system can best be described as (A) doubtful that its <udges can be both directi'e and protecti'e (B) satisfied that it has potential for unco'ering the rele'ant facts in a case (C) optimistic that it will replace the ad'ersarial system ( ) wary about its downplaying of legal rules (#) critical of its close relationship with the pri'ate 'engeance system
9utside the medica" pro#ession' there are various e##orts to cut medicine down to si)e>

LSAT
not on"y widespread ma"practice "itigation and massive governmenta" regu"ation' but a"so attempts by consumer groups and others to rede#ine medicine as a trade rather than as a pro#ession' and the physician as mere"y a technician #or hire under contract. 8hy shou"d

6-,

physicians (or indeed a"" sensib"e peop"e) resist such e##orts to give the practice o# medicine a new meaningC 8e can gain some i""umination #rom etymo"ogy. ;Trade'< #rom Aermanic and 0ng"o- a5on roots meaning ;a course or pathway'< has come to mean derivative"y a habitua" occupation and has been re"ated to certain s$i""s and cra#ts. 9n the other hand' whi"e ;pro#ession< today a"so entai"s a habit o# wor$' the word ;pro#ession< itse"# traces to an act o# se"#-conscious and pub"ic!even con#essiona"!speech. ;To pro#ess< preserves the meaning o# its Eatin source' to dec"are pub"ic"y: to announce' a##irm' avow.< 0 pro#ession is an activity or occupation to which its practitioner pub"ic"y pro#esses' that is' con#esses' devotion. &ut pub"ic announcement seems insu##icient: pub"ic"y dec"aring devotion to p"umbing or auto repair wou"d not turn these trades into pro#essions. ome be"ieve that "earning and $now"edge are the diagnostic signs o# a pro#ession. 7or reasons probab"y "in$ed to the medieva" university' the term ;pro#ession< has been app"ied to the so-ca""ed "earned pro#essions!medicine' "aw' and theo"ogy!the practices o# which are #ounded upon in+uiry and $now"edge rather than mere ;$now how.< Det it is not on"y the pursuit and ac+uisition o# $now"edge that ma$es one a pro#essiona". The $now"edge invo"ved ma$es the pro#ession one o# the "earned variety' but its pro#essiona" +ua"ity is rooted in something e"se. ome mista$en"y see$ to "ocate that something e"se in the prestige and honor accorded pro#essiona"s by society' evidenced in their specia" tit"es and the specia" de#erence and privi"eges they receive. &ut e5terna"ities do not constitute medicine a pro#ession. 6hysicians are not pro#essiona"s because they are honored: rather' they are honored because o# their pro#ession. Their tit"es and the respect they are shown super#icia""y signi#y and ac$now"edge something deeper' that physicians are persons o# the pro#essiona" sort' $nowing"y and #ree"y devoting themse"ves to a way o# "i#e worthy o# such devotion. @ust as "awyers devote themse"ves to recti#ying in2ustices' "oo$ing up to what is "aw#u" and right: 2ust as teachers devote themse"ves to the education o# the young' "oo$ing up to truth and wisdom: so physicians hea" the sic$' "oo$ing up to hea"th and who"esomeness. &eing a pro#essiona" is thus rooted in our mora" nature and in that which warrants and impe"s ma$ing a pub"ic con#ession to a way o# "i#e. 6ro#essing onese"# a pro#essiona" is an ethica" act because it is not a si"ent and private act' but an articu"ated and pub"ic one: because it promised continuing devotion to a way o# "i#e' not mere"y announces a present pre#erence or a way to a "ive"ihood: because it is an activity in service to some high good that insists on devotion: because it is di##icu"t and demanding. 0 pro#ession engages one3s character and heart' not mere"y one3s mind and hands.

22. According to the author/ which one of the following is re"uired in order that one be a professional% (A) significant prestige and a title (B) *know(how+ in a particular field

665

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(C) a long and difficult educational endea'or ( ) a commitment to political <ustice (#) a public confession of de'otion to a way of life 2.. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point made by the author in the passage% (A) ?edicine is defined as a profession because of the etymology of the word *profession+. (B) 3t is a mistake to pay special honor to the knowledge and skills of physicians. (C) The work of physicians is under attack only because it is widely misunderstood. ( ) The correct reason that physicians are professionals is that their work in'ol'es public commitment to a high good. (#) @hysicians ha'e been encouraged to think of themsel'es as technicians and need to reorient themsel'es toward ethical concerns. 20. The "uestion posed by the author in lines -(15 of the passage introduces which one of the following% (A) the author4s belief that it is futile to resist the trend toward defining the physician4s work as a trade (B) the author4s dislike of go'ernmental regulation and consumer ad'ocacy (C) the author4s in"uiry into the nature of the practice of medicine ( ) the author4s suggestions for rallying sensible people to a concentrated defense of physicians (#) the author4s fascination with the origins of words 21. 3n the passage/ the author mentions or suggests all of the following #DC#@T (A) how society generally treats physicians (B) that the practice of medicine is analogous to teaching (C) that being a professional is in part a public act ( ) the specific knowledge on which trades are based (#) how a li'elihood is different from a profession 22. The author4s attitude toward professionals is best described as (A) eager that the work of one group of professionals/ physicians/ be 'iewed from a new perspecti'e (B) sympathetic toward professionals who ha'e become demorali!ed by public opinion (C) surprised that professionals ha'e been balked by go'ernmental regulations and threats of litigation ( ) dismayed that most professionals ha'e come to be considered technicians

LSAT

661

(#) certain that professionals confess a commitment to ethical ideals 2-. Based on the information in the passage/ it can be inferred that which one of the following would most logically begin a paragraph immediately following the passage% (A) A skilled handicraft is a manual art ac"uired by habituation that enables trades people to tread regularly and reliably along the same path. (B) Critics might argue that being a doctor/ for e$ample/ re"uires no ethical or public actI thus medicine/ as such/ is morally neutral/ does not bind character/ and can be used for good or ill. (C) ;ometimes the pursuit of personal health competes with the pursuit of other goods/ and it has always been the task of the community to order and define competing ends. ( ) 9ot least among the myriad confusions and uncertainties of our time are those attending efforts to discern and articulate the essential characteristics of the medial profession. (#) &hen/ in contrast/ we come to physicians of the whole body/ we come tacitly acknowledging the meaning of illness and its potential threat to all that we hold dear. 26. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s purpose in lines 16(02 of the passage% (A) The author locates the *something else+ that truly constitutes a profession. (B) The author dismisses efforts to redefine the meaning of the term *profession.+ (C) The author considers/ and largely critici!es se'eral definitions of what constitutes a profession. ( ) The author clarifies the meaning of the term *profession+ by ad'ocating a return to its linguistic and historical roots. (#) The author distinguishes trades such as plumbing and auto repair from professions such as medicine/ law/ and theology. LSAT 1' SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The #airness o# the 2udicia" process depends on the ob2ective presentation o# #acts to an impartia" 2ury made up o# one3s peers. 6resent the #acts' and you have a #air tria". (owever' #act-#inding' especia""y #or interpersona" disagreements' is not so straight#orward and is o#ten contaminated by variab"es that reach beyond the "ega" domain.

662

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

0 tria" is an attempt to transport 2urors to the time and p"ace o# the disputed event' to

recreate the disputed event' or at "east to e5p"ain that event with ma5imum accuracy. 0 tria" #a""s short o# this goa"' however' because it presents se"ected witnesses who recite se"ected portions o# their respective memories concerning se"ected observations o# the disputed event. These mu"tip"e se"ections are re#erred to as the abstraction process. Eimitations in both perception and memory are responsib"e #or the #act that the remembered event contains on"y a #raction o# the detai" present during the actua" event' and the de"ay between observation and recitation causes witnesses3 memories to "ose even more o# the origina" perceptions. Furing the course o# a tria"' a witness3s recitation o# the now-abstracted events may re#"ect se"ected disc"osure based on his or her attitudes and motivations surrounding that testimony. 7urthermore' the incidents reported are dependent on the "ines o# in+uiry estab"ished by the attorneys invo"ved. 0ccording"y' the recited data are a #raction o# the remembered data' which are a #raction o# the observed data' which are a #raction o# the tota" data #or the event. 0#ter the event that "ed to the tria" has been abstracted by participants in the tria"' 2urors are e5pected to reso"ve #actua" issues. ome o# the 2urors3 conc"usions are based on #acts that were direct"y recited: others are #ound in#erentia""y. (ere another abstraction process ta$es p"ace. Fiscussions during de"iberations add to the co""ective poo" o# reca""ed evidentiary perceptions: nonethe"ess' the 2urors3 abstraction processes #urther reduce the number o# characteristics traceab"e to the origina" event. %omp"ication can arise #rom #a"se abstractions at each stage. tudies have shown that witnesses reca"" having perceived incidents that are $nown to be absent #rom a given event. %onverse"y' 2urors can remember hearing evidence that is unaccounted #or in court transcripts. =5p"anations #or these phenomena range #rom bias through prior conditioning or observer e5pectation to #au"ty reportage o# the event based on the constraints o# "anguage. 0berrant abstractions in perception or reco""ection may not be conscious or de"iberate' but re"iabi"ity is neverthe"ess di"uted. 7ina""y' de"iberate untruth#u"ness has a"ways been recogni)ed as a ris$ o# testimonia" evidence. uch intentiona""y #a"se abstractions' however' are on"y a sma"" part o# the inaccuracies produced by the abstraction process.

1.

3n this passage/ the author4s main purpose is to (A) discuss a process that <eopardi!es the fairness of <ury trials (B) analy!e a methodology that safeguards the indi'idual4s right to fair trial (C) e$plain why <urors should 'iew eyewitness testimony with skepticism ( ) defend the trial(by(<ury process/ despite its limitations (#) point out the una'oidable abuses that ha'e crept into the <udicial process

2.

The author considers all of the following obstacles to a fair trial #DC#@T (A) selecti'e perceptions (B) faulty communications (C) partial disclosures ( ) intentional falsifications

LSAT

66.

(#) too few abstractions .. The author would most likely agree that the abstraction process occurs in the <udicial process primarily because (A) some <urors4 conclusions are based on facts rather than on inferences (B) remembered e'ents depend upon an indi'idual4s emotions (C) human beings are the sources and users of data presented in trials ( ) it is difficult to distinguish between deliberate falsehood and unintentional selected disclosure (#) witnesses often dispute one another4s recollections of e'ents 0. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es the ability of <uries to resol'e factual issues is (A) limited by any indi'idual <uror4s tendency to draw inferences from the facts presented during the trial (B) o'erwhelmed by the collecti'e pool of recalled e'identiary perceptions (C) unaffected by the process of trying to reenact the e'ent leading to the trial ( ) dependent upon the <ury4s ability to understand the influence of the abstraction process on testimony (#) sub<ect to the same limitations of perception and memory that affect witnesses 1. &ith which one of the following statements would the author most likely agree% (A) 3f deliberate untruthfulness were all the courts had to contend with/ <ury trials would be fairer than they are today. (B) Kack of moral standards is more of an impediment to a fair trial than human frailty. (C) The bulk of the inaccuracies produced by the abstraction process are innocently presented and rarely ha'e any serious conse"uences. ( ) 3f the inaccuracies resulting from the abstraction process persist/ the present trial(by(<ury system is likely to become a thing of the past. (#) 8nce intentional falsification of e'idence is eliminated from trials/ ensuring an accurate presentation of facts will easily follow. 2. The author4s attitude toward the abstraction process that occurs when witnesses testify in a trial can best be described as (A) confident that witnesses can be conditioned to o'ercome many limitations of memory (B) concerned that it may undermine witnesses ability to accurately describe the original e'ent in dispute (C) critical of witnesses4 moti'ations when deli'ering testimony ( ) indifferent toward the effect the abstraction process has on testimony (#) suspicious of witnesses4 efforts to describe remembered e'ents truthfully

660

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

-.

Bi'en the information in the passage/ the actual e'ent that is disputed in a <ury trial is most like (A) a group of <ob applicants that is narrowed down to a few finalists (B) a sub<ect that is photographed from 'aried and increasingly distant 'antage points (C) scraps of fabric that are sewn together to make an intricately designed "uilt ( ) a pu!!le that is unsystematically assembled through trial and error (#) a lie that is compounded by additional lies in order to be maintained
0 medica" artic"e once pointed with great a"arm to an increase in cancer among mi"$

drin$ers. %ancer' it seems' was becoming increasing"y #re+uent in *ew =ng"and' ?innesota' 8isconsin' and wit)er"and' where a "ot o# mi"$ is produced and consumed' whi"e remaining rare in %ey"on' where mi"$ is scarce. 7or #urther evidence it was pointed out that cancer was "ess #re+uent in some states o# the southern United tates where "ess mi"$ was consumed. 0"so' it was pointed out' mi"$-drin$ing =ng"ish women get some $inds o# cancer eighteen times as #re+uent"y as @apanese women who se"dom drin$ mi"$. 0 "itt"e digging might uncover +uite a number o# ways to account #or these #igures' but one #actor is enough by itse"# to show them up. %ancer is predominant"y a disease that stri$es in midd"e "i#e or a#ter. wit)er"and and the states o# the United tates mentioned #irst are a"i$e in having popu"ations with re"ative"y "ong spans o# "i#e. =ng"ish women at the time the study was made were "iving an average o# twe"ve years "onger than @apanese women. 6ro#essor (e"en ?. 8a"$er has wor$ed out an amusing i""ustration o# the #o""y in assuming there must be cause and e##ect whenever two things vary together. /n investigating the re"ationship between age and some physica" characteristics o# women' begin by measuring the ang"e o# the #eet in wa"$ing. Dou wi"" #ind that the ang"e tends to be greater among o"der women. Dou might #irst consider whether this indicates that women grow o"der because they toe out' and you can see immediate"y that this is ridicu"ous. o it appears that age increases the ang"e between the #eet' and most women must come to toe out more as they grow o"der. 0ny such conc"usion is probab"y #a"se and certain"y unwarranted. Dou cou"d on"y reach it "egitimate"y by studying the same women!or possib"y e+uiva"ent groups!over a period o# time. That wou"d e"iminate the #actor responsib"e here' which is that the o"der women grew up at a time when a young "ady was taught to toe out in wa"$ing' whi"e the members o# the younger group were "earning posture in a day when that was discouraged. 8hen you #ind somebody!usua""y an interested party!ma$ing a #uss about a corre"ation' "oo$ #irst o# a"" to see i# it is not one o# this type' produced by the stream o# events' the trend o# the times. /n our time it is easy to show a positive corre"ation between any pair o# things "i$e these> number o# students in co""ege' number o# inmates in menta" institutions' consumption o# cigarettes' incidence o# heart disease' use o# I-ray machines' production o# #a"se teeth' sa"aries o# %a"i#ornia schoo" teachers' pro#its o# *evada gamb"ing ha""s. To ca"" some one o# these the cause o# some other is mani#est"y si""y. &ut it is done every day.

6.

The author4s conclusion about the relationship between age and the ways women

LSAT

661

walk indicates he belie'es that (A) toeing out is associated with aging (B) toeing out is fashionable with the younger generation (C) toeing out was fashionable for an older generation ( ) studying e"ui'alent groups pro'es that toeing out increases with age (#) studying the same women o'er a period of time pro'es that toeing out increases with age ,. The author describes the posited relationship between toeing out and age (lines 2,(05) in order to (A) illustrate a folly (B) show how social attitudes toward posture change (C) e$plain the effects of aging ( ) illustrate a medical problem (#) offer a method to determine a woman4s age from her footprints 15. Bi'en the author4s statements in the passage/ his ad'ice for e'aluating statistics that show a high positi'e correlation between two conditions could include all the following statements #DC#@T (A) look for an e$planation in the stream of e'ents (B) consider some trend of the times as the possible cause of both conditions (C) account for the correlations in some way other than causality ( ) determine which of the two conditions is the cause and which is the effect (#) decide whether the conclusions ha'e been reached legitimately and the appropriate groupings ha'e been made 11. Assume that there is a high statistical correlation between college attendance and indi'idual earnings. Bi'en this/ the author would most probably agree with which one of the following statements about the cause(effect relationship between college attendance and income% (A) ;omeone4s potential earnings may be affected by other 'ariables/ like wealth or intelligence/ that are also associated with college attendance. (B) ;omeone who attends graduate school will be rich. (C) ;omeone who attends graduate school will earn more money than someone who does not. ( ) ;omeone who attends college will earn more money than someone who does not attend college. (#) ;omeone who attends college will earn more money only because she does attend college. 12. According to the author/ @rofessor &alker belie'es that

662

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(A) women who toe out age more rapidly than women who do not (B) most women toe out as they grow older because age increases the angle between the feet (C) older women tend to walk with a greater angle between the feet ( ) toeing out is the reason why women grow old (#) a causal relationship must e$ist whene'er two things 'ary together 1.. The author would re<ect all the following statements about cause(effect relationships as e$planations for the statistics that show an increase in cancer rates #DC#@T that the (A) Ceylonese drink more milk than the #nglish (B) ;wiss produce and consume large "uantities of dairy products (C) &omen of 9ew #ngland drink more milk than the women who li'e in some states of the southern :nited ;tates ( ) @eople of &isconsin ha'e relati'ely high life e$pectancies (#) @eople who li'e in some states of the southern :nited ;tates ha'e relati'ely high life e$pectancies 10. )ow would the author be most likely to e$plain the correlation between the *salaries of California school teachers Uand theV profits of 9e'ada gambling halls+ (Kines 2.(20)% (A) There is a positi'e correlation that is probably due to California teachers4 working in Kas Cegas on weekends to increase both their salaries and increase both their salaries and 9e'ada4s gambling profits. (B) There is a positi'e correlation that is probably linked to general economic trends/ but no direct causal relationship e$ists. (C) There is a negati'e correlation that is probably linked to general economic trends/ but no direct causal relationship e$ists. ( ) There is a negati'e correlation because the element that controls Kas Cegas gambling probably has agents in the California school system. (#) The author would deny the e$istence of any correlation whatsoe'er.
/n most deve"oped countries' men have higher sa"aries' on average' than women. ?uch o# the sa"ary di##erentia" resu"ts #rom the tendency o# women to be in "ower-paying occupations. The +uestion o# whether this occupationa" emp"oyment pattern can be attributed to se5 discrimination is a comp"e5 one. /n #act' wage di##erentia"s among occupations are the norm rather than the e5ception. uccess#u" ath"etes common"y earn more than *obe" 6ri)ewinning academics: gi#ted artists o#ten cannot earn enough to survive' whi"e mediocre investment ban$ers prosper. Aiven such di##erences' the +uestion natura""y arises> ta"ent and abi"ity being e+ua"' why does anyone!man or woman!enter a "ow-paying occupationC 9ne obvious answer is persona" choice. 0n individua" may pre#er' #or e5amp"e' to teach math at a modest sa"ary rather than to become a more high"y paid e"ectrica" engineer.

LSAT
ome peop"e argue that persona" choice a"so e5p"ains se5-re"ated wage di##erentia"s.

66-

0ccording to this e5p"anation' many women' because they p"ace a high priority on parenting and per#orming househo"d services' choose certain careers in which they are #ree to enter and "eave the wor$ #orce with minimum pena"ty. They may choose to ac+uire s$i""s' such as typing and sa"esc"er$ing' that do not depreciate rapid"y with temporary absences #rom the wor$ #orce. They may avoid occupationa" specia"ties that re+uire e5tensive training periods' "ong and unpredictab"e hours' and wi""ingness to re"ocate' a"" o# which ma$e specia"i)ation in domestic activities prob"ematic. &y choosing to invest "ess in deve"oping their career potentia" and to e5pend "ess e##ort outside the home' women must' according to this e5p"anation' pay a price in the #orm o# "ower sa"aries. &ut women cannot be considered the victims o# discrimination because they pre#er the "ower-paying occupations to higher-paying ones. 0n a"ternative e5p"anation #or se5-re"ated wage di##erentia"s is that women do not vo"untari"y choose "ower-paying occupations but are #orced into them by emp"oyers and socia" pre2udices. 0ccording to proponents o# this view' emp"oyers who discriminate may re#use to hire +ua"i#ied women #or re"ative"y high-paying occupations. ?ore genera""y' subt"e societywide pre2udices may induce women to avoid certain occupations in #avor o# others that are considered more suitab"e. /ndeed' the ;choice< o# women to specia"i)e in parenting and per#orming househo"d services may itse"# resu"t #rom these subt"e pre2udices. 8hether the discrimination is by emp"oyers in a particu"ar occupation or by society as a who"e is irre"evant: the e##ect wi"" be the same. 7urther' i# such discrimination does occur' women e5c"uded #rom certain occupations wi"" #"ood others' and this increase in supp"y wi"" have a depressing e##ect on wages in occupations dominated by women.

11. &hich one of the following is the best little for the passage% (A) &age ifferentials Between ?en and &omen (B) &omen in Kow(@aying 8ccupationsE o They )a'e a Choice% (C) ;e$ iscrimination in the &orkplace ( ) The =ole of ;ocial @re<udice in &omen4s Careers (#) )ome 's. 8fficeE how oes the ?odern &oman Choose% 12. 3n stating that *;uccessful athletes commonly earn more than 9obel @ri!e( winning academics+ (lines 15(11)/ the author4s primary purpose is to (A) demonstrate that education has little to do with making money (B) suggest that people with talent and ability should not enter low(paying occupations (C) show that highly paid occupations generally re"uire long hours and e$tensi'e training ( ) imply that a person can be successful and still not make much money (#) gi'e an e$ample of how certain occupations are better paid than others regardless of inherent worth or talent re"uired 1-. &hich one of the following cases is least likely to in'ol'e se$ discrimination/ as it is described in the passage%

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(A) An employer hires a man rather than an e"ually "ualified woman. (B) A woman chooses to enter a high(paying occupation that uses her talent and ability. (C) A woman chooses an occupation that is already dominated by women. ( ) A woman chooses a low(paying <ob that allows her to de'ote more time to her family. (#) A woman chooses to a'oid the pressure of being in an occupation not considered *suitable+ for women. 16. @roponents of the *alternati'e e$planation+ (line 02) argue that (A) employers ha'e difficulty persuading "ualified women to enter relati'ely high(paying occupations (B) women choose undemanding <obs because they wish to keep their career options open (C) women will flood domestic occupations ( ) salaries in female(dominated occupations will decrease as more women are forced into those occupations by their e$clusion from others (#) women4s choice of occupation is irrele'ant since they ha'e always made less money than men and are likely to continue to do so 1,. &hich one of the following statements is the best completion of the last paragraph of the passage% (A) &age differentials will become more e$aggerated and economic parity between men and women less and less possible. (B) >inally/ women will be automatically placed in the same salary range as unskilled laborers. (C) The "uestion isE how long will women allow themsel'es to be e$cluded from male(dominated occupations% ( ) 3n the last analysis/ women may need to ask themsel'es if they can really afford to allow se$ discrimination to continue. (#) :nless society changes its 'iews/ women may ne'er escape the confines of the few occupations designated *>or &omen 8nly.+ 25. The author4s attitude toward se$ discrimination as an e$planation for wage differentials can best be characteri!ed as (A) critical of society4s acceptance of discrimination (B) skeptical that discrimination is a factor (C) con'inced that the problem will get worse ( ) neutral with respect to its 'alidity (#) frustrated by the intractability of the problem
The starting point #or any ana"ysis o# insurance c"assi#ication is an obvious but

LSAT
#undamenta" #act> insurance is on"y one o# a number o# ways o# satis#ying the demand #or protection against ris$. 8ith #ew e5ceptions' insurance need not be purchased: peop"e can #orgo it i# insurance is too e5pensive. /ndeed' as the price o# coverage rises' the amount purchased and the number o# peop"e purchasing wi"" dec"ine. /nstead o# buying insurance'

66,

peop"e wi"" se"#-insure by accumu"ating saving to serve as a cushion in the event o# "oss' se"#protect by spending more on "oss protection' or simp"y use the money not spent on insurance to purchase other goods and services. 0n insurer must compete against these a"ternatives' even in the absence o# competition #rom other insurers. 9ne method o# competing #or protection do""ars is to c"assi#y potentia" purchasers into groups according to their probabi"ity o# "oss and the potentia" magnitude o# "osses i# they occur. Fi##erent ris$ c"asses may then be charged di##erent premiums' depending on this e5pected "oss. 8ere it not #or the need to compete #or protection do""ars' an insurer cou"d simp"y charge each individua" a premium based on the average e3#ected "oss o# a"" its insureds (p"us a margin #or pro#it and e5penses)' without incurring c"assi#ication costs. /n constructing ris$ c"asses' the insurer3s goa" is to ca"cu"ate the e5pected "oss o# each insured' and to p"ace insureds with simi"ar e5pected "osses into the same c"ass' in order to charge each the same rate. 0n insurer can capture protection do""ars by c"assi#ying because' through c"assi#ication' it can o##er "ow-ris$ individua"s "ower prices. %"assi#ication' however' invo"ves two costs. 7irst' the process o# c"assi#ication is cost"y. /nsurers must gather data and per#orm statistica" operations on it: mar$eting may a"so be more cost"y when prices are not uni#orm. econd' c"assi#ication necessari"y raises premiums #or poor ris$s' who purchase "ess coverage as a resu"t. /n the aggregate' c"assi#ication is thus worthwhi"e to an insurer on"y when the gains produced #rom e5tra sa"es and #ewer pay-outs outweigh c"assi#ication costs p"us the costs o# "ost sa"es. =ven in the absence o# competition #rom other insurers' an insurer who engages in at "east some c"assi#ication is "i$e"y to capture more protection do""ars than it "oses. 8hen there is not on"y competition #or avai"ab"e protection do""ars' but competition among insurers #or premium do""ars' the va"ue o# ris$ c"assi#ication to insurers becomes even c"earer. The more re#ined (and accurate) an insurer3s ris$ c"assi#ications' the more capab"e it is o# ;s$imming< good ris$s away #rom insurers whose c"assi#ications are "ess re#ined. /# other insurers do not respond' either by re#ining their own c"assi#ications or by raising prices and catering main"y to high ris$s' their ;boo$< o# ris$s wi"" contain a higher mi5ture o# poor ris$s who are sti"" being charged premiums ca"cu"ated #or average ris$s. These insurers wi"" attract additiona" poor ris$s' and this resu"ting adverse se"ection wi"" #urther disadvantage their competitive positions.

21. &hich one of the following best identifies the main topic of the passage% (A) reduction of competition in the insurance business (B) classification of potential insurance purchasers (C) risk a'oidance in insurance sales ( ) insurance protection and premiums (#) methods of insurance classifying

6,5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

22. The passage mentions all of the following as possible or certain costs of classifying #DC#@T the cost of (A) collecting facts (B) conducting statistical analyses (C) selling insurance at different prices ( ) a decrease in purchases by poor risks (#) larger/ albeit fewer/ claims 2.. &hich one of the following is closest to the author4s e$pressed position on competition in the insurance business% (A) 3t has a significant influence on most aspects of the insurance industry. (B) 3t is a rele'ant factor/ but it has little practical conse"uence. (C) 3t is a basic but not 'ery apparent element of the insurance business. ( ) 3t pro'ides a strong incenti'e for insurers to classify potential customers. (#) 3t is influential in insurance marketing practices. 20. The passage suggests that if all insurers classified risk/ who among the following would be ad'ersely affected% (A) all insurance purchasers (B) insurance purchasers who would be classified as poor risks (C) indi'iduals who self(insured or self protected ( ) insurers who had a high proportion of good risks in their *book+ of risks (#) insurers with the most refined risk classifications 21. Bi'en the discussion in the first paragraph/ what is the distinction/ if any/ between *insurance+ and *self(protection+% (A) There is 'ery little or no distinction between the two terms. (B) 3nsurance is a kind of self(protection. (C) ;elf(protection is a kind of insurance. ( ) 3nsurance and self(protection are two of se'eral alternati'e means to a specific end. (#) 3nsurance and self(protection are the only two alternati'e means to a specific end. 22. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the process of classification in insurance/ as it is described in the passage% (A) de'ising a profile of successful employees and hiring on the basis of the profile (B) in'estigating the fuel efficiency of a make of automobile and deciding whether or not to buy on that basis (C) assessing an in'estor4s willingness to take risks before suggesting a specific

LSAT

6,1

in'estment ( ) making price comparisons on potential ma<or purchases and then seeking discounts from competing dealers (#) comparing prices for numerous minor items and the selecting one store for future purchases LSAT 19 SECT ON )

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Three $inds o# study have been per#ormed on &yron. There is the biographica" study! the very va"uab"e e5amination o# &yron3s psycho"ogy and the events in his "i#e. =scarpit3s 19-8 wor$ is an e5amp"e o# this $ind o# study and biographers to this day continue to specu"ate about &yron3s "i#e. =+ua""y va"uab"e is the study o# &yron as a #igure important in the history o# ideas: Russe"" and 6ra) have written studies o# this $ind. 7ina""y' there are studies that primari"y consider &yron3s poetry. uch "iterary studies are va"uab"e' however' on"y when they avoid concentrating so"e"y on ana"y)ing the verba" shadings o# &yron3s poetry to the e5c"usion o# any discussion o# biographica" considerations. 0 study with such a concentration wou"d be o# +uestionab"e va"ue because &yron3s poetry' #or the most part' is simp"y not a poetry o# subt"e verba" meanings. Rather' on the who"e' &yron3s poems record the emotiona" pressure o# certain moments in his "i#e. / be"ieve we cannot o#ten read a poem o# &yron3s we o#ten can one o# ha$espeare3s without wondering what events or circumstances in his "i#e prompted him to write it. *o doubt the #act that most o# &yron3s poems cannot be convincing"y read as subt"e verba" creations indicates that &yron is not a ;great< poet. /t must be admitted too that &yron3s "iterary cra#tsmanship is irregu"ar and o#ten his temperament disrupts even his "a5 "iterary method (a"though the resu"t' an absence o# method' has a signi#icant purpose> it #unctions as a rebu$e to a cosmos that &yron #ee"s he cannot understand). /# &yron is not a ;great< poet' his poetry is nonethe"ess o# e5traordinary interest to us because o# the p"easure it gives us. 9ur main p"easure in reading &yron3s poetry is the contact with a singu"ar persona"ity. Reading his wor$ gives us i""umination!se"#-understanding!a#ter we have seen our wea$nesses and aspirations mirrored in the persona"ity we usua""y #ind in the poems. 0nyone who thin$s that this $ind o# i""umination is not a genuine reason #or reading a poet shou"d thin$ care#u""y about why we read Fonne3s sonnets. /t is &yron and &yron3s idea o# himse"# that ho"d his wor$ together (and that enthra""ed ear"y nineteenth-century =urope). Fi##erent characters spea$ in his poems' but #ina""y it is usua""y he himse"# who is spea$ing> a #ar cry #rom the impersona" poet Neats. &yron3s poetry a""udes to Aree$ and Roman myth in the conte5t o# contemporary a##airs' but his wor$ remains genera""y o# a piece because o# his c"ose presence in the poetry. /n sum' the poetry is

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a shrewd persona" per#ormance' and to shut out &yron the man is to #abricate a wor$ o# pseudocriticism.

1.

&hich one of the following titles best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) An Absence of ?ethod. &hy Byron 3s 9ot a *Breat+ @oet (B) ByronE The =ecurring @resence in Byron4s @oetry (C) @ersonality and @oetryE The Biographical imension of 9ineteenth(Century @oetry ( ) Byron4s @oetryE 3ts 3nfluence on the imagination of #arly(9ineteenth(Century #urope (#) Cerbal ;hadingsE The >atal >law of Twentieth(Century Kiterary Criticism

2.

The author4s mention of =ussell and @ra! ser'es primarily to (A) differentiate them from one another (B) contrast their conclusions about Byron with those of #scarpit (C) point out the writers whose studies suggest a new direction for Byron scholarship ( ) pro'ide e$amples of writers who ha'e written one kind of study of Byron (#) gi'e credit to the writers who ha'e composed the best studies of Byron

..

&hich one of the following would the author most likely consider to be a 'aluable study of Byron% (A) a study that compared Byron4s poetic style with Meats4 poetic style (B) a study that argued that Byron4s thought ought not to be analy!ed in terms of its importance in the history of ideas (C) a study that sought to identify the emotions felt by Byron at a particular time in his life ( ) a study in which a literary critic argues that the language of Byron4s poetry was more subtle than that of Meat4s poetry (#) a study in which a literary critic drew on e$periences from his or her own life

0.

&hich one of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of first paragraph of the passage% (A) A generali!ation is made and then gradually refuted. (B) A number of theories are discussed and then the author chooses the most con'incing one. (C) ;e'eral categories are mentioned and then one category is discussed in some detail. ( ) A historical trend is delineated and then a prediction about the future of the trend is offered. (#) A classification is made and then a ri'al classification is substituted in its place.

LSAT

6,.

1.

The author mentions that *Byron4s literary craftsmanship is irregular+ (lines 2-( 26) most probably in order to (A) contrast Byron4s poetic skill with that of ;hakespeare (B) dismiss craftsmanship as a standard by which to <udge poets (C) offer another reason why Byron is not a *great+ poet ( ) point out a negati'e conse"uence of Byron4s belief that the cosmos is incomprehensible (#) indicate the most(often(cited e$planation of why Byron4s poetry lacks subtle 'erbal nuances

2.

According to the author ;hakespeare4s poems differ from Byron4s in that ;hakespeare4s poems (A) ha'e elicited a wider 'ariety of responses from both literary critics and biographers (B) are on the whole less susceptible to being read as subtle 'erbal creations (C) do not grow out of or are not moti'ated by actual e'ents or circumstances in the poet4s life ( ) pro'ide the attenti'e reader with a greater degree of illumination concerning his or her own weaknesses and aspirations (#) can often be read without the reader4s being curious about what biographical factors moti'ated the poet to write them

-.

The author indicates which one of the following about biographers4 speculation concerning Byron4s life% (A) ;uch speculation began in earnest with #scarpit4s study (B) ;uch speculation continues today (C) ;uch speculation is less important than consideration of Byron4s poetry ( ) ;uch speculation has not gi'en us a satisfactory sense of Byron4s life (#) ;uch speculation has been carried out despite the ob<ections of literary critics

6.

The passage supplies specific information that pro'ides a definiti'e answer to which one of the following "uestions% (A) &hat does the author consider to be the primary en<oyment deri'ed from reading Byron% (B) &ho among literary critics has primarily studied Byron4s poems% (C) &hich moments in Byron4s life e$erted the greatest pressure on his poetry% ( ) )as Byron e'er been considered to be a *great+ poet% (#) id Byron e$ert an influence on #uropeans in the latter part of the nineteenth century%
The United tates upreme %ourt has not a"ways reso"ved "ega" issues o# concern to

*ative 0mericans in a manner that has p"eased the /ndian nations. ?any o# the %ourt3s

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decisions have been products o# po"itica" compromise that "oo$ed more to the temper o# the times than to enduring princip"es o# "aw. &ut accommodation is part o# the 2udicia" system in the United tates' and 2udicia" decisions must be assessed with this #act in mind. Fespite the ;accommodating< nature o# the 2udicia" system' it is worth noting that the power o# the upreme %ourt has been e5ercised in a manner that has usua""y been bene#icia" to *ative 0mericans' at "east on minor issues and has not been who""y detrimenta" on the "arger' more important issues. %ertain"y there have been decisions that cast doubt on the va"idity o# this assertion. ome critics point to the patroni)ing tone o# many %ourt opinions and the apparent re2ection o# *ative 0merican va"ues as important points to consider when reviewing a case. (owever' the va"idity o# the assertion can be i""ustrated by re#erence to two important contributions that have resu"ted #rom the e5ercise o# 2udicia" power. 7irst the %ourt has created ru"es o# 2udicia" construction that in genera" #avor the rights o# *ative 0merican "itigants. The %ourt3s attitude has been conditioned by recognition o# the distinct disadvantages *ative 0mericans #aced when dea"ing with sett"ers in the past. Treaties were inevitab"y written in =ng"ish #or the bene#it o# their authors' whereas triba" "eaders were accustomed to ma$ing treaties without any written account' on the strength o# mutua" promises sea"ed by re"igious commitment and individua" integrity. The written treaties were o#ten bro$en and *ative 0mericans were con#ronted with #raud and po"itica" and mi"itary aggression. The %ourt recogni)es that past un#airness to *ative 0mericans cannot be sanctioned by the #orce o# "aw. There#ore' ambiguities in treaties are to be interpreted in #avor o# the *ative 0merican c"aimants' treaties are to be interpreted as the *ative 0mericans wou"d have understood them and' under the reserved rights doctrine' treaties reserve to *ative 0mericans a"" rights that have not been speci#ica""y granted away in other treaties. 0 second achievement o# the 2udicia" system is the protection that has been provided against encroachment by the states into triba" a##airs. 7edera" 2udges are not inc"ined to view #avorab"y e##orts to e5tend states powers and 2urisdictions because o# the direct threat that such e5pansion poses to the e5ercise o# #edera" powers. /n the absence o# a #edera" statute direct"y and c"ear"y a""ocating a #unction to the states' #edera" 2udges are inc"ined to reserve #or the #edera" government!and the triba" governments under its charge!a"" those powers and rights they can be said to have possessed historica""y.

,.

According to the passage/ one reason why the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court *has not always resol'ed legal issues of concern to 9ati'e Americans in a manner that has pleased the 3ndian nations+ (lines 1(0) is that (A) 9ati'e Americans ha'e been pre'ented from presenting their concerns persuasi'ely (B) the Court has failed to recogni!e that the 3ndian nations4 concerns are different from those of other groups or from those of the federal go'ernment (C) the Court has been reluctant to curtail the powers of the federal go'ernment ( ) 9ati'e Americans faced distinct disad'antages in dealing with settlers in the past (#) the Court has made political compromises in deciding some cases

LSAT

6,1

15. 3t can be inferred that the ob<ections raised by the critics mentioned in line 16 would be most clearly answered by a :nited ;tates ;upreme Court decision that (A) demonstrated respect for 9ati'e Americans and the principles and "ualities they consider important (B) protected the rights of the states in conflicts with the federal go'ernment (C) demonstrated recognition of the unfair treatment 9ati'e Americans recei'ed in the past ( ) reflected consideration of the hardships suffered by 9ati'e Americans because of unfair treaties (#) pre'ented repetition of ine"uities e$perienced by 9ati'e Americans in the past 11. 3t can be inferred that the author calls the <udicial system of the :nited ;tates *accommodating+ (line 15) primarily in order to (A) suggest that the decisions of the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court ha'e been less fa'orable to 9ati'e Americans than most people belie'e (B) suggest that the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court should be more supporti'e of the goals of 9ati'e Americans (C) suggest a reason why the decisions of the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court ha'e not always fa'ored 9ati'e Americans ( ) indicate that the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court has made creditable efforts to recogni!e the 'alues of 9ati'e Americans (#) indicate that the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court attempts to be fair to all parties to a case 12. The author4s attitude toward the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court4s resolution of legal issues of concern to 9ati'e Americans can best be described as one of (A) wholehearted endorsement (B) restrained appreciation (C) detached ob<ecti'ity ( ) cautious opposition (#) suppressed e$asperation 1.. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es that the e$tension of the states4 powers and <urisdictions with respect to 9ati'e American affairs would be (A) possible only with the consent of the 3ndian nations (B) fa'orably 'iewed by the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court (C) in the best interests of both state and federal go'ernments ( ) detrimental to the interests of 9ati'e Americans (#) discouraged by most federal <udges in spite of legal precedents supporting the e$tension

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

10. The author4s primary purpose is to (A) contrast opposing 'iews (B) ree'aluate traditional beliefs (C) reconcile di'ergent opinions ( ) assess the claims made by disputants (#) pro'ide e'idence to support a contention 11. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court4s treatment of 9ati'e Americans to ha'e been (A) irreproachable on legal grounds (B) reasonably supporti'e in most situations (C) guided by enduring principles of law ( ) misguided but generally harmless (#) harmful only in a few minor cases
8hen catastrophe stri$es' ana"ysts typica""y b"ame some combination o# power#u" mechanisms. 0n earth+ua$e is traced to an immense instabi"ity a"ong a #au"t "ine: a stoc$ mar$et crash is b"amed on the destabi"i)ing e##ect o# computer trading. These e5p"anations may we"" be correct. &ut systems as "arge and comp"icated as the =arth3s crust or the stoc$ mar$et can brea$ down not on"y under the #orce o# a mighty b"ow but a"so at the drop o# a pin. /n a "arge interactive system' a minor event can start a chain reaction that "eads to a catastrophe. Traditiona""y' investigators have ana"y)ed "arge interactive systems in the same way they ana"y)e sma"" order"y systems' main"y because the methods deve"oped #or sma"" systems have proved so success#u". They be"ieved they cou"d predict the behavior o# a "arge interactive system by studying its e"ements separate"y and by ana"y)ing its component mechanisms individua""y. 7or "ac$ o# a better theory' they assumed that in "arge interactive systems the response to a disturbance is proportiona" to that disturbance. Furing the past #ew decades' however' it has become increasing"y apparent that many "arge comp"icated systems do not yie"d to traditiona" ana"ysis. %onse+uent"y' theorists have proposed a ;theory o# se"#-organi)ed critica"ity<> many "arge interactive systems evo"ve natura""y to a critica" state in which a minor event starts a chain reaction that can a##ect any number o# e"ements in the system. 0"though such systems produce more minor events than catastrophes' the mechanism that "eads to minor events is the same one that "eads to ma2or events. 0 deceptive"y simp"e system serves as a paradigm #or se"#-organi)ed critica"ity> a pi"e o# sand. 0s sand is poured one grain at a time onto a #"at dis$' the grains at #irst stay c"ose to the position where they "and. oon they rest on top o# one another' creating a pi"e that has a gent"e s"ope. *ow and then' when the s"ope becomes too steep' the grains s"ide down' causing a sma"" ava"anche. The system reaches its critica" state when the amount o# sand added is ba"anced' on average' by the amount #a""ing o## the edge o# the dis$. *ow when a grain o# sand is added' it can start an ava"anche o# any si)e' inc"uding a

LSAT
;catastrophic< event. ?ost o# the time the grain wi"" #a"" so that no ava"anche occurs. &y

6,-

studying a speci#ic area o# the pi"e' one can even predict whether ava"anches wi"" occur there in the near #uture. To such a "oca" observer' however' "arge ava"anches wou"d remain unpredictab"e because they are a conse+uence o# the tota" history o# the entire pi"e. *o matter what the "oca" dynamics are' catastrophic ava"anches wou"d persist at a re"ative #re+uency that cannot be a"tered> %ritica"ity is a g"oba" property o# the sandpi"e.

12. The passage pro'ides support for all of the following generali!ations about large interacti'e systems #DC#@TE (A) They can e'ol'e to a critical state. (B) They do not always yield to traditional analysis. (C) They make it impossible for obser'ers to make any predictions about them. ( ) They are sub<ect to the effects of chain reactions. (#) They are sub<ect to more minor e'ents than ma<or e'ents. 1-. According to the passage/ the criticality of a sandpile is determined by the (A) si!e of the grains of sand added to the sandpile (B) number of grains of sand the sandpile contains (C) rate at which sand is added to the sandpile ( ) shape of the surface on which the sandpile rests (#) balance between the amount of sand added to and the amount lost from the sandpile 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the theory employed by the in'estigators mentioned in the second paragraph would lead one to predict that which one of the following would result from the addition of a grain of sand to a sandpile% (A) The grain of sand would ne'er cause anything more than a minor disturbance. (B) The grain of sand would usually cause a minor disturbance/ but would occasionally cause a small a'alanche. (C) The grain of sand would usually cause either minor disturbance or a small a'alanche/ but would occasionally cause a catastrophic e'ent. ( ) The grain of sand would usually cause a catastrophic e'ent/ but would occasionally cause only a small a'alanche or an e'ent more minor disturbance. (#) The grain of sand would in'ariably cause a catastrophic e'ent. 1,. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A traditional procedure is described and its application to common situations is endorsedE its shortcomings in certain rare but critical circumstances are then re'ealed. (B) A common misconception is elaborated and its conse"uences are described a detailed e$ample of one of these conse"uences is then gi'en.

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(C) A general principle is stated and supported by se'eral e$amplesI an e$ception to the rule is then considered and its importance e'aluated. ( ) A number of seemingly unrelated e'ents are categori!edE the underlying processes that connect them are then detailed. (#) A traditional method of analysis is discussed and the reasons for its adoption are e$plainedI an alternati'e is then described and clarified by means of an e$ample. 25. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the method of analysis employed by the in'estigators mentioned in the second paragraph% (A) A pollster gathers a sample of 'oter preferences and on the basis of this information makes a prediction about the outcome of an election. (B) A historian e$amines the sur'i'ing documents detailing the history of a mo'ement and from these documents reconstructs a chronology of the e'ents that initiated the mo'ement. (C) A meteorologist measures the rainfall o'er a certain period of the year and from this data calculates the total annual rainfall for the region. ( ) A biologist obser'es the beha'ior of one species of insect and from these obser'ations generali!es about the beha'ior of insects as a class. (#) An engineer analy!es the stability of each structural element of a bridge and from these analyses draws a conclusion about the structural soundness of the bridge. 21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) arguing against the abandonment of a traditional approach (B) describing the e'olution of a radical theory (C) reconciling conflicting points of 'iew ( ) illustrating the superiority of a new theoretical approach (#) ad'ocating the reconsideration of an unfashionable e$planation
(istorians have "ong accepted the notion that women o# =ng"ish descent who "ived in the =ng"ish co"onies o# *orth 0merica during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were better o## than either the contemporary women in =ng"and or the co"onists3 own nineteenthcentury daughters and granddaughters. The ;go"den age< theory originated in the 191.s with the wor$ o# ="i)abeth Fe5ter' who argued that there were re"ative"y #ew women among the co"onists' and that a"" hands!ma"e and #ema"e!were needed to sustain the growing sett"ements. Rigid se5-ro"e distinctions cou"d not e5ist under such circumstances: #ema"e co"onists cou"d according"y engage in whatever occupations they wished' encountering #ew "ega" or socia" constraints i# they sought emp"oyment outside the home. The surp"us o# ma"e co"onists a"so gave women crucia" bargaining power in the marriage mar$et since women3s contributions were vita" to the surviva" o# co"onia" househo"ds. Fe5ter3s portrait o# #ema"e co"onists "iving under conditions o# rough e+ua"ity with their ma"e counterparts was eventua""y incorporated into studies o# nineteenth-century midd"e-c"ass

LSAT
women. The contrast between the se"#-su##icient co"onia" woman and the oppressed

6,,

nineteenth-century woman' con#ined to her home by stu"ti#ying ideo"ogies o# domesticity and by the #act that industria"i)ation e"iminated emp"oyment opportunities #or midd"e-c"ass women' gained an e5traordinari"y tenacious ho"d on historians. =ven scho"ars who have +uestioned the ;go"den age< view o# co"onia" women3s status have continued to accept the paradigm o# a nineteenth-century dec"ine #rom a more desirab"e past. 7or e5amp"e' @oan (o##-8i"son asserted that there was no ;go"den age< and yet emphasi)ed that the nineteenth century brought ;increased "oss o# #unction and authentic status #or< midd"e-c"ass women. Recent pub"ications about co"onia" women have e5posed the concept o# a dec"ine in status as simp"istic and unsophisticated' a theory that based its assessment o# co"onia" women3s status so"e"y on one #actor (their economic #unction in society) and assumed a"" too readi"y that a re"ative"y simp"e socia" system automatica""y brought higher standing to co"onia" women. The new scho"arship presents a #ar more comp"icated picture' one in which de#initions o# gender ro"es' the co"onia" economy' demographic patterns' re"igion' the "aw' and househo"d organi)ation a"" contributed to de#ining the circumstances o# co"onia" women3s "ives. /ndeed' the primary concern o# modern scho"arship is not to genera"i)e about women3s status but to identi#y the speci#ic changes and continuities in women3s "ives during the co"onia" period. 7or e5amp"e' whereas ear"ier historians suggested that there was "itt"e change #or co"onia" women be#ore 18..' the new scho"arship suggests that a three-part chrono"ogica" division more accurate"y re#"ects co"onia" women3s e5periences. 7irst was the initia" period o# =ng"ish co"oni)ation (#rom the 1G1.s to about 1GG.): then a period during which patterns o# #ami"y and community were cha""enged and reshaped (rough"y #rom 1GG. to 17-.): and #ina""y the era o# revo"ution (appro5imate"y 17-. to 181-)' which brought other changes to women3s "ives.

22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) An earlier theory about the status of middle(class women in the nineteenth century has been supported by recent scholarship. (B) =ecent studies of middle(class nineteenth(century women ha'e altered an earlier theory about the status of colonial women. (C) =ecent scholarship has e$posed an earlier theory about the status of colonial women as too narrowly based and o'ersimplified. ( ) An earlier theory about colonial women has greatly influenced recent studies on middle(class women in the nineteenth century. (#) An earlier study of middle(class women was based on insufficient research on the status of women in the nineteenth century. 2.. The author discusses )off(&ilson primarily in order to (A) describe how e$ter4s theory was refuted by historians of nineteenth(century 9orth America (B) describe how the theory of middle(class women4s nineteenth(century decline in status was de'eloped (C) describe an important influence on recent scholarship about the colonial

,55

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

period ( ) demonstrate the persistent influence of the *golden age+ theory (#) pro'ide an e$ample of current research one the colonial period 20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to describe the 'iews of the scholars mentioned in line .2 as (A) unassailable (B) inno'ati'e (C) parado$ical ( ) o'erly sophisticated (#) without merit 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in proposing the *three(part chronological di'ision+ (lines 25(21)/ scholars recogni!ed which one of the following% (A) The circumstances of colonial women4s li'es were defined by a broad 'ariety of social and economic factors. (B) &omen4s li'es in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America were similar to women4s li'es in se'enteenth(and eighteenth(century #ngland. (C) Colonial women4s status was ad'ersely affected when patterns of family and community were established in the late se'enteenth century. ( ) Colonial women4s status should be assessed primarily on the basis of their economic function in society. (#) Colonial women4s status was low when the colonies were settled but changed significantly during the era of re'olution. 22. According to the author/ the publications about colonial women mentioned in the third paragraph had which one of the following effects% (A) They undermined e$ter4s argument on the status of women colonists during the colonial period. (B) They re'ealed the tenacity of the *golden age+ theory in American history. (C) They pro'ided support for historians/ such as )off(&ilson. &ho study the nineteenth century. ( ) They established that women4s status did not change significantly from the colonial period to the nineteenth century. (#) They pro'ided support for earlier theories about women colonists in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America. 2-. @ractitioners of the new scholarship discussed in the last paragraph would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about e$ter4s argument% (A) 3t makes the assumption that women4s status is determined primarily by their political power in society.

LSAT

,51

(B) 3t makes the assumption that a less comple$ social system necessarily confers higher status on women. (C) 3t is based on inade"uate research on women4s economic role in the colonies. ( ) 3t places too much emphasis on the way definitions of gender roles affected women colonists in the colonial period. (#) 3t accurately describes the way women4s status declined in the nineteenth century. LSAT 20 SECT ON )

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

?usico"ogists concerned with the ;Eondon 6iano#orte schoo"'< the group o# composers' pedagogues' pianists' pub"ishers' and bui"ders who contributed to the deve"opment o# the piano in Eondon at the turn o# the nineteenth century' have "ong encountered a #ormidab"e obstac"e in the genera" unavai"abi"ity o# music o# this ;schoo"< in modern scho"ar"y editions. /ndeed' much o# this repertory has more or "ess vanished #rom our historica" consciousness. Aranted' the sonatas and .radus ad Parnassum o# ?u)io %"ementi and the nocturnes o# @ohn 7ie"d have remained #ami"iar enough (though more o#ten than not in editions "ac$ing scho"ar"y rigor)' but the wor$ o# other "eading representatives' "i$e @ohann &aptist %ramer and @an Eadis"av Fusse$' has e"uded serious attempts at reviva". *icho"as Temper"ey3s ambitious new antho"ogy decisive"y overcomes this de#iciency. 8hat underscores the intrinsic va"ue o# Temper"ey3s editions is that the antho"ogy reproduces near"y a"" o# the origina" music in #acsimi"e. ?a$ing avai"ab"e this cross section o# =ng"ish musica" "i#e!some 8.. wor$s by H9 composers!shou"d encourage new critica" perspectives about how piano music evo"ved in =ng"and' an issue o# considerab"e re"evance to our understanding o# how piano music deve"oped on the =uropean continent' and o# how' #ina""y' the instrument was trans#ormed #rom the #ortepiano to what we $now today as the piano. To be sure' the Eondon 6iano#orte schoo" itse"# ca""s #or review. ; choo"< may we"" be too strong a word #or what was arguab"y a group uni#ied not so much by sty"istic princip"es or aesthetic creed as by the geographica" circumstance that they wor$ed at various times in Eondon and produced pianos and piano music #or =ng"ish pianos and =ng"ish mar$ets. /ndeed' Temper"ey concedes that their ;variety may be so great as to cast doubt on the notion o# a Mschoo".3< The notion o# a schoo" was #irst propounded by 0"e5ander Ringer' who argued that "aws o# artistic surviva" #orced the young' progressive &eethoven to turn outside 0ustria #or creative mode"s' and that he #ound inspiration in a group o# pianists connected with %"ementi in Eondon. Ringer3s proposed Eondon 6iano#orte schoo" did suggest a circumscribed and #air"y

,52

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uni#ied group!#or want o# a better term' a schoo"!o# musicians whose in#"uence was #e"t primari"y in the decades 2ust be#ore and a#ter 18... 0#ter a""' &eethoven did respond to the advances o# the &roadwood piano!its rein#orced #rame' e5tended compass' trip"e stringing' and peda"s' #or e5amp"e!and it is reasonab"e to suppose that Eondon pianists who composed music #or such an instrument during the critica" phase o# its deve"opment e5ercised no sma"" degree o# in#"uence on %ontinenta" musicians. *everthe"ess' perhaps the most sensib"e approach to this issue is to de#ine the schoo" by the period (c. 17GG-1874) during which it #"ourished' as Temper"ey has done in the antho"ogy.

1.

&hich one of the following most accurately states the author4s main point% (A) Temperley has recently called into "uestion the designation of a group of composers/ pedagogues/ pianists/ publishers/ and builders as the Kondon @ianoforte school. (B) Temperley4s anthology of the music of the Kondon @ianoforte school contributes significantly to an understanding of an influential period in the history of music. (C) The music of the Kondon @ianoforte school has been re'i'ed by the publication of Temperley4s new anthology. ( ) @rimary sources for musical manuscripts pro'ide the most reliable basis for musicological research. (#) The de'elopment of the modern piano in #ngland influenced composers and other musicians throughout #urope.

2.

3t can be inferred that which one of the following is true of the piano music of the Kondon @ianoforte school% (A) The nocturnes of Aohn >ield typify the Kondon @ianoforte school style. (B) The #radus ad Parnassu- of ?u!io Clementi is the best(known work of these composers. (C) 9o original scores for this music are e$tant. ( ) @rior to Temperley4s edition/ no attempts to issue new editions of this music had been made. (#) 3n modern times much of the music of this school has been little known e'en to musicians.

..

The author mentions the sonatas of ?u!io Clementi and the nocturnes of Aohn >ield as e$amples of which one of the following% (A) works by composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school that ha'e been preser'ed in rigorous scholarly editions (B) works that are no longer remembered by most people (C) works acclaimed by the leaders of the Kondon @ianoforte school ( ) works by composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school that are relati'ely well known

LSAT

,5.

(#) works by composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school that ha'e been re'i'ed by Temperley in his anthology 0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most clearly undermine a portion of =inger4s argument as the argument is described in the passage% (A) ?usicians in Austria composed inno'ati'e music for the Broadwood piano as soon as the instrument became a'ailable. (B) Clementi and his followers produced most of their compositions between 1-,5 and 1615. (C) The influence of Continental musicians is apparent in some of the works of Beetho'en. ( ) The pianist(composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school shared many of the same stylistic principles. (#) ?ost composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school were born on the Continent and were drawn to Kondon by the work of Clementi and his followers. 1. 3t can be inferred that the author uses the word *ad'ances+ (line 0,) to refer to (A) enticements offered musicians by instrument manufacturers (B) impro'ements in the structure of a particular instrument (C) inno'ations in the forms of music produced for a particular instrument ( ) stylistic elaborations made possible by changes in a particular instrument (#) changes in musicians4 opinions about a particular instrument 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage as a whole that the author4s purpose in the third paragraph is primarily to (A) cast doubt on the usefulness of Temperley4s study of the Kondon @ianoforte school (B) introduce a discussion of the coherency of the Kondon @ianoforte school (C) summari!e =inger4s argument about the Kondon @ianoforte school ( ) emphasi!e the comple$ nature of the musicological elements shared by members of the Kondon @ianoforte school (#) identify the uni"ue contributions made to music by the Kondon @ianoforte school -. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) e$plaining the influence of the de'elopment of the pianoforte on the music of Beetho'en (B) describing Temperley4s 'iew of the contrast between the de'elopment of piano music in #ngland and the de'elopment of piano music elsewhere in #urope (C) presenting Temperley4s e'aluation of the impact of changes in piano construction on styles and forms of music composed in the era of the

,50

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Kondon @ianoforte school ( ) considering an alternati'e theory to that proposed by =inger concerning the Kondon @ianoforte school (#) discussing the contribution of Temperley4s anthology to what is known of the history of the Kondon @ianoforte school 6. 3t can be inferred that Temperley4s anthology treats the Kondon @ianoforte school as (A) a group of pianist(composers who shared certain stylistic principles and artistic creeds (B) a group of people who contributed to the de'elopment of piano music between 1-22 and 16-. (C) a group of composers who influenced the music of Beetho'en in the decades <ust before and <ust after 1655 ( ) a series of compositions for the pianoforte published in the decades <ust before and <ust after 1655 (#) a series of compositions that had a significant influence on the music of the Continent in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
8hat is ;"aw<C &y what processes do 2udges arrive at opinions' those documents that 2usti#y their be"ie# that the ;"aw< dictates a conc"usion one way or the otherC These are among the o"dest +uestions in 2urisprudence' debate about which has traditiona""y been dominated by representatives o# two schoo"s o# thought> proponents o# natura" "aw' who see "aw as intertwined with a mora" order independent o# society3s ru"es and mores' and "ega" positivists' who see "aw so"e"y as embodying the commands o# a society3s ru"ing authority. ince the ear"y 197.s' these #ami"iar +uestions have received some new and surprising answers in the "ega" academy. This nove"ty is in part a conse+uence o# the increasing in#"uence there o# academic discip"ines and inte""ectua" traditions previous"y unconnected with the study o# "aw. 6erhaps the most in#"uentia" have been the answers given by the Eaw and =conomics schoo". 0ccording to these "ega" economists' "aw consists and ought to consist o# those ru"es that ma5imi)e a society3s materia" wea"th and that abet the e##icient operation o# mar$ets designed to generate wea"th. ?ore controversia" have been the various answers provided by members o# the %ritica" Eega" tudies movement' according to whom "aw is one among severa" cu"tura" mechanisms by which ho"ders o# power see$ to "egitimate their domination. Frawing on re"ated arguments deve"oped in anthropo"ogy' socio"ogy' and history' the critica" "ega" scho"ars contend that "aw is an e5pression o# power' but not' as he"d by the positivists' the power o# the "egitimate sovereign government. Rather' it is an e5pression o# the power o# e"ites who may have no "egitimate authority' but who are intent on preserving the privi"eges o# their race' c"ass' or gender. /n the mid-197.s' @ames &oyd 8hite began to articu"ate yet another interdiscip"inary response to the traditiona" +uestions' and in so doing spawned what is now $nown as the Eaw and Eiterature movement. 8hite has insisted that "aw' particu"ar"y as it is interpreted in 2udicia" opinions' shou"d be understood as an essentia""y "iterary activity. @udicia" opinions shou"d be

LSAT

,51

read and eva"uated not primari"y as po"itica" acts or as attempts to ma5imi)e society3s wea"th through e##icient ru"es' but rather as artistic per#ormances. 0nd "i$e a"" such per#ormances' 8hite argues' each 2udicia" opinion attempts in its own way to promote a particu"ar po"itica" or ethica" va"ue. /n the recent !ustice as Translation' 8hite argues that opinion-writing shou"d be regarded as an act o# ;trans"ation'< and 2udges as ;trans"ators.< 0s such' 2udges #ind themse"ves mediating between the authoritative "ega" te5t and the pressing "ega" prob"em that demands reso"ution. 0 2udge must essentia""y ;re-constitute< that te5t by #ashioning a new one' which is #aith#u" to the o"d te5t but a"so responsive to and in#ormed by the conditions' constraints' and aspirations o# the wor"d in which the new "ega" prob"em has arisen.

,.

&hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage% (A) &ithin the last few decades/ a number of no'el approaches to <urisprudence ha'e defined the nature of the law in di'erse ways. (B) &ithin the last few decades/ changes in society and in the number and type of cases brought to court ha'e necessitated new methods of interpreting the law. (C) 8f the many interdisciplinary approaches to <urisprudence that ha'e surfaced in the last tow decades/ the Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement is the most intellectually coherent. ( ) The Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement/ first articulated by Aames Boyd &hite in the mid(1,-5s/ represents a synthesis of the many theories of <urisprudence inspired by the social sciences. (#) ;uch traditional legal scholars as legal positi'ists and natural lawyers are increasingly on the defensi'e against attacks from younger/ more progressi'e theorists.

15. According to the passage/ <udicial opinions ha'e been described as each of the following #DC#@TE (A) political statements (B) arcane statements (C) economic statements ( ) artistic performances (#) acts of translation 11. &hich one of the following statements is most compatible with the principles of the Critical Kegal ;tudies mo'ement as that mo'ement is described in the passage% (A) Kaws go'erning the succession of power at the death of a head of state represent a synthesis of legal precedents/ specific situations/ and the 'alues of lawmakers. (B) Kaws allowing income ta$ deductions for charitable contributions/ though

,52

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ostensibly passed by lawmakers/ were de'ised by and are perpetuated by the rich. (C) Kaws go'erning the tariffs placed on imported goods must fa'or the continuation of mutually beneficial trade arrangements/ e'en at the e$pense of long(standing legal precedent. ( ) Kaws go'erning the treatment of the disad'antaged and powerless members of a gi'en society are an accurate indication of that society4s moral state. (#) Kaws controlling the electoral processes of a representati'e democracy ha'e been de'ised by lawmakers to ensure the continuation of that go'ernmental system. 12. &hich one of the following does the passage mention as a similarity between the Critical Kegal ;tudies mo'ement and the Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement% (A) Both offer e$planations of how elites maintain their hold on power. (B) Both are logical e$tensions of either natural law or legal positi'ism. (C) Both see economic and political primacy as the basis of all legitimate power. ( ) Both rely on disciplines not traditionally connected with the study of law. (#) Both see the practice of opinion(writing as a mediating acti'ity. 1.. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about the academic study of <urisprudence before the 1,-5s% (A) 3t was concerned primarily with codifying and maintaining the pri'ileges of elites. (B) 3t re<ected theories that interpreted law as an e$pression of a group4s power. (C) 3t seldom focused on how and by what authority <udges arri'ed at opinions. ( ) 3t was concerned primarily with the study of law as an economic and moral agent. (#) 3t was not concerned with such disciplines as anthropology and sociology. 10. @roponents of the Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement would most likely agree with which one of the following statements concerning the relationship between the law and <udges4 written opinions% (A) The once(stable relationship between law and opinion(writing has been undermined by new and radical theoretical de'elopments. (B) 8nly the most politically conser'ati'e of <udges continue to base their opinions on natural law or on legal positi'ism. (C) The occurrence of different legal situations re"uires a <udge to adopt di'erse theoretical approaches to opinion(writing. ( ) ifferent <udges will not necessarily write the same sorts of opinions when confronted with the same legal situation. (#) Audges who subscribe to di'ergent theories of <urisprudence will necessarily

LSAT

,5-

render di'ergent opinions. 11. &hich one of the following phrases best describes the meaning of *re(constitute+ as that word is used in line 10 of the passage% (A) categori!e and rephrase (B) in'estigate and summari!e (C) interpret and refashion ( ) paraphrase and announce (#) negotiate and synthesi!e 12. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) identify differing approaches (B) discount a no'el trend (C) ad'ocate traditional methods ( ) correct misinterpretations (#) reconcile seeming inconsistencies
ince the ear"y 191.s' most petro"eum geo"ogists have #avored a biogenic theory #or the #ormation o# oi". 0ccording to this theory' organic matter became buried in sediments' and subse+uent conditions o# temperature and pressure over time trans#ormed it into oi". ince 1979 an opposing abiogenic theory about the origin o# oi" has been promu"gated. 0ccording to this theory' what is now oi" began as hydrocarbon compounds within the earth3s mant"e (the region between the core and the crust) during the #ormation o# the earth. 9i" was created when gasses rich in methane' the "ightest o# the hydrocarbons' rose #rom the mant"e through #ractures and #au"ts in the crust' carrying a signi#icant amount o# heavier hydrocarbons with them. 0s the gases encountered intermittent drops in pressure' the heavier hydrocarbons condensed' #orming oi"' and were deposited in reservoirs throughout the crust. Roc$ regions de#ormed by motions o# the crusta" p"ates provided the conduits and #ractures necessary #or the gases to rise through the crust. 9pponents o# the abiogenic theory charge that hydrocarbons cou"d not e5ist in the mant"e' because high temperatures wou"d destroy or brea$ them down. 0dvocates o# the theory' however' point out that other types o# carbon e5ist in the mant"e> uno5idi)ed carbon must e5ist there' because diamonds are #ormed within the mant"e be#ore being brought to the sur#ace by eruptive processes. 6roponents o# the abiogenic theory a"so point to recent e5perimenta" wor$ that suggests that the higher pressures within the mant"e tend to o##set the higher temperatures' a""owing hydrocarbons' "i$e uno5idi)ed carbon' to continue to e5ist in the mant"e. /# the abiogenic theory is correct' vast undiscovered reservoirs o# oi" and gas! undiscovered because the biogenic mode" prec"udes their e5istence!may in actua"ity e5ist. 9ne company owned by the wedish government has #ound the abiogenic theory so persuasive that it has started e5p"oratory dri""ing #or gas or oi" in a granite #ormation ca""ed the i"2an Ring!not the best p"ace to "oo$ #or gas or oi" i# one be"ieves they are derived #rom organic compounds' because granite #orms #rom magma (mo"ten roc$) and contains no

,56

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organic sediments. The ring was #ormed about 4G. mi""ion years ago when a "arge meteorite hit the G..-mi""ion-year-o"d granite that #orms the base o# the continenta" crust. The impact #ractured the granite' and the wedes be"ieve that i# oi" comes #rom the mant"e' it cou"d have risen with methane gas through this now permeab"e roc$. 7ue"ing their optimism #urther is the #act that prior to the start o# dri""ing' methane gas had been detected rising through the granite.

1-. &hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) Although the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil is deri'ed from the con'entional biogenic theory/ it suggests new types of locations for oil drilling. (B) The small number of drilling companies that ha'e responded to the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil reflects the minimal le'el of acceptance the theory has met with in the scientific community. (C) Although the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil fails to e$plain se'eral enigmas about oil reser'oirs/ it is superior to the con'entional biogenic theory. ( ) Although it has yet to recei'e either support or refutation by data gathered from a drilling pro<ect/ the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil offers a plausible alternati'e to the con'entional biogenic theory. (#) )a'ing answered ob<ections about higher pressures in the earth4s core/ proponents of the new abiogenic theory ha'e gained broad acceptance for their theory in the scientific community. 16. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph% (A) 3t presents a 'iew opposed to a theory and points out an internal contradiction in that opposing 'iew. (B) 3t describes a criticism of a theory and pro'ides counter'ailing e'idence to the criticism. (C) 3t identifies a conflict between two 'iews of a theory and re'ises both 'iews. ( ) 3t e$plains an argument against a theory and shows it to be a 'alid criticism. (#) 3t points out the correspondence between an argument against one theory and arguments against similar theories. 1,. The passage suggests that the opponents of the abiogenic theory mentioned in the third paragraph would most probably agree with which one of the following statements% (A) The formation of oil does not in'ol'e the condensation of hydrocarbons released from the earth4s mantle. (B) Karge oil reser'es are often found in locations that contain small amounts of organic matter.

LSAT

,5,

(C) The erupti'e processes by which diamonds are brought to the earth4s surface are similar to those that aid in the formation of oil. ( ) ?otions of the crustal plates often create the pressure necessary to transform organic matter into oil. (#) The largest known oil reser'es may ha'e resulted from organic matter combining with hea'ier hydrocarbons carried by methane gas. 25. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the situation described in the final paragraph% (A) A new theory about the annual cycles of breeding and migration of the monarch butterfly has led scientists to look for similar patterns in other butterfly species. (B) A new theory about the stage at which a star collapses into a black hole has led astronomers to search for e'idence of black holes in parts of the uni'erse where they had not pre'iously searched. (C) A new theory about how the emission of sulfur dio$ide during coal(burning can be reduced has led se'eral companies to de'elop desulfuri!ation systems. ( ) A new theory about photosynthesis has con'inced a research team to e$plore in new ways the 'arious functions of the cell membrane in plant cells. (#) A new theory about the distribution of metals in rock formations has con'inced a sil'er(mining company to keep different types of records of its operations. 21. According to the passage all of the following are true of the ;il<an =ing #DC#@TE (A) 3t was formed from magma. (B) 3t does not contain organic sediments. (C) 3ts ring shape e$isted 155 million years ago. ( ) ?ethane gas has been detected rising through it. (#) 3t was shaped from the granite that makes up the base of the continental crust.
?ost studies o# recent outheast 0sian immigrants to the United tates have #ocused on their ad2ustment to "i#e in their adopted country and on the e##ects o# "eaving their home"ands. @ames To""e#son3s "lien ,inds e5amines the resett"ement process #rom a di##erent perspective by investigating the educationa" programs o##ered in immigrant processing centers. &ased on interviews' transcripts #rom c"asses' essays by immigrants' persona" visits to a teachertraining unit' and o##icia" government documents' To""e#son re"ies on an impressive amount and variety o# documentation in ma$ing his arguments about processing centers3 educationa" programs. To""e#son3s main contention is that the emphasis p"aced on immediate emp"oyment and on teaching the va"ues' attitudes' and behaviors that the training personne" thin$ wi"" he"p the immigrants ad2ust more easi"y to "i#e in the United tates is o#ten counterproductive and

,15

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demora"i)ing. &ecause o# concerns that the immigrants be se"#-supporting as soon as possib"e' they are trained a"most e5c"usive"y #or "ow-"eve" 2obs that do not re+uire =ng"ish pro#iciency. /n this respect' To""e#son c"aims' the processing centers suit the needs o# emp"oyers more than they suit the "ong-term needs o# the immigrant community. To""e#son a"so detects a #undamenta" #"aw in the attempts by program educators to insti"" in the immigrants the traditiona""y 8estern princip"es o# se"#-su##iciency and individua" success. These e##orts o#ten have the e##ect o# undermining the immigrants3 sense o# community and' in doing so' sometimes iso"ate them #rom the mora" support and even #rom business opportunities a##orded by the immigrant community. The programs a"so encourage the immigrants to shed their cu"tura" traditions and ethnic identity and adopt the "i#esty"es' be"ie#s' and characteristics o# their adopted country i# they wish to enter #u""y into the nationa" "i#e. To""e#son notes that the ideo"ogica" nature o# these educationa" programs has roots in the turn-o#-the-century educationa" programs designed to assimi"ate =uropean immigrants into United tates society. To""e#son provides a concise history o# the assimi"ationist movement in immigrant education' in which =uropean immigrants were encouraged to "eave behind the ways o# the 9"d 8or"d and to adopt instead the princip"es and practices o# the *ew 8or"d. To""e#son ab"y shows that the issues demanding rea" attention in the educationa" programs #or outheast 0sian immigrants are not mere"y emp"oyment rates and government #unding' but a"so the assumptions underpinning the educationa" va"ues in the programs. (e recommends many improvements #or the programs' inc"uding giving the immigrants a stronger voice in determining their needs and how to meet them' redesigning the curricu"a' and emphasi)ing "ong-term "anguage education and 2ob training over immediate emp"oyment and the avoiding o# pub"ic assistance. Un#ortunate"y' though' To""e#son does not o##er enough concrete so"utions as to how these re#orms cou"d be carried out' despite his own descriptions o# the comp"icated bureaucratic nature o# the programs.

22. &hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) Tollefson4s focus on the economic and cultural factors in'ol'ed in ad<usting to a new country offers a significant departure from most studies of ;outheast Asian immigration. (B) 3n his analysis of educational programs for ;outheast Asian immigrants/ Tollefson fails to acknowledge many of the positi'e effects the programs ha'e had on immigrants4 li'es. (C) Tollefson con'incingly blames the philosophy underlying immigrant educational programs for some of the ad<ustment problems afflicting ;outheast Asian immigrants. ( ) Tollefson4s most significant contribution is his analysis of how ;outheast Asian immigrants o'ercome the obstacles they encounter in immigrant educational programs. (#) Tollefson traces a gradual yet significant change in the attitudes held by processing center educators toward ;outheast Asian immigrants.

LSAT

,11

2.. &ith which one of the following statements concerning the educational programs of the immigration centers would Tollefson most probably agree% (A) Although the programs offer ade"uate <ob training/ they offer inade"uate #nglish training. (B) ;ome of the programs4 attempts to impro'e the earning power of the immigrants cut them off from potential sources of income. (C) 3nclusion of the history of immigration in the :nited ;tates in the programs4 curricula facilitates ad<ustment for the immigrants. ( ) 3mmigrants would benefit if instructors in the programs were better prepared to teach the curricula de'eloped in the teacher(training courses. (#) The programs4 curricula should be redesigned to include greater emphasis on the shared 'alues/ beliefs/ and practices in the :nited ;tates. 20. &hich one of the following best describes the opinion of the author of the passage with respect to Tollefson4s work% (A) thorough but misguided (B) inno'ati'e but incomplete (C) no'el but contradictory ( ) illuminating but unappreciated (#) well documented but unoriginal 21. The passage suggests that which one of the following is an assumption underlying the educational approach in immigrant processing centers% (A) There is a set of 'alues and beha'iors that if adopted by immigrants/ facilitate ad<ustment to :nited ;tates society. (B) &hen recent immigrants are self(supporting rather than supported by public assistance/ they tend to gain #nglish proficiency more "uickly. (C) 3mmediate employment tends to undermine the immigrants sense of community with each other. ( ) Kong(term success for immigrants is best achie'ed by encouraging the immigrants to maintain a strong sense of community. (#) The principles of self(sufficiency and indi'idual success are central to ;outheast Asian culture and ethnicity. 22. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the first paragraph of the passage% (A) 3t pro'ides the scholarly conte$t for Tollefson4s study and a description of his methodology. (B) 3t compares Tollefson4s study to other works and presents the main argument of his study. (C) 3t compares the types of documents Tollefson uses to those used in other

,12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

studies. ( ) 3t presents the accepted theory on Tollefson4s topic and the method by which Tollefson challenges it. (#) 3t argues for the analytical and technical superiority of Tollefson4s study o'er other works on the topic. 2-. The author of the passage refers to Tollefson4s descriptions of the bureaucratic nature of the immigrant educational programs in the fourth paragraph most probably in order to (A) critici!e Tollefson4s decision to combine a description of the bureaucracies with suggestions for impro'ement (B) emphasi!e the author4s disappointment in Tollefson4s o'erly general recommendations for impro'ements to the programs (C) point out the irony of Tollefson concluding his study with suggestions for drastic changes in the programs ( ) support a contention that Tollefson4s recommendations for impro'ements do not focus on the real sources of the programs4 problems (#) suggest a parallel between the comple$ity of the bureaucracies and the comple$ity of Tollefson4s arguments LSAT 21 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
To many deve"opers o# techno"ogies that a##ect pub"ic hea"th or the environment' ;ris$ communication< means persuading the pub"ic that the potentia" ris$s o# such techno"ogies are sma"" and shou"d be ignored. Those who communicate ris$s in this way seem to be"ieve that "ay peop"e do not understand the actua" nature o# techno"ogica" ris$' and they can cite studies asserting that a"though peop"e apparent"y ignore mundane ha)ards that pose signi#icant danger' they get upset about e5otic ha)ards that pose "itt"e chance o# death or in2ury. &ecause some ris$ communicators ta$e this persuasive stance' many "ay peop"e see ;ris$ communication< as a euphemism #or brainwashing done by e5perts. ince' however' the goa" o# ris$ communication shou"d be to enab"e peop"e to ma$e in#ormed decisions about techno"ogica" ris$s' a c"ear understanding about how the pub"ic perceives ris$ is needed. Eay peop"e3s de#initions o# ;ris$< are more "i$e"y to re#"ect sub2ective ethica" concerns than are e5perts3 de#initions. Eay peop"e' #or e5amp"e' tend to perceive a sma"" ris$ to chi"dren as more signi#icant than a "arge ris$ to consenting adu"ts who bene#it #rom the ris$-creating techno"ogy. (owever' i# as$ed to ran$ ha)ards by the number o# annua" #ata"ities' without re#erence to ethica" 2udgments' "ay peop"e provide +uite reasonab"e

LSAT
estimates' demonstrating that they have substantia" $now"edge about many ris$s. 0"though

,1.

some studies c"aim to demonstrate that "ay peop"e have inappropriate concerns about e5otic ha)ards' these studies o#ten use +uestionab"e methods' such as as$ing "ay peop"e to ran$ ris$s that are hard to compare. /n contrast' a recent study showed that when "ay peop"e were given the necessary #acts and time' they understood the speci#ic ris$s o# e"ectromagnetic #ie"ds produced by high-vo"tage power transmission we"" enough to ma$e in#ormed decisions. Ris$ communication shou"d there#ore be based on the princip"e that peop"e process new in#ormation in the conte5t o# their e5isting be"ie#s. /# peop"e $now nothing about a topic' they wi"" #ind messages about that topic incomprehensib"e. /# they have erroneous be"ie#s' they are "i$e"y to misconstrue the messages. Thus' communicators need to $now the nature and e5tent o# recipients3 $now"edge and be"ie#s in order to design messages that wi"" not be dismissed or misinterpreted. This need was demonstrated in a research pro2ect concerning the pub"ic3s "eve" o# $now"edge about ris$s posed by the presence o# radon in the home. Researchers used open-ended interviews and +uestionnaires to determine what in#ormation shou"d be inc"uded in their brochure on radon. ub2ects who read the researchers3 brochure per#ormed signi#icant"y better in understanding radon ris$s than did a contro" group who read a brochure that was written using a di##erent approach by a government agency. Thus' care#u" preparation can he"p ris$ communicators to produce ba"anced materia" that te""s peop"e what they need to $now to ma$e decisions about techno"ogica" ris$s.

1.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage% (A) =isk communicators are effecti'ely addressing the proliferation of comple$ technologies that ha'e increasing impact on public health and safety. (B) =isk communicators should assess lay people4s understanding of technologies in order to be able to gi'e them the information they need to make reasonable decisions. (C) #$perts who want to communicate to the public about the possible risks of comple$ technologies must simplify their message to ensure that it is understandable. ( ) =isk communication can be percei'ed as the task of persuading lay people to accept the impact of a particular technology on their li'es. (#) Kay people can be unduly influenced by sub<ecti'e concerns when making decisions about technological risks.

2.

The authors of the passage would be most likely to agree that the primary purpose of risk communication should be to (A) e$plain rather than to persuade (B) promote rather than to <ustify (C) influence e$perts rather than to influence lay people ( ) allay people4s fears about mundane ha!ards rather than about e$otic ha!ards (#) foster public acceptance of new technologies rather than to acknowledge people4s ethical concerns

,10

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

..

According to the passage/ it is probable that which one of the following will occur when risk communicators attempt to communicate with lay people who ha'e mistaken ideas about a particular technology% (A) The lay people percei'ing that the risk communicators ha'e pro'ided more( reliable information/ will discard their mistaken notion. (B) The lay people will only partially re'ise their ideas on the basis of the new information. (C) The lay people fitting the new information into their e$isting framework will interpret the communication differently that the risk communicators had intended. ( ) The lay people misunderstanding the new information will further distort the information when they communicate it to other lay people. (#) The lay people will ignore any communication about a technology they consider potentially dangerous.

0.

&hich one of the following is most clearly an e$ample of the kind of risk perception discussed in the *studies+ mentioned in line 6% (A) A skydi'er checks the lines on her parachute se'eral times before a <ump because tangled lines often keep the parachutes from opening properly (B) A person decides to "uit smoking in order to lesson the probability of lung damage to himself and his family (C) A homeowner who decides to ha'e her house tested for radon also decides not to allow anyone to smoke in her house ( ) A person who often wea'es in and out of traffic while dri'ing his car at e$cessi'e speeds worries about meteorites hitting his house (#) A group of townspeople opposes the building of a nuclear waste dump outsider their town and proposes that the dump be placed in another town

1.

3t can be inferred that the authors of the passage would be more likely than would the risk communicators discussed in the first paragraph to emphasi!e which one of the following% (A) lay people4s tendency to become alarmed about technologies that they find new or strange (B) lay people4s tendency to compare risks that e$perts would not consider comparable (C) the need for lay people to adopt scientists4 ad'ice about technological risk ( ) the inability of lay people to rank ha!ards by the number of fatalities caused annually (#) the impact of lay people4s 'alue systems on their perceptions of risk

2.

According to the passage many lay people belie'e which one of the following about risk communication%

LSAT

,11

(A) 3t focuses e$cessi'ely on mundane ha!ards. (B) 3t is a tool used to manipulate the public. (C) 3t is a ma<or cause of inaccuracies in public knowledge about science. ( ) 3t most often functions to help people make informed decisions. (#) 3ts le'el of effecti'eness depends on the le'el of knowledge its audience already has.
/n 0pri" 199. representatives o# the 6ico Norea Union o# e"ectronics wor$ers in &uchon city' south Norea' trave"ed to the United tates in order to demand 2ust sett"ement o# their c"aims #rom the parent company o# their emp"oyers' who upon the #ormation o# the union had shut down operations without paying the wor$ers. 7rom the beginning' the union cause was championed by an unprecedented coa"ition o# Norean 0merican groups and deep"y a##ected the Norean 0merican community on severa" "eve"s. 7irst' it served as a ra""ying #ocus #or a diverse community o#ten divided by generation' c"ass and po"itica" ideo"ogies. ?ost notab"y' the 6ico cause mobi"i)ed many young secondgeneration Norean 0mericans' many o# whom had never been part o# a po"itica" campaign be#ore' "et a"one one invo"ving Norean issues. ?embers o# this generation' un"i$e #irstgeneration Norean 0mericans' genera""y #a"" within the more privi"eged sectors o# the Norean 0merican community and o#ten #ee" a"ienated #rom their Norean roots. /n addition to raising the po"itica" consciousness o# young Norean 0mericans' the 6ico strugg"e spar$ed among them new interest in their cu"tura" identity. The 6ico wor$ers a"so suggested new ro"es that can be p"ayed by recent immigrants' particu"ar"y wor$ing-c"ass immigrants. These immigrants3 $now"edge o# wor$ing conditions overseas can he"p to g"oba"i)e the perspective o# their communities and can he"p to estab"ish internationa" ties on a more persona" "eve"' as witnessed in the especia""y warm e5change between the 6ico wor$ers and recent wor$ingc"ass immigrants #rom %hina. /n addition to broadening the po"itica" base within the Norean 0merican community' the 6ico strugg"e a"so "ed to new a""iances between the Norean 0merican community and progressive "abor and socia" 2ustice groups within the "arger society !as evidenced in the support received #rom the %oa"ition o# Eabor Union 8omen and "eading 0#rican 0merican unionists. The reasons #or these e##ects "ie in the nature o# the cause. The issues raised by the 6ico unionists had such a strong human component that di##erences within the community became secondary to "arger concerns #or socia" 2ustice and wor$ers3 rights. The wor$ers3 demands #or compensation and respect were unencumbered with strong ideo"ogica" trappings. The economic e5p"oitation #aced by the 6ico wor$ers underscored the common interests o# Norean wor$ers' Norean 0mericans' the wor$ing c"ass more inc"usive"y' and a broad spectrum o# community "eaders. The 6ico wor$ers3 campaign thus o##ers an important "esson. /t demonstrates that ethnic communities need more than 2ust a $now"edge o# history and cu"ture as arti#acts o# the past in order to strengthen their ethnic identity. /t shows that perhaps the most e##ective means o# empowerment #or many ethnic communities o# immigrant derivation may be an identi#ication with and participation in current strugg"es #or economic and socia" 2ustice in their countries o# origin.

,12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

-.

&hich one of the following best describes the main topic of the passage% (A) the contribution of the Morean American community to impro'ing the working conditions of Moreans employed by :nited ;tates companies (B) the change brought about in the Morean American community by contacts with Moreans 'isiting the :nited ;tates (C) the contribution of recent immigrants from Morea to strengthening ethnic identity in the Morean American community ( ) the effects on the Morean American community of a dispute between Morean union workers and a :nited ;tates company (#) the effect of the politici!ation of second(generation Morean Americans on the Morean American community as a whole

6.

The passage suggests that which one of the following was a significant factor in the decision to shut down the @ico plant in Buchon City% (A) the decreasing profitability of maintaining operations in Morea (B) the failure to resol'e long(standing disputes between the @ico workers and management (C) the creation of a union by the @ico workers ( ) the withholding of workers4 wages by the parent company (#) the finding of an alternate site for operations

,.

&hich one of the following is 98T mentioned in the passage as a recent de'elopment in the Morean American community% (A) Houng second(generation Morean Americans ha'e begun to take an interest in their Morean heritage. (B) =ecent Morean American immigrants of working(class backgrounds ha'e begun to enter the more pri'ileged sectors of the Morean American community. (C) Morean Americans ha'e de'eloped closer ties with acti'ist groups from other sectors of the population. ( ) @re'iously nonpolitical members of the Morean American community ha'e become more politically acti'e. (#) The Morean American community has been able to set aside political and generational disparities in order to support a common cause.

15. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would most likely agree with which one of the following statements about ethnic communities of immigrant deri'ation% (A) ;uch communities can deri'e important benefits from maintaining ties with their countries of origin. (B) ;uch communities should focus primarily on promoting study of the history and culture of their people in order to strengthen their ethnic identity.

LSAT

,1-

(C) ;uch communities can most successfully mobili!e and politici!e their young people by addressing the problems of young people of all backgrounds. ( ) The more pri'ileged sectors of such communities are most likely to maintain a sense of closeness to their cultural roots. (#) The politici!ation of such a community is unlikely to affect relations with other groups within the larger society. 11. 3n the second paragraph/ the author refers to immigrants from China most probably in order to do which one of the following% (A) highlight the contrast between working conditions in the :nited ;tates and in Morea (B) demonstrate the uni"ueness of the problem faced by the @ico workers (C) offer an e$ample of the type of role that can be played by recent working( class immigrants ( ) pro'ide an analogy for the type of acti'ism displayed by the Morean American community (#) compare the disparate responses of two immigrant communities to similar problems 12. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) describe recent de'elopments in the Morean American community that ha'e strongly affected other ethnic communities of immigrant deri'ation (B) describe a situation in the Morean American community that presents a model for the empowerment of ethnic communities of immigrant deri'ation (C) detail the problems faced by the Morean American community in order to illustrate the need for the empowerment of ethnic communities of immigrant deri'ation ( ) argue against economic and social in<ustice in the countries of origin of ethnic communities of immigrant deri'ation (#) assess the impact of the unioni!ation mo'ement on ethnic communities of immigrant deri'ation 1.. &hich one of the following most accurately states the function of the third paragraph% (A) 3t e$plains why the @ico workers brought their cause to the :nited ;tates. (B) 3t e$plains how the @ico cause differed from other causes that had pre'iously mobili!ed the Morean American community. (C) 3t e$plains why the @ico workers were accorded such broad support. ( ) 3t e$plains how other ethnic groups of immigrant deri'ation in the :nited ;tates ha'e profited from the e$ample of the @ico workers. (#) 3t e$plains why different generations of Morean Americans reacted in different ways to the @ico cause.

,16

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

/n recent years' scho"ars have begun to use socia" science too"s to ana"y)e court

opinions. These scho"ars have 2usti#iab"y critici)ed traditiona" "ega" research #or its #ocus on a #ew cases that may not be representative and its #ascination with arcane matters that do not a##ect rea" peop"e with rea" "ega" prob"ems. Lir$e" and choen#e"d' #or e5amp"e' have championed the app"ication o# socia" science too"s to the ana"ysis o# case "aw surrounding discrimination against women in higher education emp"oyment. Their studies have demonstrated how these socia" science too"s may be used to serve the interests o# scho"ars' "awyers and prospective p"ainti##s as we"". (owever' their enthusiasm #or the ;outcomes ana"ysis< techni+ue seems misguided. 9# #undamenta" concern is the outcomes ana"ysts3 assumption that simp"y counting the number o# success#u" and unsuccess#u" p"ainti##s wi"" be use#u" to prospective p"ainti##s. 0"though the odds are c"ear"y against the p"ainti## in se5 discrimination cases' p"ainti##s who be"ieve that their cause is 2ust and that they wi"" prevai" are not swayed by such evidence. /n addition' because "awsuits are so di##erent in the detai"s o# the case' in the +ua"ity o# the evidence the p"ainti## presents' and in the attitude o# the 2udge toward academic p"ainti##s' giving prospective p"ainti##s statistics about overa"" outcomes without ana"y)ing the reason #or these outcomes is o# margina" assistance. 9utcomes ana"ysis' #or e5amp"e' ignores the #act that in certain academic se5 discrimination cases!those invo"ving serious procedura" vio"ations or incriminating evidence in the #orm o# written admissions o# discriminatory practices!p"ainti##s are much more "i$e"y to prevai". Two di##erent approaches o##er more use#u" app"ications o# socia" science too"s in ana"y)ing se5 discrimination cases. 9ne is a process ca""ed ;po"icy capturing'< in which the researcher reads each opinion' identi#ies variab"es discussed in the opinion' such as the regu"arity o# emp"oyer eva"uations o# the p"ainti## per#ormance' training o# eva"uators' and the $ind o# eva"uation instrument used' and then uses mu"tivariate ana"ysis to determine whether these variab"es predict the outcome o# the "awsuit. The advantage o# po"icy capturing research is that it attempts to e5p"ain the reason #or the outcome' rather than simp"y reporting the outcome' and identi#ies #actors that contribute to a p"ainti##3s success or #ai"ure. Ta$ing a s"ight"y di##erent approach' other scho"ars have adopted a techni+ue that re+uires reading comp"ete transcripts o# a"" se5 discrimination cases "itigated during a certain time period to identi#y variab"es such as the nature o# the a""eged"y i""ega" conduct' the conse+uences #or emp"oyers' and the nature o# the remedy' as we"" as the #actors that contributed to the verdict and the $ind o# evidence necessary #or the p"ainti## to prevai". 8hi"e the #indings o# these studies are "imited to the period covered' they assist potentia" p"ainti##s and de#endants in assessing their cases.

10. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) The analysis of a limited number of atypical discrimination suits is of little 'alue to potential plaintiffs. (B) &hen the number of factors analy!ed in a se$ discrimination suit is increased/ the 'alidity of the conclusions drawn becomes suspect. (C) ;cholars who are critical of traditional legal research fre"uently offer alternati'e approaches that are also seriously flawed.

LSAT

,1,

( ) 8utcomes analysis has less predicti'e 'alue in se$ discrimination cases than do certain other social science techni"ues. (#) Bi'en ade"uate information/ it is possible to predict with considerable certainty whether a plaintiff will be successful in a discrimination suit. 11. 3t can be inferred from the author4s discussion of traditional legal research that the author is (A) frustrated because traditional legal research has not achie'ed its full potential (B) critical because traditional legal research has little rele'ance to those actually in'ol'ed in cases (C) appreciati'e of the role traditional legal research played in de'eloping later more efficient approaches ( ) derisi'e because traditional legal research has outlasted its pre'iously significant role (#) grateful for the ability of traditional legal research to de'elop uni"ue types of e'idence 12. &hich one of the following statements about Lirkel and ;choenfeld can be inferred from the passage% (A) They were the first scholars to use social science tools in analy!ing legal cases. (B) They confined their studies to the outcomes analysis techni"ue. (C) They saw no 'alue in the analysis pro'ided by traditional legal research. ( ) They re<ected policy capturing as being too limited in scope. (#) They belie'ed that the information generated by outcomes analysis would be rele'ant for plaintiffs. 1-. The author4s characteri!ation of traditional legal research in the first paragraph is intended to (A) pro'ide background information for the subse"uent discussion (B) summari!e an opponent4s position (C) argue against the use of social science tools in the analysis of se$ discrimination cases ( ) emphasi!e the fact that legal researchers act to the detriment of potential plaintiffs (#) reconcile traditional legal researchers to the use of social science tools 16. The information in the passage suggests that plaintiffs who pursue se$ discrimination cases despite the statistics pro'ided by outcomes analysis can best be likened to (A) athletes who continue to employ training techni"ues despite their knowledge of statistical e'idence indicating that these techni"ues are unlikely to be

,25

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effecti'e (B) lawyers who handle lawsuits for a large number of clients in the hope that some percentage will be successful (C) candidates for public office who are more interested in making a political statement than in winning an election ( ) supporters of a cause who recruit indi'iduals sympathetic to it in the belief that large numbers of supporters will lend the cause legitimacy (#) purchasers of a charity4s raffle tickets who consider the purchase a contribution because the likelihood of winning is remote 1,. The policy(capturing approach differs from the approach described in lines 06(1, in that the latter approach (A) makes use of detailed information on a greater number of cases (B) focuses more directly on issues of concern to litigants (C) analy!es information that is more recent and therefore reflects current trends ( ) allows assessment of aspects of a case that are not specifically mentioned in a <udge4s opinion (#) eliminates any distortion due to personal bias on the part of the researcher 25. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A techni"ue is introduced/ its shortcomings are summari!ed/ and alternati'es are described. (B) A debate is introduced/ e'idence is presented/ and a compromise is reached. (C) A theory is presented/ clarification is pro'ided/ and a plan of further e'aluation is suggested. ( ) ;tandards are established/ hypothetical e$amples are analy!ed/ and the criteria are amended. (#) A position is challenged/ its shortcomings are categori!ed/ and the challenge is re'ised.
0 #a$e can be de#ined as an artwor$ intended to deceive. The motives o# its creator are decisive' and the merit o# the ob2ect itse"# is a separate issue. The +uestion mar$ in the tit"e o# ?ar$ @ones3s Fake> The "ct of -ece#tion revea"s the study3s broader concerns. /ndeed' it might e+ua""y be entit"ed 4riginal>& and the te5t begins by noting a variety o# possibi"ities somewhere between the two e5tremes. These inc"ude wor$s by an artist3s #o""owers in the sty"e o# the master' de"iberate archaism' copying #or pedagogica" purposes' and the production o# commercia" #acsimi"es. The greater part o# Fake> is devoted to a %hrono"ogica" survey suggesting that #a$ing #eeds on the many di##erent motives peop"e have #or co""ecting art' and that' on the who"e' the #a$ing o# art #"ourishes whenever art co""ecting #"ourishes. /n imperia" Rome there was a widespread interest in co""ecting ear"ier Aree$ art' and there#ore in #a$ing it. *o doubt many o# the scu"ptures now e5hibited as ;Roman copies< were origina""y passed o## as Aree$. /n

LSAT
medieva" =urope' because art was ce"ebrated more #or its devotiona" uses than #or its provenance or the ingenuity o# its creators' the #a$ing o# art was virtua""y none5istent. The modern age o# #a$ing began in the /ta"ian Renaissance' with two "in$ed deve"opments> a

,21

passionate identi#ication with the wor"d o# anti+uity and a growing sense o# individua" artistic identity. 0 patron o# the young ?iche"ange"o prevai"ed upon the artist to ma$e his cu"pture lee#ing Cu#ld "oo$ as though it had been buried in the earth so that ;it wi"" be ta$en #or anti+ue' and you wi"" se"" it much better.< 8ithin a #ew years' however' beginning with his #irst masterpiece' the Bacchus' ?iche"ange"o had shown his contemporaries that great art can assimi"ate and transcend what came be#ore' resu"ting in a who""y origina" wor$. oon his genius made him the ob2ect o# imitators. Fake> a"so reminds us that in certain cu"tures authenticity is a #oreign concept. This is true o# much 0#rican art' when the authenticity o# an ob2ect is considered by co""ectors to depend on its #unction. 0s an i""ustration' the study compares two versions o# a chi wara mas$ made by the &ambara peop"e o# ?a"i. 9ne has pegs a""owing it to be attached to a cap #or its intended ceremonia" purpose. The second' otherwise identica"' "ac$s the pegs and is a rep"ica made #or sa"e. 0#rican carving is notorious"y di##icu"t to date' but even i# the ritua" mas$ is recent' made perhaps to rep"ace a damaged predecessor' and the rep"ica much o"der' on"y the ritua" mas$ shou"d be seen as authentic' #or it is tied to the #orm3s origina" #unction. That' at "east' is the consensus o# the so-ca""ed e5perts. 9ne wonders whether the &ambaran artists wou"d agree.

21. The passage can best be described as doing which one of the following% (A) reconciling 'aried points of 'iew (B) chronicling the e'olution of a phenomenon (C) e$ploring a comple$ "uestion ( ) ad'ocating a new approach (#) re<ecting an inade"uate e$planation 22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the author4s main point%(the te$t begins by noting a 'ariety of possibilities somewhere between the two e$tremes. These include works by an artist4s followers in the style of the master/ deliberate archaism/ copying for pedagogical purposes/ and the production of commercial facsimiles) (A) The faking of art has occurred throughout history and in 'irtually e'ery culture. (B) &hether a work of art is fake or not is less important than whether it has artistic merit. (C) 3t is possible to show that a work of art is fake/ but the authenticity of a work cannot be pro'ed conclusi'ely. ( ) A 'ariety of circumstances make it difficult to determine whether a work of art can appropriately be called a fake. (#) &ithout an international market to support it/ the faking of art would cease.

,22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

2.. According to the passage an artwork can be definiti'ely classified as a fake if the person who created it (A) consciously adopted the artistic style of an influential mentor (B) deliberately imitated a famous work of art as a learning e$ercise (C) wanted other people to be fooled by its appearance ( ) made multiple/ identical copies of the work a'ailable for sale (#) made the work resemble the art of an earlier era 20. The author pro'ides at least one e$ample of each of the following #DC#@TE (A) categories of art that are neither wholly fake not wholly original (B) cultures in which the faking of art flourished (C) "ualities that art collectors ha'e pri!ed in their ac"uisitions ( ) cultures in which the categories *fake+ and *original+ do not apply (#) contemporary artists whose works ha'e inspired fakes 21. The author implies which one of the following about the artistic merits of fakes% (A) Because of the circumstances of its production/ a fake cannot be said to ha'e true artistic merit. (B) A fake can be said to ha'e artistic merit only if the attempted deception is successful. (C) A fake may or may not ha'e artistic merit in its own right/ regardless of the circumstances of its production. ( ) &hether a fake has artistic merit depends on whether its creator is accomplished as an artist. (#) The artistic merit of a fake depends on the merit of the original work that inspired the fake. 22. By the standard described in the last paragraph of the passage/ which one of the following would be considered authentic% (A) an ancient =oman copy of an ancient Breek sculpture (B) a painting begun by =enaissance master and finished by his assistants after his death (C) a print of a painting signed by the artist who painted the original ( ) a faithful replica of a ceremonial crown that preser'es all the details of and is indistinguishable from the original (#) a modern reconstruction of a medie'al altarpiece designed to ser'e its traditional role in a ser'ice of worship 2-. &hich one of the following best describes how the last paragraph functions in the conte$t of the passage% (A) 3t offers a tentati'e answer to a "uestion posed by the author in the opening

LSAT

,2.

paragraph. (B) 3t summari!es an account pro'ided in detail in the preceding paragraph. (C) 3t pro'ides additional support for an argument ad'anced by the author in the preceding paragraph. ( ) 3t e$amines another facet of a distinction de'eloped in the preceding paragraphs. (#) 3t affirms the general principle enunciated at the beginning of the passage. LSAT 22 SECT ON )

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
?any "iterary scho"ars be"ieve that Lora *ea"e (urston3s Their Eyes ,ere ,atching .od (1947) has been the primary in#"uence on some o# the most accomp"ished &"ac$ women writing in the United tates today. /ndeed' 0"ice 8a"$er' the author o# the pri)e-winning nove" The Color Pur#le' has said o# Their Eyes' ;There is no boo$ more important to me than this one.< Thus' it seems necessary to as$ why Their Eyes' a wor$ now viewed by a mu"titude o# readers as remar$ab"y success#u" in its comp"e5 depiction o# a &"ac$ woman3s search #or se"# and community' was ever re"egated to the margins o# the "iterary canon. The detai"s o# the nove"3s initia" reception he"p answer this +uestion. Un"i$e the recent"y rediscovered and ree5amined wor$ o# (arriet 8i"son' Their Eyes was not tota""y ignored by boo$ reviewers upon its pub"ication. /n #act' it received a mi5ture o# positive and negative reviews both #rom 8hite boo$ reviewers wor$ing #or prominent periodica"s and #rom important #igures within &"ac$ "iterary circ"es. /n the aturday *eview of 'iterature& Aeorge tevens wrote that ;the narration is e5act"y right' because most o# it is dia"ogue and the dia"ogue gives us a constant sense o# character in action.< The negative criticism was partia""y a resu"t o# (urston3s ideo"ogica" di##erences with other members o# the &"ac$ 0mericans in "iterature. &"ac$ writers o# the 19H.s be"ieved that the &"ac$ artist3s primary responsibi"ity was to create protest #iction that e5p"ored the negative e##ects o# racism in the United tates. 7or e5amp"e' Richard 8right' the author o# the much acc"aimed +ative on (19H.)' wrote that Their Eyes had ;no theme< and ;no message<. ?ost critics3 and readers3 e5pectations o# &"ac$ "iterature rendered them unab"e to appreciate (urston3s subt"e de"ineation o# the "i#e o# an ordinary &"ac$ woman in a &"ac$ community and the nove" went +uiet"y out o# print. Recent acc"aim #or Their Eyes resu"ts #rom the emergence o# #eminist "iterary criticism and the deve"opment o# standards o# eva"uation speci#ic to the wor$ o# &"ac$ writers: these $inds o# criticism changed readers3 e5pectations o# art and enab"ed them to appreciate (urston3s nove". The emergence o# #eminist criticism was crucia" because such criticism brought new attention to neg"ected wor$s such as (urston3s and a"erted readers to (urston3s e5p"oration o# women3s issues in her #iction. The 0#rocentric standards o# eva"uation were

,20

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

e+ua""y important to the rediscovery o# Their Eyes' #or such standards provided readers with the too"s to recogni)e and appreciate the &"ac$ #o"$"ore and ora" storyte""ing traditions (urston incorporated within her wor$. /n one o# the most i""uminating discussions o# the nove" to date' (enry Eouis Aates @r.' states that ;(urston3s strategy seems to concern itse"# with the possibi"ities o# representation o# the spea$ing &"ac$ voice in writing.<

1.

The passage suggests which one of the following about )arriet &ilson4s no'el% (A) 3t was written at the same time as Their Eyes Were Watching #od/ but it did not recei'e as much critical attention. (B) 3t greatly influenced Black women writing after the 1,05s. (C) 3t was widely read when it was published but it has not recei'ed attention from literary critics until recently. ( ) 3t was not formally published/ and the manuscript has only recently been disco'ered by literary critics. (#) 3t did not recei'e critical attention when it was published/ but it has recently become the sub<ect of critical study.

2.

The passage offers support for which one of the following statements about literary re'iewers and Their Eyes Were Watching #od% (A) Their Eyes was widely acclaimed by re'iewers upon its publication/ e'en though it e'entually went out of print. (B) The e'entual obscurity of Their Eyes was not the result of complete neglect by re'iewers. (C) ;ome early re'iewers of Their Eyes interpreted the no'el from a point of 'iew that later became known as Afrocentric. ( ) Their Eyes was more typical of the protest fiction of the 1,05s than re'iewers reali!ed. (#) ?ost early re'iewers of Their Eyes did not respond positi'ely to the book.

..

&hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage% (A) )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od had little in common with no'els written by Blank authors during the 1,05s. (B) >eminist critics and authors such as Alice &alker were instrumental in establishing )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od as an important part of the American literary canon. (C) Critics and readers were unable to appreciate fully )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od until critics applied new standards of e'aluation to the no'el. ( ) )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od was an important influence on the protest fiction written by Black writers in the mid(twentieth century. (#) Afrocentric strategies of analysis ha'e brought attention to the use of oral storytelling traditions in no'els written by Black Americans such as )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od.

LSAT

,21

0.

According to the passage which one of the following is true of Black folklore traditions as used in literature written in the :nited ;tates% (A) They are an aspect of Black American literature first recogni!ed and written about by )enry Kouis Bates/ Ar. (B) They were not widely incorporated into no'els written by Black Americans until after the 1,05s. (C) They were first used by a no'elist in Lora 9eale )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od2 ( ) They were not incorporated into no'els published by Black Americans in the 1,05s. (#) They are an aspect of Black literature that some readers did not fully appreciate until relati'ely recently.

1.

The passage suggests that Nati$e Son differs from Their Eyes Were Watching #od in which one of the following ways% (A) 3t recei'ed fewer positi'e re'iews at the time of its publication than did Their Eyes2 (B) 3t is less typical of literature written by Black Americans during the 1,05s than is Their Eyes2 (C) 3t is less focused on an ordinary indi'idual4s search for self within a Black community than is Then #yes. ( ) 3t denies more aspects of Black American folklore than does Their Eyes. (#) 3t has recei'ed more attention from feminist and Afrocentric literary critics than Their Eyes2

2.

&hich one of the following pro'ides the clearest e$ample of the kind of fiction that many Black writers of the 1,05s/ as their 'iews are described in the passage/ belie'ed should be written% (A) a no'el that focuses on the interrelationships among four generations of Black women (B) a historical no'el that re(creates actual e'ents that occurred as Black people suffered from oppression and racial in<ustice in a small town (C) a no'el/ based on biographical stories orally relayed to the author as a child/ that describes the de'elopment of traditions in a Black family ( ) a no'el that e$plores the psychological aspects of a relationship between a &hite man and a Black man as they work together to organi!e protests against un<ust working conditions (#) a no'el that e$amines the different ways in which three Black children e$perience their first day of school in a rural community

-.

The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about the relationship between art and literary criticism%

,22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(A) The long(term reputation of a work of art is less dependent on the response of literary critics than on the response of readers and authors. (B) #$perimental works of fiction are usually poorly recei'ed and misunderstood by literary critics when they are first published. (C) The response of literary critics to a work of art can be determined by certain ideological perspecti'es and assumptions about the purpose of art. ( ) Kiterary critics do not significantly affect the way most people interpret and appreciate literature. (#) The ideological bases of a work of art are the first consideration of most literary critics. 6. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) correct a misconception (B) e$plain a reassessment (C) reconcile two points of 'iew ( ) critici!e a con'entional approach (#) announce a new disco'ery
Eega" cases can be termed ;hard< cases i# they raise issues that are high"y controversia"' issues about which peop"e with "ega" training disagree. The ongoing debate over the comp"eteness o# the "aw usua""y concerns the e5tent to which such hard cases are "ega""y determinate' or decidab"e according to e5isting "aw. (. E. 0. (art3s The Conce#t of 'aw is sti"" the c"earest and most persuasive statement o# both the standard theory o# hard cases and the standard theory o# "aw on which it rests. 7or (art the "aw consists o# "ega" ru"es #ormu"ated in genera" terms: these terms he ca""s ;open te5tured< which means that they contain a ;core< o# sett"ed meaning and a ;penumbra< or ;periphery< where their meaning is not determinate. 7or e5amp"e' suppose an ordinance prohibits the use o# vehic"es in a par$. ;Behic"e< has a core o# meaning which inc"udes cars and motorcyc"es. &ut' (art c"aims' other vehic"es' such as bicyc"es' #a"" within the periphera" meaning o# ;vehic"e'< so that the "aw does not estab"ish whether they are prohibited. There wi"" a"ways be cases not covered by the core meaning o# "ega" terms within e5isting "aws. (art considers these cases to be "ega""y indeterminate. ince courts cannot decide such cases on "ega" grounds' they must consider non"ega" (#or e5amp"e' mora" and po"itica") grounds' and thereby e5ercise 2udicia" discretion to ma$e' rather than app"y "aw. /n Rona"d Fwor$in3s view the "aw is richer than (art wou"d grant> he denies that the "aw consists so"e"y o# e5p"icit ru"es. The "aw a"so inc"udes princip"es that do not depend #or their "ega" status on any prior o##icia" recognition or enactment. Fwor$in c"aims that many cases i""ustrate the e5istence o# "ega" princip"es that are di##erent #rom "ega" ru"es and that (art3s mode" o# ru"es cannot accommodate. 7or Fwor$in' "ega" ru"es app"y in an a""-or-nothing #ashion' whereas "ega" princip"es do not: they provide the rationa"e #or app"ying "ega" ru"es. Thus' because Fwor$in thin$s there is "aw in addition to "ega" ru"es' he thin$s that "ega" indeterminacy and the need #or 2udicia" discretion do not #o""ow #rom the e5istence o# open

LSAT
te5ture in "ega" ru"es.

,2-

/t wou"d be a mista$e' though' to dispute (art3s theory o# hard cases on this basis a"one. /# (art3s c"aim about the ;open te5ture< o# genera" terms is true' then we shou"d e5pect to #ind "ega" indeterminacies even i# the "aw consists o# princip"es in addition to ru"es. Eega" princip"es as we"" as "ega" ru"es contain genera" terms that have open te5ture. 0nd it wou"d be absurd to suppose that wherever the meaning o# a "ega" ru"e is unc"ear' there is a "ega" princip"e with a c"ear meaning. ?ost interesting and controversia" cases wi"" occur in the penumbra o# both ru"es and princip"es.

,.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) The law will ne'er be complete because new situations will always arise which will re"uire new laws to resol'e them. (B) The most difficult legal cases are those concerning contro'ersial issues about which trained legal minds ha'e differing opinions. (C) The concept of legal principles does not diminish the usefulness of the concept of the open te$ture of general terms in deciding whether hard cases are legally determinate. ( ) The concept of legal principles is a deleterious addition to the theory of law since any flaws e$hibited by legal rules could also be shared by legal principles. (#) The inherent inconsistency of terms used in laws pro'ides a continuing opportunity for <udges to e$ercise their discretion to correct defect and gaps in the law.

15. According to the passage the term *legal principles+ as used by workin refers to (A) a comprehensi'e code of ethics that go'erns the beha'ior of professionals in the legal system (B) e$plicit analyses of the terms used in legal rules indicating what meanings the terms do and do not co'er (C) legal doctrines that underlie and guide the use of accepted legal rules ( ) legal rules that ha'e not yet passed through the entire legislati'e procedure necessary for them to become law (#) the body of legal decisions regarding cases that re"uired <udicial discretion for their resolution 11. &hich one of the following e$presses a 'iew that the author of the passage would most probably hold concerning legal principles and legal rules% (A) Kegal rules are applied more often than legal principles when a case in'ol'es issues about which legal professionals disagree. (B) Both legal rules and legal principles are officially recogni!ed as 'alid parts of the law. (C) )art4s *model of rules+ has been superseded by a *model of principles+ that

,26

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

sheds light on legal determinacy. ( ) Kegal principles are <ust as likely as legal rules to ha'e terms that ha'e both core and peripheral meanings. (#) Kegal principles eliminate the need for <udicial discretion in resol'ing the problems generated by the open te$ture of legal rules. 12. 3n the passage/ the author uses the e$ample of the word *'ehicle+ to (A) illustrate a legal rule that necessarily has e$ceptions (B) show how legal principles are applied in the construction of legal rules (C) represent the core of settled meaning of a legal term ( ) ser'e as an e$ample of a legal term with both a core and a periphery of meaning (#) pro'ide a countere$ample to )art4s concept of the open te$ture of legal terms 1.. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage regards )art4s theory of hard cases and the theory of standard law as (A) e$hausti'e (B) worthy of respect (C) interesting but impractical ( ) plausible but unwieldy (#) hopelessly outmoded 10. &hich one of the following is true of the term *legally determinate+ (line 2) as it is used in the passage% (A) 3t represents the idea that e'ery crime should ha'e a fi$ed penalty rather than a range of penalties within which a <udge can make an arbitrary choice. (B) 3t refers to a legal case that can be definiti'ely resol'ed in fa'or of one side or the other according to the law in effect at the time. (C) 3t describes a legal rule that re"uires <udges to limit their actions to applying written law when deciding cases o'er which people with legal training disagree. ( ) 3t refers to any legal case that in'ol'es terms with imprecise meanings and thus relies for its resolution only on the determination of <udges. (#) 3t refers to procedures for determining the legal outcome of comple$ issues in difficult cases. 11. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with (A) outlining the problems that might be faced by a legislature attempting to create a complete body of law that would pre'ent <udges from making rather than applying the law (B) <ustifying the idea that *hard+ cases will always e$ist in the practice of law/ no matter what laws are written or how they are applied

LSAT

,2,

(C) presenting e'idence to support workin4s idea that legal rules apply in an all( or(nothing fashion whereas legal principles apply in more sophisticated ways ( ) criti"uing the concept of the open te$ture of legal terms as a conceptual flaw in )art4s otherwise well(regarded book (#) demonstrating that workin4s concept of legal principles does not form the basis for a successful attack on )art4s theory of legally indeterminate cases
9ne way governments can decrease air po""ution is to impose a ta5 on industria" carbon dio5ide emissions. &ut why shou"d governments consider a carbon ta5 when they cou"d contro" emissions by estab"ishing energy e##iciency and conservation standards' by "egis"ating against coa" use' or by increasing investment in nuc"earC The great virtue o# such a ta5 is that it wou"d provide incentives #or industry to achieve emission reductions. &ecause oi" emits more carbon dio5ide per unit o# energy generated than does natura" gas' and coa" more than oi"' a carbon ta5 wou"d vary with the type o# #ue". uch a ta5 wou"d induce industry to substitute "ess-po""uting #ue"s #or those carrying a higher ta5 and a"so to reduce the tota" use o# energy (owever' it is not c"ear how high such a ta5 shou"d be or what its economic and environmenta" imp"ications wou"d be. 0t #irst g"ance' it is not di##icu"t to estimate rough"y the si)e o# the ta5 needed to e##ect a given "eve" o# emission reduction. 9ne writer estimates' #or e5amp"e' that a ta5 o# H1 percent on the price o# coa"' 44 percent on oi"' and 1- percent on gas wou"d reduce the United Ningdom3s emissions by 1. percent (using 1988 as the base year) by the year 1..-' the target recommended by the 1988 Toronto %on#erence. /t shou"d be noted' however' that these numbers ignore the e##ect o# the ta5 on economic growth' and hence on emissions' and assume that past responses to a price rise wi"" be rep"icated in the #uture. These numbers are a"so based on the assumption that a"" countries wi"" behave cooperative"y in imposing a carbon ta5. There are very strong reasons to be"ieve that cooperation wou"d be di##icu"t to win. /# most countries cooperated' then any country that chose not to cooperate wou"d be advantaged> it wou"d have no abatement costs' and the e##ect on the environment o# its de#ection wou"d be re"ative"y sma"". &ecause o# this ;#ree rider< e##ect' cooperation on a sca"e needed to reduce carbon dio5ide emissions might prove e"usive. hou"d countries act uni"atera""y to curb emissionsC /# a country were to act uni"atera""y' the bene#its wou"d be spread across the g"obe' whereas the costs wou"d #a"" so"e"y on the country ta$ing the action. The action wou"d reduce emissions g"oba""y' and the e##ect o# this wou"d be to reduce the bene#it other countries wou"d receive i# they reduced emissions. 0s a conse+uence' other countries wou"d have "ess incentive to reduce emissions and wou"d probab"y emit more carbon dio5ide than they wou"d have i# the uni"atera" action had not been ta$en. The entire e##ect o# the emission reduction may not be "ost' but it wou"d sure"y be diminished by this #ree-riding behavior.

12. According to the passage/ the si!e of the carbon ta$ le'ied on a gi'en fuel would 'ary with the

,.5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(A) amount of that fuel used by a particular industry (B) amount of pollution caused by the fuel being ta$ed (C) si!e of the industries using the fuel being ta$ed ( ) effect that the ta$ would ha'e on a country4s economy (#) number of users of a particular fuel at a particular time 1-. The author mentions the estimates of *8ne writer+ (line 22) primarily in order to (A) indicate in a general way the si!e that a carbon ta$ must be for it to be effecti'e (B) pro'ide the most accurate information a'ailable about the most practical si!e for a carbon ta$ (C) suggest that the target recommended by the 1,66 Toronto Conference is an unrealistic one ( ) undermine the argument that a carbon ta$ would pro'ide incenti'es for user4s to achie'e emissions reductions (#) show how the si!e of an effecti'e carbon ta$ can be calculated 16. &hich one of the following circumstances would most seriously undermine the conclusion *;uch a ta$ would induce industry to substitute less(polluting fuels for those carrying a higher ta$+ (lines 1.(11) (A) The fuel ta$ed a the highest rate costs considerably less to buy than fuels ta$ed at lower rates. (B) The goal set by the Toronto Conference cannot be reached unless each fuel it ta$ed at a much higher rate. (C) The ta$ on coal represents a much greater cost increase than does the ta$ on oil or gas. ( ) 3t is disco'ered that gas produces e'en less carbon dio$ide per unit of energy generated than was pre'iously thought. (#) 3t is disco'ered that coal produces e'en more carbon dio$ide per unit of energy generated than are pre'iously thought. 1,. The passage is primarily intended to answer which one of the following "uestions% (A) )ow high a ta$ should a country4s go'ernment impose on carbon dio$ide emissions% (B) &hat issues should a country4s go'ernment consider before deciding whether to impose a ta$ on carbon dio$ide emissions% (C) &hat assumptions underlie a country4s decision to impose a ta$ on carbon dio$ide emissions% ( ) )ow can the effects of industrial pollution on the #arth4s atmosphere be decreased%

LSAT

,.1

(#) &hat can be done to increase the effecti'eness of any ta$ that a country imposes on carbon dio$ide emissions% 25. 3n response to the "uestion. *;hould countries act unilaterally to curb emissions%+ (lines 00(01) the author would be most likely to contend that a country should (A) not act unilaterally because/ although that country would recei'e some benefits from such action/ other countries would most likely be harmed by it (B) not act unilaterally because unilateral action would ha'e no benefits for other countries (C) not act unilaterally because the cost to that country would not be <ustified by the limited effect that such action would ha'e on industrial pollution worldwide ( ) act unilaterally because that country4s economy would benefit from the resulting reduction in industrial emissions worldwide (#) act unilaterally because other countries might well be inspired to follow that country4s e$ample 21. &hich one of the following is most parallel to the *free rider+ effect mentioned in line 01% (A) An industry agrees to base itself in a city where there has been little industrial de'elopment only if the city will re!one the specific property the industry desires. (B) Because fares for public transportation are rising/ a commuter decides to bicycle to work rather than to use public transportation in a city where auto emissions are a problem. (C) An apartment dweller begins to recycle newspapers e'en though no one else in the building does so and recycling is not re"uired by law. ( ) 3n an area where groundwater has become polluted/ a homeowner continues to buy bottled water rather than contribute to a neighborhood fund to combat pollution. (#) 3n an area where o'ergra!ing is a se'ere problem/ a shepherd allows his sheep to continue gra!ing common field e'en though his neighbors ha'e agreed to buy feed for their animals until regrowth occurs.
ome meteoro"ogists have insisted that the severity o# the drought in sub- aharan 8est 0#rica and its "ong duration (near"y H. years to date) must be a sign o# a "ong term a"teration in c"imate. 0mong the theories proposed to e5p"ain this change' one hypothesis that has gained widespread attention attributes the drought to a coo"ing o# the *orthern (emisphere. This hypothesis is based on the #act that between 19H- and the ear"y 197.s' the average annua" air temperatures over the "andmasses o# the *orthern (emisphere decreased by about ha"# a degree 7ahrenheit (appro5imate"y one +uarter o# a degree %e"sius!a sma"" but signi#icant amount). evera" meteoro"ogists have suggested that this coo"ing was caused by an increase in atmospheric dust emanating #rom vo"canic eruptions and #rom urban and

,.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

industria" po""ution> the dust re#"ected incoming sun"ight' causing the ground to receive "ess so"ar radiation and to trans#er "ess heat to the atmosphere. The coo"ing seemed to be more pronounced in the midd"e and high "atitudes than in the tropics' an observation that is consistent with the #act that the un3s rays enter the atmosphere at a greater ang"e #arther north and so have to pass through more dust-"aden atmosphere on the way to the =arth. ince winds are set in motion by di##erences in air pressure caused by une+ua" heating o# the atmosphere' supporters o# the coo"ing hypothesis have argued that a growing temperature di##erentia" between the unusua""y coo" midd"e and high "atitudes and the warm tropica" "atitudes is causing a southward e5pansion o# the circumpo"ar vorte5!the higha"titude wester"y winds that circ"e the *orthern (emisphere at midd"e "atitudes. 0ccording to this hypothesis' as the circumpo"ar vorte5 e5pands' it #orces south other components o# "argesca"e atmospheric circu"ation and in e##ect disp"aces the northward-moving monsoon that ordinari"y brings sub- aharan rain. 6roponents have #urther argued that this change in atmospheric circu"ation might be "ong-term since coo"ing in the *orthern (emisphere cou"d be perpetuated by increases in ice and snow coverage there' which wou"d "ead to re#"ection o# more sun"ight away #rom the =arth' to #urther coo"ing' and' indirect"y' to #urther drought in subaharan 8est 0#rica. Fespite these are predictions and even though the current 0#rican drought has "asted "onger than any other in this century' the notion that the drought is caused by coo"ing o# the *orthern (emisphere is' in #act' not we"" supported. %ontrary to the predictions o# the coo"ing hypothesis' during one period o# rapid *orthern (emisphere coo"ing in the ear"y 19-.s' the sub- ahara was unusua""y rainy. ?oreover' in the ear"y 198.s' when the drought was particu"ar"y severe' *orthern (emisphere "ands actua""y warmed s"ight"y. 0nd #urther doubt has been cast on the hypothesis by recent ana"yses suggesting that' when sur#ace temperatures o# water as we"" as "and are ta$en into account' the *orthern (emisphere may not have coo"ed at a"".

22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) There is strong e'idence to support the theory that an increase in atmospheric dust has contributed to the se'erity of the drought in sub(;aharan &est Africa. (B) The suggestion that 9orthern )emisphere cooling is contributing to a decline of rainfall in sub(;aharan &est Africa is open to "uestion. (C) The e$pansion of the circumpolar 'orte$ has caused a dramatic shift in the atmospheric circulation patterns abo'e sub(;aharan &est Africa. ( ) The drought in sub(;aharan &est Africa represents a long(term permanent alteration in global climate patterns. (#) ?eteorologists cannot determine when the drought in sub(;aharan &est Africa is likely to end. 2.. The author4s attitude toward the cooling hypothesis is best described as one of (A) 'ehement opposition (B) cautious skepticism

LSAT

,..

(C) growing ambi'alence ( ) guarded enthusiasm (#) strong support 20. According to the passage proponents of the cooling hypothesis suggested that the circumpolar 'orte$ is likely to e$pand when which one of the following occurs% (A) The a'erage annual atmospheric temperature of the tropics is significantly higher than normal for an e$tended period of time. (B) The a'erage annual snowfall in the 9orthern )emisphere is lower than normal for an e$tended period of time. (C) The a'erage annual surface temperature of 9orthern )emisphere waters is higher than the a'erage annual surface temperature of 9orthern )emisphere landmasses. ( ) There is a significant increase in the difference between the a'erage annual atmospheric temperature of the tropics and that of the more northern latitudes. (#) There is a significant increase in the difference between the a'erage annual atmospheric temperatures of the middle and the high latitudes in the 9orthern )emisphere. 21. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about the a'erage annual temperature of the air o'er 9orthern )emisphere landmasses before 1,01% (A) 3t was higher than it was between 1,01 and the early 1,-5s. (B) 3t was lower than it was during the early 1,65s. (C) 3t was the same as it was between 1,01 and the early 1,-5s. ( ) 3t was the same as the annual a'erage surface temperature of 9orthern )emisphere landmasses and bodies of water between 1,01 and the early 1,-5s. (#) 3t was higher than the annual a'erage surface temperature of 9orthern )emisphere landmasses and bodies of water between 1,01 and the early 1,-5s. 22. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) 8pposing points of 'iew are presented/ e'idence supporting each point of 'iew is discussed/ and then one point of 'iew is de'eloped into a formal hypothesis. (B) A theory is discussed and different points of 'iew about the theory are discussed/ supported and then reconciled. (C) A hypothesis is proposed/ contradictory e'idence is discussed and then the hypothesis is amended. ( ) A theory e$plaining a phenomenon is proposed/ supporting e'idence is considered and then the theory is disputed.

,.0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(#) A point of 'iew is presented/ a theory supporting the 'iew is proposed/ contradictory e'idence is presented and then a different theory is proposed. 2-. A proponent of the cooling hypothesis would most likely argue that the return of the monsoon rains to sub(;aharan &est Africa would indicate that which one of the following has also occurred% (A) The amount of ice and snow co'erage o'er the landmasses of the 9orthern )emisphere has increased. (B) The a'erage annual temperature of the atmosphere o'er the middle and high latitudes of the 9orthern )emisphere has decreased. (C) The a'erage annual temperature of the atmosphere o'er the tropics in the 9orthern )emisphere has increased. ( ) 8ther components of large(scale atmospheric circulation besides the circumpolar 'orte$ ha'e e$panded and mo'ed southward. (#) The atmospheric circulation pattern of the high(altitude westerly winds has resumed its normal pattern. LSAT 23 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

8herever the crime nove"s o# 6. F. @ames are discussed by critics' there is a tendency on the one hand to e5aggerate her merits and on the other to castigate her as a genre writer who is getting above herse"#. 6erhaps under"ying the debate is that #ami"iar' #a"se opposition set up between di##erent $inds o# #iction' according to which en2oyab"e nove"s are he"d to be somehow s"ight"y "owbrow' and a nove" is not considered true "iterature un"ess it is a tiny bit du"". Those commentators who wou"d e"evate @ames3 boo$s to the status o# high "iterature point to her painsta$ing"y constructed characters' her e"aborate settings' her sense o# p"ace' and her "ove o# abstractions> notions about mora"ity' duty' pain' and p"easure are never #ar #rom the "ips o# her po"ice o##icers and murderers. 9thers #ind her pretentious and tiresome: an inverted snobbery accuses her o# abandoning the time-honored conventions o# the detective genre in #avor o# a highbrow "iterary sty"e. The critic (arriet 8augh wants 6. F. @ames to get on with ;the more ta5ing business o# "aying a tric$y trai" and then #oo"ing the reader<: 6hi"ip 9a$es in The 'iterary *eview groans' ;%ou"d we p"ease proceed with the business o# c"apping the handcu##s on the $i""erC< @ames is certain"y capab"e o# stri$ing"y good writing. he ta$es immense troub"e to provide her characters with convincing histories and passions. (er descriptive digressions are

LSAT

,.1

part o# the p"easure o# her boo$s and give them dignity and weight. &ut it is e+ua""y true that they #re+uent"y inter#ere with the story: the patinas and aromas o# a country $itchen receive more "oving attention than does the p"ot itse"#. (er devices to advance the story can be shame"ess and thin' and it is o#ten impossib"e to see how her detective arrives at the truth: one is "e#t to conc"ude that the detective so"ves crimes through intuition. 0t this stage in her career 6. F. @ames seems to be "ess interested in the speci#ics o# detection than in her characters3 vu"nerabi"ities and perp"e5ities. (owever' once the ru"es o# a chosen genre cramp creative thought' there is no reason why an ab"e and interesting writer shou"d accept them. /n her "atest boo$' there are signs that @ames is beginning to #ee" constrained by the crime-nove" genre' here her determination to "eave areas o# ambiguity in the so"ution o# the crime and to distribute gui"t among the murderer' victim' and bystanders points to conscious rebe""ion against the traditiona" neatness o# detective #iction. /t is #ashionab"e' though reprehensib"e' #or one writer to prescribe to another. &ut perhaps the time has come #or 6. F. @ames to s"ide out o# her handcu##s and stride into the territory o# the mainstream nove".

1.

&hich one the following best states the author4s main conclusion% (A) Because @. . Aames4s potential as a writer is stifled by her chosen genre/ she should turn her talents toward writing mainstream no'els. (B) Because the re"uirements of the popular no'el are incompatible with true creati'e e$pression/ @. . Aames4s promise as a serious author has been diminished. (C) The dichotomy between popular and sophisticated literature is well illustrated in the crime no'els of @. . Aames. ( ) The critics who ha'e condemned @. . Aames4s lack of attention to the specifics of detection fail to take into account her carefully constructed plots. (#) Although her plots are not always neatly resol'ed/ the beauty of her descripti'e passages <ustifies @. . Aames4s decision to write in the crime( no'el genre.

2.

The author refers to the *patinas and aromas of a county kitchen+ line .2) most probably in order to (A) illustrate Aames4s gift for inno'ati'e phrasing (B) highlight Aames4s interest in rural society (C) allow the reader to e$perience the pleasure of Aames4s books ( ) e$plain how Aames typically constructs her plots (#) e$emplify Aames4s preoccupation with descripti'e writing

..

The second paragraph ser'es primarily to (A) propose an alternati'e to two e$treme opinions described earlier (B) present pre'iously mentioned positions in greater detail (C) contradict an assertion cited pre'iously

,.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

( ) introduce a contro'ersial interpretation (#) analy!e a dilemma in greater depth 0. The passage supports which one of the following statements about detecti'e fiction% (A) There are as many different detecti'e(no'el con'entions as there are writers of crime no'els. (B) etecti'e fiction has been characteri!ed by e$tremely high literary "uality. (C) etecti'e fiction has been largely ignored by literary critics. ( ) There is 'ery little agreement among critics about the basic elements of typical detecti'e no'el. (#) &riters of detecti'e fiction ha'e customarily followed certain con'entions in constructing their no'els. 1. The passage suggests that both &augh and 8akes consider Aames4s no'els to ha'e (A) too much material that is e$traneous to the solution of the crime (B) too little characteri!ation to enable the reader to sol'e the crime (C) too few suspects to generate suspense ( ) too simple a plot to hold the attention of the reader (#) too con'oluted a plot for the reader to understand 2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in the author4s 'iew/ traditional detecti'e fiction is characteri!ed by (A) concern for the weaknesses and doubts of the characters (B) transparent de'ices to ad'ance the plot (C) the attribution of intuition to the detecti'e ( ) the straightforward assignment of culpability for the crime (#) attention to the concepts of morality and responsibility -. The author characteri!es the position of some critics as *in'erted snobbery+ (line 1-) because they hold which one of the following 'iews% (A) Critics of literature must acknowledge that they are less talented than creators of literature. (B) Critics should hesitate to disparage popular authors. (C) @. . Aames4s no'els should focus less on characters from the #nglish landed gentry. ( ) etecti'e fiction should be content to remain an unambiguous literary genre. (#) @. . Aames should be less fastidious bout portraying 'iolence. 6. &hich one of the follow "uotations about literature best e$emplifies the *familiar+ attitude mentioned in lines 1(,% (A) *The fantasy and whimsy characteristic of this writer4s no'els "ualify them as

LSAT

,.-

truly great works of literature.+ (B) *The greatest work of early #nglish literature happens to be a highly humorous collection of tales.+ (C) A truly great work of literature should place demand upon its readers/ rather than di'ert them.+ ( ) *Although many critics are condescending about best(selling no'els/ 3 would not wish to challenge the opinion of millions of readers.+ (#) *A no'el need only satisfy the re"uirements of its particular genre to be considered a true work of literature.+
?any *ative 0mericans view the archaeo"ogica" e5cavation and museum disp"ay o# ancestra" s$e"eta" remains and items buried with them as a spiritua" desecration. 0 number o# "ega" remedies that either prohibit or regu"ate such activities may be avai"ab"e to *ative 0merican communities' i# they can estab"ish standing in such cases. /n disinterment cases' courts have traditiona""y a##irmed the standing o# three c"asses o# p"ainti##s> the deceased3s heirs' the owner o# the property on which the grave is "ocated' and parties' inc"uding organi)ations or distant re"atives o# the deceased' that have a c"ear interest in the preservation o# a particu"ar grave. /# an archaeo"ogica""y discovered grave is o# recent historica" origin and associated with an identi#iab"e *ative 0merican community' *ative 0mericans are "i$e"y to estab"ish standing in a suit to prevent disinterment o# the remains' but in cases where the grave is ancient and "ocated in an area where the community o# *ative 0mericans associated with the grave has not recent"y "ived' they are "ess "i$e"y to be success#u" in this regard. /ndeed' in most cases invo"ving ancient graves' to recogni)e that *ative 0mericans have standing wou"d represent a signi#icant e5pansion o# common "aw. /n cases where standing can be achieved' however' common "aw may provide a basis #or some *ative 0merican c"aims against archaeo"ogists and museums. 6roperty "aw' #or e5amp"e' can be use#u" in estab"ishing *ative 0merican c"aims to arti#acts that are retrieved in the e5cavation o# ancient graves and can be considered the communa" property o# *ative 0merican tribes or communities. /n Charrier v. Bell' a United tates appe""ate court ru"ed that the common "aw doctrine o# abandonment' which a""ows the #inder o# abandoned property to c"aim ownership' does not app"y to ob2ects buried with the deceased. The court ru"ed that the practice o# burying items with the body o# the deceased ;is not intended as a means o# re"in+uishing ownership to a stranger< and that to interpret it as such ;cou"d render a grave sub2ect to despo"iation either immediate"y a#ter interment orVa#ter remova" o# the descendants o# the deceased #rom the neighborhood o# the cemetery.< This ru"ing suggests that arti#acts e5cavated #rom *ative 0merican ancestra" graves shou"d be returned to representatives o# triba" groups who can estab"ish standing in such cases. ?ore genera""y' United ates courts have uphe"d the distinction between individua" and communa" property' ho"ding that an individua" *ative 0merican does not have tit"e to communa" property owned and he"d #or common use by his or her tribe. 0s a resu"t' museums cannot assume that they have va"id tit"e to cu"tura" property mere"y because they purchased in good #aith an item that was origina""y so"d in good #aith by an individua" member o# a *ative 0merican community.

,.6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

,.

The primary purpose of the passage is to pro'ide an answer to which one of the following "uestions% (A) )ow should the legal protection of 9ati'e American burial grounds be enhanced% (B) &hat characteristics of 9ati'e American burial grounds enhance their chances for protection by the law% (C) 3n what ways does the law protect the rights of 9ati'e Americans in regards to the contents of ancestral gra'es% ( ) &hy are the courts concerned with protecting 9ati'e American burial grounds from desecration% (#) By what means can 9ati'e Americans establish their rights to land on which their ancestors are buried%

15. 3t can be inferred that a court would be most likely to deny standing in a disinterment case to which one of the following 9ati'e American plaintiffs% (A) one who seeks/ as one of se'eral beneficiaries of his father4s estate/ to protect the father4s burial site (B) one who seeks to pre'ent tenants on her land from taking artifacts from a gra'e located on the property (C) one who represents a tribe whose members hope to pre'ent the disinterment of remains from a distant location from which the tribe recently mo'ed ( ) one who seeks to ha'e artifacts that ha'e been remo'ed from a gra'e determined to be that of her second cousin returned to the gra'e (#) one who seeks the return of artifacts taken from the ancient burial grounds of disparate tribes and now displayed in a museum 11. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of cases in'ol'ing ancient gra'es% (A) 8nce a plaintiff4s standing has been established/ such cases are usually more difficult to resol'e than are cases in'ol'ing more recent gra'es. (B) The distinction between indi'idual and communal property is usually an issue in such cases. (C) #'en when a plaintiff4s standing has been established/ property law cannot be used as a basis for the claims of 9ati'e Americans in most such cases. ( ) 3n most such cases/ common law does not currently pro'ide a clear basis for establishing that 9ati'e Americans ha'e standing. (#) Common law is rarely used as a basis for the claims of 9ati'e Americans who ha'e established standing in such cases. 12. The passage suggests that in making the ruling in Charrier $2 %ell the court is most likely to ha'e considered the answer to which one of the following "uestions%

LSAT

,.,

(A) Are the descendants of the deceased still ali'e% (B) &hat was the reason for burying the ob<ects in "uestion% (C) )ow long after interment had buried ob<ects been claimed by stranger% ( ) id the descendants of the deceased remain in the neighborhood of the cemetery% (#) Could the property on which buried ob<ects were found be legally considered to be abandoned property% 1.. The author uses the second paragraph to (A) illustrate the contention that common law may support the claims of 9ati'e Americans to the contents of ancestral gra'es (B) e$emplify the difficulties that 9ati'e Americans are likely to encounter in claiming ancestral remains (C) introduce a discussion of the distinction between indi'idual and communal property ( ) confirm the contention that cases in'ol'ing ancient gra'es present unresol'ed legal problems (#) suggest that property law is applicable in most disinterment cases 10. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) @rior to an appellate court4s ruling in Charrier $2 %ell/ 9ati'e Americans had no legal grounds for demanding the return of artifacts e$ca'ated from ancient gra'es. (B) @roperty law offers the most promising remedies to 9ati'e Americans seeking to reco'er communally owned artifacts that were sold to museums without tribal authori!ation. (C) The older the gra'e/ the more difficult it is for 9ati'e Americans to establish standing in cases concerning the disposition of archaeologically e$ca'ated ancestral remains. ( ) 3n cases in which 9ati'e Americans can establish standing/ common law can be useful in protecting ancestral remains and the artifacts buried with them. (#) 9ati'e Americans are unlikely to make significant progress in the reco'ery of cultural property until common law is significantly e$panded to pro'ide them with standing in cases in'ol'ing the e$ca'ation of ancient gra'es.
8hen the same habitat types (#orests' oceans' grass"ands etc.) in regions o# di##erent "atitudes are compared' it becomes apparent that the overa"" number o# species increases #rom po"e to e+uator. This "atitudina" gradient is probab"y even more pronounced than current records indicate' since researchers be"ieve that most undiscovered species "ive in the tropics. 9ne hypothesis to e5p"ain this phenomenon' the ;time theory< ho"ds that diverse species adapted to today3s c"imatic conditions have had more time to emerge in the tropica" regions' which' un"i$e the temperate and arctic )ones' have been una##ected by a succession o# ice

,05

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

ages. (owever' ice ages have caused "ess disruption in some temperate regions than in others and have not interrupted arctic conditions. 0"ternative"y' the species-energy hypothesis proposes the #o""owing positive corre"ations> incoming energy #rom the un corre"ated with rates o# growth and reproduction: rates o# growth and reproduction with the amount o# "iving matter (biomass) at a given moment: and the amount o# biomass with number o# species. (owever' since organisms may die rapid"y' high production rates can e5ist with "ow biomass. 0nd high biomass can e5ist with #ew species. ?oreover' the mechanism proposed!greater energy in#"u5 "eading to bigger popu"ations' thereby "owering the probabi"ity o# "oca" e5tinction!remains untested. 0 third hypothesis centers on the tropics3 c"imatic stabi"ity' which provides a more re"iab"e supp"y o# resources. pecies can thus survive even with #ew types o# #ood' and competing species can to"erate greater over"ap between their respective niches. &oth capabi"ities enab"e more species to e5ist on the same resources. (owever' the eco"ogy o# "oca" communities cannot account #or the origin o# the "atitudina" gradient. Eoca"i)ed eco"ogica" processes such as competition do not generate regiona" poo"s o# species' and it is the tota" number o# species avai"ab"e regiona""y #or co"oni)ing any particu"ar area that ma$es the di##erence between' #or e5amp"e' a #orest at the e+uator and one at higher "atitude. 0 #ourth and most p"ausib"e hypothesis #ocuses on regiona" speciation' and in particu"ar on rates o# speciation and e5tinction. 0ccording to this hypothesis' i# speciation rates become higher toward the tropics' and are not negated by e5tinction rates' then the "atitudina" gradient wou"d resu"t!and become increasing"y steep. The mechanism #or this rate-o#-speciation hypothesis is that most new anima" species' and perhaps p"ant species' arise because a popu"ation subgroup becomes iso"ated. This subgroup evo"ves di##erent"y and eventua""y cannot interbreed with members o# the origina" popu"ation. The uneven spread o# a species over a "arge geographic area promotes this mechanism> at the edges' sma"" popu"ations spread out and #orm iso"ated groups. ince subgroups in an arctic environment are more "i$e"y to #ace e5tinction than those in the tropics' the "atter are more "i$e"y to survive "ong enough to adapt to "oca" conditions and u"timate"y become new species.

11. &hich one of the following most accurately e$pressed the main idea of the passage% (A) At present/ no single hypothesis e$plaining the latitudinal gradient in numbers of species is more widely accepted than any other. (B) The tropical climate is more conducti'e to promoting species di'ersity than are arctic or temperate climates. (C) ;e'eral e$planations ha'e been suggested for global patterns in species distribution/ but a hypothesis in'ol'ing rates of speciation seems most promising. ( ) espite their differences/ the 'arious hypotheses regarding a latitudinal gradient in species di'ersity concur in prediction that the gradient can be e$pected to increase.

LSAT

,01

(#) 3n distinguishing among the current hypotheses for distribution of species/ the most important criterion is whether a hypothesis proposes a mechanism that can be tested and 'alidated. 12. &hich one of the following situations is most consistent with the species(energy hypothesis as described in the passage% (A) The many plants in a large agricultural tract represent a limited range of species. (B) An animal species e$periences a death rate almost as rapid as its rate of growth and reproduction. (C) &ithin the small number of li'ing organisms in a desert habitat/ many different species are represented. ( ) 3n a tropical rain forest/ a species with a large population is found to e$hibit instances of local e$tinction. (#) 3n an arctic tundra/ the plants and animals e$hibit a slow rate of growth and reproduction. 1-. As presented in the passage/ the principles of the time theory most strongly support which one of the following predictions% (A) 3n the absence of additional ice ages/ the number of species at high latitudes could e'entually increase significantly. (B) 9o future ice ages are likely to change the climatic conditions that currently characteri!e temperate regions. (C) 3f no further ice ages occur/ climatic conditions at high latitudes might e'entually resemble those at today4s tropical latitudes. ( ) =esearchers will continue to find many more new species in the tropics than in the arctic and temperate !ones. (#) >uture ice ages are likely to interrupt the climatic conditions that now characteri!e high(latitude regions. 16. &hich one of the following/ if true/ most clearly weakens the rate(of(speciation hypothesis as it is described in the passage% (A) A remote subgroup of a tropical species is reunited with the original population and pro'es unable to interbreed with members of this original population. (B) 3n'estigation of a small area of a tropical rain forest re'eals that many competing species are able to coe$ist on the same range of resources. (C) A correlation between higher energy influ$/ larger populations and lower probability of local e$tinction is definiti'ely established. ( ) =esearchers find more undisco'ered species during an in'estigation of an arctic region than they had anticipated. (#) ?ost of the isolated subgroups of mammalian life within a tropical !one are

,02

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

found to e$perience rapid e$tinction. 1,. &hich one of the following inferences about the biological characteristics of a temperate(!one grassland is most strongly supported by the passage% (A) 3t has more different species than does a tropical(!one forest. (B) 3ts climatic conditions ha'e been se'erely interrupted in the past by succession of ice ages. (C) 3f it has a large amount of biomass/ it also has a large number of different species. ( ) 3t has a larger regional pool of species than does an arctic grassland. (#) 3f population groups become isolated at its edges/ they are likely to adapt to local conditions and become new species. 25. &ith which one of the following statements concerning possible e$planations for the latitudinal gradient in number of species would the author be most likely to agree% (A) The time theory is the least plausible of proposed hypotheses/ since it does not correctly assess the impact of ice ages upon tropical conditions. (B) The rate(of(speciation hypothesis addresses a principal ob<ection to the climatic(stability hypothesis. (C) The ma<or ob<ection to the time theory is that it does not accurately reflect the degree to which the latitudinal gradient e$ists/ especially when undisco'ered species are taken into account. ( ) espite the claims of the species(energy hypothesis/ a high rate of biological growth and reproduction is more likely to e$ist with low biomass than with high biomass. (#) An important ad'antage of the rate(of(speciation theory is that it considers species competition in a regional rather than local conte$t.
Two impressive studies have ree5amined =ric 8i""iams3 conc"usion that &ritain3s abo"ition o# the s"ave trade in 18.7 and its emancipation o# s"avers in its co"onies in 184H were driven primari"y by economic rather than humanitarian motives. &"ighted by dep"eted soi"' indebtedness' and the ine##iciency o# coerced "abor' these co"onies' according to 8i""iams' had by 18.7 become an impediment to &ritish economic progress. eymour Frescher provides a more ba"anced view. Re2ecting interpretations based either on economic interest or the mora" vision o# abo"itionists' Frescher has reconstructed the popu"ist characteristics o# &ritish abo"itionism' which appears to have cut across "ines o# c"ass' party' and re"igion. *oting that between 178. and 184. antis"avery petitions outnumbered those on any other issue' inc"uding par"iamentary re#orm' Frescher conc"udes that such support cannot be e5p"ained by economic interest a"one' especia""y when much o# it came #rom the unen#ranchised masses. Det' aside #rom demonstrating that such support must have resu"ted at "east in part #rom widespread "iteracy and a tradition o# po"itica" activism' Frescher does not #ina""y e5p"ain how =ng"and' a nation deep"y divided by c"ass strugg"es' cou"d

LSAT
mobi"i)e popu"ar support #or antis"avery measures proposed by otherwise conservative po"iticians in the (ouse o# Eords and approved there with "itt"e dissent. Favid ="tis3 answer to that +uestion actua""y supports some o# 8i""iams3 insights.

,0.

=schewing Frescher3 s idea"i)ation o# &ritish traditions o# "iberty' ="tis points to continuing use o# "ow wages and Fraconian vagrancy "aws in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to ensure the industriousness o# &ritish wor$ers. /ndeed' certain notab"es even ca""ed #or the ens"avement o# unemp"oyed "aborers who roamed the &ritish countryside!an acceptance o# coerced "abor that ="tis attributes to a preindustria" desire to $eep "abor costs "ow and e5ports competitive. &y the "ate eighteenth century' however' a growing home mar$et began to a"ert capita"ists to the importance o# ;want creation< and to incentives such as higher wages as a means o# increasing both wor$er productivity and the number o# consumers. igni#icant"y' it was products grown by s"aves' such as sugar' co##ee' and tobacco' that stimu"ated new wants at a"" "eve"s o# &ritish society and were the #orerunners o# products intended in modern capita"ist societies to satis#y what ="tis describes as ;nonsubsistence or psycho"ogica" needs.< ="tis conc"udes that in economy that had begun to re"y on vo"untary "abor to satis#y such needs' #orced "abor necessari"y began to appear both inappropriate and counterproductive to emp"oyers. ="tis thus conc"udes that' whi"e 8i""iams may we"" have underestimated the economic viabi"ity o# the &ritish co"onies emp"oying #orced "abor in the ear"y 18..s' his insight into the economic motives #or abo"ition was part"y accurate. &ritish "eaders became committed to co"onia" "abor re#orm on"y when they became convinced' #or reasons other than those cited by 8i""iams' that #ree "abor was more bene#icia" to the imperia" economy.

21. &hich one of the following best describes the main idea of the passage% (A) Although they disagree about the degree to which economic moti'es influenced Britain4s abolition of sla'ery/ rescher and #ltis both concede that moral persuasion by abolitionists was a significant factor. (B) Although both rescher and #ltis ha'e "uestioned &illiams4 analysis of the moti'ation behind Britain4s abolition of sla'ery/ there is support for part of &illiams4 conclusion. (C) Because he has taken into account the populist characteristics of British abolitionism/ rescher4s e$planation of what moti'ated Britain4s abolition of sla'ery is finally more persuasi'e than that of #ltis. ( ) 9either #ltis nor rescher has succeeded in e$plaining why support for Britain4s abolition of sla'ery appears to ha'e cut across lines of party/ class/ and religion. (#) Although flawed in certain respects/ &illiams4s conclusions regarding the economic condition of British sla'e colonies early in the nineteenth century ha'e been largely 'indicated. 22. 3t can be inferred that #ltis cites the 'iews of *certain notables+ (line .1) in order to (A) support the claim that British traditions of liberty were not as strong as

,00

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rescher belie'ed them to be (B) support the contention that a strong labor force was important to Britain4s economy (C) emphasi!e the importance of sla'ery as an institution in preindustrial Britain ( ) indicate that the laboring classes pro'ided little support for the abolition of sla'ery (#) establish that laborers in preindustrial Britain had few ci'il rights 2.. &hich one of the following best states &illiams4 'iew of the primary reason for Britain4s abolition of the sla'e trade and the emancipation of sla'es in its colonies% (A) British populism appealed to people of 'aried classes/ parties/ and religions. (B) Both capitalists and workers in Britain accepted the moral precepts of abolitionists. (C) >orced labor in the colonies could not produce enough goods to satisfy British consumers. ( ) The operation of colonies based on forced labor was no longer economically ad'antageous. (#) British workers became con'inced that forced labor in the colonies pre'ented paid workers from recei'ing higher wages. 20. According to #ltis/ low wages and raconian 'agrancy laws in Britain in the se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries were intended to (A) protect laborers against unscrupulous employment practices (B) counter the mo'e to ensla'e unemployed laborers (C) ensure a cheap and producti'e work force ( ) ensure that the work force e$perienced no unemployment (#) ensure that products produced in British colonies employing forced labor could compete effecti'ely with those produced in Britain 21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage 'iews rescher4s presentation of British traditions concerning liberty as (A) accurately stated (B) somewhat unrealistic (C) carefully researched ( ) unnecessarily tentati'e (#) superficially con'incing 22. The information in the passage suggests that #ltis and rescher agree that (A) people of all classes in Britain supported the abolition of sla'ery (B) the moti'es behind Britain4s abolition of sla'ery were primarily economic

LSAT

,01

(C) the moral 'ision of abolitionists played a 'ital part in Britain4s abolition of sla'ery ( ) British traditions of liberty ha'e been ideali!ed by historians (#) Britain4s tradition of political acti'ism was primarily responsible for Britain4s abolition of sla'ery 2-. According to the passage/ #ltis argues against which one of the following contentions% (A) @opular support for antisla'ery measures e$isted in Britain in the early nineteenth century. (B) 3n the early nineteenth century/ colonies that employed forced labor were still economically 'iable. (C) British 'iews concerning personal liberty moti'ated nineteenth(century British opposition to sla'ery. ( ) &idespread literacy in Britain contributed to public opposition to sla'ery in the early nineteenth century. (#) Antisla'ery measures proposed by conser'ati'e politicians in the early nineteenth century met with little opposition. LSAT 2( SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

The career o# trumpeter ?i"es Favis was one o# the most astonishing"y productive that 2a)) music has ever seen. Det his genius has never received its due. The impatience and artistic rest"essness that characteri)ed his wor$ spawned one sty"istic turn a#ter another and made Favis anathema to many critics' who dep"ored his abandonment #irst o# bebop and then o# ;coo"< acoustic 2a)) #or ever more innovative sounds. (aving begun his career studying bebop' Favis pu""ed the #irst o# many sty"istic surprises when' in 19H8' he became a member o# an impromptu musica" thin$ tan$ that gathered in a *ew Dor$ %ity apartment. The wor$ o# this group not on"y s"owed down tempos and #eatured ensemb"e p"aying as much as or even more than so"os!in direct reaction to bebop!it a"so became the seedbed #or the ;8est %oast coo"< 2a)) sty"e. /n what wou"d become a characteristic )ig)ag' Favis didn3t #o""ow up on these innovations himse"#. /nstead' in the "ate 19-.s he #ormed a new band that bro$e #ree #rom 2a))3s restrictive pattern o# chord changes. o"oists cou"d determine the shapes o# their me"odies without re#erring bac$ to the same unvarying repetition o# chords. /n this period' Favis attempted to 2oin 2a)) phrasings' harmonies' and tona" +ua"ities with a uni#ied and integrated sound simi"ar

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to that o# a c"assica" orchestra" piece> in his recordings the rhythms' no matter how 2a))"i$e' are a"ways understated' and the instrumenta" voicings seem muted. Favis3s recordings #rom the "ate 19G.s signa" that' once again' his direction was changing. 9n Filles de 0iliman=aro' Favis3s re+uest that $eyboardist (erbie (ancoc$ p"ay e"ectric rather than acoustic piano caused consternation among 2a)) purists o# the time. 9ther a"bums #eatured roc$-sty"e beats' heavi"y e"ectronic instrumentation' a "oose improvisationa" attac$ and a growing use o# studio editing to create 2agged soundscapes. &y 19G9 Favis3s typica" studio procedure was to have musicians improvise #rom a base script o# materia" and then to bui"d #inished pieces out o# tape' "i$e a movie director. Roc$ groups had pioneered the process: to 2a)) "overs' raised on the idea" o# "ive improvisation' that approach was a vio"ation o# the premise that recordings shou"d simp"y document the musicians3 thought processes in rea" time. Favis again became the target o# #ierce po"emics by purist 2a)) critics' who have continued to be"itt"e his contributions to 2a)). 8hat probab"y under"ies the intensity o# the reactions against Favis is #ear o# the broadening o# possibi"ities that he e5emp"i#ied. /ronica""y' he was simp"y doing what 2a)) e5p"orers have a"ways done> reaching #or something new that was his own. &ut because his career endured' because he didn3t die young or record on"y sporadica""y' and because he re#used to dwe"" in whatever niche he had previous"y carved out' critics #ind it di##icu"t to de#initive"y ran$ Favis in the aesthetic hierarchy to which they c"ing.

1.

&hich one of the following best states the main point the passage% (A) Because the career of ?iles a'is was characteri!ed by fre"uent shifts in styles/ he ne'er fulfilled his musical potential. (B) Because the career of ?iles a'is does not fit neatly into their preconceptions about the life and music of <a!! musicians/ <a!! critics ha'e not accorded him the appreciation he deser'es. (C) Because the career of ?iles a'is was unusually long and producti'e/ he ne'er recei'ed the popular acclaim generally reser'ed for artists with more tragic life histories. ( ) The long and producti'e career of ?iles a'is spawned most of the ma<or stylistic changes affecting twentieth(century <a!!. (#) ?iles a'is4 'ersatility and openness ha'e inspired the admiration of most <a!! critics.

2.

According to the passage/ which one of the following true of the *&est Coast cool+ <a!! style% (A) 3t was populari!ed by ?iles a'is. (B) 3t was characteri!ed by a unified and integrated sound. (C) 3t was played primarily by large ensembles. ( ) 3t introduced a wide 'ariety of chord change patterns. (#) 3t grew out of inno'ations de'eloped in 9ew Hork City.

..

The passage suggests which one of the following about the kind of <a!! played by

LSAT

,0-

?iles a'is prior to 1,06% (A) 3t was characteri!ed by rapid tempos and an emphasis on solo playing. (B) 3t e"ually balanced ensemble and solo playing. (C) 3t was a reaction against more restricti'e <a!! styles. ( ) 3t is regarded by purist <a!! critics as the only authentic <a!! style. (#) 3t was played primarily in 9ew Hork City <a!! clubs. 0. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward ?iles a'is4 music% (A) uneasy ambi'alence (B) cautious neutrality (C) grudging respect ( ) moderate commendation (#) appreciati'e ad'ocacy 1. &hich one of the following creati'e processes is most similar to ?iles a'is4 typical studio procedure of the late 1,25s/ as described in the fourth paragraph of the passage% (A) The producer of a tele'ision comedy show suggests a setting and general topic for a comedy sketch and then lets the comedians write their own script. (B) An actor digresses from the written script and impro'ises during a monologue in order to introduce a feeling of spontaneity to the performance. (C) A conductor rehearses each section of the orchestra separately before assembling them to rehearse the entire piece together. ( ) An artist has se'eral photographers take pictures pertaining to a certain assigned theme and then assembles them into a pictorial collage. (#) A teacher has each student in a writing class write an essay on an assigned topic and then submits the best essays to be considered for publication in a <ournal. 2. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most undermine the author4s e$planation for the way ?iles a'is is regarded by <a!! critics% (A) ?any <a!! musicians who speciali!e in impro'isational playing are greatly admired by <a!! critics. (B) ?any <a!! musicians whose careers ha'e been characteri!ed by se'eral radical changes in style are greatly admired by <a!! critics. (C) ;e'eral <a!! musicians who perform e$clusi'ely on electronic instruments are 'ery highly regarded by <a!! critics. ( ) The <a!! inno'ators who are held in the highest regard by <a!! critics had brief yet brilliant careers. (#) Aa!! critics are known to ha'e a higher regard for musicality than for mere

,06

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

technical 'irtuosity.
&y the mid-#ourteenth century' pro#essiona" associations o# canon "awyers ("ega" advocates in %hristian ecc"esiastica" courts' which dea"t with cases invo"ving marriage' inheritance' and other issues) had appeared in most o# 8estern =urope' and a body o# pro#essiona" standards had been de#ined #or them. 9ne might e5pect that the pro#essiona" associations wou"d p"ay a prominent ro"e in en#orcing these standards o# conduct' as other gui"ds o#ten did' and as modern pro#essiona" associations do' but that seems not to have happened. 0dvocates3 pro#essiona" organi)ations showed "itt"e #ervor #or discip"ining their erring members. ome even attempted to hobb"e e##orts at en#orcement. The 7"orentine gui"d o# "awyers' #or e5amp"e' #orbade its members to p"ay any ro"e in discip"inary proceedings against other gui"d members. /n the #ew recorded episodes o# discip"inary en#orcement' the initiative #or discip"inary action apparent"y came #rom a dissatis#ied c"ient' not #rom #e""ow "awyers. 0t #irst g"ance' there seem to be two possib"e e5p"anations #or the rarity o# discip"inary proceedings. ?edieva" canon "awyers may have genera""y observed the standards o# pro#essiona" conduct scrupu"ous"y. 0"ternative"y' it is possib"e that deviations #rom the estab"ished standards o# behavior were not uncommon' but that canonica" discip"inary mechanisms were so ine##icient that most de"in+uents escaped detection and punishment. Two considerations ma$e it c"ear that the second o# these e5p"anations is more p"ausib"e. 7irst' the =ng"ish civi" "aw courts' whose ethica" standards were simi"ar to those o# ecc"esiastica" courts' show many more e5amp"es o# discip"inary actions against "ega" practitioners than do the records o# church courts. This discrepancy cou"d we"" indicate that the discip"inary mechanisms o# the civi" courts #unctioned more e##icient"y than those o# the church courts. The a"ternative in#erence' name"y' that ecc"esiastica" advocates were "ess prone to ethica" "apses than their counterparts in the civi" courts' seems inherent"y wea$' especia""y since there was some over"ap o# personne" between the civi" bar and the ecc"esiastica" bar. econd' church authorities themse"ves comp"ained about the #ai"ure o# advocates to measure up to ethica" standards and dep"ored the shortcomings o# the discip"inary system. Thus the %ounci" o# &ase" dec"ared that canon "awyers #ai"ed to adhere to the ethica" prescriptions "aid down in numerous papa" constitutions and directed %ardina" %esarian to address the prob"em. /n =ng"and' where medieva" church records are e5traordinari"y rich' simi"ar comp"aints about the #ai"ure o# the discip"inary system to re#orm unethica" practices were very common. uch criticisms seem to have had a parado5ica" resu"t' #or they apparent"y rein#orced the pro#essiona" so"idarity o# "awyers at the e5pense o# the en#orcement o# ethica" standards. Thus the pro#ession3s critics may actua""y have induced advocates to organi)e pro#essiona" associations #or se"#-de#ense. The critics3 attac$s may a"so have persuaded "awyers to assign a higher priority to de#ending themse"ves against attac$s by nonpro#essiona"s than to discip"ining wayward members within their own ran$s.

-.

&hich one of the following best states the main conclusion of the passage% (A) @rofessional organi!ations of medie'al canon lawyers probably only enforced

LSAT

,0,

ethical standards among their own members when pro'oked to do so by outside criticisms. (B) @rofessional organi!ations of medie'al ci'il lawyers seem to ha'e maintained stricter ethical standards for their own members than did professional organi!ations of medie'al canon lawyers. (C) @rofessional organi!ations of medie'al canon lawyers apparently ser'ed to defend their members against critics4 attacks rather than to enforce ethical standards. ( ) The ethical standards maintained by professional associations of medie'al canon lawyers were chiefly laid down in papal constitutions. (#) #thical standards for medie'al canon lawyers were not laid down until professional organi!ations for these lawyers had been formed. 6. According to the passage/ which one of the following statements about law courts in medie'al #ngland is true% (A) ;ome #nglish lawyers who practiced in ci'il courts also practiced in church courts/ but others ser'ed e$clusi'ely in one court or the other. (B) #nglish canon lawyers were more likely to initiate disciplinary proceedings against their colleagues than were #nglish ci'il lawyers. (C) #nglish ci'il lawyers maintained more stringent ethical standards than did ci'il lawyers in the rest of #urope. ( ) #nglish ecclesiastical courts had originally been modeled upon #nglish ci'il courts. (#) #nglish ecclesiastical courts kept richer and more thorough records than did #nglish ci'il courts. ,. The author refers to the >lorentine guild of lawyers in the first paragraph most probably in order to (A) introduce a theory about to be promoted (B) illustrate the type of action referred to in the pre'ious sentence (C) underline the uni'ersality of a method discussed throughout the paragraph ( ) point out a flaw in an argument presented earlier in the paragraph (#) rebut an anticipated ob<ection to a thesis <ust proposed 15. The author refers to the Council of Basel (line 0-) primarily in order to (A) pro'ide an e$ample of the type of action needed to establish professional standards for canon lawyers (B) contrast the reactions of #nglish church authorities with the reactions of other bodies to 'iolations of professional standards by canon lawyers (C) bolster the argument that 'iolations of professional standards by canon lawyers did take place

,15

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

( ) e$plain how rules of conduct for canon lawyers were established (#) describe the de'elopment of a disciplinary system to enforce professional standards among canon lawyers 11. According to the information in the passage/ for which one of the following ethical 'iolations would documentation of disciplinary action against a canon lawyer be most likely to e$ist% (A) betraying a client4s secrets to the opposing party (B) bribing the <udge to rule in fa'or of a client (C) misrepresenting credentials in order to gain admission to the lawyers4 guild ( ) spreading rumors in order to discredit an opposing lawyer (#) knowingly helping a client to misrepresent the truth 12. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the *professional solidarity+ referred to in lines 12(1-% (A) ?embers of a teachers4 union go on strike when they belie'e one of their colleagues to be falsely accused of using an inappropriate te$tbook. (B) 3n order to protect the reputation of the press in the face of a largely hostile public/ a <ournalist conceals distortions in a colleague4s news article. (C) ;e'eral do!en recording artists agree to participate in a concert to benefit an endangered en'ironmental habitat. ( ) 3n order to e$pedite go'ernmental appro'al of a drug/ a go'ernment official is persuaded to look the other way when a pharmaceutical manufacturer conceals e'idence that the drug may ha'e minor side effects. (#) A popular politician agrees to campaign for another/ less popular politician belonging to the same political party. 1.. The passage suggests that which one of the following is most likely to ha'e been true of medie'al guilds% (A) >ew guilds of any importance e$isted before the mid(fourteenth century. (B) ?any medie'al guilds e$ercised influence o'er the actions of their members. (C) ?ost medie'al guilds maintained more e$acting ethical standards than did the associations of canon lawyers. ( ) ?edie'al guilds found it difficult to enforce discipline among their members. (#) The ethical standards of medie'al guilds 'aried from one city to another. 10. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following regarding the hypothesis that medie'al canon lawyers obser'ed standards of professional conduct scrupulously% (A) 3t is untrue because it is contradicted by documents obtained from the ecclesiastical courts. (B) 3t is unlikely because it describes beha'ior markedly different from beha'ior

LSAT

,11

obser'ed in the same situation in modern society. (C) 3t is unlikely because it describes beha'ior markedly different from beha'ior obser'ed in a similar area of medie'al society. ( ) 3t is impossible to assess intelligently because of the dearth of ci'il and ecclesiastical documents. (#) 3t is directly supported by documents obtained from ci'il and ecclesiastical courts.
?any birds that #orm #"oc$s compete through aggressive interaction #or priority o# access to resources such as #ood and she"ter. The resu"t o# repeated interactions between #"oc$ members is that each bird gains a particu"ar socia" status re"ated to its #ighting abi"ity' with priority o# access to resources increasing with higher status. 0s the number and intensity o# interactions between birds increase' however' so increase the costs to each bird in terms o# energy e5penditure' time' and ris$ o# in2ury. Thus' birds possessing attributes that reduce the number o# cost"y interactions in which they must be invo"ved' without "eading to a reduction in status' are at an advantage. 0n e5terna" signa"' such as a p"umage type' announcing #ighting abi"ity and thereby obviating the actua" need to #ight' cou"d be one such attribute. The )oo"ogist Rohwer asserted that p"umage variations in ;(arris sparrows< support the status signa"ing hypothesis ( (). (e reported that a"most without e5ception birds with dar$er throats win con#"icts with individua"s having "ighter p"umage. (e c"aimed that even among birds o# the same age and se5 the amount o# dar$ p"umage predicts re"ative dominance status. (owever' Rohwer3s data do not support his assertions> in one o# his studies dar$er birds won on"y -7 out o# 7- con#"icts: within another' #ocusing on con#"icts between birds o# the same age group or se5' dar$er birds won G4 and "ost G1. There are indications that p"umage probab"y does signa" broad age-re"ated di##erences in status among (arris sparrows> adu"ts' usua""y dar$ throated' have higher status than 2uveni"es' who are usua""y "ight throated: moreover' 2uveni"es dyed to resemb"e adu"ts are dominant over undyed 2uveni"es. (owever' the (arris sparrows3 age-re"ated p"umage di##erences do not signa" the status o# individua" birds within an age c"ass' and thus cannot proper"y be inc"uded under the term ;status signa"ing.< The best evidence #or status signa"ing is #rom the greater titmouse. =5periments show a strong corre"ation between the width o# the b"ac$ breast-p"umage stripe and status as measured by success in aggressive interactions. 0n ana"ysis o# #actors "i$e"y to be associated with breast-stripe width (se5' age' wing "ength' body weight) has demonstrated socia" status to be the on"y variab"e that corre"ates with stripe width when the other variab"es are he"d constant. 0n ingenious e5periment provided #urther evidence #or status signa"ing in the greater titmouse. 9ne o# three stu##ed titmouse dummies was mounted on a #eeding tray. 8hen a "ive bird approached' the dummy was turned by radio contro" to #ace the bird and present its breast stripe in ;disp"ay<. 8hen presented with a dummy having a narrower breast stripe than their own' birds approached c"ose"y and behaved aggressive"y. (owever' when presented with a dummy having a broader breast stripe than their own' "ive birds acted submissive and

,12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

did not approach.

11. According to the passage/ the status signaling hypothesis holds that the ability to display a recogni!able e$ternal signal would ha'e the effect on an indi'idual bird of (A) enabling it to attract a mate of high status (B) allowing it to a'oid costly aggressi'e interactions (C) decreasing its access to limited resources ( ) making it less attracti'e to predatory species (#) increasing its fighting ability 12. The author refers to the fact that adult )arris sparrows are usually dark throated (lines .1(.2)/ in order to do which one of the following% (A) support the conclusion that plumage 'ariation among )arris sparrows probably does not signal indi'idual status (B) argue that plumage 'ariation among )arris sparrows helps to confirm the status signaling hypothesis (C) indicate that in light of plumage 'ariation patterns among )arris sparrows/ the status signaling hypothesis should probably be modified ( ) demonstrate that )arris sparrows are the most appropriate sub<ects for the study of status signaling among birds (#) suggest that the signaling of age(related differences in status is widespread among birds that form flocks 1-. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the 'alidity of the results of the e$periment discussed in the last paragraph% (A) The li'e birds all came from different titmouse flocks. (B) The physical characteristics of the stuffed dummies 'aried in ways other than <ust breast(stripe width. (C) 9o li'e <u'enile birds were included in the e$periment. ( ) The food placed in the feeding tray was not the kind of food normally eaten by titmice in the wild. (#) #'en the li'e birds that acted aggressi'ely did not actually physically attack the stuffed dummies. 16. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A hypothesis is introduced and studies rele'ant to the hypothesis are discussed and e'aluated. (B) A natural phenomenon is presented and se'eral e$planations for the phenomenon are e$amined in detail. (C) Beha'ior is described/ possible underlying causes for the beha'ior are reported/ and the likelihood of each cause is assessed.

LSAT

,1.

( ) A scientific conundrum is e$plained and the history of the issue is recounted. (#) A scientific theory is outlined and opinions for and against its 'alidity as well as e$periments supporting each side are compared. 1,. According to the passage/ which one of the following true of =ohwer4s relationship to the status signaling hypothesis (;;))% (A) Although his research was designed to test the ;;)/ his data pro'ed to be more rele'ant to other issues. (B) )e set out to confirm the ;;)/ but ended up re'ising it. (C) )e set out to dispro'e the ;;)/ but ended up accepting it. ( ) )e altered the ;;) by e$panding it to encompass 'arious types of signals. (#) )e ad'ocated the ;;)/ but his research data failed to confirm it. 25. The passage suggests that among birds that form flocks/ a bird of high status is most likely to ha'e which one of the following% (A) dark throat plumage (B) greater(than(a'erage body weight (C) offspring of high status ( ) strong fighting ability (#) fre"uent in<uries 21. &hich one of the following can be inferred about )arris sparrows from the passage% (A) Among )arris sparrows/ plumage differences signal indi'idual status only within age groups. (B) Among )arris sparrows/ adults ha'e priority of access to food o'er <u'eniles. (C) Among )arris sparrows/ <u'eniles with relati'ely dark plumage ha'e status e"ual to that of adults with relati'ely light plumage. ( ) Au'enile )arris sparrows engage in aggressi'e interaction more fre"uently than do adult )arris sparrows. (#) )arris sparrows engage in aggressi'e interaction less fre"uently than do greater titmice.
/n The -ynamics of "#ocaly#se' @ohn Eowe attempts to so"ve the mystery o# the co""apse o# the %"assic ?ayan civi"i)ation. Eowe bases his study on a detai"ed e5amination o# the $nown archaeo"ogica" record. Ei$e previous investigators' Eowe re"ies on dated monuments to construct a step-by-step account o# the actua" co""apse. Using the erection o# new monuments as a means to determine a site3s occupation span' Eowe assumes that once new monuments ceased to be bui"t' a site had been abandoned. Eowe3s ana"ysis o# the evidence suggests that construction o# new monuments continued to increase between 0. F. G71 and 7-1' but that the civi"i)ation stopped e5panding geographica""y: new construction too$ p"ace a"most e5c"usive"y in estab"ished sett"ements. The #irst signs o# troub"e #o""owed. ?onument inscriptions indicate that between 7-1 and 79.' "ong-standing a""iances started to brea$ down.

,10

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

=vidence a"so indicates that between 79. and 84.' the death rate in %"assic ?ayan cities outstripped the birthrate. 0#ter appro5imate"y 84.' construction stopped throughout the area' and within a hundred years' the %"assic ?ayan civi"i)ation a"" but vanished. (aving estab"ished this chrono"ogy' Eowe sets #orth a p"ausib"e e5p"anation o# the co""apse that accommodates the avai"ab"e archaeo"ogica" evidence. (e theori)es that %"assic ?ayan civi"i)ation was brought down by the interaction o# severa" #actors' set in motion by popu"ation growth. 0n increase in popu"ation' particu"ar"y within the e"ite segment o# society' necessitated ever more intense #arming. 0gricu"tura" intensi#ication e5erted stress on the soi" and "ed to a dec"ine in productivity (the amount o# #ood produced through each unit o# "abor invested). 0t the same time' the growth o# the e"ite c"ass created increasing demands #or ceremonia" monuments and "u5uries' diverting needed "abor #rom the #ie"ds. The theory ho"ds that these stresses were communicated!and amp"i#ied!throughout the area as ?ayan states engaged in war#are to ac+uire "aborers and #ood' and re#ugees #"ed impoverished areas. The most vu"nerab"e states thus began to brea$ down' and each down#a"" triggered others' unti" the entire civi"i)ation co""apsed. /# there is a centra" #"aw in Eowe3s e5p"anation' it is that the entire edi#ice rests on the assumption that the avai"ab"e evidence paints a true picture o# how the co""apse proceeded. (owever' it is di##icu"t to $now how accurate"y the archaeo"ogica" record re#"ects historic activity' especia""y o# a comp"e5 civi"i)ation such as the ?ayans3' and a hypothesis can be tested on"y against the best avai"ab"e data. /t is +uite possib"e that our understanding o# the co""apse might be radica""y a"tered by better data. 7or e5amp"e' Eowe3s assumption about monument construction and the occupation span o# a site might we"" be disproved i# #urther investigations o# %"assic ?ayan sites estab"ished that some remained heavi"y sett"ed "ong a#ter the custom o# carving dynastic monuments had ceased.

22. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A method used to analy!e e'idence is described/ an e$planation of the e'idence is suggested/ and then a conclusion is drawn from the e'idence. (B) A hypothesis is presented/ e'idence supporting the hypothesis is pro'ided/ and then the hypothesis is affirmed. (C) An analysis of a study is presented/ contradictory e'idence is e$amined/ and then a direction for future studies is suggested. ( ) The basis of a study is described/ a theory that e$plains the a'ailable e'idence is presented/ and a possible flaw in the study is pointed out. (#) An obser'ation is made/ e'idence supporting the obser'ation is presented/ and then contradictions in the e'idence are discussed. 2.. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) 3n The !yna-ics o+ Apocalypse/ Aohn Kowe successfully pro'es that the collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation was set in motion by increasing population and decreasing producti'ity. (B) 3n The !yna-ics o+ Apocalypse/ Aohn Kowe breaks new ground in sol'ing the mystery of the collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation through his use of

LSAT

,11

dated monuments to create a step(by(step account of the collapse. (C) 3n The !yna-ics o+ Apocalypse/ Aohn Kowe successfully uses e$isting data to document the reduction and then cessation of new construction throughout Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation. ( ) Although Aohn Kowe4s study is based on a careful e$amination of the historical record/ it does not accurately reflect the circumstances surrounding the collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation. (#) &hile Aohn Kowe4s theory about the collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation appears credible/ it is based on an assumption that cannot be 'erified using the archaeological record. 20. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the assumption Kowe makes about the relationship between monument construction and Classic ?ayan cities% (A) A person assumes that the shortage of fresh produce on the shel'es of a grocery store is due to the effects of poor weather conditions during the growing season. (B) A person assumes that a mo'ie theater only shows foreign films because the titles of the films shown there are not familiar to the person. (C) A person assumes that a restaurant is under new ownership because the restaurant4s menu has changed drastically since the last time the person ate there. ( ) A person assumes that a corporation has been sold because there is a new name for the corporation on the sign outside the building where the company is located. (#) A person assumes a friend has sold her stamp collection because the friend has stopped purchasing new stamps. 21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would describe the method Kowe used to construct a step(by(step chronology of the actual collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation as (A) daringly inno'ati'e but flawed (B) generally accepted but "uestionable (C) 'ery reliable but outdated ( ) unscientific but effecti'e (#) uncon'entional but brilliant 22. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which one of the following statements about the use of the archaeological record to reconstruct historic acti'ity% (A) &ith careful analysis/ archaeological e'idence can be used to reconstruct accurately the historic acti'ity of a past ci'ili!ation.

,12

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(B) Archaeological e'idence is more useful for reconstructing the day(to(day acti'ities of a culture than its long(term trends. (C) The accuracy of the archaeological record for reconstructing historic acti'ity is dependent on the duration of the particular ci'ili!ation. ( ) The archaeological record is not an appropriate source of data for reconstructing historic acti'ity. (#) )istoric acti'ity can be reconstructed from archaeological e'idence/ but it is ultimately impossible to confirm the accuracy of the reconstruction. LSAT 25 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
6ainter 7rida Nah"o (191.-19-H) o#ten used harrowing images derived #rom her ?e5ican heritage to e5press su##ering caused by a disab"ing accident and a stormy marriage. uggesting much persona" and emotiona" content' her wor$s!many o# them se"#-portraits! have been e5haustive"y psychoana"y)ed' whi"e their po"itica" content has been "ess studied. Det Nah"o was an ardent po"itica" activist who in her art sought not on"y to e5p"ore her own roots' but a"so to champion ?e5ico3s strugg"e #or an independent po"itica" and cu"tura" identity. Nah"o was in#"uenced by ?ar5ism' which appea"ed to many inte""ectua"s in the 191.s and 194.s' and by ?e5ican nationa"ism. /nterest in ?e5ico3s cu"ture and history had revived in the nineteenth century' and by the ear"y 19..s' ?e5ican indigenista tendencies ranged #rom a vio"ent"y anti- panish idea"i)ation o# 0)tec ?e5ico to an emphasis on contemporary ?e5ican /ndians as the $ey to authentic ?e5ican cu"ture. ?e5ican nationa"ism' reacting against contemporary United tates po"itica" intervention in "abor disputes as we"" as against past domination by pain' identi#ied the 0)tecs as the "ast independent ru"ers o# an indigenous po"itica" unit. Nah"o3s #orm o# (e3icanidad' a romantic nationa"ism that #ocused upon traditiona" art uniting a"" indigenistas' revered the 0)tecs as a power#u" pre-%o"umbian society that had united a "arge area o# the ?idd"e 0mericas and that was thought to have been based on communa" "abor' the ?ar5ist idea". /n her paintings' Nah"o repeated"y emp"oyed 0)tec symbo"s' such as s$e"etons or b"eeding hearts that were traditiona""y re"ated to the emanation o# "i#e #rom death and "ight #rom dar$ness. These images o# destruction coup"ed with creation spea$ not on"y to Nah"o3s persona" batt"e #or "i#e' but a"so to the ?e5ican strugg"e to emerge as a nation!by imp"ication' to emerge with the po"itica" and cu"tura" strength admired in the 0)tec civi"i)ation. elf-#ortrait on the Border $etween (e3ico and the 2nited tates (1941)' #or e5amp"e' shows Nah"o wearing a bone nec$"ace' ho"ding a ?e5ican #"ag' and standing between a high"y industria"i)ed United tates and an agricu"tura"' preindustria" ?e5ico. 9n the United tates side are mechanistic and modern images such as smo$estac$s' "ight bu"bs' and robots. /n

LSAT

,1-

contrast' the organic and ancient symbo"s on the ?e5ican side!a b"ood-drenched un' "ush vegetation' an 0)tec scu"pture' a pre-%o"umbian temp"e' and a s$u"" a""uding to those that "ined the wa""s o# 0)tec temp"es!emphasi)e the interre"ation o# "i#e' death' the earth' and the cosmos. Nah"o portrayed 0)tec images in the #o"$"oric sty"e o# traditiona" ?e5ican paintings' thereby heightening the c"ash between modern materia"ism and indigenous tradition: simi"ar"y' she #avored p"anned economic deve"opment' but not at the e5pense o# cu"tura" identity. (er use o# #ami"iar symbo"s in a readi"y accessib"e sty"e a"so served her goa" o# being popu"ar"y understood: in turn' Nah"o is viewed by some ?e5icans as a mythic #igure representative o# nationa"ism itse"#.

1.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage% (A) The doctrines of ?ar$ist ideology and ?e$ican nationalism hea'ily influenced ?e$ican painters of Mahlo4s generation. (B) Mahlo4s paintings contain numerous references to the A!tecs as an indigenous ?e$ican people predating #uropean influence. (C) An important element of Mahlo4s work is con'eyed by symbols that reflect her ad'ocacy of indigenous ?e$ican culture and ?e$ican political autonomy. ( ) The use of A!tec images and symbols in Mahlo4s art can be traced to the late nineteenth(century re'i'al of interest in ?e$ican history and culture. (#) Mahlo used A!tec imagery in her paintings primarily in order to foster contemporary appreciation for the authentic art of traditional ?e$ican culture.

2.

&ith which one of the following statements concerning psychoanalytic and political interpretations of Mahlo4s work would the author be most likely to agree% (A) The psychoanalytic interpretations of Mahlo4s work tend to challenge the political interpretations. (B) @olitical and psychoanalytic interpretations are complementary approaches to Mahlo4s work. (C) =ecent political interpretations of Mahlo4s work are causing psychoanalytic critics to re'ise their own interpretations. ( ) :nlike the political interpretations/ the psychoanalytic interpretations make use of biographical facts of Mahlo4s life. (#) Mahlo4s mythic status among the audience Mahlo most wanted to reach is based upon the psychoanalytic rather than the political content of her work.

..

&hich one of the following stances toward the :nited ;tates does the passage mention as characteri!ing ?e$ican nationalists in the early twentieth century% (A) opposition to :nited ;tates in'ol'ement in internal ?e$ican affairs

,16

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(B) desire to decrease emigration of the ?e$ican labor force to the :nited ;tates (C) desire to impro'e ?e$ico4s economic competiti'eness with the :nited ;tates ( ) reluctance to imitate the :nited ;tates model of rapid industriali!ation (#) ad'ocacy of a go'ernment based upon that of the ?ar$ist ;o'iet :nion rather than that of the :nited ;tates 0. 3n the conte$t of the passage/ which one of the following phrases could best be substituted for the word *romantic+ (line 20) without substantially changing the author4s meaning% (A) dreamy and escapist (B) nostalgic and idealistic (C) fanciful and imaginati'e ( ) transcendental and impractical (#) o'erwrought and sentimental 1. The passage mentions each of the following as an A!tec symbol or image found in Mahlo4s paintings #DC#@T a (A) skeleton (B) sculpture (C) serpent ( ) skull (#) bleeding heart 2. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph% (A) contrast of opposing ideas (B) reconciliation of conflicting concepts (C) interrelation of complementary themes ( ) e$plication of a principle4s implications (#) support for a generali!ation by means of an e$ample -. The passage implies that Mahlo4s attitude toward the economic de'elopment of ?e$ico was (A) enthusiastic (B) condemnatory (C) cautious ( ) noncommittal (#) uncertain 6. The main purpose of the passage is to (A) criti"ue an artist4s style

LSAT

,1,

(B) e'aluate opposing theories (C) reconcile conflicting arguments ( ) ad'ocate an additional interpretation (#) reconsider an artist in light of new disco'eries
/n recent years' a growing be"ie# that the way society decides what to treat as true is contro""ed through "arge"y unrecogni)ed discursive practices has "ed "ega" re#ormers to e5amine the comp"e5 interconnections between narrative and "aw. /n many "ega" systems' "ega" 2udgments are based on competing stories about events. 8ithout having witnessed these events' 2udges and 2uries must va"idate some stories as true and re2ect others as #a"se. This procedure is rooted in ob2ectivism' a phi"osophica" approach that has supported most 8estern "ega" and inte""ectua" systems #or centuries. 9b2ectivism ho"ds that there is a sing"e neutra" description o# each event that is uns$ewed by any particu"ar point o# view and that has a privi"eged position over a"" other accounts. The "aw3s +uest #or truth' there#ore' consists o# "ocating this ob2ective description' the one that te""s what rea""y happened' as opposed to what those invo"ved thought happened. The serious #"aw in ob2ectivism is that there is no such thing as the neutra"' ob2ective observer. 0s psycho"ogists have demonstrated' a"" observers bring to a situation a set o# e5pectations' va"ues' and be"ie#s that determine what the observers are ab"e to see and hear. Two individua"s "istening to the same story wi"" hear di##erent things' because they emphasi)e those aspects that accord with their "earned e5periences and ignore those aspects that are dissonant with their view o# the wor"d. (ence there is never any escape in "i#e or in "aw #rom se"ective perception or #rom sub2ective 2udgments based on prior e5periences' va"ues' and be"ie#s. The societa" harm caused by the assumption o# ob2ectivist princip"es in traditiona" "ega" discourse is that' historica""y' the stories 2udged to be ob2ective"y true are those to"d by peop"e who are trained in "ega" discourse' whi"e the stories o# those who are not #"uent in the "anguage o# the "aw are re2ected as #a"se. Eega" scho"ars such as 6atricia 8i""iams' Ferric$ &e""' and ?ari ?atsuda have sought empowerment #or the "atter group o# peop"e through the construction o# a"ternative "ega" narratives. 9b2ectivist "ega" discourse systematica""y disa""ows the "anguage o# emotion and e5perience by #ocusing on cognition in its narrowest sense. These "ega" re#ormers propose rep"acing such abstract discourse with power#u" persona" stories. They argue that the absorbing' nonthreatening structure and tone o# persona" stories may convince "ega" insiders #or the #irst time to "isten to those not #"uent in "ega" "anguage. The compe""ing #orce o# persona" narrative can create a sense o# empathy between "ega" insiders and peop"e traditiona""y e5c"uded #rom "ega" discourse and' hence' #rom power. uch a"ternative narratives can shatter the comp"acency o# the "ega" estab"ishment and disturb its tran+ui"ity. Thus' the engaging power o# narrative might p"ay a crucia"' positive ro"e in the process o# "ega" reconstruction by overcoming di##erences in bac$ground and training and #orming a new co""ectivity based on emotiona" empathy.

,.

&hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage% (A) ;ome legal scholars ha'e sought to empower people historically e$cluded

,25

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

from traditional legal discourse by instructing them in the forms of discourse fa'ored by legal insiders. (B) ;ome legal scholars ha'e begun to reali!e the social harm caused by the ad'ersarial atmosphere that has per'aded many legal systems for centuries. (C) ;ome legal scholars ha'e proposed alle'iating the harm caused by the prominence of ob<ecti'ist principles within legal discourse by replacing that discourse with alternati'e forms of legal narrati'e. ( ) ;ome legal scholars ha'e contended that those who feel e$cluded from ob<ecti'ist legal systems would be empowered by the construction of a new legal language that better reflected ob<ecti'ist principles. (#) ;ome legal scholars ha'e argued that the basic flaw inherent in ob<ecti'ist theory can be remedied by recogni!ing that it is not possible to obtain a single neutral description of a particular e'ent. 15. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true about the intellectual systems mentioned in line 11% (A) They ha'e long assumed the possibility of a neutral depiction of e'ents. (B) They ha'e generally remained unskewed by particular points of 'iew. (C) Their discursi'e practices ha'e yet to be analy!ed by legal scholars. ( ) They accord a pri'ileged position to the language of emotion and e$perience. (#) The accuracy of their basic tenets has been confirmed by psychologists. 11. &hich one of the following best describes the sense of *cognition+ referred to in line 0. of the passage% (A) logical thinking uninfluenced by passion (B) the interpretation of 'isual cues (C) human thought that encompasses all emotion and e$perience ( ) the reasoning actually employed by <udges to arri'e at legal <udgments (#) sudden insights inspired by the power of personal stories 12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &illiams/ Bell/ And ?atsuda belie'e which one of the following to be central component of legal reform% (A) incorporating into the law the latest de'elopments in the fields of psychology and philosophy (B) eradicating from legal <udgments discourse with a particular point of 'iew (C) granting all participants in legal proceedings e"ual access to training in the forms and manipulation of legal discourse ( ) making the law more responsi'e to the discursi'e practices of a wider 'ariety of people (#) instilling an appreciation of legal history and methodology in all the participants in a legal proceeding

LSAT

,21

1.. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the author4s attitude toward proposals to introduce personal stories into legal discourse% (A) strongly opposed (B) somewhat skeptical (C) ambi'alent ( ) strongly supporti'e (#) unreser'edly optimistic 10. The passage suggests that &illiams/ Bell/ and ?atsuda would most likely agree with which one of the following statements regarding personal stories% (A) @ersonal stories are more likely to adhere to the principles of ob<ecti'ism than are other forms of discourse. (B) @ersonal stories are more likely to de(emphasi!e differences in background and training than are traditional forms of legal discourse. (C) @ersonal stories are more likely to restore tran"uility to the legal establishment than are more ad'ersarial forms of discourse. ( ) @ersonal stories are more likely to lead to the accurate reconstruction of facts than are traditional forms of legal narrati'e. (#) @ersonal stories are more likely to be influenced by a person4s e$pectations/ 'alues/ and beliefs than are other forms of discourse. 11. &hich one of the following statements about legal discourse in legal systems based on ob<ecti'ism can be inferred from the passage% (A) 3n most &estern societies the legal establishment controls access to training in legal discourse. (B) #$pertise in legal discourse affords power in most &estern societies. (C) Kegal discourse has become progressi'ely more abstract for some centuries. ( ) Kegal discourse has traditionally denied the e$istence of neutral ob<ecti'e obser'ers. (#) Traditional legal discourse seeks to reconcile dissonant world 'iews. 12. Those who re<ect ob<ecti'ism would regard *the law4s "uest for truth+ (line 11( 12) as most similar to which one of the following% (A) a hunt for an imaginary animal (B) the search for a 'aluable mineral among worthless stones (C) the painstaking assembly of a <igsaw pu!!le ( ) comparing an apple with an orange (#) the scientific analysis of a chemical compound
?any peop"e comp"ain about corporations' but there are a"so those whose criticism goes #urther and who ho"d corporations mora""y to b"ame #or many o# the prob"ems in 8estern society. Their criticism is not reserved so"e"y #or #raudu"ent or i""ega" business activities' but

,22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

e5tends to the basic corporate practice o# ma$ing decisions based on what wi"" ma5imi)e pro#its without regard to whether such decisions wi"" contribute to the pub"ic good. 9thers' main"y economists' have responded that this criticism is #"awed because it inappropriate"y app"ies ethica" princip"es to economic re"ationships. /t is on"y by e5tension that we attribute the +ua"ity o# mora"ity to corporations' #or corporations are not persons. %orporate responsibi"ity is an aggregation o# the responsibi"ities o# those persons emp"oyed by the corporation when they act in and on beha"# o# the corporation. ome corporations are owner operated' but in many corporations and in most "arger ones there is a syndicate o# owners to whom the chie# e5ecutive o##icer' or %=9' who runs the corporation is said to have a #iduciary ob"igation. The economists argue that a %=93s so"e responsibi"ity is to the owners' whose primary interest' e5cept in charitab"e institutions' is the protection o# their pro#its. %=9s are bound' as a condition o# their emp"oyment' to see$ a pro#it #or the owners. &ut suppose a noncharitab"e organi)ation is owner operated' or' #or some other reason' its %=9 is not ob"igated to ma5imi)e pro#its. The economists3 view is that even i# such a %=93s purpose is to "oo$ to the pub"ic good and nothing e"se' the %=9 shou"d sti"" wor$ to ma5imi)e pro#its' because that wi"" turn out best #or the pub"ic anyway. &ut the economists3 position does not ho"d up (to continue in the same condition without #ai"ing or "osing e##ectiveness or #orce ;you seem to be ho"ding up under the strain<) under care#u" scrutiny. 7or one thing' a"though there are' no doubt' strong under"ying dynamics in nationa" and internationa" economies that tend to ma$e the pursuit o# corporate interest contribute to the pub"ic good' there is no guarantee!either theoretica""y or in practice!that a given %=9 wi"" bene#it the pub"ic by ma5imi)ing corporate pro#it. /t is absurd to deny the possibi"ity' say' o# a paper mi"" "ega""y ma5imi)ing its pro#its over a #ive-year period by decimating a #orest #or its wood or po""uting a "a$e with its industria" waste. 7urthermore' whi"e ob"igations such as those o# corporate %=9s to corporate owners are binding in a business or "ega" sense' they are not mora""y paramount. The %=9 cou"d ma$e a case to the owners that certain pro#itab"e courses o# action shou"d not be ta$en because they are "i$e"y to detract (to diminish the importance' va"ue' or e##ectiveness o# something: o#ten used with #rom) #rom the pub"ic good. The economic conse+uences that may be#a"" the %=9 #or doing so' such as pena"ty or dismissa"' u"timate"y do not e5cuse the individua" #rom the responsibi"ity #or acting mora""y.

1-. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main point of the passage% (A) Although C#8s may be legally obligated to ma$imi!e their corporations4 profits/ this obligation does not free them from the moral responsibility of considering the implications of the corporations4 actions for the public good. (B) Although morality is not easily ascribed to nonhuman entities/ corporations can be said to ha'e an obligation to act morally in the sense that they are made up of indi'iduals who must act morally. (C) Although economists argue that ma$imi!ing a corporation4s profits is likely to turn out best for the public/ a C#84s true obligations is still to seek a profit for the corporation4s owners.

LSAT

,2.

( ) Although some people critici!e corporations for making unethical decisions/ economists argue that such criticisms are unfounded because ethical considerations cannot be applied to economics. (#) Although critics of corporations argue that C#8s ought to consider the public good when making financial decisions/ the results of such decisions in fact always benefit the public. 16. The discussion of the paper mill in lines 02(02 is intended primarily to (A) offer an actual case of unethical corporate beha'ior (B) refute the contention that ma$imi!ation of profits necessarily benefits the public (C) illustrate that ethical restrictions on corporations would be difficult to enforce ( ) demonstrate that corporations are responsible for many social ills (#) deny that corporations are capable of acting morally 1,. &ith which one of the following would the economists mentioned in the passage be most likely to agree% (A) #'en C#8s of charitable organi!ations are obligated to ma$imi!e profits. (B) C#8s of owner(operated noncharitable corporations should make decisions based primarily on ma$imi!ing profits. (C) 8wner(operated noncharitable corporations are less likely to be profitable than other corporations. ( ) 3t is highly unlikely that the actions of any particular C#8 will benefit the public. (#) C#8s should attempt to ma$imi!e profits unless such attempts result in harm to the en'ironment. 25. The conception of morality that underlies the author4s argument in the passage is best e$pressed by which one of the following principles% (A) &hat makes actions morally right is their contribution to the public good. (B) An action is morally right if it carries the risk of personal penalty. (C) Actions are morally right if they are not fraudulent or illegal. ( ) 3t is morally wrong to try to ma$imi!e one4s personal benefit. (#) Actions are not morally wrong unless they harm others. 21. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) illustrate a parado$ (B) argue for legal reform (C) refute a claim ( ) e$plain a decision (#) define a concept

,20

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

8hat it means to ;e5p"ain< something in science o#ten comes down to the app"ication o#

mathematics. ome thin$ers ho"d that mathematics is a $ind o# "anguage!a systematic contrivance o# signs' the criteria #or the authority o# which are interna" coherence' e"egance' and depth. The app"ication o# such a high"y arti#icia" system to the physica" wor"d' they c"aim' resu"ts in the creation o# a $ind o# statement about the wor"d. 0ccording"y' what matters in the sciences is #inding a mathematica" concept that attempts' as other "anguage does' to accurate"y describe the #unctioning o# some aspect o# the wor"d. 0t the center o# the issue o# scienti#ic $now"edge can thus be #ound +uestions about the re"ationship between "anguage and what it re#ers to. 0 discussion about the ro"e p"ayed by "anguage in the pursuit o# $now"edge has been going on among "inguists #or severa" decades. The debate centers around whether "anguage corresponds in some essentia" way to ob2ects and behaviors' ma$ing $now"edge a so"id and re"iab"e commodity: or' on the other hand' whether the re"ationship between "anguage and things is pure"y a matter o# agreed-upon conventions' ma$ing $now"edge tenuous' re"ative' and ine5act. Eate"y the "atter theory has been gaining wider acceptance. 0ccording to "inguists who support this theory' the way "anguage is used varies depending upon changes in accepted practices and theories among those who wor$ in particu"ar discip"ine. These "inguists argue that' in the pursuit o# $now"edge' a statement is true on"y when there are no promising a"ternatives that might "ead one to +uestion it. %ertain"y this characteri)ation wou"d seem to be app"icab"e to the sciences. /n science' a mathematica" statement may be ta$en to account #or every aspect o# a phenomenon it is app"ied to' but' some wou"d argue' there is nothing inherent in mathematica" "anguage that guarantees such a correspondence. Under this view' acceptance o# a mathematica" statement by the scienti#ic community!by virtue o# the statement3s predictive power or methodo"ogica" e##iciency!trans#orms what is basica""y an ana"ogy or metaphor into an e5p"anation o# the physica" process in +uestion' to be he"d as true unti" another' more compe""ing ana"ogy ta$es its p"ace. /n pursuing the imp"ications o# this theory' "inguists have reached the point at which they must as$> /# words or sentences do not correspond in an essentia" way to "i#e or to our ideas about "i#e' then 2ust what are they capab"e o# te""ing us about the wor"dC /n science and mathematics' then' it wou"d seem e+ua""y necessary to as$> /# mode"s o# e"ectro"ytes or =[mc1' say' do not correspond essentia""y to the physica" wor"d' then 2ust what #unctions do they per#orm in the ac+uisition o# scienti#ic $now"edgeC &ut this +uestion has yet to be signi#icant"y addressed in the sciences.

22. &hich one of the following statements most accurately e$presses the passage4s main point% (A) Although scientists must rely on both language and mathematics in their pursuit of scientific knowledge/ each is an imperfect tool for percei'ing and interpreting aspects of the physical world. (B) The ac"uisition of scientific knowledge depends on an agreement among scientists to accept some mathematical statements as more precise than others while acknowledging that all mathematics is ine$act. (C) 3f science is truly to progress/ scientists must temporarily abandon the pursuit

LSAT

,21

of new knowledge in fa'or of a systematic analysis of how the knowledge they already possess came to be accepted as true. ( ) 3n order to better understand the ac"uisition of scientific knowledge/ scientists must in'estigate mathematical statements4 relationship to the world <ust as linguists study language4s relationship to the world. (#) &ithout the debates among linguists that preceded them/ it is unlikely that scientists would e'er ha'e begun to e$plore the essential role played by mathematics in the ac"uisition of scientific knowledge. 2.. &hich one of the following statements/ if true/ lends the most support to the 'iew that language has an essential correspondence to things it describes% (A) The categories of physical ob<ects employed by one language correspond remarkably to the categories employed by another language that de'eloped independently of the first. (B) The categories of physical ob<ects employed by one language correspond remarkably to the categories employed by another language that deri'es from the first. (C) The categories of physical ob<ects employed by speakers of a language correspond remarkably to the categories employed by other speakers of the same language. ( ) The sentence structures of languages in scientifically sophisticated societies 'ary little from language to language. (#) 9ati'e speakers of many languages belie'e that the categories of physical ob<ects employed by their language correspond to natural categories of ob<ects in the world. 20. According to the passage/ mathematics can be considered a language because it (A) con'eys meaning in the same way that metaphors do (B) constitutes a systematic collection of signs (C) corresponds e$actly to aspects of physical phenomena ( ) confers e$planatory power on scientific theories (#) relies on pre'iously agreed(upon con'entions 21. The primary purpose of the third paragraph is to (A) offer support for the 'iew of linguists who belie'e that language has an essential correspondence to things (B) elaborate the position of linguists who belie'e that truth is merely a matter of con'ention (C) illustrate the differences between the essentialist and con'entionalist position in the linguists4 debate ( ) demonstrate the similarity of the linguists4 debate to a current debate among scientists about the nature of e$planation

,22

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(#) e$plain the theory that mathematical statements are a kind of language 22. Based on the passage/ linguists who subscribes to the theory described in lines 21(20 would hold that the statement *the ball is red+ is true because (A) speakers of #nglish ha'e accepted that *the ball is red+ applies to the particular physical relationship being described (B) speakers of #nglish do not accept that synonyms for *ball+ and *red+ e$press these concepts as elegantly (C) *The ball is red+ corresponds essentially to e'ery aspect of the particular physical relationship being described ( ) *ball+ and *red+ actually refer to an entity and a property respecti'ely (#) *ball+ and *red+ are mathematical concepts that attempt to accurately describe some particular physical relationship in the world LSAT 26 SECT ON )

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
/t has recent"y been discovered that many attributions o# paintings to the seventeenthcentury Futch artist Rembrandt may be #a"se. The contested paintings are not minor wor$s' whose remova" #rom the Rembrandt corpus wou"d "eave it re"ative"y una##ected> they are at its very center. /n her recent boo$' vet"ana 0"pers uses these cases o# disputed attribution as a point o# departure #or her provocative discussion o# the radica" distinctiveness o# Rembrandt3s approach to painting. 0"pers argues that Rembrandt e5ercised an unprecedented"y #irm contro" over his art' his students' and the distribution o# his wor$s. Fespite Aary chwart)3 bri""iant documentation o# Rembrandt3s comp"icated re"ations with a wide circ"e o# patrons' 0"pers ta$es the view that Rembrandt re#used to submit to the prevai"ing patronage system. (e pre#erred' she c"aims' to se"" his wor$s on the open mar$et and to p"ay the entrepreneur. 0t a time when Futch artists were organi)ing into pro#essiona" brotherhoods and academies' Rembrandt stood apart. /n #act' 0"pers3 portrait o# Rembrandt shows virtua""y every aspect o# his art pervaded by economic motives. /ndeed' so comp"ete was Rembrandt3s invo"vement with the mar$et' she argues' that he even presented himse"# as commodity' viewing his studio3s products as e5tensions o# himse"#' sent out into the wor"d to earn money. 0"pers asserts that Rembrandt3s enterprise is #ound not 2ust in his paintings' but in his re#usa" to "imit his enterprise to those paintings he actua""y painted. (e mar$eted Rembrandt. 0"though there may be some truth in the view that Rembrandt was an entrepreneur who made some aesthetic decisions on the basis o# what he $new the mar$et wanted' 0"pers3 emphasis on economic #actors sacri#ices discussions o# the aesthetic +ua"ities that ma$e

LSAT
Rembrandt3s wor$ uni+ue. 7or e5amp"e' 0"pers asserts that Rembrandt de"iberate"y "e#t his

,2-

wor$s un#inished so as to get more money #or their revision and comp"etion. he imp"ies that Rembrandt actua""y wished the %ounci" o# 0msterdam to re#use the great Claudius Civilis' which they had commissioned #or their new town ha""' and she argues that ;he must have ca"cu"ated that he wou"d be ab"e to get more money by retouching TtheU painting.< %ertain"y the picture is painted with very broad stro$es but there is no evidence that it was de"iberate"y "e#t un#inished. The #act is that the "oo$ o# a wor$ "i$e Claudius Civilis must a"so be understood as the conse+uence o# Rembrandt3s power#u" and pro#ound meditations on painting itse"#. 0"pers ma$e no mention o# the pictoria" dia"ectic that can be discerned between' say' the "essons Rembrandt absorbed #rom the (aar"em schoo" o# paintings and the sty"es o# his native Eeiden. The troub"e is that whi"e Rembrandt3s artistic enterprise may indeed not be reducib"e to the wor$s he himse"# painted' it is not reducib"e to mar$eting practices either.

1.

&hich one of the following best summari!es the main conclusion of the author of the passage% (A) =embrandt differed from other artists of his time both in his aesthetic techni"ues and in his desire to meet the demands of the marketplace. (B) The aesthetic "ualities of =embrandt4s work cannot be understood without consideration of how economic moti'es per'aded decisions he made about his art. (C) =embrandt was one of the first artists to de'elop the notion of a work of art as a commodity that could be sold in an open marketplace. ( ) =embrandt4s artistic achie'ement cannot be understood solely in terms of decisions he made on the basis of what would sell in the marketplace. (#) =embrandt was an entrepreneur whose artistic enterprise was not limited to the paintings he actually painted himself.

2.

According to the passage/ Alpers and ;chwart! disagree about which one of the following% (A) the degree of control =embrandt e$ercised o'er the production of his art (B) the role that =embrandt played in organi!ing professional brotherhoods and academies (C) the kinds of relationships =embrandt had with his students ( ) the degree of =embrandt4s in'ol'ement in the patronage system (#) the role of the patronage system in se'enteenth(century )olland

..

3n the third paragraph/ the author of the passage discusses aesthetic influences on =embrandt4s work most probably in order to (A) suggest that many critics ha'e neglected to study the influence of the )aarlem school painters on =embrandt4s work (B) suggest that Claudius Ci$ilis is similar in style to many paintings from the se'enteen century

,26

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(C) suggest that =embrandt4s style was not affected by the aesthetic influences that Alpers points out ( ) argue that =embrandt4s style can best be understood as a result of the influences of his nati'e Keiden (#) indicate that Alpers has not taken into account some important aspects of =embrandt4s work 0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would pro'ide the most support for Alpers4 argument about Claudius Ci$ilis% (A) =embrandt was constantly re'ising his prints and paintings because he was ne'er fully satisfied with stylistic aspects of his earlier drafts. (B) The works of many se'enteenth(century utch artists were painted with broad strokes and had an unfinished look. (C) ?any of =embrandt4s contemporaries eschewed the patronage system and sold their works on the open market. ( ) Artists were fre"uently able to raise the price of a painting if the buyer wanted the work re'ised in some way. (#) =embrandt did not allow his students to work on paintings that were commissioned by public officials. 1. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage and Alpers would be most likely to agree on which one of the following% (A) =embrandt made certain aesthetic decision on the basis of what he understood about the demands of the marketplace. (B) The =embrandt corpus will not be affected if attributions of paintings to =embrandt are found to be false. (C) ;tylistic aspects of =embrandt4s painting can be better e$plained in economic terms than in historical or aesthetic terms. ( ) Certain aesthetic aspects of =embrandt4s art are the result of his e$perimentation with different painting techni"ues. (#) ?ost of =embrandt4s best(known works were painted by his students/ but were sold under =embrandt4s name.
?edieva"ists usua""y distinguish medieva" pub"ic "aw #rom private "aw> the #ormer was concerned with government and mi"itary a##airs and the "atter with the #ami"y' socia" status' and "and transactions. =5amination on medieva" women3s "ives shows this distinction to be over"y simp"istic. 0"though medieva" women were "ega""y e5c"uded #rom ro"es that categori)ed as pub"ic' such as so"ider' 2ustice' 2ury member' or pro#essiona" administrative o##icia"' women3s contro" o# "and!usua""y considered a private or domestic phenomenon!had important po"itica" imp"ications in the #euda" system o# thirteenth-century =ng"and. ince "and e+ua"ed wea"th and wea"th e+ua"ed power' certain women e5ercised in#"uence by contro""ing "and. Un"i$e unmarried women who were "ega""y sub2ect to their guardians or married women who had no "ega" identity separate #rom their husbands' women who were widows had

LSAT

,2,

autonomy with respect to ac+uiring or disposing o# certain property' suing in court' incurring "iabi"ity #or their own debts' and ma$ing wi""s. 0"though #euda" "ands were norma""y trans#erred through primogeniture (the e"dest son inheriting a"")' when no sons survived' the surviving daughters inherited e+ua" shares under what was $nown as partib"e inheritance. /n addition to contro""ing any such "and inherited #rom her parents and any brida" dowry!property a woman brought to the marriage #rom her own #ami"y!a widow was entit"ed to use o# one-third o# her "ate husband3s "ands. %a""ed ;dower< in =ng"and' this grant had greater "ega" importance under common "aw than did the brida" dowry: no marriage was "ega" un"ess the groom endowed the bride with this property at the wedding ceremony. /n 111- ?agna %arta guaranteed a widow3s right to c"aim her dower without paying a #ine: this document a"so strengthened widow3s abi"ity to contro" "and by prohibiting #orced remarriage. 0#ter 1171 women cou"d a"so bene#it #rom 2ointure> the groom cou"d agree to ho"d part or a"" o# his "ands 2oint"y with the bride' so that i# one spouse died' the other received these "ands. ince many widows had inheritances as we"" as dowers' widows were #re+uent"y the #inancia" heads o# the #ami"y: even though "ega" theory assumed the maintenance o# the princip"e o# primogeniture' the amount o# "and the widow contro""ed cou"d e5ceed that o# her son or o# other ma"e heirs. 0nyone who he"d #euda" "and e5ercised authority over the peop"e attached to the "and!$nights' renta" tenants' and peasants!and had to hire estate administrators' oversee accounts' receive rents' protect tenants #rom outside encroachment' punish tenants #or not paying rents' appoint priests to "oca" parishes' and act as guardians o# tenants3 chi"dren and e5ecutors o# their wi""s. ?any married women #u"#i""ed these duties as deputies #or husbands away at court or at war' but widows cou"d act on their own beha"#. 8idow3s "ega" independence is suggested by their #re+uent appearance in thirteenth-century =ng"ish "ega" records. ?oreover' the scope o# their sway is indicated by the #act that some contro""ed not mere"y sing"e estates' but mu"tip"e counties.

2.

&hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) The traditional 'iew of medie'al women as legally e$cluded from many public offices fails to consider thirteenth(century women in #ngland who were e$empted from such restrictions. (B) The economic independence of women in thirteenth(century #ngland was primarily determined not by their marital status/ but by their status as heirs to their parents4 estates. (C) The laws and customs of the feudal system in thirteenth(century #ngland enabled some women to e$ercise a certain amount of power despite their legal e$clusion from most public roles. ( ) uring the thirteenth century in #ngland/ widows gained greater autonomy and legal rights to their property than they had had in pre'ious centuries. (#) &idows in thirteenth(century #ngland were able to ac"uire and dispose of lands through a number of different legal processes.

-.

&ith which one of the following statements about the 'iews held by the

,-5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

medie'alists mentioned in line 1 would the author of the passage most probably agree% (A) The medie'al role of landowners was less affected by thirteenth(century changes in law than these medie'alists customarily ha'e recogni!ed. (B) The realm of law labeled public by these medie'alists ultimately had greater political implications than that labeled pri'ate. (C) The amount of wealth controlled by medie'al women was greater than these medie'alists ha'e recorded. ( ) The distinction made by these medie'alists between pri'ate law and public law fails to consider some of the actual legal cases of the period. (#) The distinction made by these medie'alists between pri'ate and public law fails to address the political importance of control o'er land in the medie'al era. 6. &hich one of the following most accurately e$presses the meaning of the world *sway+ as it is used in line 25 of the passage% (A) 'acillation (B) dominion (C) predisposition ( ) inclination (#) mediation ,. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the function of the second paragraph of the passage% (A) pro'iding e$amples of specific historical e'ents as support for the conclusion drawn in the third paragraph (B) narrating a se"uence of e'ents whose outcomes discussed in the third paragraph (C) e$plaining how circumstances described in the first paragraph could ha'e occurred ( ) describing the effects of an e'ent mentioned in the first paragraph (#) e'aluating the arguments of a group mentioned in the first paragraph 15. According to information in the passage/ a widow in early thirteenth(century #ngland could control more land than did her eldest son if (A) the widow had been granted the customary amount of dower land and the eldest son inherited the rest of the land (B) the widow had three daughters in addition to her eldest son (C) the principle of primogeniture had been applied in transferring the lands owned by the widow4s late husband ( ) none of the lands held by the widow4s late husband had been placed in

LSAT

,-1

<ointure (#) the combined amount of land the widow had ac"uired from her own family and from dower was greater than the amount inherited by her son 11. &hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as a reason why a married woman might ha'e fulfilled certain duties associated with holding feudal land in thirteenth(century #ngland% (A) the legal statutes set forth by ?agna Carta (B) the rights a woman held o'er her inheritance during her marriage (C) the customary di'ision of duties between husbands and wi'es ( ) the absence of the woman4s husband (#) the terms specified by the woman4s <ointure agreement 12. The phrase *in #ngland+ (line .5(.1) does which one of the following% (A) 3t suggests that women in other countries also recei'ed grants of their husbands4 lands. (B) 3t identifies a particular code of law affecting women who were sur'i'ing daughters. (C) 3t demonstrates that dower had greater legal importance in one #uropean county than in others. ( ) 3t emphasi!es that women in one #uropean country had more means of controlling property than did women in other #uropean countries. (#) 3t traces a legal term back to the time at which it entered the language. 1.. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) e$plain a legal contro'ersy of the past in light of modern theory (B) e'aluate the economic and legal status of a particular historical group (C) resol'e a scholarly debate about legal history ( ) trace the historical origins of a modern economic situation (#) pro'ide new e'idence about a historical e'ent
The debate over the environment crisis is not new> an5iety about industry3s impact on the environment has e5isted #or over a century. 8hat is new is the e5treme po"ari)ation o# views. ?ounting evidence o# humanity3s capacity to damage the environment irreversib"y coup"ed with suspicions that government' industry' and even science might be impotent to prevent environmenta" destruction have provo$ed accusatory po"emics on the part o# environmenta"ists. /n turn' these po"emics have e"icited a corresponding bac$"ash #rom industry. The sad e##ect o# this po"ari)ation is that it is now even more di##icu"t #or industry than it was a hundred years ago to respond appropriate"y to impact ana"yses that demand action. Un"i$e today3s adversaries' ear"ier eco"ogica" re#ormers shared with advocates o# industria" growth a con#idence in time"y corrective action. Aeorge 6. ?arsh3s pioneering conservation tract (an and +ature (18GH) e"icited wide acc"aim without embittered denia"s.

,-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(an and +ature castigated =arth3s despoi"ers #or heed"ess greed' dec"aring that humanity ;has brought the #ace o# the =arth to a deso"ation a"most as comp"ete as that o# the ?oon.< &ut no entrepreneur o# industria"ists sought to re#ute ?arsh3s accusations' to de#end the gutting o# #orests or the s"aughter o# wi"d"i#e as economica""y essentia"' or to dismiss his eco"ogica" warnings as hysterica". To the contrary' they genera""y agreed with him. 8hyC ?arsh and his #o""owers too$ environmenta" improvement and economic progress as givens> they disputed not the desirabi"ity o# con+uering nature but the bung"ing way in which the con+uest was carried out. &"ame was not persona"i)ed' ?arsh denounced genera" greed rather than particu"ar entrepreneurs' and the media did not hound ma"e#actors. 7urther' corrective measures seemed to entai" no sacri#ice' to demand no draconian remedies. e"#interest underwrote most prescribed re#orms. ?arsh3s emphasis on #uture stewardship was then a wide"y accepted idea" (i# not practice). (is eco"ogica" admonitions were in $eeping with the =n"ightenment premise that humanity3s mission was to subdue and trans#orm nature. *ot unti" the 19G.s did a g"oomier perspective gain popu"ar ground. 7redric %"ements3 e+ui"ibrium mode" o# eco"ogy' deve"oped in the 194.s' seemed consistent with mounting environmenta" disasters. /n this view' nature was most #ruit#u" when "east a"tered. Ee#t undisturbed' #"ora and #auna gradua""y attained ma5imum diversity and stabi"ity. Fespo"iation thwarted the cu"mination or shortened the duration o# this bene#icent c"ima5> techno"ogy did not improve nature but destroyed it. The e+ui"ibrium mode" became an eco"ogica" mysti+ue> environmenta" inter#erence was now taboo' wi"derness adored. *ature as un#inished #abric per#ected by human ingenuity gave way to the image nature debased and endangered by techno"ogy. /n contrast to the =n"ightenment vision o# nature' according to which rationa" managers construct an ever more improved environment' twentieth-century re#ormers3 vision o# nature ca""s #or a reduction o# human inter#erence in order to restore environmenta" stabi"ity.

10. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage% (A) ?ounting e'idence of humanity4s capacity to damage the en'ironment should moti'ate action to pre'ent further damage. (B) The ecological mysti"ue identified with >rederic Clements has become a religious con'iction among ecological reformers. (C) Beorge @. ?arsh4s ideas about conser'ation and stewardship ha'e hea'ily influenced the present debate o'er the en'ironment. ( ) The 'iews of ecologists and industrial growth ad'ocates concerning the en'ironment ha'e only recently become polari!ed. (#) Beneral greed/ rather than particular indi'iduals or industries/ should be blamed for the en'ironmental crisis. 11. The author refers to the e"uilibrium model of ecology as an *ecological mysti"ue+ (liens 10(11) most likely in order to do which one of the following% (A) underscore the fer'or with which twentieth(century reformers adhere to the e"uilibrium model

LSAT

,-.

(B) point out that the e"uilibrium model of ecology has recently been supported by empirical scientific research (C) e$press appreciation for how plants and animals attain ma$imum di'ersity and stability when left alone ( ) indicate that the idea of twentieth(century ecological reformers are often so theoretical as to be difficult to understand (#) indicate how widespread support is for the e"uilibrium model of ecology in the scientific community 12. &hich one of the following practices is most clearly an application of >rederic Clements4 e"uilibrium model of ecology% (A) introducing a species into an en'ironment to which it is not help control the spread of another species that no longer has any natural predators (B) de'eloping incenti'es for industries to take correcti'e measures to protect the en'ironment (C) using scientific methods to increase the stability of plants and animals in areas where species are in danger of becoming e$tinct ( ) using technology to de'elop plant and animal resources but balancing that de'elopment with stringent restrictions on technology (#) setting areas of land aside to be maintained as wilderness from which the use of e$traction of natural resources is prohibited 1-. The passage suggests that Beorge @. ?arsh and today4s ecological reformers would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements% (A) =egulating industries in order to protect the en'ironment does not conflict with the self interest of those industries. (B) ;ol'ing the en'ironmental crisis does not re"uire drastic and costly remedies. (C) )uman despoliation of the #arth has caused widespread en'ironmental damage. ( ) #n'ironmental impro'ement and economic progress are e"ually important goals. (#) =ather than blaming specific industries/ general greed should be denounced as the cause of en'ironmental destruction. 16. The passage is primarily concerned with which one of the following% (A) pro'iding e$amples of possible solutions to a current crisis (B) e$plaining how conflicting 'iewpoints in a current debate are e"ually 'alid (C) determining which of two conflicting 'iewpoints in a current debate is more persuasi'e ( ) outlining the background and de'elopment of conflicting 'iewpoints in a current debate

,-0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(#) demonstrating weaknesses in the arguments made by one side in a current debate
Recent"y the #ocus o# historica" studies o# di##erent ethnic groups in the United tates has shi#ted #rom the trans#ormation o# ethnic identity to its preservation. 8hereas ear"ier historians argued that the ethnic identity o# various immigrant groups to the United tates b"ended to #orm an 0merican nationa" character' the new scho"arship has #ocused on the transp"antation o# ethnic cu"tures to the United tates. 7ugita and 93&rien3s !a#anese "merican Ethnicity provides an e5amp"e o# this recent trend: it a"so e5emp"i#ies a prob"em that is common to such scho"arship. /n comparing the #irst three generations o# @apanese 0mericans (the /ssei' *isei' and ansei)' 7ugita and 93&rien conc"ude that assimi"ation to United tates cu"ture increased among @apanese 0mericans over three generations' but that a sense o# ethnic community endured. 0"though the persistence o# community is stressed by the authors' their emphasis in the boo$ cou"d 2ust as easi"y have been on the high degree o# assimi"ation o# the @apanese 0merican popu"ation in the "ate twentieth century' which 7ugita and 93&rien be"ieve is demonstrated by the high "eve"s o# education' income' and occupationa" mobi"ity achieved by @apanese 0mericans. /n addition' their data revea" that the character o# the ethnic community itse"# changed> the integration o# anseis into new pro#essiona" communities and nonethnic vo"untary associations meant at the very "east that ethnic ties had to accommodate mu"tip"e and "ayered identities. 7ugita and 93&rien themse"ves ac$now"edge that there has been a ;wea$ening o# @apanese 0merican ethnic community "i#e.< &ecause o# the socia" changes wea$ening the bonds o# community' 7ugita and 93&rien maintain that the community cohesion o# @apanese 0mericans is notab"e not #or its initia" intensity but because ;there remains a degree o# invo"vement in the ethnic community surpassing that #ound in most other ethnic groups at simi"ar points in their ethnic group "i#e cyc"e.< This comparative di##erence is important to 7ugita and 93&rien' and they hypothesi)e that the @apanese 0merican community persisted in the #ace o# assimi"ation because o# a particu"ar"y strong pree5isting sense o# ;peop"ehood<. They argue that this sense o# peop"ehood e5tended beyond "oca" and #ami"y ties. 7ugita and 93&rien have e5p"ained persistence o# ethnic community by citing a pree5isting sense o# nationa" consciousness that is independent o# how a group adapts to United tates cu"ture. (owever' it is di##icu"t to prove as 7ugita and 93&rien have attempted to do that a sense o# peop"ehood is a distinct phenomenon. (istorians shou"d instead attempt to identi#y direct"y the #actors that sustain community cohesion in generations that have adapted to United tates cu"ture and been e5posed to the p"ura"ism o# 0merican "i#e.

1,. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main point of the author of the passage% (A) >ugita and 84Brien4s study pro'ides a comparison of the degree of in'ol'ement in ethnic community of different groups in the :nited ;tates. (B) >ugita and 84Brien4s study describes the assimilation of three generations of

LSAT

,-1

Aapanese Americans to :nited ;tates culture. (C) >ugita and 84Brien4s study illustrates both a recent trend in historical studies of ethnic groups and a problem typical of that trend. ( ) )istorical studies of ethnic preser'ation among Aapanese Americans ha'e done much to define the interpreti'e frameworks for studies of other ethnic groups. (#) )istorical studies are more concerned with the recent de'elopment of ethnic communities in the :nited ;tates than with the process of adaptation to :nited ;tates culture. 25. According to the passage/ >ugita and 84Brien4s data indicate which one of the following about the Aapanese American ethnic community% (A) Community bonds ha'e weakened primarily as a result of occupational mobility by Aapanese Americans. (B) The community is notable because it has accommodated multiple and layered identities without losing its traditional intensity. (C) Community cohesion is similar in intensity to the community cohesion of other ethnic groups that ha'e been in the :nited ;tates for the same period of time. ( ) Community in'ol'ement weakened during the second generation/ but strengthened as the third generation regained an interest in cultural traditions. (#) The nature of the community has been altered by Aapanese American participation in new professional communities and nonethnic 'oluntary associations. 21. &hich one of the following pro'ides an e$ample of a research study that has conclusion most analogous to that argued for by the historians mentioned in line 0% (A) a study showing how musical forms brought from other countries ha'e persisted in the :nited ;tates (B) a study showing the organi!ation and function of ethnic associations in the :nited ;tates (C) a study showing how architectural styles brought from other counties ha'e merged to form an American style ( ) a study showing how cultural traditions ha'e been preser'ed for generations in American ethic neighborhoods (#) a study showing how different religious practices brought from other countries ha'e been sustained in the :nited ;tates 22. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true about the focus of historical studies on ethnic groups in the :nited ;tates%

,-2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(A) Current studies are similar to earlier studies in claiming that a sense of peoplehood helps preser'e ethnic community. (B) Current studies ha'e clearly identified factors that sustain ethnic community in generations that ha'e been e$posed to the pluralism of American life. (C) Current studies e$amine the cultural practices that make up the American national character. ( ) #arlier studies focused on how ethnic identities became transformed in the :nited ;tates. (#) #arlier studies focused on the factors that led people to immigrate to the :nited ;tates. 2.. The author of the passage "uotes >ugita and 84Brien in lines .2(., most probably in order to (A) point out a weakness in their hypothesis about the strength of community ties among Aapanese Americans (B) show how they support their claim about the notability of community cohesion for Aapanese Americans (C) indicate how they demonstrate the high degree of adaptation of Aapanese Americans to :nited ;tates culture ( ) suggest that they ha'e inaccurately compared Aapanese Americans to other ethnic groups in the :nited ;tates (#) emphasi!e their contention that the Aapanese American sense of peoplehood e$tended beyond local and family ties 20. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to describe the hypothesis mentioned in line 0- as (A) highly persuasi'e (B) original but poorly de'eloped (C) difficult to substantiate ( ) illogical and uninteresting (#) too similar to earlier theories 21. The passage suggests which one of the following about the historians mentioned in line 0,% (A) They ha'e been unable to pro'ide satisfactory e$planations for the persistence of #uropean ethnic communities in the :nited ;tates. (B) They ha'e suggested that #uropean cultural practices ha'e sur'i'ed although the community ties of #uropean ethnic groups ha'e weakened. (C) They ha'e hypothesi!ed that #uropean ethnic communities are based on family ties rather than on a sense of national consciousness. ( ) They ha'e argued that #uropean cultural traditions ha'e been transformed in

LSAT

,--

the :nited ;tates because of the pluralism of American life. (#) They ha'e claimed that the community ties of #uropean Americans are still as strong as they were when the immigrants first arri'ed. 22. As their 'iews are discussed in the passage/ >ugita and 84Brien would be most likely to agree with which one of the following% (A) The community cohesion of an ethnic group is not affected by the length of time it has been in the :nited ;tates. (B) An ethnic group in the :nited ;tates can ha'e a high degree of adaptation to :nited ;tates culture and still sustain strong community ties. (C) The strength of an ethnic community in the :nited ;tates is primarily dependent on the strength of local and family ties. ( ) )igh le'els of education and occupational mobility necessarily erode the community cohesion of an ethnic group in the :nited ;tates. (#) 3t has become increasingly difficult for ethnic groups to sustain any sense of ethnic identity in the pluralism of :nited ;tates life. LSAT 27 SECT ON

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
?ost o##ice wor$ers assume that the messages they send to each other via e"ectronic mai" are as private as a te"ephone ca"" or a #ace-to-#ace meeting. That assumption is wrong. 0"though it is i""ega" in many areas #or an emp"oyer to eavesdrop on private conversations or te"ephone ca""s!even i# they ta$e p"ace on a company-owned te"ephone!there are no c"ear ru"es governing e"ectronic mai". /n #act' the +uestion o# how private e"ectronic mai" transmissions shou"d be has emerged as one o# the more comp"icated "ega" issues o# the e"ectronic age. 6eop"e3s opinions about the degree o# privacy that e"ectronic mai" shou"d have vary depending on whose e"ectronic mai" system is being used and who is reading the messages. Foes a government o##ice' #or e5amp"e' have the right to destroy e"ectronic messages created in the course o# running the government' thereby denying pub"ic access to such documentsC ome ho"d that government o##ices shou"d issue guide"ines that a""ow their sta## to de"ete such e"ectronic records' and de#end this practice by c"aiming that the messages thus de"eted a"ready e5ist in paper versions whose destruction is #orbidden. 9pponents o# such practices argue that the paper versions o#ten omit such in#ormation as who received the messages and when they received them' in#ormation common"y carried on e"ectronic mai" systems. Aovernment o##icia"s' opponents maintain' are civi" servants: the pub"ic shou"d thus have the right to review any documents created during the conducting o# government business.

,-6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

Ouestions about e"ectronic mai" privacy have a"so arisen in the private sector. Recent"y'

two emp"oyees o# an automotive company were discovered to have been communicating disparaging in#ormation about their supervisor via e"ectronic mai". The supervisor' who had been monitoring the communication' threatened to #ire the emp"oyees. 8hen the emp"oyees #i"ed a grievance comp"aining that their privacy had been vio"ated' they were "et go. Eater' their court case #or un"aw#u" termination was dismissed: the company3s "awyers success#u""y argued that because the company owned the computer system' its supervisors had the right to read anything created on it. /n some areas' "aws prohibit outside interception o# e"ectronic mai" by a third party without proper authori)ation such as a search warrant. (owever' these "aws do not cover ;inside< interception such as occurred at the automotive company. /n the past' courts have ru"ed that intero##ice communications may be considered private on"y i# emp"oyees have a ;reasonab"e e5pectation< o# privacy when they send the messages. The #act is that no abso"ute guarantee o# privacy e5ists in any computer system. The on"y so"ution may be #or users to scramb"e their own messages with encryption codes: un#ortunate"y' such comp"e5 codes are "i$e"y to undermine the principa" virtue o# e"ectronic mai"> its convenience.

1.

&hich one of the following statements most accurately summari!es the main point of the passage% (A) :ntil the legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic mail in both the public and pri'ate sectors ha'e been resol'ed/ office workers will need to scramble their electronic mail messages with encryption codes. (B) The legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic mail in the work place can best be resol'ed by treating such communications as if they were as pri'ate as telephone con'ersations or face(to(face meetings. (C) Any attempt to resol'e the legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic mail in the workplace must take into account the essential difference between public(sector and pri'ate sector business. ( ) At present/ in both the public and pri'ate sectors/ there seem to be no clear general answers to the legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic mail in the workplace. (#) The legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic mail in the workplace of electronic mail in the workplace can best be resol'ed by allowing super'isors in public(sector but not pri'ate(sector offices to monitor their employees4 communications.

2.

According to the passage/ which one of the following best e$presses the reason some people use to oppose the deletion of electronic mail records at go'ernment offices% (A) ;uch deletion re'eals the e$tent of go'ernment4s unhealthy obsession with secrecy. (B) ;uch deletion runs counter to the notion of go'ernment4s accountability to its constituency.

LSAT

,-,

(C) ;uch deletion clearly 'iolates the legal re"uirement that go'ernment offices keep duplicate copies of all their transactions. ( ) ;uch deletion 'iolates the go'ernment4s own guidelines against destruction of electronic records. (#) ;uch deletion harms relations between go'ernment employees and their super'isors. .. &hich one of the following most accurately states the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A problem is introduced/ followed by specific e$amples illustrating the problemE a possible solution is suggested/ followed by an acknowledgment of its shortcomings. (B) A problem is introduced/ followed by e$plications of two possible solutions to the problemE the first solution is preferred to the second/ and reasons are gi'en for why it is the better alternati'e. (C) A problem is introduced/ followed by analysis of the historical circumstances that helped bring the problem about a possible solution is offered and re<ected as being only a partial remedy. ( ) A problem is introduced/ followed by enumeration of 'arious "uestions that need to be answered before a solution can be foundE one possible solution is proposed and argued for. (#) A problem is introduced/ followed by descriptions of two contrasting approaches to thinking about the problemE the second approach is preferred to the first/ and reasons are gi'en for why it is more likely to yield a successful solution. 0. Based on the passage/ the author4s attitude towards interception of electronic mail can most accurately be described asE (A) outright disappro'al of the practice (B) support for employers who engage in it (C) support for employees who lose their <obs because of it ( ) intellectual interest in its legal issues (#) cynicism about the moti'es behind the practice 1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely hold which one of the following opinions about an encryption system that could encodes and decode electronic mail messages with a single keystroke% (A) 3t would be an unreasonable burden on a company4s ability to monitor electronic mail created by its employees. (B) 3t would significantly reduce the difficulty of attempting to safeguard the pri'acy of electronic mail. (C) 3t would create substantial legal complications for companies trying to

,65

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

pre'ent employees from re'ealing trade secrets to competitors. ( ) 3t would guarantee only a minimal le'el of employee pri'acy/ and so would not be worth the cost in'ol'ed in installing such a system. (#) 3t would re"uire a change in the legal definition of *reasonable e$pectation of pri'acy+ as it applies to employer(employee relations. 2. Bi'en the information in the passage/ which one of the following hypothetical e'ents is K#A;T likely to occur% (A) A court rules that a go'ernment office4s practice of deleting its electronic mail is not in the public4s best interests. (B) A pri'ate(sector employer is found liable for wiretapping an office telephone con'ersation in which two employees e$changed disparaging information about their super'isor. (C) A court upholds the right of a go'ernment office to destroy both paper and electronic 'ersions of its in(house documents. ( ) A court upholds a pri'ate(sector employer4s right to monitor messages sent between employees o'er the company4s in(house electronic mail system. (#) A court rules in fa'or of a pri'ate(sector employee whose super'isor stated that in(house electronic mail would not be monitored but later fired the employee for communicating disparaging information 'ia electronic mail. -. The author4s primary purpose in writing the passage is to (A) demonstrate that the indi'idual right to pri'acy has been eroded by ad'ances in computer technology (B) compare the legal status of electronic mail in the public and pri'ate sectors (C) draw an e$tended analogy between the pri'acy of electronic mail and the pri'acy of telephone con'ersations or face(to(face meeting ( ) illustrate the comple$ities of the pri'acy issues surrounding electronic mail in the workplace (#) e$plain why the courts ha'e not been able to rule definitely on the issue of the pri'acy of electronic mail
8hi"e a new surge o# critica" interest in the ancient Aree$ poems conventiona""y ascribed to (omer has ta$en p"ace in the "ast twenty years or so' it was nonspecia"ists rather than pro#essiona" scho"ars who studied the poetic aspects o# the )liad and the 4dyssey between' rough"y' 194- and 197.. Furing these years' whi"e such nonacademic inte""ectua"s as imone 8ei" and =rich 0uerbach were trying to de#ine the +ua"ities that made these epic accounts o# the Tro2an 8ar and its a#termath great poetry' the +uestions that occupied the specia"ists were directed e"sewhere> ;Fid the Tro2an 8ar rea""y happenC< ;Foes the bard preserve /ndo=uropean #o"$ memoriesC< ;(ow did the poems get written downC< omething was driving scho"ars away #rom the actua" wor$s to periphera" issues. cho"ars produced boo$s about archaeo"ogy' about gi#t-e5change in ancient societies' about the deve"opment o# ora" poetry' about virtua""y anything e5cept the )liad and the 4dyssey themse"ves as uni+ue re#"ections or

LSAT
disti""ations o# "i#e itse"#!as' in short' great poetry. The observations o# the =ng"ish poet 0"e5ander 6ope seemed as app"icab"e in 197. as they had been when he wrote them in 171-> according to 6ope' the remar$s o# critics ;are rather 6hi"osophica"' (istorica"' AeographicVor rather anything than %ritica" and 6oetica".<

,61

/ronica""y' the modern mani#estation o# this ;nonpoetica"< emphasis can be traced to the pro#ound"y in#"uentia" wor$ o# ?i"man 6arry' who attempted to demonstrate in detai" how the (omeric poems' be"ieved to have been recorded near"y three thousand years ago' were the products o# a "ong and high"y deve"oped tradition o# ora" poetry about the Tro2an 8ar. 6arry proposed that this tradition bui"t up its diction and its content by a process o# constant accumu"ation and re#inement over many generations o# storyte""ers. &ut a#ter 6arry3s death in 194-' his "egacy was ta$en up by scho"ars who' un"i$e 6arry' #orsoo$ intensive ana"ysis o# the poetry itse"# and #ocused instead on on"y one e"ement o# 6arry3s wor$> the creative "imitations and possibi"ities o# ora" composition' concerning on #i5ed e"ements and in#"e5ibi"ities' #ocusing on the things that ora" poetry a""eged"y can and cannot do. The dryness i# this $ind o# study drove many o# the more inventive scho"ars away #rom the poems into the rapid"y deve"oping #ie"d o# (omer3s archaeo"ogica" and historica" bac$ground. 0ppropriate"y' ?i"man 6arry3s son 0dam was among those scho"ars responsib"e #or a renewed interest in (omer3s poetry as "iterary art. &ui"ding on his #ather3s wor$' the younger 6arry argued that the (omeric poems e5ist both within and against a tradition. The )liad and the 4dyssey were' 0dam 6arry thought' the bene#iciaries o# an inherited store o# diction' scenes' and at the same time high"y individua" wor$s that surpasses these conventions. 0dam 6arry he"ped prepare the ground #or the recent (omeric reviva" by a##irming his #ather3s be"ie# in a strong inherited tradition' but a"so by emphasi)ing (omer3s uni+ue contributions within that tradition.

6.

&hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage% (A) The )omeric poems are most fruitfully studied as records of the time and place in which they were written. (B) The )omeric poems are the products of a highly de'eloped and complicated tradition of oral poetry. (C) The )omeric poems are currently en<oying a resurgence of critical interest after an age of scholarship largely de'oted to the poems4 nonpoetic elements. ( ) The )omeric poems are currently en<oying a resurgence of scholarly interest after am age during which most studies were authored by nonacademic writers. (#) Before ?ilman @arry published his pioneering work in the early twentieth century/ it was difficult to assign a date or an author to the )omeric poems.

,.

According to the passage/ the work of ;imone &eil and #rich Auerbach on )omer was primarily concerned with which one of the following% (A) considerations of why criticism of )omer had mo'ed to peripheral issues (B) analyses of the poetry itself in terms of its literary "ualities

,62

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(C) studies in the history and nature of oral poetry ( ) analyses of the already ancient epic tradition inherited by )omer (#) criti"ues of the highly technical analyses of academic critics 15. The passage suggests which one of the following about scholarship on )omer that has appeared since 1,-5% (A) 3t has dealt e$tensi'ely with the )omeric poems as literary art. (B) 3t is more incisi'e than the work of the @arrys. (C) 3t has re<ected as irrele'ant the scholarship produced by specialists between 1,.1 and 1,-5. ( ) 3t has ignored the work of ;imone &eil and #rich Auerbach. (#) 3t has attempted to confirm that the /liad and the 0dyssey were written by )omer. 11. The author of the passage most probably "uotes Ale$ander @ope (lines 20(22) in order to (A) indicate that the )omeric poems ha'e generally recei'ed poor treatment at the hands of #nglish critics (B) pro'e that poets as well as critics ha'e emphasi!ed elements peripheral to the poems (C) illustrate that the nonpoetical emphasis also e$isted in an earlier century ( ) emphasi!e the problems inherent in rendering classical Breek poetry into modern #nglish (#) argue that poets and literary critics ha'e seldom agreed the interpretation of poetry 12. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of ?ilman @arry4s immediate successors in the field of )omeric studies% (A) They reconciled )omer4s poetry with archaeological and historical concerns. (B) They acknowledged the tradition of oral poetry/ but focused on the uni"ueness of )omer4s poetry within the tradition. (C) They occupied themsel'es with the "uestion of what "ualities made for great poetry. ( ) They emphasi!ed the boundaries of oral poetry. (#) They called for a re'i'al of )omer4s popularity. 1.. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage% (A) A situation is identified and its origins are e$amines. (B) A series of hypotheses is re'iewed and one is ad'ocated. (C) The works of two influential scholars are summari!ed. ( ) ;e'eral issues contributing to a currently debate are summari!ed.

LSAT

,6.

(#) Three possible solutions to a long(standing problem are posed.

=ven in the midst o# its resurgence as a vita" tradition' many socio"ogists have viewed the current #orm o# the powwow' a ceremonia" gathering o# native 0mericans' as a sign that triba" cu"ture is in dec"ine. 7ocusing on the dances and ritua"s that have recent"y come to be shared by most tribes' they suggest that an intertriba" movement is now in ascension and c"aim the inevitab"e outcome o# this tendency is the eventua" disso"ution o# tribes and the comp"ete assimi"ation o# native 0mericans into =uroamerican society. 6roponents o# this ;6an-/ndian< theory point to the greater #re+uency o# trave" and communication between reservations' the greater urbani)ation o# native 0mericans' and' most recent"y' their increasing po"itici)ation in response to common grievances as the chie# causes o# the shi#t toward intertriba"ism. /ndeed' the rapid di##usion o# dance sty"es' out#its' and songs #rom one reservation to another o##ers compe""ing evidence that intertriba"ism has been increasing. (owever' these socio"ogists have #ai"ed to note the concurrent revita"i)ation o# many traditions uni+ue to individua" tribes. 0mong the Ea$ota' #or instance' the un Fance was revived' a#ter a #ortyyear hiatus' during the 19-.s. imi"ar"y' the &"ac$ Eegging ociety o# the Niowa and the (ethus$a ociety o# the 6onca!both traditiona" groups within their respective tribes!have gained new popu"arity. 9bvious"y' a more comp"e5 societa" shi#t is ta$ing p"ace than the theory o# 6an-/ndianism can account #or. 0n e5amination o# the theory3s underpinnings may be critica" at this point' especia""y given that native 0mericans themse"ves cha#e most against the 6an-/ndian c"assi#ication. Ei$e other assimi"ationist theories with which it is associated' the 6an-/ndian view is predicted upon an a priori assumption about the nature o# cu"tura" contact> that upon contact minority societies immediate"y begin to succumb in every respect!bio"ogica""y' "inguistica""y' and cu"tura""y!to the ma2ority society. (owever' there is no evidence that this is happening to native 0merican groups. Det the #act remains that intertriba" activities are a ma2or #acet o# native 0merican cu"tura" today. %ertain dances at powwows' #or instance' are announced as intertriba"' others as traditiona". Ei$ewise' speeches given at the beginnings o# powwows are o#ten de"ivered in =ng"ish' whi"e the prayer that #o""ows is usua""y spo$en in a native "anguage. %u"tura" borrowing is' o# course' o"d news. 8hat is important to note is the conscious distinction native 0mericans ma$e between triba" and intertriba" tendencies. Triba"ism' a"though great"y a"tered by modern history' remains a potent #orce among native 0mericans. /t #orms a basis #or triba" identity' and a"igns music and dance with other socia" and cu"tura" activities important to individua" tribes. /ntertriba" activities' on the other hand' rein#orce native 0merican identity a"ong a broader #ront' where this identity is direct"y threatened by outside in#"uences.

10. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage% (A) espite the fact that sociologists ha'e only recently begun to understand its importance/ intertribalism has always been an influential factor in nati'e American culture. (B) 9ati'e Americans are currently struggling with an identity crisis caused

,60

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

primarily by the two competing forces of tribalism and intertribalism. (C) The recent growth of intertribalism is unlikely to eliminate tribalism because the two forces do not oppose one another but instead reinforce distinct elements of nati'e American interact with the broader community around them. ( ) The tendency toward intertribalism/ although pre'alent within nati'e American culture/ has had a minimal effect on the way nati'e Americans interact with the broader community around them. (#) espite the recent re'i'al of many nati'e American tribal traditions/ the recent trend toward intertribalism is likely to erode cultural differences among the 'arious nati'e American tribes. 11. The author most likely states that *cultural borrowing is of course/ old news+ (line 0-(06) primarily to (A) acknowledge that in itself the e$istence of intertribal tendencies at powwows is unsurprising (B) suggest that nati'e Americans4 use of #nglish in powwows should be accepted as una'oidable (C) argue that the deliberate distinction of intertribal and traditional dances is not a recent de'elopment ( ) suggest that the recent increase in intertribal acti'ity is the result of nati'e Americans borrowing from non(nati'e Americans (#) indicate that the powwow itself could ha'e originated by combining practices drawn from both nati'e and non(nati'e American cultures 12. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which one of the following assertions% (A) Though some belie'e the current form of the powwow signals the decline of tribal culture/ the powwow contains elements that indicate the continuing strength of tribalism. (B) The logical outcome of the recent increase in intertribal acti'ity is the e'entual disappearance of tribal culture. (C) 9ati'e Americans who participate in both tribal and intertribal acti'ities usually base their identities on intertribal rather than tribal affiliations. ( ) The conclusions of some sociologists about the health of nati'e American cultures show that these sociologists are in fact biased against such cultures. (#) :ntil it is balanced by re'itali!ation of tribal customs/ intertribalism will continue to weaken the nati'e American sense of identity. 1-. The primary function of the third paragraph is to (A) search for e'idence to corroborate the basic assumption of he theory of @an( 3ndianism

LSAT

,61

(B) demonstrate the incorrectness of the theory of @an(3ndianism by pointing out that nati'e American groups themsel'es disagree with the theory (C) e$plain the origin of the theory of @an(3ndianism by showing how it e'ol'ed from other assimilationist theories ( ) e$amine se'eral assimilationist theories in order to demonstrate that they rest on a common assumption (#) critici!e the theory of @an(3ndianism by pointing out that it rests upon an assumption for which there is no supporting e'idence 16. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the author4s attitude towards the theory of @an(3ndianism% (A) critical of its tendency to attribute political moti'es to cultural practices (B) discomfort at its negati'e characteri!ation of cultural borrowing by nati'e Americans (C) hopeful about its chance for preser'ing tribal culture ( ) offended by its claim that assimilation is a desirable conse"uence of cultural contact (#) skeptical that it is a complete e$planation of recent changes in nati'e American society 1,. &ith which one of the following statements would the author of the passage be most likely to agree%(3ntertribal acti'ities/ on the other hand/ reinforce nati'e American identity along a broader front/ where this identity is directly threatened by outside influences.) (A) The resurgence of the powwow is a sign that nati'e American customs are beginning to ha'e an important influence on #uroamerican society. (B) Although nati'e Americans draw conscious distinctions between tribal and intertribal acti'ities/ there is no difference in how the two types of acti'ity actually function within the conte$t of nati'e American society. (C) &ithout intertribal acti'ities/ it would be more difficult for nati'e Americans to maintain the cultural differences between nati'e American and #uroamerican society. ( ) The powwow was recently re'i'ed/ after an e$tended hiatus/ in order to strengthen nati'e Americans4 sense of ethnic identity. (#) The degree of urbani!ation/ intertribal communication/ and politici!ation among nati'e Americans has been e$aggerated by proponents of the theory of @an(3ndianism. 25. &hich one of the following situations most clearly illustrates the phenomenon of intertribalism/ as that phenomenon is described in the passage% (A) a nati'e American tribe in which a number of powerful societies attempt to pre'ent the re'i'al of a traditional dance

,62

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(B) a nati'e American tribe whose members attempt to learn the nati'e languages of se'eral other tribes (C) a nati'e American tribe whose members attempt to form a political organi!ation in order to redress se'eral grie'ances important to that tribe ( ) a nati'e American tribe in which a significant percentage of the members ha'e forsake their tribal identity and become assimilated into #uroamerican society (#) a nati'e American tribe whose members often tra'el to other parts of the reser'ation in order to 'isit friends and relati'es 21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the following% (A) identifying an assumption common to 'arious assimilationist theories and then critici!ing these theories by showing this assumption to be false (B) arguing that the recent re'i'al of a number of tribal practices shows sociologists are mistaken in belie'ing intertribilism to be a potent force among nati'e American societies (C) "uestioning the belief that nati'e American societies will e'entually be assimilated into #uroamerican society by arguing that intertribalism helps strengthen nati'e American identity ( ) showing how the recent resurgence of tribal acti'ities is a deliberate attempt to counteract the growing influence of intertribalism (#) proposing an e$planation of why the ascension of intertribalism could result in the e'entual dissolution of tribes and complete assimilation of nati'e American into #uroamerican society
cientists typica""y advocate the ana"ytic method o# studying comp"e5 systems> systems are divided into component parts that are investigated separate"y. &ut nineteenth-century critics o# this method c"aimed that when a system3s parts are iso"ated its comp"e5ity tends to be "ost. To address the perceived wea$ness o# the ana"ytic method these critics put #orward a concept ca""ed organicism' which posited that the who"e determines the nature o# its parts and that the parts o# a who"e are interdependent. 9rganicism depended upon the theory o# interna" re"ations' which states that re"ations between entities are possib"e on"y within some who"e that embraces them' and that entities are a"tered by the re"ationships into which they enter. /# an entity stands in a re"ationship with another entity' it has some property as a conse+uence. 8ithout this re"ationship' and hence without the property' the entity wou"d be di##erent!and so wou"d be another entity. Thus' the property is one o# the entity3s de#ining characteristics. =ach o# an entity3s re"ationships "i$ewise determines a de#ining characteristic o# the entity. 9ne prob"em with the theory o# interna" re"ations is that not a"" properties o# an entity are de#ining characteristics> numerous properties are accompanying characteristics!even i# they are a"ways present' their presence does not in#"uence the entity3s identity. Thus' even i# it is admitted that every re"ationship into which an entity enters determines some characteristic o#

LSAT

,6-

the entity' it is not necessari"y true that such characteristics wi"" de#ine the entity: it is possib"e #or the entity to enter into a re"ationship yet remain essentia""y unchanged. The u"timate di##icu"ty with the theory o# interna" re"ations is that it renders the ac+uisition o# $now"edge impossib"e. To tru"y $now an entity' we must $now a"" o# its re"ationships: but because the entity is re"ated to everything in each who"e o# which it is a part' these who"es must be $nown comp"ete"y be#ore the entity can be $nown. This seems to be a prere+uisite impossib"e to satis#y. 9rganicists3 criticism o# the ana"ytic method arose #rom their #ai"ure to #u""y comprehend the method. /n re2ecting the ana"ytic method' organicists over"oo$ed the #act that be#ore the proponents o# the method ana"y)ed the component parts o# a system' they #irst determined both the "aws app"icab"e to the who"e system and the initia" conditions o# the system: proponents o# the method thus did not study parts o# a system in #u"" iso"ation #rom the system as a who"e. ince organicists #ai"ed to recogni)e this' they never advanced any argument to show that "aws and initia" conditions o# comp"e5 systems cannot be discovered. (ence' organicists o##ered no va"id reason #or re2ecting the ana"ytic method or #or adopting organicism as a rep"acement #or it.

22. &hich one of the following most completely and accurately summari!es the argument of the passage% (A) By calling into "uestion the possibility that comple$ systems can be studied in their entirety/ organicists offered an alternati'e to the analytic method fa'ored by nineteenth(century scientists. (B) 8rganicists did not offer a useful method of studying comple$ systems because they did not acknowledge that there are relationship into which an entity may enter that do not alter the entity4s identity. (C) 8rganicism is flawed because it relies on a theory that both ignores the fact that not all characteristics of entities are defining and ultimately makes the ac"uisition of knowledge impossible. ( ) 8rganicism does not offer a 'alid challenge to the analytic method both because it relies on faulty theory and because it is based on a misrepresentation of the analytic method. (#) 3n critici!ing the analytic method/ organicists neglected to dispro'e that scientists who employ the method are able to disco'er the laws and initial conditions of the systems they study. 2.. According to the passage/ organicists4 chief ob<ection to the analytic method was that the method (A) o'ersimplified systems by isolating their components (B) assumed that a system can be di'ided into component parts (C) ignored the laws applicable to the system as a whole ( ) claimed that the parts of a system are more important than the system as a whole

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(#) denied the claim that entities enter into relationships 20. The passage offers information to help answer each of the following "uestions #DC#@TE (A) &hy does the theory of internal relations appear to make the ac"uisition of knowledge impossible% (B) &hy did the organicists propose replacing the analytic method% (C) &hat is the difference between a defining characteristic and an accompanying characteristic% ( ) &hat did organicists claim are the effects of an entity entering into a relationship with another entity% (#) &hat are some of the ad'antages of separating out the parts of a system for study% 21. The passage most strongly supports the ascription of which one of the following 'iews to scientists who use the analytic method% (A) A comple$ system is best understood by studying its component parts in full isolation from the system as a whole. (B) The parts of a system should be studied with an awareness of the laws and initial conditions that go'ern the system. (C) 3t is not possible to determine the laws go'erning a system until the system4s parts are separated from one another. ( ) Because the parts of a system are interdependent/ they cannot be studied separately without destroying the system4s comple$ity. (#) ;tudying the parts of a system indi'idually eliminate the need to determine which characteristics of the parts are defining characteristics. 22. &hich one of the following is a principle upon which the author bases an argument against the theory of the internal relations% (A) An ade"uate theory of comple$ systems must define the entities of which the system is composed. (B) An acceptable theory cannot ha'e conse"uences that contradict its basic purpose. (C) An ade"uate method of study of comple$ systems should re'eal the actual comple$ity of the system it studies. ( ) An acceptable theory must describe the laws and initial conditions of a comple$ system. (#) An acceptable method of studying comple$ systems should not study parts of the system in isolation from the system as a whole. LSAT 2' SECT ON )

T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s

LSAT

,6,

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
9pponents o# compu"sory nationa" service c"aim that such a program is not in $eeping with the "ibera" princip"es upon which 8estern democracies are #ounded. This reasoning is reminiscent o# the argument that a ta5 on one3s income is undemocratic because it vio"ates one3s right to property. uch conceptions o# the "ibera" state #ai" to ta$e into account the intricate character o# the socia" agreement that undergirds our "iberties. /t is on"y in the conte5t o# a community that the notion o# individua" rights has any app"ication: individua" rights are meant to de#ine the "imits o# peop"e3s actions with respect to other peop"e. /mp"icit in such a conte5t is the concept o# shared sacri#ice. 8ere no ta5es paid' there cou"d be no "aw en#orcement' and the en#orcement o# "aw is o# bene#it to everyone in society. Thus' each o# us must bear a share o# the burden to ensure that the community is protected. The responsibi"ity to de#end one3s nation against outside aggression is sure"y no "ess than the responsibi"ity to he"p pay #or "aw en#orcement within the nation. There#ore' the state is certain"y within its rights to compe" citi)ens to per#orm nationa" service when it is needed #or the bene#it o# society. /t might be ob2ected that the cases o# ta5ation and nationa" service are not ana"ogous> 8hi"e ta5ation must be coerced' the mi"itary is +uite ab"e to #ind recruits without resorting to conscription. 7urthermore' proponents o# nationa" service do not "imit its scope to on"y those duties abso"ute"y necessary to the de#ense o# the nation. There#ore' it may be contended' compu"sory nationa" service oversteps the acceptab"e boundaries o# governmenta" inter#erence in the "ives o# its citi)ens. &y responding thus' the opponent o# nationa" service has a"ready a""owed that it is a right o# government to demand service when it is needed. &ut what is the true scope o# the term ;need<C /# it is granted' say' that present ta5 po"icies are "egitimate intrusions on the right to property' then it must a"so be granted that need invo"ves more than 2ust what is necessary #or a sound nationa" de#ense. =ven the most conservative o# po"iticians admits that ta5 money is right"y spent on programs that' whi"e not necessary #or the surviva" o# the state' are neverthe"ess o# great bene#it to society. %an the opponent o# nationa" service tru"y c"aim that activities o# the mi"itary such as +ue""ing civi" disorders' rebui"ding dams and bridges' or assisting the victims o# natura" disasters!a"" e5traneous to the de#ense o# society against outside aggression!do not provide a simi"ar bene#it to the nationC Upon re#"ection' opponents o# nationa" service must concede that such a broadened conception o# what is necessary is in $eeping with the ideas o# shared sacri#ice and community bene#it that are essentia" to the #unctioning o# a "ibera" democratic state.

1.

&hich one of the following most accurately describes the author4s attitude toward the relationship between citi!enship and indi'idual rights in a democracy% (A) confidence that indi'idual rights are citi!ens4 most important guarantees of personal freedom

,,5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(B) satisfaction at how indi'idual rights ha'e protected citi!ens from unwarranted go'ernment intrusion (C) alarm that so many citi!ens use indi'idual rights as an e$cuse to take ad'antage of one another ( ) concern that indi'idual rights represent citi!ens4 only defense against go'ernment interference (#) dissatisfaction at how some citi!ens cite indi'idual rights as a way of a'oiding certain obligations to their go'ernment 2. The author indicates all politicians agree about the (A) legitimacy of funding certain programs that ser'e the national good (B) use of the military to pre'ent domestic disorders (C) similarity of conscription and compulsory ta$ation ( ) importance of broadening the definition of necessity (#) compatibility of compulsion with democratic principles .. &hich one of the following most accurately characteri!es what the author means by the term *social agreement+ (line 6)% (A) an agreement among members of a community that the scope of their indi'idual liberties is limited somewhat by their obligations to one another (B) an agreement among members of a community that they will not act in ways that infringe upon each other4s pursuit of indi'idual liberty (C) an agreement among members of a community that they will petition the go'ernment for redress when go'ernment actions limit their rights ( ) an agreement between citi!ens and their go'ernment detailing which go'ernment actions do or do not infringe upon citi!en4s personal freedoms (#) an agreement between citi!ens and their go'ernment stating that the go'ernment has right to suspend indi'idual liberties whene'er it sees fit 0. According to the author/ national ser'ice and ta$ation are analogous in the sense that both (A) do not re"uire that citi!ens be compelled to help bring them about (B) are at odds with the notion of indi'idual rights in a democracy (C) re"uire different degrees of sacrifice from different citi!ens ( ) allow the go'ernment to o'erstep its boundaries and interfere in the li'es of citi!ens (#) ser'e ends beyond those related to the basic sur'i'al of the state 1. Based on the information in the passage/ which one of the following would most likely be found ob<ectionable by those who oppose compulsory national ser'ice% (A) the use of ta$ re'enues to pre'ent the theft of national secrets by foreign agents

LSAT

,,1

(B) the use of ta$ re'enues to fund relief efforts for 'ictims of natural disasters in other nations (C) the use of ta$ re'enues to support the upkeep of the nation4s standing army ( ) the use of ta$ re'enues to fund programs for the maintenance of domestic dams and bridges (#) the use of ta$ re'enues to aid citi!ens who are 'ictims of natural disasters
@ames 6orter (19.--197.) was the #irst scho"ar to identi#y the 0#rican in#"uence on visua" art in the 0mericans' and much o# what is $nown about the cu"tura" "egacy that 0#rican0merican artists inherited #rom their 0#rican #orebears has come to us by way o# his wor$. 6orter' a painter and art historian' began by studying 0#rican-0merican cra#ts o# the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This research revea"ed that many o# the househo"d items created by 0#rican-0merican men and women!wa"$ing stic$s' 2ugs' and te5ti"es! disp"ayed characteristics that "in$ed them iconographica""y to arti#acts o# 8est 0#rica. 6orter then went on to estab"ish c"ear"y the range o# the cu"tura" territory inherited by "ater 0#rican0merican artists. 0n e5amp"e o# this aspect o# 6orter3s research occurs in his essay ;Robert . Funcanson' ?idwestern Romantic-Rea"ist.< The wor$ o# Funcanson' a nineteenth-century painter o# the (udson River schoo"' "i$e that o# his predecessor in the movement' @oshua @ohnston' was common"y thought to have been created by a =uro-0merican artist. 6orter proved de#initive"y that both Funcanson and @ohnston were o# 0#rican ancestry. 6orter pub"ished this #inding and thousands o# others in a comprehensive vo"ume tracing the history o# 0#rican-0merican art. 0t the time o# its #irst printing in 19H4' on"y two other boo$s devoted e5c"usive"y to the accomp"ishments o# 0#rican-0merican artists e5isted. &oth o# these boo$s were written by 0"ain EeRoy Eoc$e' a pro#essor at the university where 6orter a"so taught. 8hi"e these ear"ier studies by Eoc$e are interesting #or being the #irst to survey the #ie"d' neither addressed the critica" issue o# 0#rican precursors: 6orter3s boo$ addressed this issue' painsta$ing"y integrating the history o# 0#rican-0merican art into the "arger history o# art in the 0mericas without separating it #rom those +ua"ities that gave it its uni+ue ties to 0#rican artisanship. 6orter may have been especia""y attuned to these ties because o# his conscious e##ort to maintain them in his own paintings' many o# which combine the sty"e o# the genre portrait with evidence o# an e5tensive $now"edge o# the cu"tura" history o# various 0#rican peop"es. /n his "ater years' 6orter wrote additiona" chapters #or "ater editions o# his boo$' constant"y revising and correcting his #indings' some o# which had been based o# necessity on #ragmentary evidence. 0mong his "ater achievements were his de#initive rec$oning o# the birth year o# the painter 6atric$ Reason' "ong a point o# scho"ar"y uncertainty' and his identi#ication o# an unmar$ed grave in an 7rancisco as that o# the scu"ptor =dmonia Eewis. 0t his death' 6orter "e#t e5tensive notes #or un#inished pro2ect aimed at e5p"oring the in#"uence o# 0#rican art on the art o# the 8estern wor"d genera""y' a body o# research whose riches scho"ars sti"" have not e5hausted.

2.

&hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage%

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(A) Because the connections between African(American art and other art in the Americas had been established by earlier scholars/ @orter4s work focused on showing African(American art4s connections to African artisanship. (B) 3n addition to showing the connections between African(American art and African artisanship/ @orter4s most important achie'ement was illustrating the links between African(American art and other art in Americas. (C) espite the fact that his last book remains unfinished/ @orter4s work was the first to de'ote its attention e$clusi'ely to the accomplishments of African( American artists. ( ) Although showing the connections between African(American art and African artisanship/ @orter4s work concentrated primarily on placing African( American art in the conte$t of &estern art in general. (#) &hile not the first body of scholarship to treat the sub<ect of African( American art/ @orter4s work was the first to show the connections between African(American art and African artisanship. -. The discussion of Kocke4s books is intended primarily to (A) argue that @orte4s book depended upon Kocke4s pioneering scholarship (B) highlight an important way in which @orter4s work differed from pre'ious work in his field (C) suggest an e$planation for why @orter4s book was little known outside academic circles ( ) support the claim that @orter was not the first to notice African influences in African(American art (#) argue that Kocke4s e$ample was a ma<or influence o @orter4s decision to publish his findings 6. The passage states which one of the following about the 1,0. edition of @orter4s book on African(American art% (A) 3t recei'ed little scholarly attention at first. (B) 3t was re'ised and impro'ed upon in later editions. (C) 3t took issue with se'eral of Kocke4s conclusions. ( ) 3t is considered the definiti'e 'ersion of @orter4s work. (#) 3t e$plored the influence of African art on western art in general. ,. Bi'en the information in the passage/ @orter4s identification of the ancestry of uncanson and Aohnston pro'ides conclusi'e e'idence for which one of the following statements% (A) ;ome of the characteristics defining the )udson =i'er school are iconographically linked to &eston African artisanship. (B) ;ome of the works of uncanson and Aohnston are not in the style of the )udson =i'er school.

LSAT

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(C) ;ome of the work of #uro(American painters displays similarities to African( American crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. ( ) ;ome of the works of the )udson =i'er school were done by African( American painters. (#) ;ome of the works of uncanson and Aohnston were influenced by &est African artifacts. 15. &hich one of the following can most reasonably be inferred from the passage about the study that @orter left unfinished at his death% (A) 3f completed/ it would ha'e contradicted some of the conclusions contained in his earlier book. (B) 3f completed/ it would ha'e amended some of the conclusions contained in his earlier book. (C) 3f completed/ it would ha'e brought up to date the comprehensi'e history of African(American art begun in his earlier book. ( ) 3f completed/ it would ha'e e$panded upon the pro<ect of his earlier book by broadening the scope of in"uiry found in the earlier book. (#) 3f completed/ it would ha'e supported some of the theories put forth by @orter4s contemporaries since the publication of his earlier book. 11. &hich of the following hypothetical obser'ations is most closely analogous to the disco'eries @orter made about African(American crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries% (A) Contemporary )aitian social customs ha'e a uni"ue character dependent on but different from both their African and >rench origins. (B) @opular music in the :nited ;tates/ some of which is based on African musical traditions/ often influences music being composed on the African continent. (C) ?any no'els written in Canada by Chinese immigrants e$hibit narrati'e themes 'ery similar to those found in Chinese folktales. ( ) #$tensi'e 3ndian immigration to #ngland has made traditional 3ndian foods nearly as popular there as the traditional #nglish foods that had been popular there before 3ndian immigration. (#) ;ome ?e$ican muralists of the early twentieth century consciously imitated the art of nati'e peoples as a response to the ;panish influences that had predominated in ?e$ican art. 12. The passage most strongly supports which one of the following inferences about @orter4s own paintings% (A) They often contained figures or images deri'ed from the work of African artisans. (B) They fueled his interest in pursuing a career in art history.

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

(C) They were used in @orter4s book to show the e$tent of African influence on African(American art. ( ) They were a deliberate attempt to pro'e his theories about art history. (#) They were done after all of his academic work had been completed. 1.. Based on the passage/ which one of the following/ if true/ would ha'e been most rele'ant to the pro<ect @orter was working on at the time of his death% (A) African(American crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries ha'e certain resemblances to #uropean folk crafts of earlier periods. (B) The paintings of some twentieth(century #uropean artists prefigured certain stylistic de'elopments in 9orth African graphic art. (C) The designs of many of the "uilts made by African(American women in the nineteenth century reflect designs of #uropean trade goods. ( ) After the mo'ement of large numbers of African(Americans to cities/ the African influences in the work of many African(American painters increased. (#) ;e'eral portraits by certain twentieth(century #uropean painters were modeled after e$amples of Central African ceremonial masks.
&etween @une 1987 and ?ay 1988' the bodies o# at "east 7H. bott"enose do"phins out o# a tota" coasta" popu"ation o# 4'... to -'... washed ashore on the 0t"antic coast o# the United tates. ince some o# the dead anima"s never washed ashore' the overa"" disaster was presumab"y worse: perhaps -. percent o# the popu"ation died. 0 do"phin die-o## o# this character and magnitude had never be#ore been observed: #urthermore' the do"phins e5hibited a start"ing range o# symptoms. The research team that e5amined the die-o## noted the presence o# both s$in "esions and interna" "esions in the "iver' "ung' pancreas and heart' which suggested a massive opportunistic bacteria" in#ection o# a"ready wea$ened anima"s. Tissues #rom the stric$en do"phins were ana"y)ed #or a variety o# to5ins. &reveto5in' a to5in produced by the b"ooming o# the a"ga Ptychodiscus $revis' was present in eight out o# seventeen do"phins tested. Tests #or synthetic po""utants revea"ed that po"ych"orinated bipheny"s (6%&s) were present in a"most a"" anima"s tested. The research team conc"uded that breveto5in poisoning was the most "i$e"y cause o# the i""nesses that $i""ed the do"phins. 0"though P. $revis is ordinari"y not #ound a"ong the 0t"antic coast' an unusua" b"oom o# this organism!such b"ooms are ca""ed ;red tides< because o# the reddish co"or imparted by the b"ooming a"gae!did occur in the midd"e o# the a##ected coast"ine in 9ctober 1987. These researchers be"ieve the to5in accumu"ated in the tissue o# #ish and then was ingested by do"phins that preyed on them. The emaciated appearance o# many do"phins indicated that they were metabo"i)ing their b"ubber reserves' thereby reducing their buoyancy and insu"ation (and adding to overa"" stress) as we"" as re"easing stores o# previous"y accumu"ated synthetic po""utants' such as 6%&s' which #urther e5acerbated their condition. The combined impact made the do"phins vu"nerab"e to opportunistic bacteria" in#ection' the u"timate cause o# death. 7or severa" reasons' however' this e5p"anation is not entire"y p"ausib"e. 7irst' bott"enose

LSAT

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do"phins and P. $revis red tides are both common in the Au"# o# ?e5ico' yet no do"phin die-o## o# a simi"ar magnitude has been noted there. econd' do"phins began dying in @une' hundreds o# mi"es north o# and some months ear"ier than the 9ctober red tide b"oom. 7ina""y' the speci#ic e##ects o# breveto5in on do"phins are un$nown' whereas 6%& poisoning is $nown to impair #unctioning o# the immune system and "iver and to cause s$in "esions: a"" o# these prob"ems are observed in the diseased anima"s. 0n a"ternative hypothesis' which accounts #or these #acts' is that a sudden in#"u5 o# po""utants' perhaps #rom o##shore dumping' triggered a cascade o# disorders in anima"s whose systems were a"ready heavi"y "aden with po""utants. 0"though breveto5in may have been a contributing #actor' the event that actua""y precipitated the die-o## was a sharp increase in the do"phins3 e5posure to synthetic po""utants.

10. The passage is primarily concerned with assessing (A) the effects of a de'astating bacterial infection in Atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins (B) the progress by which illnesses in Atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins were correctly diagnosed (C) the weaknesses in the research methodology used to e$plore the dolphin die( off ( ) possible alternati'e e$planations for the massi'e dolphin die(off (#) relati'e effects of 'arious marine pollutants on dolphin mortality 11. &hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as e'idence for the e$planation of the dolphin die(off offered in the final paragraph% (A) the release of stored bre'eto$ins from the dolphins4 blubber reser'es (B) the date on which offshore dumping was known to ha'e occurred nearby (C) the presence of dumping sites for @CBs in the area ( ) the synthetic pollutants that were present in the fish eaten by the dolphins (#) the effects of @CBs on li'er function in dolphins 12. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the approach taken by author of the passage with regard to the research described in the third paragraph% (A) A physics teacher accepts the data from a student4s e$periment but "uestions the student4s conclusions. (B) An astronomer pro'ides additional obser'ations to support another astronomer4s theory. (C) A cook re'ises a traditional recipe by substituting modern ingredients for those used in the original. ( ) A doctor prescribes medication for a patient whose illness was misdiagnosed by another doctor. (#) A microbiologist sets out to replicate the e$periment that yielded a classic theory of cell structure. 1-. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the organi!ation of the last

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

paragraph% (A) 8ne e$planation is critici!ed and different e$planation is proposed. (B) An argument is ad'anced and then refuted by means of an opposing argument. (C) 8b<ections against a hypothesis are ad'anced/ the hypothesis is e$plained more fully/ and then the ob<ections are re<ected. ( ) 9ew e'idence in fa'or of a theory is described/ and then the theory is reaffirmed. (#) iscrepancies between two e$planations are noted/ and a third e$planation is proposed. 16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most probably agree with which one of the following statements about bre'eto$in% (A) 3t may ha'e been responsible for the dolphins4 skin lesions but could not ha'e contributed to the bacterial infection. (B) 3t forms more easily when both P2 bre$is and synthetic pollutants are present in the en'ironment simultaneously. (C) 3t damages li'er function and immune system responses in bottlenose dolphins but may not ha'e triggered this particular dolphin die(off. ( ) 3t is unlikely to be among the factors that contributed to the dolphin die(off. (#) 3t is unlikely to ha'e caused the die(off because it was not present in the dolphins4 en'ironment when the die(off began. 1,. The e$planation for the dolphin die(off gi'en by the research team most strongly supports which one of the following% (A) The biological mechanism by which bre'eto$in affects dolphins is probably different from that by which it affects other marine animals. (B) &hen P2 bre$is blooms in an area where it does not usually e$ist/ it is more to$ic than it is in its usual habitat. (C) 8pportunistic bacterial infection is usually associated with bre'eto$in poisoning in bottlenose dolphins. ( ) The dolphins4 emaciated state was probably a symptom of @CB poisoning rather than of bre'eto$in poisoning. (#) &hen a dolphin metaboli!es its blubber/ the @CBs released may be more dangerous to the dolphin than they were when stored in the blubber. 25. The author refers to dolphins in the Bulf of ?e$ico in the last paragraph in order to (A) refute the assertion that dolphins tend not to inhabit areas where P2 bre$is is common (B) compare the effects of synthetic pollutants on these dolphins and on Atlantic coast dolphins

LSAT

,,-

(C) cast doubt on the belief that P2 bre$is contributes substantially to dolphin die( offs ( ) illustrate the fact that dolphins in relati'ely pollution(free waters are healthier than dolphins in polluted waters (#) pro'ide e'idence for the argument that P2 bre$is was probably responsible for the dolphins4 deaths 21. &hich one of the following factors is e$plicitly cited as contributing to the dolphins4 deaths in both theories discussed in the passage% (A) the dolphins4 diet (B) the presence of P2 bre$is in the Bulf of ?e$ico (C) the wide 'ariety of to$ins released by the red tide bloom of 8ctober 1,6( ) the presence of synthetic pollutants in the dolphins4 bodies (#) the bacterial infection caused by a generali!ed failure of the dolphins4 immune systems
/n =ng"and be#ore 1GG.' a husband contro""ed his wi#e3s property. /n the "ate seventeenth and eighteenth centuries' with the shi#t #rom "and-based to commercia" wea"th' marriage began to incorporate certain #eatures o# a contract. (istorian have traditiona""y argued that this trend represented a gain #or women' one that re#"ects changing views about democracy and property #o""owing the =ng"ish Restoration in 1GG.. usan taves contests this view: she argues that whatever gains marriage contracts may brie#"y have represented #or women were undermined by 2udicia" decisions about women3s contractua" rights. i#ting (to go through especia""y to sort out what is use#u" or va"uab"e ;si#ted the evidence< o#ten used with through ;si#t through a pi"e o# o"d "etters<) through the tang"ed detai"s o# court cases' taves demonstrates that' despite sur#ace changes' a rhetoric o# e+ua"ity' and occasiona" decisions supporting women3s #inancia" power' de#initions o# men3s and women3s property remained inconsistent!genera""y to women3s detriment. 7or e5amp"e' dower "ands (property inherited by wives a#ter their husbands3 deaths) cou"d not be so"d' but ;curtsey< property (inherited by husbands #rom their wives) cou"d be so"d. 7urthermore' comparative"y new concepts that deve"oped in con2unction with the marriage contract' such as 2ointure' pin money (pin money> money given by a man to his wi#e #or her own use)' and separate maintenance' were compromised by pecu"iar ru"es. 7or instance' i# a woman spent her pin money (money paid by the husband according to the marriage contract #or wi#e3s persona" items) on possessions other than c"othes she cou"d not se"" them: in e##ect they be"onged to her husband. /n addition' a wi#e cou"d sue #or pin money on"y up to a year in arrears!which rendered a suit impractica". imi"ar"y' separate maintenance a""owances (stated sums o# money #or the wi#e3s support i# husband and wi#e agreed to "ive apart) were comp"icated by the #act that i# a coup"e tried to agree in a marriage contract on an amount' they were admitting that a supposed"y indisso"ub"e bond cou"d be disso"ved' an assumption courts cou"d not recogni)e. =ighteenth-century historians underp"ayed these inconsistencies' ca""ing them ;"itt"e contrarieties< that wou"d soon vanish. taves shows' however' that as 2udges gained power over decisions on marriage contracts' they tended to #a"" bac$ on pre-1GG.

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GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

assumptions about property. taves3 wor$ on women3s property has genera" imp"ications #or other studies about women in eighteenth-century =ng"and. taves revised her previous c"aim that separate maintenance a""owances proved the wea$ening o# patriarchy: she now #inds that an oversimp"i#ication. he a"so cha""enges the contention by historians @eanne and Eawrence tone that in the "ate eighteenth century wea"thy men married widows "ess o#ten than be#ore because coup"es began marring #or "ove rather than #or #inancia" reasons. taves does not comp"ete"y undermine their contention' but she does counter their assumption that widows had more money than never-married women. he points out that 2ointure property (a widow3s "i#etime use o# an amount o# money speci#ied in the marriage contract) was o#ten "ost on remarriage.

22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) As notions of property and democracy changed in late se'enteenth(and eighteenth(century #ngland/ marriage settlements began to incorporate contractual features designed to protect women4s property rights. (B) Traditional historians ha'e incorrectly identified the contractual features that were incorporated into marriage contracts in late se'enteenth(and eighteenth(century #ngland. (C) The incorporation of contractual features into marriage settlements in late se'enteen(and eighteenth(century #ngland did not represent a significant gain of women. ( ) An e$amination of late se'enteenth(and eighteenth(century #nglish court cases indicates that most marriage settlements did not incorporate contractual features designed to protect women4s property rights. (#) Before marriage settlements incorporated contractual features protecting women4s property rights/ women were unable to gain any financial power in #ngland. 2.. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph in the conte$t of the passage as a whole% (A) 3t suggests that ;ta'es4 recent work has caused significant re'ision of theories about the rights of women in eighteenth(century #ngland. (B) 3t discusses research that may "ualify ;ta'es4 work on women4s property in eighteenth(century #ngland. (C) 3t pro'ides further support for ;ta'es4 argument by describing more recent research on women4s property in eighteenth(century #ngland. ( ) 3t asserts that ;ta'es4 recent work has pro'ided support for two other hypotheses de'eloped by historians of eighteenth(century #ngland. (#) 3t suggests the implications ;ta'es4 recent research has for other theories about women in eighteenth(century #ngland. 20. The primary purpose of the passage to

LSAT

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(A) compare two e$planations for the same phenomenon (B) summari!e research that refutes an argument (C) resol'e a long(standing contro'ersy ( ) suggest that a recent hypothesis should be ree'aluated (#) pro'ide support for a traditional theory 21. According to the passage/ ;ta'es4 research has which one of the following effects on the ;tones4 contention about marriage in late eighteenth(century #ngland% (A) ;ta'es4 research undermines one of the ;tones4 assumptions but does not effecti'ely in'alidate their contention. (B) ;ta'es4 research refutes that the ;tones4 contention by pro'iding additional data o'erlooked by the ;tones. (C) ;ta'es4 research shows that the ;tones4 contention cannot be correct/ and that a number of their assumptions are mistaken. ( ) ;ta'es4 research indicates that the ;tones4 contention is incorrect because it is based on contradictory data. (#) ;ta'es4 research "ualifies the ;tones4 contention by indicating that it is based on accurate out incomplete data. 22. According to the passage/ ;ta'es indicates that which one of the following was true of <udicial decisions on contractual rights% (A) Audges fre"uently misunderstood and misapplied laws regarding married women4s property. (B) Audges were aware of inconsistencies in laws concerning women4s contractual rights but claimed that such inconsistencies would soon 'anish. (C) Audges4 decisions about marriage contracts tended to reflect assumptions about property that had been common before 1225. ( ) Audges had little influence on the de'elopment and application of laws concerning married women4s property. (#) Audges recogni!ed the patriarchal assumptions underlying laws concerning married women4s property and tried to interpret the laws in ways that would protect women. 2-. The passage suggests that the historians mentioned in line 1 would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements% (A) The shift from land(based to commercial wealth changed 'iews about property but did not significantly benefit married women until the late eighteenth century. (B) espite initial <udicial resistance to women4s contractual rights/ marriage contracts represented a significant gain for married women. (C) Although marriage contracts incorporated a series of surface changes and a rhetoric of e"uality/ they did not ultimately benefit married women.

1555

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

( ) Changing 'iews about property and democracy in post(=estoration #ngland had an effect on property laws that was beneficial to women. (#) Although contractual rights protecting women4s property represented a small gain for married women/ most laws continued to be more beneficial for men than for women. LSAT 2002 SECT ON T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The myth persists that in 1H91 the 8estern (emisphere was an untamed wi"derness and that it was =uropean sett"ers who harnessed and trans#ormed its ecosystems. &ut scho"arship shows that #orests' in particu"ar' had been a"tered to varying degrees we"" be#ore the arriva" o# =uropeans. *ative popu"ations had converted much o# the #orests to success#u""y cu"tivated stands' especia""y by means o# burning. *everthe"ess' some researchers have maintained that the e5tent' #re+uency' and impact o# such burning was minima". 9ne geographer c"aims that c"imatic change cou"d have accounted #or some o# the changes in #orest composition: another argues that burning by native popu"ations was done on"y sporadica""y' to augment the e##ects o# natura" #ires. (owever' a "arge body o# evidence #or the routine practice o# burning e5ists in the geographica" record. 9ne group o# researchers #ound' #or e5amp"e' that sedimentary charcoa" accumu"ations in what is now the northeastern United tates are greatest where $nown native 0merican sett"ements were greatest. 9ther evidence shows that' whi"e the characteristics and impact o# #ires set by native popu"ations varied regiona""y according to popu"ation si)e' e5tent o# resource management techni+ues' and environment' a"" such #ires had mar$ed"y di##erent e##ects on vegetation patter than did natura" #ires. %ontro""ed burning crated grassy openings such as meadows and g"ades. &urning a"so promoted a mosaic +ua"ity to *orth and south 0merican ecosystems' creating #orests in many di##erent stages o# eco"ogica" deve"opment. ?uch o# the mature #orest"and was characteri)ed by open herbaceous undergrowth' another resu"t o# the c"earing brought about by burning. /n *orth 0merican' contro""ed burning crated conditions #avorab"e to berries and other #ire-to"erant and sun-"oving #oods. &urning a"so converted mi5ed stands o# trees to homogeneous #orest' #or e5amp"e the "ong"ea#' s"ash pine' and scrub oa$ #orests o# the southeastern U. . natura" #ires do account #or some o# this vegetation' but regu"ar burning c"ear"y e5tended and maintained it. &urning a"so in#"uenced #orest composition in the tropics' where natura" #ires are rare. 0n e5amp"e is the pine-dominant #orests o# *icaragua' where warm temperatures and heavy rain#a"" natura""y #avor mi5ed tropica" or rain #orests. 8hi"e there are primari"y grow in coo"er' drier' higher e"evations' regions where such vegetation is in "arge part natura" and even prehuman. Today' the *icaraguan pines occur where there has

LSAT

1551

been c"earing #o""owed by regu"ar burning' and the same is "i$e"y to have occurred in the past> such #orests ere present when =uropeans arrived and were #ound on"y in areas where native sett"ements were substantia": when these sett"ements were abandoned' the "and returned to mi5ed hardwoods. This succession is a"so evident e"sewhere in simi"ar "ow tropica" e"evations in the %aribbean and ?e5ico.

1.

&hich one of the following most accurately e$presses the main idea of the passage% (A) espite e$tensi'e e'idence that nati'e populations had been burning 9orth and ;outh American forests e$tensi'ely before 10,2/ some scholars persist in claiming that such burning was either infre"uent or the result of natural causes. (B) 3n opposition to the widespread belief that in 10,2 the &estern hemisphere was unculti'ated/ scholars unanimously agree that nai'e population were substantially altering 9orth and ;outh American forests well before the arri'al of #uropeans. (C) Although some scholars minimi!e the scope and importance of the burning of forests engaged in by nati'e populations of 9orth and ;outh American before 10,2/ e'idence of the fre"uency and impact of such burning is actually "uite e$tensi'e. ( ) &here scholars had once belie'ed that 9orth and ;outh American forests remained unculti'ated until the arri'al of #uropeans/ there is now general agreement that nati'e populations had been culti'ating the forests since well before 10,2. (#) &hile scholars ha'e acknowledged that 9orth and ;outh American forests were being burned well before 10,2/ there is still disagreement o'er whether such burning was the result of natural causes or of the deliberate actions of nati'e populations.

2.

3t can be inferred that a forest burned as described in the passage would ha'e been K#A;T likely to display (A) numerous types of hardwood trees (B) e$tensi'e herbaceous undergrowth (C) a 'ariety of fire(tolerant plants ( ) 'arious stages of ecological maturity (#) grassy opening such as meadows or glades

..

&hich one of the following is a type of forest identified by the author as a product of controlled burning in recent times% (A) scrub oak forests in the southeastern :.;. (B) slash pine forests in the southeastern :.;. (C) pine forests in Buatemala at high ele'ations

1552

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

( ) pine forests in ?e$ico at high ele'ations (#) pine forests in 9icaragua at low ele'ations 0. &hich one of the following is presented by the author as e'idence of controlled burning in the tropics before the arri'al of #uropeans% (A) e$tensi'e homogeneous forests at high ele'ation (B) e$tensi'e homogeneous forests at low ele'ation (C) e$tensi'e heterogeneous forests at high ele'ation ( ) e$tensi'e heterogeneous forests at low ele'ation (#) e$tensi'e sedimentary charcoal accumulations at high ele'ation 1. &ith which one of the following would the author be most likely to agree% (A) The long(term effects of controlled burning could <ust as easily ha'e been caused by natural fires. (B) )erbaceous undergrowth pre'ents many forests from reaching full maturity. (C) #uropean settlers had little impact on the composition of the ecosystems in 9orth and ;outh America. ( ) Certain species of plants may not ha'e been as widespread in 9orth American without controlled burning. (#) 9icaraguan pine forests could ha'e been created either by natural fires or by controlled burning. 2. As e'idence fro the routine practice of forest burning by nati'e populations before the arri'al of #uropeans/ the author cites all of the following #DC#@TE (A) The similar characteristics of fires in different regions. (B) The simultaneous presence of forests at 'arying stages of maturity (C) The e$istence of herbaceous undergrowth in certain forests ( ) The hea'y accumulation of charcoal near populous settlements (#) The presence of meadows and glades in certain forests. -. The *succession+ mentioned in line 1- refers to (A) forest clearing followed by controlled burning of forests (B) tropical rain forest followed by pine forest (C) #uropean settlement followed by abandonment of land ( ) homogeneous pine forest followed by mi$ed hardwoods (#) correct the geographical record 6. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) refute certain researchers4 'iew (B) support a common belief (C) counter certain e'idence

LSAT

155.

( ) synthesi!e two 'iewpoints (#) correct the geographical record

/nte""ectua" authority is de#ined as the authority o# arguments that prevai" by virtue o# good reasoning and do not depend on coercion or convention. 0 contrasting notion' institutiona" authority' re#ers to the power o# socia" institutions to en#orce acceptance o# arguments that may or may not possess inte""ectua" authority. The authority wie"ded by "ega" systems is especia""y interesting because such systems are institutions that nonethe"ess aspire to a pure"y inte""ectua" authority. 9ne 2udge goes so #ar as to c"aim that courts are mere"y passive vehic"es #or app"ying the inte""ectua" authority o# the "aw and possess no coercive powers o# their own. /n contrast' some critics maintain that whatever authority 2udicia" pronouncements have is e5c"usive"y institutiona". ome o# these critics go #urther' c"aiming that inte""ectua" authority does not rea""y e5ist!i.e.' it reduces to institutiona" authority. &ut it can be countered that these c"aims brea$ down when a su##icient"y broad historica" perspective is ta$en> *ot a"" arguments accepted by institutions withstand the test o# time' and some we""-reasoned arguments never receive institutiona" imprimatur. The reasonab"e argument that goes unrecogni)ed in its own time because it cha""enges institutiona" be"ie#s is common in inte""ectua" history: inte""ectua" authority and institutiona" consensus are not the same thing. &ut the critics might respond' inte""ectua" authority is on"y recogni)ed as such because o# institutiona" consensus. 7or e5amp"e' i# a musico"ogist were to c"aim that an a""eged musica" genius who' a#ter severa" decades' had not gained respect and recognition #or his or her compositions is probab"y not a genius' the critics might say that basing a 2udgment on a unit o# time!;severa" decades<!is an institutiona" rather than an inte""ectua" construct. 8hat' the critics might as$' ma$es a particu"ar number o# decades reasonab"e evidence by which to 2udge geniusC The answer' o# course' is nothing' e5cept #or the #act that such institutiona" procedures have proved use#u" to musico"ogists in ma$ing such distinctions in the past. The ana"ogous "ega" concept is the doctrine o# precedent' i.e.' a 2udge3s mere"y deciding a case a certain way becoming a basis #or deciding "ater cases the same way!a pure e5amp"e o# institutiona" authority. &ut eh critics miss the crucia" distinction that when a 2udicia" decision is bad"y reasoned' or simp"y no "onger app"ies in the #ace o# evo"ving socia" standards or practices' the notion o# inte""ectua" authority is introduced> 2udges reconsider' revise' or in some cases throw out in the reconsideration o# decisions' "eading one to draw the conc"usion that "ega" systems contain a signi#icant degree o# inte""ectua" authority even i# the thrust o# their power is predominant"y institutiona".

,.

&hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage% (A) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual/ these systems possess a degree of institutional authority due to their ability to enforce acceptance of badly reasoned or socially inappropriate <udicial decisions. (B) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely institutional/ theses systems are more correctly seen as 'ehicles for applying

1550

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

the intellectual authority of the law while possessing no coerci'e power of their own. (C) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual/ these systems in fact wield institutional authority by 'irtue of the fact that intellectual authority reduces to institutional authority. ( ) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely institutional/ these systems possesses a degree of intellectual authority due to their ability to reconsider badly reasoned or socially inappropriate <udicial decisions. (#) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual/ these systems in fact wield e$clusi'ely institutional authority in that they possess the power to enforce acceptance of badly reasoned or socially inappropriate <udicial decisions. 15. That some arguments *ne'er recei'e institutional imprimatur+ (line 22(2.) most likely means that these arguments (A) fail to gain institutional consensus (B) fail to challenge institutional beliefs (C) fail to conform to the e$ample of precedent ( ) fail to con'ince by 'irtue of good reasoning (#) fail to gain acceptance e$cept by coercion 11. &hich one of the following/ if true/ most challenges the author4s contention that legal systems contain a significant degree of intellectual authority% (A) Audges often act under time constraints and occasionally render a badly reasoned or socially inappropriate decision. (B) 3n some legal systems/ the percentage of <udicial decisions that contain faulty reasoning is far higher than it is in other legal systems. (C) ?any socially inappropriate legal decisions are thrown out by <udges only after citi!ens begin to 'oice opposition to them. ( ) 3n some legal systems/ the percentage of <udicial decisions that are reconsidered and re'ised is far higher than it is in other legal systems. (#) Audges are rarely willing to rectify the e$amples of faulty reasoning they disco'er when re'iewing pre'ious legal decisions. 12. Bi'en the information in the passage/ the author is K#A;T likely to belie'e which one of the following% (A) 3nstitutional authority may depend on coercionI intellectual authority ne'er does. (B) 3ntellectual authority may accept well(reasoned argumentsI institutional authority ne'er does. (C) 3nstitutional authority may depend on con'entionI intellectual authority ne'er

LSAT

1551

does. ( ) 3ntellectual authority sometimes challenges institutional beliefsI institutional authority ne'er does. (#) 3ntellectual authority sometimes conflicts with precedentI institutional authority ne'er does. 1.. The author discusses the e$ample from musicology primarily in order to (A) distinguish the nothing of institutional authority from that of intellectual authority (B) gi'en an e$ample of an argument possessing intellectual authority that did not pre'ail in its own time (C) identify an e$ample in which the ascription of musical genius did not withstand the test of time ( ) illustrate the claim that assessing intellectual authority re"uires an appeal to institutional authority (#) demonstrate that the authority wielded by the arbiters of musical genius is entirely institutional 10. Based on the passage/ the author would be most likely to hold which one of the following 'iews about the doctrine of precedent% (A) it is the only tool <udges should use if they wish to achie'e a purely intellectual authority. (B) 3t is a useful tool in theory but in practice it in'ariably conflicts with the demands of intellectual authority. (C) 3t is a useful tool but lacks intellectual authority unless it is combined with the reconsidering of decisions. ( ) 3t is often an unreliable tool because it pre'ents <udges from reconsidering the intellectual authority of past decisions. (#) 3t is an unreliable tool that should be abandoned because it lacks intellectual authority.
/n e5p"aining the #oundations o# the discip"ine $nown as historica" socio"ogy!the e5amination o# history using the methods o# socio"ogy!historica" socio"ogist 6hi"ip 0brams argues that' whi"e peop"e are made by society as much as society is made by peop"e' socio"ogists3 approach to the sub2ect is usua""y to #ocus on on"y one o# these #orms o# in#"uence to the e5c"usion o# the other. 0brams insists on the necessity #or socio"ogists to move beyond these one-sided approaches to understand society as an entity constructed by individua"s who are at the same time constructed by their society. 0brams re#ers to this continuous process as ;structuring<. 0brams a"so sees history as the resu"t o# structuring. 6eop"e' both individua""y and as members o# co""ectives' ma$e history. &ut our ma$ing o# history is itse"# #ormed and in#ormed not on"y by the historica" conditions we inherit #rom the past' but a"so by the prior #ormation o# our own identities and capacities' which are shaped by what 0brams ca""s ;contingencies<!

1552

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

socia" phenomena over which we have varying degrees o# contro". %ontingencies inc"ude such things as the socia" conditions under which we come o# age' the condition o# our househo"d3s economy' the ideo"ogies avai"ab"e to he"p us ma$e sense o# our situation' and accidenta" circumstances. The ways in which contingencies a##ect our individua" or group identities create a structure o# #orces within which we are ab"e to act' and that partia""y determines the sorts o# actions we are ab"e to per#orm. /n 0brams ana"ysis' historica" structuring' "i$e socia" structuring' is mani#o"d and unremitting. To understand it' historica" socio"ogists must e5tract #rom it certain signi#icant episodes' or events' that their methodo"ogy can then ana"y)e and interpret. 0ccording to 0brams' these events are points at which action and contingency meet' points that represent a cross section o# the speci#ic socia" and individua" #orces in p"ay at a given time. 0t such moments' individua"s stand #orth as agents o# history not simp"y because they possess a uni+ue abi"ity to act' but a"so because in them we see the #orce o# the speci#ic socia" conditions that a""owed their actions to come #orth. /ndividua"s can ;ma$e their mar$< on history' yet in individua"s one a"so #inds the convergence o# wider socia" #orces. /n order to capture the various #acets o# this mutua" interaction' 0brams recommends a #our#o"d structure to which he be"ieves the investigations o# historica" socio"ogists shou"d con#orm> #irst' description o# the event itse"#: second' discussion o# the socia" conte5t that he"ped bring the event about and gave it signi#icance: third' summary o# the "i#e history o# the individua" agent in the event: and #ourth' ana"ysis o# the conse+uences o# the event both #or history and #or the individua".

11. &hich one of the following most accurately states the central idea of the passage% (A) Abrams argues that historical sociology re<ects the claims of sociologists who assert that the sociological concept of structuring cannot be applied to the interactions between indi'iduals and history. (B) Abrams argues that historical sociology assumes that/ despite the 'iews of sociologists to the contrary/ history influences the social contingencies that affect indi'iduals. (C) Abrams argues that historical sociology demonstrates that/ despite the 'iews of sociologists to the contrary/ social structures both influence and are influenced by the e'ents of history. ( ) Abrams describes historical sociology as a discipline that unites two approaches taken by sociologists to studying the formation of societies and applies the resulting combined approach to the study of history. (#) Abrams describes historical society as an attempt to compensate for the shortcoming of traditional historical methods by applying the methods established in sociology. 12. Bi'en the passage4s argument/ which one of the following sentences most logically completes the last paragraph% (A) 8nly if they adhere to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ can historical sociologists conclude with any certainty that the e'ents that constitute the

LSAT

155-

historical record are influenced by the actions of indi'iduals (B) 8nly if they adhere to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ will historical sociologists be able to counter the standard sociological assumption that there is 'ery little connection between history and indi'idual agency. (C) :nless they can agree to adhere to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ historical sociologists risk ha'ing their discipline treated as little more than an interesting but ultimately indefensible ad<unct to history and sociology. ( ) By adhering to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ historical sociologists can shed light on issues that traditional sociologists ha'e chosen to ignore in their one(sided approaches to the formation of societies. (#) By adhering to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ historical sociologists will be able to better portray the comple$ connections between human agency and history. 1-. The passage states that a contingency could be each of the following #DC#@TE (A) a social phenomenon (B) a form of historical structuring (C) an accidental circumstance ( ) a condition controllable to some e$tent by an indi'idual (#) a partial determinant of an indi'idual4s actions 16. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the ideal work of a historical sociologist as outlined by Abrams% (A) 3n a report on the enactment of a bill into law/ a <ournalist e$plains why the need for the bill arose/ sketches the biography of the principal legislator who wrote the bill/ and ponders the effect that the bill4s enactment will ha'e both one society and on the legislator4s career. (B) 3n a consultation with a patient/ a doctor re'iews the patient4s medical history/ suggests possible reasons for the patient4s current condition/ and recommends steps that the patient should take in the future to ensure that the condition impro'es or at least does not get any worse. (C) 3n an analysis of a historical no'el/ a critic pro'ides information to support the claim that details of the work4s setting are accurate/ e$plains why the sub<ect of the no'el was of particular interest to the author/ and compares the no'el with some of the author4s other books set in the same period. ( ) 3n a presentation to stockholders/ a corporation4s chief e$ecuti'e officer describes the corporations4 most profitable acti'ities during the past year/ introduces the 'ice president largely responsible for those acti'ities/ and discusses new pro<ects the 'ice president will initiate in the coming year. (#) 3n de'eloping a film based on a historical e'ent/ a filmmaker conducts inter'iews with participants in the e'ent/ bases part of the film4s screenplay on the inter'iews/ and concludes the screenplay with a se"uence of scenes

1556

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

speculating on the outcome of the e'ent had certain details been different. 1,. The primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is to (A) outline the merits of Abram4s conception of historical sociology (B) con'ey the details of Abrams4s conception of historical sociology (C) anticipate challenges to Abrams4s conception of historical sociology ( ) e$amine the roles of key terms used in Abrams4s conception of historical sociology (#) identify the basis of Abrams4s conception of historical sociology 25. Based on the passage/ which one of the following is the K#A;T illustrati'e e$ample of the effect of a contingency upon an indi'idual% (A) the effect of the fact that a person e$perienced political in<ustice on that person4s decision to work for political reform (B) the effect of the fact that a person was raised in an agricultural region on that person4s decision to pursue a career in agriculture (C) the effect of the fact that a person li'es in a particular community on that person4s decision to 'isit friends in another community ( ) the effect of the fact that a person4s parents practiced a particular religion on that person4s decision to practice that religion (#) the effect of the fact that a person grew up in financial hardship on that person4s decision to help others in financial hardship
9ne o# the greatest cha""enges #acing medica" students today' apart #rom absorbing vo"umes o# technica" in#ormation and "earning habits o# scienti#ic thought' is that o# remaining empathetic to the needs o# patients in the #ace o# a"" this rigorous training. Re+uiring students to immerse themse"ves comp"ete"y in medica" coursewor$ ris$s disconnecting them #rom the persona" and ethica" aspects o# doctoring' and such strict"y scienti#ic thin$ing is insu##icient #or grapp"ing with modern ethica" di"emmas. 7or these reasons' aspiring physicians need to deve"op new ways o# thin$ing about and interacting with patients. Training in ethics that ta$es narrative "iterature as its primary sub2ect is one method o# accomp"ishing this. 0"though training in ethics is current"y provided by medica" schoo"s' this training re"ies heavi"y on an abstract' phi"osophica" view o# ethics. 0"though the conceptua" c"arity provided by a traditiona" ethics course can be va"uab"e' theori)ing about ethics contributes "itt"e to the understanding o# everyday human e5perience or to preparing medica" students #or the mu"ti#arious ethica" di"emmas they wi"" #ace as physicians. 0 true #oundation in ethics must be predicated on an understanding o# human behavior that re#"ects a wide array o# re"ationships and readi"y adapts to various perspectives' #or this is what is re+uired to deve"op empathy. =thics courses drawing on narrative "iterature can better he"p students prepare #or ethica" di"emmas precise"y because such "iterature attaches its readers so #orce#u""y to the concrete and varied wou"d o# human events. The act o# reading narrative "iterature is uni+ue"y suited to the deve"opment o# what might be ca""ed #"e5ib"e ethica" thin$ing. To grasp the deve"opment o# character' to tang"e with

LSAT
heightening mora" crises' and to engage onese"# with the story not as one s own but

155,

neverthe"ess as something recogni)ab"e and worthy o# attention' readers must use their mora" imagination. Aiving onese"# over to the ethica" con#"icts in a story re+uires the abandonment o# strict"y abso"ute' invio"ate sets o# mora" princip"es. Reading "iterature a"so demands that the reader adopt another person3s point o# view \that o# the narrator or a character in a story! and thus re+uires the abi"ity to depart #rom one3s persona" ethica" stance and e5amine mora" issues #rom new perspectives. /t does not #o""ow that readers' inc"uding medica" pro#essiona"s' must re"in+uish a"" mora" princip"es' as is the case with situationa" ethics' in which decisions about ethica" choices are made on the basis o# intuition ad are entire"y re"ative to the circumstances in which they arise. uch an e5treme"y re"ativistic stance wou"d have as "itt"e bene#it #or the patient or physician as wou"d a dogmatica""y abso"utist one. 7ortunate"y' the incorporation o# narrative "iterature into the study o# ethics' whi"e serving as a corrective to the "ater stance' need not "ead to the #ormer. &ut it can give us something that is "ac$ing in the traditiona" phi"osophica" study o# ethics!name"y' a deeper understanding o# human nature that can serve as a #oundation #or ethica" reasoning and a""ow greater #"e5ibi"ity in the app"ication o# mora" princip"es.

21. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main point of the passage% (A) Training in ethics that incorporates narrati'e literature would better culti'ate fle$ible ethical thinking and increase medical students4 capacity for empathetic patient care as compared with the traditional approach of medical schools to such training. (B) Traditional abstract ethical training/ because it is too hea'ily focused on theoretical reasoning/ tends to decrease or impair that medical student4s sensiti'ity to modern ethical dilemmas. (C) 8nly a properly designed curriculum that balances situational/ abstract/ and narrati'e approaches to ethics will ade"uately prepare the medical student for comple$ ethical confrontations in'ol'ing actual patients. ( ) 9arrati'e(based instruction in ethics is becoming increasingly popular in medical schools because it re"uires students to de'elop a capacity for empathy by e$amining comple$ moral issues from a 'ariety of perspecti'es. (#) The study of narrati'e literature in medical schools would nurture moral intuition/ enabling the future doctor to make ethical decisions without appeal to general principles. 22. &hich one of the following most accurately represents the author4s use of the term *moral imagination *in line .6% (A) a sense of curiosity/ aroused by reading/ that leads one to follow acti'ely the de'elopment of problems in'ol'ing the characters depicted in narrati'es. (B) A faculty of seeking out and recogni!ing the ethical contro'ersies in'ol'ed in human relationships and identifying oneself with one side or another in such contro'ersies (C) A capacity to understand the comple$ities of 'arious ethical dilemmas and to

1515

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

fashion creati'e and inno'ati'e solutions to them ( ) An ability to understand personal aspects of ethically significant situations e'en if one is not a direct participant and to empathi!e with those in'ol'ed in them. (#) An ability to act upon ethical principles different from one4s own for the sake of 'ariety. 2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely agree with which one of the following statements% (A) The hea'y load of technical coursework in today4s medical schools often keeps them from gi'ing ade"uate emphasis to courses in medical ethics. (B) ;tudents learn more about ethics through the use of fiction than through the use of non(fictional readings. (C) The traditional method of ethical training in medical schools should be supplemented or replaced by more direct practical e$perience with real(life patients in ethically difficult situations. ( ) The failing of an abstract/ philosophical training in ethics can be remedied only by replacing it with a purely narrati'e(based approach. (#) 9either scientific training nor traditional philosophical ethics ade"uately prepares doctors to deal with the emotional dimension of patients4 needs. 20. 21. &hich one of the following is most likely the author4s o'erall purpose in the passage% (A) To ad'ise medical schools on how to implement a narrati'e(based approach to ethics in their curricula. (B) To argue that the current methods of ethics education are counterproducti'e to the formation of empathetic doctor(patient relationships. (C) To argue that the ethical content of narrati'e literature foreshadows the pitfalls of situational ethics. ( ) To propose an approach to ethical training in medical school that will preser'e the human dimension of medicine. (#) To demonstrate the 'alue of a well(designed ethics education for medical students. 22. The passage ascribes each of the following characteristics to the use of narrati'e literature in ethical education #DC#@TE (A) 3t tends to a'oid the e$treme relati'ism of situational ethics. (B) 3t connects students to 'aried types of human e'ents. (C) 3t can help lead medical students to de'elop new ways of dealing with patients.

LSAT

1511

( ) 3t re"uires students to e$amine moral issues from new perspecti'es. (#) 3t can help insulate future doctors from the shock of the ethical dilemmas they will confront. 2-. The author4s attitude regarding the traditional method of teaching ethics in medical school can most accurately be described as (A) un"ualified disappro'al of the method and disappro'al of all of its effects (B) reser'ed <udgment regarding the method and disappro'al of all of its effects (C) partial disappro'al of the method and clinical indifference toward its effects ( ) partial appro'al of the method and disappro'al of all of its effects (#) partial disappro'al of the method and appro'al of some of its effects GMAT RC 117Passages GMAT New 63Passages Passage 1 (1/63)
1. 2. B B 2. -. # # .. 6. C C 0. A 1. C

Passage 2 (2/63)
1. 2. A C 2. -. B B .. 6. C C 0. ,. # 1. B

Passage 3 (3/63)
1. 2. # A 2. -. B B .. 6. A B 0. # 1.

Passage 4 (4/63)
1. 2. B 2. -. B A .. C 0. B 1. A

Passage 5 (5/63)
1. 2. # A 2. -. # .. 6. B 0. ,. C A 1. B

Passage 6 (6/63)
1. A 2. .. B 0. A 1. #

1512

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

C -. 6. B ,. A

2.

Passage 7 (7/63)
1. 2. # 2. -. C C .. 0. B 1. B

Passage 8 (8/63)
1. 2. A A 2. -. C # .. 6. A 0. ,. C 1. #

Passage 9 (9/63)
1. 2. # # 2. -. A .. 6. C A 0. ,. C B 1. B

Passage 10 (10/63)
1. 2. # 2. -. B .. 6. B 0. ,. A A 1.

Passage 11 (11/63)
1. 2. B C 2. -. # B .. # 0. C 1. A

Passage 12 (12/63)
1. 2. A B 2. -. B .. 6. C # 0. ,. C 1. C 15.

Passage 13 (13/63)
1. 2. 2. -. # .. 6. C B 0. ,. 1. C 15.

Passage 14 (14/63)
1. 2. # B 2. -. # C .. 6. 0. ,. # 1. A 15.

Passage 15 (15/63)
1. 2. 2. -. C C .. 6. A A 0. ,. 1. C 15.

LSAT

151.

Passage 16 (16/63)
1. 2. A 2. -. C B .. 6. B 0. ,. B 1. C 15.

Passage 17 (17/63)
1. 2. A 2. -. # C .. 6. # A 0. ,. B # 1. C 15.

Passage 18 (18/63)
1. 2. C 2. -. # .. 6. B A 0. ,. C B 1. B 15.

Passage 19 (19/63)
1. 2. # 2. -. A .. 6. B 0. ,. C 1. B 15.

Passage 20 (20/63)
1. 2. C C 2. -. A B .. 6. 0. ,. A 1. A 15.

Passage 21 (21/63)
1. 2. # 2. -. C .. 6. B A 0. ,. A 1. 15.

Passage 22 (22/63)
1. 2. B B 2. -. C .. 6. # A 0. ,. 1. 15.

Passage 23 (23/63)
1. 2. B 2. -. C C .. 6. A A 0. ,. # 1. C 15.

Passage 24 (24/63)
1. 2. B C 2. -. A .. 6. A 0. ,. # 1. # 15.

Passage 25 (25/63)

1510

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

B C 2. -. # A .. 6. B C 0. ,. C 1. A 15.

1. 2.

Passage 26 (26/63)
1. 2. # 2. -. C .. 6. # A 0. ,. # 1. B 15.

Passage 27 (27/63)
1. 2. B # 2. -. C .. 6. # 0. ,. C 1. B 15.

Passage 28 (28/63)
1. 2. B C 2. -. B .. 6. 0. ,. 1. 15.

Passage 29 (29/63)
1. 2. # 2. -. C B .. 6. C 0. ,. A 1. # 15.

Passage 30 (30/63)
1. 2. B C 2. -. A # .. 6. 0. ,. B 1. A 15.

Passage 31 (31/63)
1. 2. 2. -. # B .. 6. # 0. ,. C 1. C 15.

Passage 32 (32/63)
1. 2. B B 2. -. C B .. 6. C 0. ,. C 1. A 15.

Passage 33 (33/63)
1. 2. B C 2. -. A B .. 6. B 0. ,. 1. B 15.

Passage 34 (34/63)
1. 2. C C 2. -. C .. 6. 0. ,. B 1. A 15.

LSAT

1511

Passage 35 (35/63)
1. 2. B A 2. -. # .. 6. C # 0. ,. 1. # 15.

Passage 36 (36/63)
1. 2. B # 2. -. A B .. 6. C 0. ,. A 1. A 15.

Passage 37 (37/63)
1. 2. C C 2. -. B .. 6. # 0. ,. C 1. A 15.

Passage 38 (38/63)
1. 2. C # 2. -. B .. 6. A 0. ,. C 1. # 15.

Passage 39 (39/63)
1. C 2. .. # 0. B 1.

Passage 40 (40/63)
1. 2. B 2. -. # A .. 6. A A 0. ,. 1. C 15.

Passage 41 (41/63)
1. 2. # C 2. -. A .. 6. # A 0. ,. C A 1. B 15.

Passage 42 (42/63)
1. 2. C # 2. -. .. 6. C 0. ,. # 1. B 15.

Passage 43 (43/63)
1. 2. A C 2. -. B .. 6. # 0. ,. B 1. C 15.

Passage 44 (44/63)
1. B 2. C .. # 0. 1. A

1512

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

C -. # 6. A ,. 15.

2.

Passage 45 (45/63)
1. 2. C A 2. -. B C .. 6. B 0. ,. # 1. A 15.

Passage 46 (46/63)
1. 2. A 2. -. # .. 6. 0. ,. 1. C 15.

Passage 47 (47/63)
1. 2. B 2. -. C .. 6. A 0. ,. C 1. # 15.

Passage 48 (48/63)
1. 2. C B 2. -. .. 6. B 0. ,. C 1. A 15.

Passage 49 (49/63)
1. 2. B C 2. -. C C .. 6. # A 0. ,. C 1. # 15.

Passage 50 (50/63)
1. 2. B A 2. -. A C .. 6. C 0. ,. B 1. 15.

Passage 51 (51/63)
1. 2. # 2. -. A A .. 6. # 0. ,. B 1. C 15.

Passage 52 (52/63)
1. 2. B # 2. -. A .. 6. B 0. ,. B 1. 15.

Passage 53 (53/63)
1. 2. C A 2. -. B .. 6. # 0. ,. C 1. 15.

LSAT

151-

Passage 54 (54/63)
1. 2. # 2. -. .. 6. C 0. ,. # 1. B 15.

Passage 55 (55/63)
1. 2. C A 2. -. B A .. 6. # 0. ,. # 1. # 15.

Passage 56 (56/63)
1. 2. # C 2. -. .. 6. A 0. ,. 1. B 15.

Passage 57 (57/63)
1. C 2. .. 0. A 1. #

Passage 58 (58/63)
1. C 2. .. # 0. 1. B

Passage 59 (59/63)
1. 2. A C 2. -. .. 6. B 0. ,. # 1. B 15.

Passage 60 (60/63)
1. 2. C A 2. -. B C .. 6. B 0. ,. B 1. # 15.

Passage 61 (61/63)
1. B 2. A .. A 0. # 1. C

Passage 62 (62/63)
1. 2. B C 2. -. A .. 6. B 0. ,. 1. 15.

Passage 63 (63/63)
1. 2. B B 2. -. C .. 6. A 0. ,. 1. # 15.

GMAT 22Passages

1516

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

Passage 64 (1/22)
1. 2. # B 2. -. # A .. 6. B 0. ,. C 1. A 15.

Passage 65 (2/22)
1. 2. A B 2. -. # A .. 6. C 0. ,. 1. B 15.

Passage 66 (3/22)
1. 2. C C 2. -. A .. 6. B C 0. ,. A 1. C 15.

Passage 67 (4/22)
1. 2. A A 2. -. C # .. 6. # B 0. ,. A 1. C 15.

Passage 68 (5/22)
1. 2. C B 2. -. B C .. 6. # A 0. ,. A A 1. B 15.

Passage 69 (6/22)
1. 2. C # 2. -. B C .. 6. # B 0. ,. A B 1. 15.

Passage 70 (7/22)
1. 2. # C 2. -. A # .. 6. # A 0. ,. A 1. B 15.

Passage 71 (8/22)
1. 2. C # 2. -. B A .. 6. A 0. ,. A 1. B 15.

Passage 72 (9/22)
1. 2. C # 2. -. # .. 6. B C 0. ,. B B 1. A 15.

Passage 73 (10/22)

LSAT
1. 2. # B 2. -. B .. 6. A C 0. ,. # A 1. C 15.

151,

Passage 74 (11/22)
1. 2. C C 2. -. B # .. 6. # A 0. ,. 1. A 15.

Passage 75 (12/22)
1. 2. C B 2. -. A .. 6. # 0. ,. # 1. C 15.

Passage 76 (13/22)
1. 2. B 2. -. # C .. 6. B 0. ,. A 1. A 15.

Passage 77 (14/22)
1. 2. C A 2. -. # C .. 6. C C 0. ,. B B 1. B 15.

Passage 78 (15/22)
1. 2. A C 2. -. A .. 6. B 0. ,. A 1. # 15.

Passage 79 (16/22)
1. 2. C 2. -. # # .. 6. A A 0. ,. C B 1. 15.

Passage 80 (17/22)
1. B 2. .. C 0. A 1. B

Passage 81 (18/22)
1. 2. # C 2. -. B .. 6. B A 0. ,. # 1. C 15.

Passage 82 (19/22)
1. 2. C A 2. -. B # .. 6. 0. ,. A 1. # 15.

1525

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

Passage 83 (20/22)
1. 2. A A 2. -. # C .. 6. C A 0. ,. 1. B 15.

Passage 84 (21/22)
1. 2. B C 2. -. A .. 6. B # 0. ,. C # 1. C 15.

Passage 85 (22/22)
1. 2. 2. -. # B .. 6. A 0. ,. A 1. C 15.

GMAT 15Passages Passage 86 (1/15)

1. 2. C 2. -. B # .. 6. B 0. ,. # 1. A 15.

Passage 87 (2/15)
1. 2. B 2. -. C B .. 6. B C 0. ,. A 1. # 15.

Passage 88 (3/15)
1. 2. C A 2. -. A B .. 6. 0. ,. B C 1. C 15.

Passage 89 (4/15)
1. 2. B # 2. -. A B .. 6. B C 0. ,. # A 1. C 15.

Passage 90 (5/15)
1. 2. C C 2. -. # B .. 6. # 0. ,. # 1. 15. A

Passage 91 (6/15)
1. 2. A A 2. -. A .. 6. A 0. ,. B 1. C 15.

LSAT

1521

Passage 92 (7/15)
1. 2. # # 2. -. B B .. 6. A C 0. ,. # 1. A 15.

Passage 93 (8/15)
1. 2. A B 2. -. C # .. 6. # B 0. ,. C 1. 15.

Passage 94 (9/15)
1. 2. B # 2. -. C .. 6. 0. ,. # 1. A 15.

Passage 95 (10/15)
1. 2. B # 2. -. C # .. 6. 0. ,. # 1. C 15.

Passage 96 (11/15)
1. 2. B 2. -. # .. 6. A A 0. ,. # 1. C 15.

Passage 97 (12/15)
1. 2. C C 2. -. B B .. 6. A A 0. ,. A 1. A 15.

Passage 98 (13/15)
1. 2. B 2. -. C A .. 6. A C 0. ,. # 1. A 15.

Passage 99 (14/15)
1. 2. C A 2. -. C # .. 6. # A 0. ,. B 1. B 15.

Passage 100 (15/15)

1. 2. # B 2. -. B .. 6. B 0. ,. 1. # 15.

OG 17Passages

1522

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

Passage 101 (1/17)

-.. C -6. A -0. # -,. -1. A 65. -2. 61. --. C 62.

Passage 102 (2/17)

65. B 61. 61. C 62. C 62. 6-. # 6.. A 66. 60. A 6,.

Passage 103 (3/17)

1.1. B 1.2. C 1.2. 1.-. 1... B 1.6. 1.0. # 1.,. 1.1. A 105.

Passage 104 (4/17)

1.-. 102. B 1.6. A 10.. # 1.,. # 100. 105. C 101. 101. 102.

Passage 105 (5/17)

100. # 101. C 102. C 10-. C 106. #

Passage 106 (6/17)

2.1. # 2.2. B 2... 2.0. 2.1. A

Passage 107 (7/17)

2.2. C 2.-. 2.6. B 2.,. # 205. B

Passage 108 (8/17)

201. C 202. # 202. A 20-. # 20.. A 206. B 200. C 20,. 201. B 215.

Passage 109 (9/17)

20,. B 215. 211. C 212. B 21..

Passage 110 (10/17)

21.. 210. B 211. # 212. C 21-.

Passage 111 (11/17)

21-. B 216. A 21,. B 225. 221.

LSAT

152.

Passage 112 (12/17)

221. 222. B 22.. B 220. B 221.

Passage 113 (13/17)

221. B 222. A 22-. A 226. 22,.

Passage 114 (14/17)

226. 22,. 2-5. # 2-1. C 2-2.

Passage 115 (15/17)

2-2. 2-.. B 2-0. 2-1. # 2-2.

Passage 116 (16/17)

2-2. C 261. 2--. B 262. # 2-6. 26.. 2-,. B 260. 265. C 261.

Passage 117 (17/17)

26.. 260. B 261. 262. 26-.

GRE RC (No. 2No. 9) No. 2-1 SECTION A

1-. B 22. C 2-. 16. C 2.. # 26. 1,. 20. B 2,. 25. # 21. # .5. 21. A 22. A .1.

SECTION B
1-. A 22. C 2-. B 16. C 2.. A 26. 1,. 20. C 2,. 25. # 21. # .5. 21. B 22. C .1.

No. 2-2 SECTION A

1-. B 16. C 1,. 25. 21. #

1520

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

2.. B 26. 20. C 2,. 21. # .5. 22. .1.

22. # 2-.

SECTION B
1-. A 22. B 2-. C 16. B 2.. # 26. 1,. 20. 2,. 25. C 21. # .5. 21. B 22. # .1.

No. 2-3 SECTION A

1-. 22. # 2-. A 16. B 2.. 26. 1,. # 20. B 2,. 25. C 21. .5. 21. A 22. C .1.

SECTION B
1-. # 22. A 2-. 16. 2.. C 26. 1,. B 20. A 2,. 25. 21. C .5. 21. B 22. # .1.

No. 3-1 SECTION A

1-. 22. C 2-. 16. C 2.. A 26. 1,. C 20. # 2,. 25. 21. .5. 21. 22. C .1.

SECTION B
1-. C 22. 2-. A 16. A 2.. C 26. 1,. B 20. 2,. 25. # 21. B .5. 21. A 22. A .1.

No. 3-2 SECTION A

1-. A 22. # 2-. C 16. B 2.. C 1,. C 20. 25. 21. # 21. A 22. C

LSAT

1521

SECTION B
1-. # 22. # 2-. # 16. 2.. C 26. 1,. # 20. 2,. 25. 21. A .5. 21. 22. .1.

No. 3-3 SECTION A

1-. C 22. B 2-. # 16. 2.. A 26. 1,. C 20. C 2,. 25. B 21. # .5. 21. C 22. A .1.

SECTION B
1-. 22. A 2-. # 16. B 2.. B 26. 1,. C 20. A 2,. 25. 21. C .5. 21. C 22. .1.

No. 4-1 SECTION A

1-. C 22. 2-. 16. B 2.. B 26. 1,. A 20. B 2,. 25. B 21. A .5. 21. C 22. # .1.

SECTION B
1-. 22. A 2-. B 16. B 2.. C 26. 1,. A 20. 2,. 25. 21. A .5. 21. C 22. C .1.

No. 4-2 SECTION A

1-. B 22. C 2-. # 16. C 2.. A 26. 1,. A 20. # 2,. 25. 21. .5. 21. # 22. # .1.

SECTION B

1522

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

16. A 2.. B 26. 1,. 20. 2,. 25. B 21. C .5. 21. C 22. A .1.

1-. # 22. # 2-.

No. 4-3 SECTION A

1-. # 22. B 2-. A 16. 2.. 26. 1,. C 20. A 2,. 25. # 21. # .5. 21. # 22. A .1.

SECTION B
1-. A 22. 2-. B 16. # 2.. 26. 1,. C 20. A 2,. 25. C 21. # .5. 21. 22. # .1.

No. 5-1 SECTION A

1-. 22. A 2-. B 16. B 2.. 26. 1,. # 20. A 2,. 25. # 21. # .5. 21. C 22. .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. 2-. B 16. A 2.. B 26. 1,. # 20. 2,. 25. A 21. A .5. 21. # 22. # .1.

No. 5-2 SECTION A

1-. 22. B 2-. 16. 2.. A 26. 1,. B 20. C 2,. 25. C 21. B .5. 21. # 22. C .1.

SECTION B
1-. A 22. B 16. C 2.. C 1,. # 20. A 25. B 21. B 21. 22. #

LSAT
2-. A 26. 2,. .5. .1.

152-

No. 5-3 SECTION A

1-. B 22. A 2-. # 16. 2.. # 26. 1,. A 20. C 2,. 25. C 21. A .5. 21. B 22. B .1.

SECTION B
1-. # 22. 2-. # 16. B 2.. B 26. 1,. # 20. C 2,. 25. C 21. # .5. 21. # 22. A .1.

No. 6-1 SECTION A

1-. B 22. A 2-. # 16. A 2.. # 26. 1,. B 20. B 2,. 25. A 21. C .5. 21. 22. .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. 2-. # 16. B 2.. 26. 1,. A 20. A 2,. 25. # 21. .5. 21. B 22. # .1.

No. 6-2 SECTION A

1-. # 22. B 2-. 16. 2.. C 26. 1,. C 20. # 2,. 25. A 21. C .5. 21. 22. # .1.

SECTION B
1-. C 22. # 2-. 16. C 2.. # 26. 1,. A 20. B 2,. 25. A 21. # .5. 21. 22. C .1.

1526

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

No. 6-3 SECTION A

1-. C 22. C 2-. A 16. C 2.. A 26. 1,. A 20. C 2,. 25. C 21. A .5. 21. # 22. .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. B 2-. B 16. # 2.. C 26. 1,. 20. A 2,. 25. A 21. C .5. 21. 22. C .1.

No. 7-1 SECTION A

1-. A 22. B 2-. # 16. # 2.. B 26. 1,. 20. C 2,. 25. A 21. C .5. 21. 22. # .1.

SECTION B
1-. A 22. 2-. 16. C 2.. C 26. 1,. B 20. 2,. 25. B 21. A .5. 21. A 22. # .1.

No. 7-2 SECTION A

1-. C 22. C 2-. 16. A 2.. # 26. 1,. C 20. C 2,. 25. A 21. .5. 21. A 22. A .1.

SECTION B
1-. 22. # 2-. 16. A 2.. B 26. 1,. B 20. C 2,. 25. 21. .5. 21. C 22. B .1.

No. 7-3

LSAT

152,

SECTION A
1-. C 22. 2-. # 16. B 2.. # 26. 1,. # 20. A 2,. 25. 21. B .5. 21. C 22. .1.

SECTION B
1-. 22. 2-. # 16. # 2.. A 26. 1,. C 20. C 2,. 25. B 21. C .5. 21. 22. B .1.

No. 8-1 SECTION A

1-. 22. # 2-. 16. # 2.. A 26. 1,. C 20. C 2,. 25. A 21. C .5. 21. B 22. # .1.

SECTION B
1-. C 22. # 16. A 2.. B 1,. 20. 25. # 21. A 21. C 22. #

No. 8-2 SECTION A

1-. C 22. A 2-. A 16. 2.. 26. 1,. B 20. 2,. 25. 21. B .5. 21. B 22. # .1.

SECTION B
1-. 22. 2-. 16. B 2.. A 26. 1,. A 20. A 2,. 25. # 21. B .5. 21. B 22. C .1.

No. 8-3 SECTION A

1-. C 16. B 1,. 25. A 21. B

15.5

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

2.. B 26. 20. A 2,. 21. C .5. 22. .1.

22. # 2-. A

SECTION B
1-. B 22. B 2-. B 16. # 2.. C 26. 1,. C 20. C 2,. 25. C 21. A .5. 21. A 22. A .1.

No. 9-1 SECTION A

1-. 22. A 2-. 16. B 2.. 26. 1,. B 20. # 2,. 25. B 21. .5. 21. B 22. A .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. 2-. C 16. 2.. A 26. 1,. A 20. B 2,. 25. 21. B .5. 21. C 22. B .1.

No. 9-2 SECTION A

1-. B 22. B 2-. B 16. B 2.. # 26. 1,. A 20. C 2,. 25. 21. .5. 21. A 22. A .1.

SECTION B
1-. 22. # 2-. 16. C 2.. A 26. 1,. # 20. A 2,. 25. B 21. # .5. 21. 22. C .1.

No. 9-3 SECTION A

1-. A 22. # 2-. B 16. # 2.. C 26. 1,. B 20. # 2,. 25. B 21. C .5. 21. # 22. C .1.

LSAT

15.1

SECTION B
1-. B 22. A 2-. B 16. 2.. # 26. 1,. B 20. C 2,. 25. 21. A .5. 21. # 22. B .1.

No. 9-4 SECTION A

1-. A 22. 2-. B 16. 2.. A 26. 1,. 20. # 2,. 25. B 21. B .5. 21. B 22. C .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. C 2-. B 16. B 2.. B 26. 1,. C 20. 2,. 25. A 21. C .5. 21. # 22. A .1.

No. 9-5 SECTION A

1-. C 22. 2-. B 16. A 2.. B 26. 1,. 20. # 2,. 25. # 21. A .5. 21. A 22. A .1.

SECTION B
1-. C 22. B 2-. # 16. 2.. A 26. 1,. # 20. B 2,. 25. A 21. A .5. 21. 22. .1.

No. 9-6 SECTION A

1-. B 22. C 2-. B 16. # 2.. B 26. 1,. A 20. C 2,. 25. B 21. # .5. 21. A 22. .1.

SECTION B

15.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

16. C 2.. A 26. 1,. 20. # 2,. 25. A 21. B .5. 21. A 22. C .1.

1-. # 22. 2-.

GRE RC 1990 04 SECTION A

1-. A 22. A 2-. # 16. C 2.. B 26. 1,. C 20. C 2,. 25. C 21. # .5. 21. B 22. A .1.

SECTION B
1-. C 22. C 2-. 16. B 2.. C 26. 1,. A 20. 2,. 25. B 21. # .5. 21. 22. A .1.

1990 10 SECTION A
1-. C 22. 2-. B 16. B 2.. 26. 1,. A 20. B 2,. 25. C 21. A .5. 21. # 22. # .1.

SECTION B
1-. A 22. A 2-. C 16. 2.. B 26. 1,. B 20. C 2,. 25. 21. .5. 21. B 22. A .1.

1991 02 SECTION A
1-. A 22. # 2-. C 16. B 2.. 26. 1,. # 782 E 2,. 25. A 21. # .5. 21. 22. .1.

SECTION B

LSAT
1-. B 22. A 2-. 16. # 2.. 26. 1,. # 20. A 2,. 25. B 21. C .5. 21. B 22. C .1.

15..

1991 04 SECTION A
1-. 22. C 2-. # 16. C 2.. B 26. 1,. B 20. A 2,. 25. A 21. # .5. 21. A 22. # .1.

SECTION B
1-. C 22. 2-. B 16. B 2.. 26. 1,. # 20. B 2,. 25. B 21. C .5. 21. C 22. A .1.

1991 10 SECTION A
1-. A 22. C 2-. B 16. B 2.. 26. 1,. # 20. A 2,. 25. C 21. .5. 21. B 22. # .1.

SECTION B
1-. 22. B 2-. # 16. # 2.. 26. 1,. 20. A 2,. 25. # 21. C .5. 21. 22. B .1.

1992 02 SECTION A
1-. B 22. A 2-. # 16. C 2.. A 26. 1,. B 20. A 2,. 25. # 21. B .5. 21. 22. .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. 16. A 2.. A 1,. # 20. # 25. 21. B 21. B 22. B

15.0

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

26. 2,. .5. .1.

2-. C

1992 04 SECTION A
1-. # 22. B 2-. C 16. 2.. C 26. 1,. # 20. 2,. 25. A 21. C .5. 21. # 22. B .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. B 2-. B 16. B 2.. # 26. 1,. 20. C 2,. 25. A 21. A .5. 21. B 22. A .1.

1992 10 SECTION A
1-. A 22. 2-. C 16. # 2.. B 26. 1,. 20. C 2,. 25. B 21. .5. 21. C 22. # .1.

SECTION B
1-. # 22. 2-. # 16. 2.. # 26. 1,. C 20. 2,. 25. B 21. B .5. 21. A 22. .1.

1993 02 SECTION A
1-. 22. C 2-. A 16. # 2.. # 26. 1,. B 20. B 2,. 25. A 21. .5. 21. # 22. B .1.

SECTION B
1-. C 22. 2-. A 16. A 2.. B 26. 1,. A 20. B 2,. 25. 21. B .5. 21. A 22. .1.

LSAT

15.1

1993 04 SECTION A
1-. 22. # 2-. # 16. B 2.. A 26. 1,. A 20. C 2,. 25. C 21. C .5. 21. # 22. .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. C 2-. 16. 2.. B 26. 1,. A 20. # 2,. 25. B 21. # .5. 21. A 22. C .1.

SECTION C
1-. 22. B 2-. A 16. # 2.. 26. 1,. 20. B 2,. 25. # 21. # .5. 21. A 22. A .1.

1993 10 SECTION A
1-. C 22. # 2-. B 16. 2.. C 26. 1,. B 20. # 2,. 25. A 21. # .5. 21. B 22. A .1.

SECTION B
1-. 22. C 2-. # 16. A 2.. 26. 1,. B 20. A 2,. 25. # 21. C .5. 21. # 22. # .1.

1994 02 SECTION A
1-. B 22. B 2-. # 16. # 2.. B 26. 1,. B 20. 2,. 25. C 21. A .5. 21. C 22. # .1.

SECTION B

15.2

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

16. A 2.. B 26. 1,. 20. # 2,. 25. # 21. A .5. 21. 22. .1.

1-. B 22. A 2-. B

1994 04 SECTION A
1-. A 22. A 2-. B 16. 2.. B 26. 1,. C 20. 2,. 25. # 21. # .5. 21. B 22. C .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. 2-. B 16. 2.. B 26. 1,. C 20. # 2,. 25. # 21. C .5. 21. A 22. # .1.

1994 10 SECTION A
1-. C 22. 2-. A 16. A 2.. # 26. 1,. B 20. B 2,. 25. B 21. C .5. 21. A 22. .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. B 2-. C 16. # 2.. 26. 1,. A 20. 2,. 25. A 21. .5. 21. 22. A .1.

1995 04 SECTION A
1-. # 22. A 2-. 16. A 2.. # 26. 1,. C 20. A 2,. 25. 21. # .5. 21. B 22. B .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. # 16. 2.. A 1,. 20. 25. # 21. 21. C 22. B

LSAT
2-. 26. 2,. .5. .1.

15.-

1995 10 SECTION A
1-. C 22. A 2-. A 16. B 2.. # 26. 1,. # 20. # 2,. 25. 21. # .5. 21. C 22. .1.

SECTION B
1-. C 22. # 2-. # 16. 2.. A 26. 1,. C 20. B 2,. 25. C 21. C .5. 21. B 22. C .1.

1996 04 SECTION A
1-. # 22. 2-. 16. C 2.. 26. 1,. 20. A 2,. 25. 21. C .5. 21. # 22. B .1.

SECTION B
1-. C 22. # 2-. A 16. A 2.. # 26. 1,. 20. B 2,. 25. B 21. C .5. 21. # 22. A .1.

1996 04 SECTION A
1-. # 22. 2-. C 16. C 2.. B 26. 1,. C 20. 2,. 25. 21. A .5. 21. C 22. .1.

SECTION B
1-. 22. C 2-. # 16. C 2.. A 26. 1,. C 20. A 2,. 25. A 21. C .5. 21. C 22. # .1.

15.6

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

1996 10 SECTION A
1-. # 22. B 2-. 16. C 2.. A 26. 1,. B 20. C 2,. 25. B 21. A .5. 21. C 22. .1.

SECTION B
1-. 22. A 2-. C 16. # 2.. B 26. 1,. C 20. C 2,. 25. B 21. A .5. 21. 22. A .1.

1997 04 SECTION A
1-. C 22. A 2-. C 16. # 2.. A 26. 1,. C 20. # 2,. 25. # 21. B .5. 21. A 22. A .1.

SECTION B
1-. C 22. 2-. A 16. A 2.. # 26. 1,. B 20. A 2,. 25. C 21. .5. 21. # 22. B .1.

1997 11 SECTION A
1-. 22. A 2-. C 16. 2.. A 26. 1,. # 20. B 2,. 25. 21. B .5. 21. 22. C .1.

SECTION B
1-. B 22. C 2-. B 16. A 2.. C 26. 1,. 20. 2,. 25. # 21. C .5. 21. # 22. .1.

1998 04

LSAT

15.,

SECTION A
1-. B 22. # 2-. 16. C 2.. B 26. 1,. C 20. # 2,. 25. C 21. C .5. 21. A 22. A .1.

SECTION B
1-. C 22. B 2-. 16. B 2.. B 26. 1,. # 20. C 2,. 25. 21. # .5. 21. C 22. A .1.

1998 11 SECTION A
1-. B 22. A 2-. C 16. C 2.. # 26. 1,. B 20. C 2,. 25. A 21. A .5. 21. # 22. B .1.

SECTION B
1-. # 22. C 2-. B 16. 2.. A 26. 1,. B 20. # 2,. 25. C 21. A .5. 21. B 22. A .1.

1999 04 SECTION A
1-. A 22. B 2-. 16. A 2.. B 26. 1,. # 20. 2,. 25. # 21. .5. 21. C 22. # .1.

SECTION B
1-. A 22. C 2-. B 16. # 2.. A 26. 1,. B 20. C 2,. 25. # 21. A .5. 21. 22. C .1.

LSAT 01
1. 2. B C 2. -. C 12. A .. 6. 1.. # A

SECT ON
0. ,. 10. A B 1. 15. 11. B A

11. B

1505

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

1-. B 22. 2-. 16. # 2.. A 26. 1,. # 20. 2,. 25. A 21. # .5.

12. B 21. B 22. A

LSAT 02
1. 2. 11. C 12. A 21. A 22. C C 2. -. 12. 1-. A 22. B 2-. A B # .. 6. B 1.. A 16. B 2.. # 26.

SECT ON
0. ,. 10. 1,. # 20. B 2,. B B 1. 11. 25. C 21. B .5. A 15. #

LSAT 03
1. 2. 11. B 12. B 21. B 22. B 2. -. 1-. 22. C 2-. # C # .. 6. A #

SECT ON
0. ,. 10. 1,. # 20. A 2,. C 1. C 15. B 11. C 25. B 21. .5.

12. A

1.. C 16. A 2.. C 26.

LSAT 0(
1. 2. A C 2. -. 12. B 1-. # 22. C 2-. C .. 6. A 1.. # 16. # 2.. # 26.

SECT ON )
0. ,. # C 1. 11. 25. B 21. # .5. # 15. C

11. C 12. B 21. A 22. C

10. B 1,. C 20. B 2,.

LSAT 05
1. 2. 11. 12. # 21. # 22. C # C 2. -. C 12. A 1-. # 22. A 2-. B .. 6. 1.. 16. 2.. C 26. B A C

SECT ON
0. ,. C # 1. 15. C 11. 25. A 21. .5.

10. A 1,. B 20. 2,.

LSAT 06
1. 2. 11. 12. B 21. C 22. A # 2. -. 12. 1-. B 22. A 2-. # C # .. 6. 1.. 16. 2.. C 26. A

SECT ON
0. ,. 1,. 20. # 2,. # A 1. 11. 25. C 21. # .5. B 15. A

10. A

LSAT

1501

LSAT 07
1. 2. 12. 21. C 22. B # A 2. -. A 12. C 1-. C 22. C 2-. .. 6. 1.. # 16. # 2.. 26. C

SECT ON
0. ,. 10. 1,. A 20. # 2,. B A 1. 15. B 11. B 25. 21. B .5.

11. C

LSAT 0'
1. 2. A A 2. -. 1-. 22. B 2-. B # A .. 6. 1.. 16. # 2.. # 26. # A C

SECT ON
0. ,. C A 1. 11. 25. 21. C .5. B 15. C

11. # 12. B 21. B 22. B

12. B

10. A 1,. C 20. 2,.

LSAT 09
1. 2. B 11. B 12. B 21. C 22. 2. -. 1-. 22. 2-. # A A .. 6. 1.. C 16. A 2.. A 26.

SECT ON
0. ,. 10. 1,. C 20. # 2,. A B 1. # 15. A 11. # 25. B 21. B .5.

12. C

LSAT 10
1. 2. B # 2. -. A C .. 6. 16. 2.. C 26. A 1.. B

SECT ON
0. ,. # A 1. 11. 25. B 21. # .5. C 15. C

11. B 12. C 21. C 22. C

12. A 1-. A 22. 2-. #

10. B 1,. B 20. C 2,.

LSAT 11
1. 2. A B 2. -. # 12. # 1-. B 22. B 2-. # .. 6. 1.. A 16. A 2.. 26. B

SECT ON
0. ,. 1,. 20. # 2,. # B 1. C 15. C 11. # 25. 21. B .5.

11. B 12. # 21. 22. A

10. C

LSAT 12
1. 2. C 2. -. # C .. 6. B A

SECT ON
0. ,. # # 1. 15. B

1502

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

12. B 1-. 22. B 2-. 1.. # 16. A 2.. B 26. 10. 1,. # 20. # 2,. 11. C 25. # 21. B .5.

11. A 12. C 21. # 22.

LSAT 13
1. 2. # 11. # 12. # 21. A 22. C 2. -. 1-. 22. A 2-. # # # .. 6. B #

SECT ON
0. ,. C C 1. 15. 11. # 25. A 21. # .5. B

12. A

1.. A 16. A 2.. B 26.

10. C 1,. C 20. A 2,.

LSAT 1(
1. 2. A A 2. -. 12. 1-. B 22. 2-. # C .. 6. 1.. 16. C 2.. 26. B C

SECT ON
0. ,. C # 1. 15. B 11. 25. 21. B .5.

11. A 12. # 21. A 22. A

10. # 1,. A 20. C 2,.

LSAT 15
1. 2. 11. C 12. C 21. A 22. C 2. -. # A .. 6. 1.. 16. A 2.. C 26. A #

SECT ON
0. ,. 1,. 20. C 2,. B C 1. 15. B 11. B 25. # 21. A .5.

12. B 1-. C 22. B 2-.

10. C

LSAT 16
1. 2. C B 2. -. A B .. 6. 16. 2.. B 26. # 1.. A

SECT ON
0. ,. 10. 1,. B 20. C 2,. A # 1. 15. C 11. B 25. 21. C .5.

11. B 12. C 21. A 22. A

12. A 1-. C 22. # 2-.

LSAT 17
1. 2. C # 2. -. 12. B 1-. A 22. # 2-. B # .. 6. B 1.. A 16. # 2.. 26. C

SECT ON
0. ,. B 10. A 1,. B 20. C 2,. 1. A 15. # 11. B 25. 21. .5.

11. A 12. C 21. B 22. #

LSAT

150.

LSAT 1'
1. 2. A B 2. -. # B .. 6. 1.. 16. 2.. 26. C C

SECT ON
0. ,. # A 1. 15. 11. B 25. 21. .5. A

11. A 12. # 21. B 22. A

12. C 1-. B 22. # 2-.

10. B 1,. A 20. B 2,.

LSAT 19
1. 2. B # 2. -. B 12. B 1-. # 22. C 2-. B .. 6. 1.. 16. A 2.. 26. C A

SECT ON )
0. ,. C # 1. C 15. A 11. B 25. # 21. A .5.

11. C 12. C 21. 22. A

10. # 1,. # 20. C 2,.

LSAT 20
1. 2. B B 2. -. 12. 1-. 22. C 2-. B # # .. 6. B 1.. # 16. B 2.. B 26.

SECT ON )
0. ,. 10. 1,. A 20. B 2,. A A 1. B 15. B 11. C 25. B 21. A .5.

11. B 12. A 21. C 22. A

LSAT 21
1. 2. B B 2. -. 12. B 1-. A 22. 2-. A .. 6. C C

SECT ON
0. ,. 10. 1,. 20. # 2,. B 1. # 15. A 11. B 25. A 21. C .5.

11. C 12. # 21. C 22. #

1.. C 16. A 2.. C 26.

LSAT 22
1. 2. 11. 12. B 21. # 22. # B 2. -. 12. 1-. A 22. B 2-. # B C .. 6. C B

SECT ON )
0. ,. # C 1. C 15. C 11. # 25. C 21. A .5.

1.. B 16. A 2.. B 26.

10. B 1,. B 20. 2,.

LSAT 23
1. 2. A 2. -. # .. 6. B C

SECT ON
0. ,. # C 1. A 15. #

1500

GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC

12. B 1-. A 22. A 2-. C 1.. A 16. # 2.. 26. 10. 1,. 20. C 2,. 11. C 25. B 21. B .5.

11. 12. # 21. B 22. A

LSAT 2(
1. 2. B B 2. -. # C .. 6. A A

SECT ON
0. ,. # B 1. 15. C 11. B 25. 21. B .5.

11. A 12. A 21. B 22. #

12. B 1-. B 22. 2-.

1.. B 16. A 2.. # 26.

10. C 1,. # 20. # 2,.

LSAT 25
1. 2. C # 2. -. 12. 1-. A 22. 2-. B C .. 6. 1.. 16. B 2.. A 26. A

SECT ON
0. ,. B C 1. C 15. A 11. B 25. A 21. B .5.

11. A 12. A 21. C 22. A

10. B 1,. B 20. B 2,.

LSAT 26
1. 2. 11. 12. # 21. C 22. B C 2. -. # 12. A 1-. C 22. 2-. .. 6. 16. 2.. B 26. # B

SECT ON )
0. ,. 10. 1,. C 20. C 2,. C 1. A 15. # 11. A 25. # 21. A .5.

1.. B

LSAT 27
1. 2. C 11. C 12. A 21. C 22. B 2. -. 12. 1-. # 22. 2-. B .. 6. A C

SECT ON
0. ,. B 10. C 1,. C 20. # 2,. 1. B 15. A 11. A 25. B 21. B .5.

1.. A 16. # 2.. A 26.

LSAT 2'
1. 2. # # 2. -. A B .. 6. A B

SECT ON )
0. ,. 10. 1,. # 20. B 2,. # 1. 15. 11. # 25. C 21. A .5. B

11. C 12. A 21. 22. C

12. A 1-. A 22. C 2-.

1.. # 16. # 2.. # 26.

LSAT

1501

LSAT 2002 SECT ON

1. 2. C A 2. -. 12. B 1-. B 22. 2-. # A .. 6. 1.. 16. A 2.. # 26. # A 0. ,. 10. C 1,. # 20. 9JA 2,. B 1. 15. A 11. 25. C 21. # .5.

11. # 12. # 21. A 22. C