Ques. 1:- Fits?

Ans:-

1. Clearance fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for mating parts are so selected that clearance between them always occur. It may be noted that in a clearance fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above the tolerance zone of the shaft. In a clearance fit, the difference between the minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft is known as minimum clearance whereas the difference between the maximum size of the hole and minimum size of the shaft is called maximum clearance. The clearance fits may be slide fit, easy sliding fit, running fit, slack running fit and loose running fit. 2. Interference fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so selected that interference between them always occur. It may be noted that in an interference fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely below the tolerance zone of the shaft. In an interference fit, the difference between the maximum size of the hole and the minimum size of the shaft is known as minimum interference, whereas the difference between the minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft is called maximum interference. The interference fits may be shrink fit, heavy drive fit and light drive fit.

3. Transition fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so selected that either a clearance or interference may occur depending upon the actual size of the mating parts. It may be noted that in a transition fit, the tolerance zones of hole and shaft overlap. The transition fits may be force fit, tight fit and push fit

Ques.3:- Heat treatment..?

Ans:- Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical and mechanical properties without changing the product shape. Heat treatment is sometimes done inadvertently due to manufacturing processes that either heat or cool the metal such as welding or forming. Heat Treatment is often associated with increasing the strength of material, but it can also be used to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as improve machining, improve formability, restore ductility after a cold working operation. Thus it is a very enabling manufacturing process that can not only help other manufacturing process, but can also improve product performance by increasing strength or other desirable characteristics. Softening: Softening is done to reduce strength or hardness, remove residual stresses, improve toughnesss, restore ductility, refine grain size or change the electromagnetic properties of the steel. Restoring ductility or removing residual stresses is a necessary operation when a large amount of cold working is to be performed, such as in a cold-rolling operation or wiredrawing. Annealing full Process, spheroidizing, normalizing and tempering austempering, martempering are the principal ways by which steel is softened. Hardening: Hardening of steels is done to increase the strength and wear properties. One of the pre-requisites for hardening is sufficient carbon and alloy content. If there is sufficient Carbon content then the steel can be directly hardened. Otherwise the surface of the part has to be Carbon enriched using somediffusion treatment hardening techniques. Material Modification: Heat treatment is used to modify properties of materials in addition to hardening and softening. These processes modify the behavior of the steels in a beneficial manner to maximize service life, e.g., stress relieving, or strength properties, e.g., cryogenic treatment, or some other desirable properties, e.g., spring aging.

Ques. 4:- Theories of failure under static load..?

Ans:- Failure TheoriesStatic Loading Maximum Normal Stress Theory Maximum Shear Stress Theory Distortion Energy Theory Common features of these theories: 1. They describe explicit mathematical relationships that relate external loading to stress at critical points in the multi-axial state of stress. 2. They are based on critical physical properties of the materials that are measurable 3. Each theory relates the state of stress to a measurable criterion of failure In general all failure theories say the same thing: When the maximum value of stress or strain in a multi-axial state of stress equals or exceeds the value of stress or strain that produces failure in a uni-axial stress test, the part fails. Maximum Normal Stress Theory Failure will occur in the multi-axial state of stress when the maximum principal normal stress exceeds the ultimate tensile or compressive strength, Sut, or Suc, respectively. if p> Sut, or Suc the part will fail. According to the Maximum Normal Stress Theory, if the principal stresses fall in this box, the part will not fail. Important to note: The Maximum Normal Stress Theory should not be used with ductile materials! Maximum Shearing Stress Theory: Failure will occur when the maximum shear stress exceeds of the materials yield strength

Ques.5:- Assumption in simple theory of bending..?

Ans: - A relationship is developed between the bending moment on a section of a beam and the stress developed in the beam section. To achieve a simple relationship between bending moment and stress following assumptions are taken: 1. The material of the beam is homogeneous, that is, it possesses same physical properties throughout the volume.

2. 3. 4. 5.

The material of the beam is isotropic, that is, its elastic constants do not vary throughout its volume. Youngs modulus of the material in tension Et is the same as Youngs modulus in compression EC. The beam is initially straight, that is, no initial curvature in the beam. The elastic limit of the material e is not exceeded, that is, stresses in the material at any section at any layer do not exceed e, in other words when bending moment is removed from the beam, it comes back to its original shape and original dimensions.

Ques.6:- Stresses considered important in shaft..?

Answer:- The following types of stresses are prevalent in shafts: > At the outermost surface of the shaft the max shear stress occurs on the cross-section of the shaft. > At the surface of the shaft on the longitudinal planes through the axis of the shaft the maximum longitudinal shear stress occurs. > At 45 degrees to the maximum shearing stress planes at the surface of the shafts the major principal stress occurs. It equals the max shear stress on the cross section of the shaft. > For certain materials where the tensile and compressive strengths are lower in measure as compared to the shear strength, then the shaft designing should be carried out for the lowest strengths. > All these stresses are of significance as they play a role in governing the failure of the shaft. All theses stresses get generated simultaneously and hence should be considered for designing purposes.

Ques.7:- Material used for shaft manufacturing.?

Ans:- It depends upon the application of the shaft. Whether it is to be used for impact loading, torsion /shear type loading and power transmission. It can be a hollow shaft or solid shaft. Also most of the shafts requires heat treatment like case hardening, tempering, solution annealing etc. Most common material for shafting are : EN 8, EN 24(for heavy loads-like support roller of a rotary kiln) SS 304 SS304L SS316 SS316L SS321 SS MOC is generally used in chemical plant for most of the pumps. For blowers also ss321/420 is most suitable. for conveyors -solid shaft may be of en8/en24 and pipe shaft may be of sch80/xxs/160 may be used.

Ques. 8:- Chain drives over rope drives.?

Ans:- The advantages of using a chain drives are: > In a chain drive no slip occurrence takes place. > The chains take less space as compared to rope or belts as they are made of metal and offer much strength. > The chain drives can be used at both short and long ranges and they offer a high level of transmission efficiency. > Chain drives can transmit more load and power as compared to belts. > A very high speed ratio can be maintained in one step of chain drives. Some of the cons of using a chain drive are: > The cost of producing chain drives is higher as compared to that of belts. > The chain drives must be serviced and maintained at regular intervals and henceforth their cost of ownership is high comparatively

Ques. 9:- Diff. types of springs.? Ans:- A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy. Springs are usually made out of spring steel. Small springs
can be wound from pre-hardened stock, while larger ones are made from annealed steel and hardened after fabrication. Some non-

ferrous metals are also used including phosphor bronze and titanium for parts requiring corrosion resistance and beryllium copper for springs carrying electrical current (because of its low electrical resistance). When a spring is compressed or stretched, the force it exerts is proportional to its change in length. The rate or spring constant of a spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided by the change in deflection of the spring. That is, it is the gradient of the force versus deflectioncurve. An extension or compression spring has units of force divided by distance, for example lbf/in or N/m. Torsion springs have units of torque divided by angle, such as Nm/rad or ftlbf/degree. The inverse of spring rate is compliance, that is: if a spring has a rate of 10 N/mm, it has a compliance of 0.1 mm/N. The stiffness (or rate) of springs in parallel is additive, as is the compliance of springs in series. Depending on the design and required operating environment, any material can be used to construct a spring, so long as the material has the required combination of rigidity and elasticity: technically, a wooden bow is a form of spring.

Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:

Tension/Extension spring the spring is designed to operate with a tension load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied to it. Compression spring is designed to operate with a compression load, so the spring gets shorter as the load is applied to it. Torsion spring unlike the above types in which the load is an axial force, the load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the end of the spring rotates through an angle as the load is applied. Constant spring - supported load will remain the same throughout deflection cycle[5] Variable spring - resistance of the coil to load varies during compression[6]

They can also be classified based on their shape:

Coil spring this type is made of a coil or helix of wire Flat spring this type is made of a flat or conical shaped piece of metal. Machined spring this type of spring is manufactured by machining bar stock with a lathe and/or milling operation rather than coiling wire. Since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition to the elastic element. Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of compression/extension, torsion, etc.

The most common types of spring are:

Cantilever spring a spring which is fixed only at one end. Coil spring or helical spring a spring (made by winding a wire around a cylinder) and the conical spring these are types oftorsion spring, because the wire itself is twisted when the spring is compressed or stretched. These are in turn of two types:

Compression springs are designed to become shorter when loaded. Their turns (loops) are not touching in the unloaded position, and they need no attachment points.

A volute spring is a compression spring in the form of a cone, designed so that under compression the coils are not forced against each other, thus permitting longer travel.

Tension or extension springs are designed to become longer under load. Their turns (loops) are normally touching in the unloaded position, and they have a hook, eye or some other means of attachment at each end.

Hairspring or balance spring a delicate spiral torsion spring used in watches, galvanometers, and places where electricity must be carried to partially rotating devices such as steering wheels without hindering the rotation. Leaf spring a flat spring used in vehicle suspensions, electrical switches, and bows. V-spring used in antique firearm mechanisms such as the wheellock, flintlock and percussion cap locks.

Other types include :

Belleville washer or Belleville spring a disc shaped spring commonly used to apply tension to a bolt (and also in the initiation mechanism of pressure-activated landmines). Constant-force spring a tightly rolled ribbon that exerts a nearly constant force as it is unrolled. Gas spring a volume of gas which is compressed. Ideal Spring the notional spring used in physics: it has no weight, mass, or damping losses.

Mainspring a spiral ribbon shaped spring used as a power source in watches, clocks, music boxes, windup toys, and mechanically powered flashlights Negator spring a thin metal band slightly concave in cross-section. When coiled it adopts a flat cross-section but when unrolled it returns to its former curve, thus producing a constant force throughout the displacement and negating any tendency to re-wind. The commonest application is [7] the retracting steel tape rule. Progressive rate coil springs A coil spring with a variable rate, usually achieved by having unequal pitch so that as the spring is compressed one or more coils rests against its neighbour. Rubber band a tension spring where energy is stored by stretching the material. Spring washer used to apply a constant tensile force along the axis of a fastener. Torsion spring any spring designed to be twisted rather than compressed or extended. Used in torsion bar vehicle suspension systems. Wave spring a thin spring-washer into which waves have been pressed.
[8

Ques. 10:- Types of brakes.?

Brakes are one of the most important safety features on your vehicle. There are different types of brakes, both between vehicles and within a vehicle. The brakes used to stop a vehicle while driving are known as the service brakes, which are either a disc and drum brake. Vehicles also come equipped with other braking systems, including anti-lock and emergency brakes. Disc Brakes Disc brakes consist of a disc brake rotor - which is attached to the wheel - and a caliper, which holds the disc brake pads. Hydraulic pressure from the master cylinder causes the caliper piston to clamp the disc brake rotor between the disc brake pads. This creates friction between the pads and rotor, causing your car to slow down or stop.

Ans:-

Drum Brakes Drum brakes consist of a brake drum attached to the wheel, a wheel cylinder, brake shoes, and brake return springs. Hydraulic pressure from the master cylinder causes the wheel cylinder to press the brake shoes against the brake drum. This creates friction between the shoes and drum to slow or stop your car.

Emergency Brakes Vehicles also come equipped with a secondary braking system, known as emergency, or parking brakes. Emergency brakes are independent of the service brakes, and are not powered by hydraulics. Parking brakes use cables to mechanically apply the brakes (usually the rear brake). There are a few different types of emergency brakes, which include: a stick lever located between the driver and passenger seats; a pedal located to the left of the floor pedals; or a push button or handle located somewhere near the steering column. Emergency brakes are most often used as a parking brake to help keep a vehicle stationary while parked. And, yes, they are also used in emergency situations, in case the other brake system fails! Anti-Lock Brakes Computer-controlled anti-lock braking systems (ABS) is an important safety feature which is equipped on most newer vehicles. When brakes are applied suddenly, ABS prevents the wheels from locking up and the tires from skidding. The system monitors the speed of each wheel and automatically pulses the brake pressure on and off rapidly on any wheels where skidding is detected. This is beneficial for driving on wet and slippery roads. ABS works with the service brakes to decrease stopping distance and increase control and stability of the vehicle during hard braking.