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Thandaveswara
a problem which is of practical interest: Given a value of q, what factors determine the
specific energy E, and hence the depth y? Conversely, if E is given, what factors
determine q?
The answer to these questions is that there are many different kinds of control
mechanism which can dictate "what depth must be for a given q, and vice versa".
Example is the sluice gate; For a given opening of the gate there is a certain
relationship between q and the upstream depth, similarly for the downstream depth.
Weirs and spillways are further examples of this kind of mechanism. The flow resistance
due to the roughness of the channel bed will have some effect.
The flow situation in any channel is substantially influenced by the control mechanisms
operating within it. The notion of a "control" - any feature which determines a depth -
discharge relationship - is of primary importance in the study of free surface flow. There
are certain features in channel which tend to produce critical flow, and are therefore
are identified.
Normally, the sub critical flow deals with downstream control and supercritical
flow deals with the upstream control.
The nature of these features, are determined by considering the general problem of flow
without losses in a rectangular channel section of constant width, whose bed level may
Transition Structure:
Converging Diverging
a. By straight wall
b. By Quadrant (cylindrical)
c. By warped
2. Short reach.
3. No frictional loss.
y
y
z
x z = f(x)
Longitudinal section
q
b
Plan
⎛ Q ⎞
The total energy H and q ⎜ = = discharge per unit width ⎟ are constant,
⎝ b ⎠
q2
H = y+z+ = E+z = constant
2gy 2
differentiating with respect to x, the distace along the channel
dE dz
+ =0
dx dx
which may be rewritten as
dE dy dz
+ =0
dy dx dx
Substituting and simplifying
dy
dx
(
1-F2 +)dz
dx
=0 (∵
dE
dy
=1-F2 ; F =
V
gy
)
2
V
E=y+
2g
dE d ⎛ Q2 ⎞ Q2 ⎛ -3 dA ⎞
= 1+ ⎜ ⎟ = 1+ ⎜ −2A ⎟
dy dy ⎜⎝ 2gA 2 ⎟⎠ 2g ⎝ dy ⎠
dE Q2
=1- 3
T = 1- F2
dy gA
Q 2T
(i.e) F2 =
gA3
It is to be noted that the Froude number F plays a key role in this equation. This
If there is an upward step in the channel bed, i.e., if dz/dx is positive, then the product
(1-F2 ) dx
dy
must be negative and vice versa (see box).
dz
If is positive
dx
z
Bed
dy
dx
( )
1 − F2 = negative
dy
F < 1 ( Subcritical ) -ve ( depth decreases along x )
dx
dy
F > 1 ( Supercritical ) +ve ( depth increases along x )
dx
dz
If is negative
dx
Bed
z
dy
dx
( )
1 − F2 = positive
dy
F < 1 ( Subcritical ) +ve ( depth increases along x )
dx
dy
F > 1 ( Supercritical ) -ve ( depth decreases along x )
dx
dy
equal to zero. Hence, either = 0 or F = 1 (critical flow) .
dx
dz dy
The first situation occurs in the step-transition problem when =0, = 0 both
dx dx
upstream of the step and over the step, and in both cases F ≠ 1 .
dz
For the second situation, the question is " Can a situation be visualized in which =0
dx
dy
and ≠ 0?
dx
Flow Eo 2
y = E
c 3 0
P
dz dy
= 0, 0, F = 1
dx dx
An example of Critical - Free Outflow from a Lake
When water is released from a lake over a short (but smooth) crest such that it flows
downstream freely. In other words either a free overfall within a short distance
the flow.
dz dy
At the crest P, = 0 the flow is accelerating at this point, resulting in ≠ 0 . Then the
dx dx
Froude number must be equal to unity, and hence the flow would be critical. In cases of
a sharp- edged (e.g., V notch weir) crest, and a completely free overfall, are considered
as pressure distribution would be non hydrostatic; for the reason the curvature will not
be large. However, even if the vertical accelerations is large, as near brink of a free
overfall, the flow is still can be approximated as the critical condition. Experimental
evidence indicates that the flow depth right at the brink of an overfall is approximately
5
yc , (i.e 0.715 yc ) and that y = yc at a distance upstream from the overall edge of weir of
7
infinite height, the discharge is remarkably close to that obtained by assuming critical
flow at the crest, despite the pronounced vertical curvature of the flow. Assuming that
the pressure distribution is hydrostatic, it can be concluded that when water is released
from a lake without any downstream constraint critical flow occurs at the section of
maximum vertical constriction: such a section is therefore a control. Similarly that critical
height". The flow in the end reach of the channel becomes an overfall. Measuring the
depth at the end section of the channel, the discharge can be estimated. Rouse first
identified this aspect in a horizontal rectangular channel (with sub critical approach
flow). The end depth (also called the brink depth) was 0.715 times the critical depth.
When the canal drops suddenly, a free overfall is formed, since flow changes to
__ 2
v
__ y
__
2g yc
H1
yc
yb
-3 -2 Level -1 0 +1 X
__
yc
- 0.5
- 0.6
Minimum drop distance
Free overfall profile
The drop distance should be more than 0.6yc. Brink depth yb will be different at the
centre and sides of the canal (which is higher). The roughness of the canal affects the
brink depth and hence the bed and sides should be finished smooth.
q2
Ho = y + α
2gy 2
dH o q2
= 1− α 3
dy gy
dH o αq 2
= 0 if the flow is critical, hence yc = 3
dy g
If α =1, then Q = b g y3/2
c
Rouse showed y b = 0.715yc
3/ 2
⎡ y ⎤
Thus Q = b g ⎢ b ⎥
⎣ 0.715 ⎦
This derivation is assumed for a free fall with an unconfined nappe. This value is
modified as 0.705 when the flow is two dimensional. This results in a error of 2 to 3 %
The width of the canal should not be less than 3 yc. This is applicable to canals with
L
_y_c 1.4 , x = 3 to 4 yc
yb
Brink depth
V2
Total energy = TE = H = z + y + ( α = 1.0 )
2g
Q2 q 2 .b2
=>H=z+y+ = z + y +
2gA 2 2g .b 2 y 2
2
⎡q ( x )⎤⎦
H=y+z + ⎣
2gy 2
Differentiating both sides with respect to " x ",
d ⎧⎪ ⎡⎣q ( x )⎤⎦ ⎫⎪
2
dH dy dz
= + + ⎨ ⎬=0
dx dx dx dx ⎪ 2gy 2 ⎪
⎩ ⎭
dH dz
If = 0 and = 0 ( No energy loss, Horizontal channel )
dx dx
dy q 2 dy q dq
- + =0
dx gy 3 dx gy 2 dx
and by continuity equation q b = a constant, Q.
Then
dQ dq db
=0=b +q =0
dx dx dx
dq db
b =−q
dx dx
dq
Eliminating , between above two equations then it may be written as
dx
dy
dx
(
1-F 2 - )
q q db
gy 2 b dx
=0
i.e.,
dy
dx
( )
1-F 2 - F 2
y db
b dx
=0
db
It can be concluded that critical flow occurs when , i.e., at a section of maximum
dx
horizontal constriction. The critical flow will not occur at a section of maximum width, but
Converging
db dy
(i) < 0 F<1 subcritical then < 0 depth decreases as x increases
dx dx
dy
F>1 supercritical then > 0 depth increases as x increases
dx
Diverging
db dy
(i) > 0 F<1 subcritical then > 0 depth increases as x increases
dx dx
dy
F>1 supercritical then < 0 depth increases as x increases
dx
Converging channel
F<1 F>1
dy
__ < 0 dy
__ > 0
dx dx
Sub critical db
__ < 0 Super critical
dx
Diverging channel
F<1 db F>1
Sub critical __ > 0 Super critical
dx
Horizontal constriction
Derive the following equation for a non prismatic channel, assuming no energy loss.
y 3c db
Sο + 2 .
dy by dx
= 3
dx ⎛y ⎞
1−⎜ c ⎟
⎝ y ⎠
Solution:
V2
H= z+y+ ( α = 1.0 )
2g
Differentiating wrt "x",
dH dz dy d ⎪⎧ V 2 ⎪⎫
= + + ⎨ ⎬ − − − − − − − − − −− > (1)
dx dx dx dx ⎩⎪ 2g ⎭⎪
dH
But = −S f
dx
dz dH
Similarly = −Sο But Sf = 0 => =0
dx dx
Substituting in eq: ( 1 ),
dy d ⎪⎧ V 2 ⎪⎫
0 = - Sο + + ⎨ ⎬ − − − − − − − −− > (2)
dx dx ⎪⎩ 2g ⎪⎭
dy d ⎧⎪ Q 2 ⎫⎪
0 = - Sο + + ⎨ ⎬
dx dx ⎪⎩ 2gA 2 ⎭⎪
Consider a rectangular channel with varying width
d ⎪⎧ Q 2 ⎫⎪ d ⎪⎧ Q 2 ⎪⎫ Q 2 d ⎪⎧ 1 ⎪⎫
⎨ ⎬= ⎨ ⎬= ⎨ ⎬
dx ⎩⎪ 2gA 2 ⎭⎪ dx ⎩⎪ 2g b2 y 2 ⎭⎪ 2g dx ⎩⎪ b2 y 2 ⎭⎪
Q2 ⎪⎧ −2 db −2 dy ⎪⎫
= ⎨ 3 2 − 2 3 ⎬
2g ⎪⎩ b y dx b y dx ⎪⎭
Q 2 db Q 2 dy
= −
gb3 y 2 dx gb2 y 3 dx