9 Tips for Making Better Resistance Measurements

Digital multimeters include a lot of features to improve the accuracy of resistance measurements. Unfortunately, most of these features add additional measurement time. In order to make good decisions, trading off speed for accuracy, you need to have a good understanding of each type of measurement error and the features incorporated into the multimeter to limit these errors. Following are nine tips for making better resistance measurements.

Tip 1: Removing errors due to lead resistance

Making 4-wire resistance measurements - The 4-wire ohms method provides the most accurate way to measure small resistances. Test lead resistances and contact resistances are automatically reduced using this method. The connections for resistance measurements are shown below.

Using a known current source and measuring the voltage produced by the resistor the unknown resistance can be calculated. Removing 2-wire Ohm Test Lead Resistance - For many applications a two-wire measurement will be more than adequate, it is easier to handle two probes, and the measurement is much faster. The Null function can be used to eliminate offset errors associated with the test lead resistance in 2-wire ohms measurements. The first step is to short the two leads together and wait for the DMM to display the resistance of the test leads. The second step is to press the Null button. The meter should now display a reading very close to zero. Each subsequent reading will be the actual resistance measurement minus the initial null measurement (test lead resistance).

Tip 2: Removing errors due to Thermal EMF (often due to leads)

Thermal EMF caused by dissimilar metals can create a parasitic voltage VEMF in the measurement circuit. The additional voltage will create a measurement error, R=(V+ VEMF)/i. Thermoelectric voltages are generated internally in the resistor or when you make circuit connections due to dissimilar metals at different temperatures. Junctions to consider are at the DUT, relay (multiplexers), and to the multimeter. Each metal-to-metal junction forms a thermocouple, which generates a voltage proportional to the junction temperature. Using all copper connections can minimize errors. Offset compensation can further minimize thermal EMF errors. The diagram below illustrates the two measurements used in offset compensated measurements, one with the current source and a second without the current source.

The actual resistance is determined by subtracting the second measurement from the first and dividing by the known current source. When using offset compensation the multimeter will make the two measurements and report just the compensated resistance. Offset compensation can be used in both two and four-wire measurements. Using offset compensation will improve measurement accuracy but will reduce measurement speed.

Tip 3: Removing internal error, often due to thermal EMF

Autozero is used to remove sources of error within the multimeter. When autozero is enabled the multimeter internally disconnects the input signal following each measurement, and takes a zero reading. It then subtracts the zero reading from the preceding reading. This prevents offset voltages present on the multimeter's input circuitry from affecting measurement accuracy. Autozero is always enabled for four-wire measurements but can be disabled for two-wire measurements. When autozero is disabled, the multimeter takes one zero reading and subtracts it from all subsequent measurements. It takes a new zero reading each time you change the function, range, or integration time.

Tip 4: Power dissipation effects

When measuring resistors designed for temperature measurements or other resistive devices that vary with temperature, be aware that the meter will dissipate some power in the device-undertest. The effects of this power dissipation can affect the measurement accuracy. If power dissipation is a problem, you can select a higher measurement range, one which uses a lower current source thus reducing the self-heating. Some multimeters, such as the 34420A offer a low power setting. Using the low power setting or a higher resistance range requires a multimeter with good resolution. Below is a table showing the power dissipated by a resister by range and how a low-power setting can reduce the power.

Normal

Normal

Low Power

Low Power

Range

Test Current

DUT Power at Full Scale

Test Current

DUT Power at Full Scale

10 mA

100 W

10 mA

100 W

10

10 mA

1 mW

10 mA

1 mW

100

10 mA

10 mW

1 mA

100 W

1k

1 mA

1 mW

100 A

10 W

10k

100 A

100 W

10 A

1 W

100k

10 A

10 W

5 A

2.5 W

1M

5 A

25 W

5 A

25 W

Tip 5: Output Voltage Clamping

Resistance measurements on certain types of contacts may require a limitation on the voltage applied to the material during a resistance measurement. Both the voltage used to make the

measurement and the open circuit voltage should be considered. The need for voltage limitation arises from the possibility that oxidation on the contact surfaces may increase the resistance reading. If the voltage is too high, the oxide layer may be punctured resulting in a lower resistance reading. Not all DMMs offer built-in voltage clamping circuits. An example of a multimeter that offers a voltage clamping circuit is the 34420A. The 34420A provides a programmable level of open circuit clamping. The voltage-limited measurement is available on the 10 and 100 ohm ranges. The open circuit voltage and measurement voltage can be clamped at one of three levels, 20 mV, 100 mV, or 500 mV.
Range Test Current Measurement Voltage (Full Scale) Open Circuit Voltage (Full Scale)

10

1 mA

10 mV

20, 100, or 500 mV

100

0.1 mA

10 mV

20, 100, or 500 mV

Tip 6: Settling time Effects

Modern multimeters have the ability to insert automatic measurement settling delays. These delays are adequate for resistance measurements with less than 200 pF of combined cable and device capacitance. This is particularly important if you are measuring resistances above 100 k. Settling due to RC time constant effects can be quite long. Some precision resistors and multifunction calibrators use large parallel capacitors (1000 pF to 0.1 mF) with high resistor values to filter out noise currents injected by their internal circuitry. Non-ideal capacitances due to dielectric absorption (soak) effects in cables and other devices may have much longer settling times than expected just by RC time constants. Errors will be measured when settling after the initial connection and after a range change. You may need to increase the delay time before a measurement in these situations. The amount of delay can typically be set from the front panel or programmatically.

Tip 7: Errors in High Resistance Measurements

When you are measuring large resistances, significant errors can occur due to insulation resistance and surface cleanliness. You should take the necessary precautions to maintain a "clean" high-resistance system. Test leads and fixtures are susceptible to leakage due to moisture absorption in insulating materials and "dirty" surface films. Nylon and PVC are relatively poor insulators (109 ohms) when compared to PTFE insulators (1013 ohms). Leakage from nylon or PVC insulators can easily contribute a 0.1% error when measuring a 1 M resistance in humid conditions.

Tip 8: Continuity Test

The Agilent 34401A multimeter offers continuity test, a quick way to determine if a resistance is below a given threshold. When measuring continuity, the multimeter emits a continuous tone if the measured resistance is less than the threshold resistance. The continuity test is performed on a fixed range 1k (1mA current source) and is made with 5 digits of resolution. The default threshold resistance is 10 ohms but can be changed from 1 to 1000 ohms. It is important to note, that the threshold value can only be set from the front panel and is stored in non-volatile memory. The threshold resistance is not affected by power being removed or a reset command being received. The "BEEPER ON/OFF" control does not affect the continuity tone, which is always enabled. The 34401A also offers a Diode Test while not a pure resistance measurement it uses the same hardware, a 1 mA current source and the resulting voltage measured on the 1Vdc range. The beeper will indicate a forward biased diode the measured voltage needs to be equal to or greater than .3 Volts but less than or equal to .8 Volts. The threshold is not adjustable but the beeper can be enabled or disabled (BEEPER ON/OFF). Math functions such as null, limit, and statistics cannot be used in combination with the continuity or diode test.

Tip 9: Accessories to make better resistance measurements

Agilent offers several accessories to make better resistance measurements; often the leads are built from the same material as the multimeter connectors to avoid thermal EMF errors. Another consideration is that connection is made with reasonable pressure, to insure a good fit. Kelvin Probe sets, feature a spring-loaded clip allow the source and sense leads to be connected simultaneously to the DUT. 11059A Kelvin Probe Set features gold plated clips and works with both the 34401A and 3458A. You can build your own custom lead set with the 11062A Kelvin Clip Set Deluxe Lead Set, offer several needle and alligator style clips. The 34132B Deluxe Lead Set with Retractable Sheath can be used with both the 34401A and the 3458A. The 34132A Fixed Sheath Deluxe Lead set is designed just for the 34401A and offers a better fit at the multimeter. For the ultimate in stable connections we offer spade lug connections for the 3458A; 11053A Low Thermal EMF Lug-to-Lug Jumper Set and the 11174A Low Thermal EMF Lug-to-Banana Jumper Set. For the 34420A we offer a specially designed lowthermal mating connector 34104A and the 34102 low-thermal input cable. Shorting blocks can be used to make a null measurement. They are also used during calibration. The 34172A DMM Calibration Short is specifically designed for the 34401A using the same metal as the input connector, as well as providing insulation from moving air. The Agilent 34103A is a low-thermal shorting plug for the34420A. It provides a convenient and reliable short. One ships with the 34420A.