Letter pubs.acs.

org/NanoLett

Demonstration of a Ge/GeSn/Ge Quantum-Well Microdisk Resonator on Silicon: Enabling High-Quality Ge(Sn) Materials for Micro- and Nanophotonics
Robert Chen,*, Suyog Gupta, Yi-Chiau Huang, Yijie Huo, Charles W. Rudy, Errol Sanchez, Yihwan Kim, Theodore I. Kamins, Krishna C. Saraswat, and James S. Harris

Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States Applied Materials Inc., Sunnyvale, California 94085, United States
S Supporting Information *

ABSTRACT: We theoretically study and experimentally demonstrate a pseudomorphic Ge/Ge0.92Sn0.08/Ge quantum-well microdisk resonator on Ge/Si (001) as a route toward a compact GeSn-based laser on silicon. The structure theoretically exhibits many electronic and optical advantages in laser design, and microdisk resonators using these structures can be precisely fabricated away from highly defective regions in the Ge bu er using a novel etch-stop process. Photoluminescence measurements on 2.7 m diameter microdisks reveal sharp whispering-gallery-mode resonances (Q > 340) with strong luminescence.

KEYWORDS: Germanium tin, silicon photonics, nanophotonics, microdisk resonators, lasers he eort toward developing an ecient group-IV laser has been driven by a motivation to monolithically integrate a full family of photonic devices on a silicon (Si) platform for onchip optical communication. High-performance active devices, such as photodetectors1 and optical modulators,2 have already been developed to help reach this goal; however, the integrated light source has been challenging to develop due to the indirect-bandgap nature of group-IV semiconductors. Recent eorts have utilized germanium (Ge), which is a nearly directbandgap material with its lowest indirect L-valley just 136 meV below the direct -valley in the conduction band (CB). Theoretical and experimental works have shown that the Ge bandstructure can be modied to make direct-gap emission more favorable by using in-plane tensile strain36 or uniaxial strain,7 and other eorts to create carrier inversion for lasing can be achieved by donor doping.8,9 Recently, the combination of slight strain and high doping yielded the rst electrically injected, Ge-based laser using an indirect-bandgap gain medium.10 However, the high lasing threshold of 280 kA/ cm2 and short operational lifetime limit its practicality. New technologies and designs must be developed to reduce the threshold of Ge-based lasers. The germaniumtin (GeSn) alloy has the ability to greatly improve the performance of Ge-based lasers by oering a tunable bandstructure. Many theoretical investigations of the alloy bandstructure1116 predict a direct-bandgap material with the substitutional incorporation of Sn in Ge with a crossover point ranging from 2 to 25% Sn. More recently, experimental

investigations1721 have determined this crossover point to occur between 6.5 and 11%. This addresses the prominent issue of quantum eciency for light emission with indirect-bandgap Ge, which has a 4-fold degenerate, indirect L-valley. Any eort toward reducing the energy dierence between the direct valley and the indirect L-valley provides vast improvements in quantum eciency. Theoretical investigations of Ge-based lasers with Ge or GeSn as the gain medium, either in bulk8,22 or in quantum wells (QW) with SiGeSn barriers2327 suggest that reduced laser thresholds can be achieved. These systems, however, require strain-relaxed GeSn, which is dicult to achieve due to the lack of lattice-matched buer templates. Recent eorts in developing relaxed GeSn lms would be useful for realizing such structures. However, these techniques recrystallize amorphous materials28 or require post-growth thermal annealing,2931 which are likely to result in defects and nonuniformity or Sn precipitation leading to reduced eciencies for optical emission. High-temperature annealing to reduce defects may have limited benets in the thermally metastable GeSn alloy with a solid solubility of less than 1% Sn in Ge.32 It is expected that the highest-quality GeSn material would be grown pseudomorphic (fully strained) to its template or buer layer with thickness below the critical thickness (40
Received: July 29, 2013 Revised: November 22, 2013

XXXX American Chemical Society

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Figure 1. A schematic of Sn alloying on the bandstructure of Ge. (a) Bulk Ge is an indirect-bandgap material with its L-valley 136 meV below the valley. (b) Adding substitutional Sn to the Ge lattice lowers the - and L-valleys in energy, with lowering faster than L. Furthermore, the application of strain can also change the bandstructure. (c) Tensile strain brings down even further while lifting the LH band. (d) Compressive strain has the opposite eect of tensile strain and makes the alloy indirect bandgap again while lifting the HH band. The latter is the case for pseudomorphic GeSn grown on Ge.

Figure 2. Results from deformation-potential and gain calculations for GeSn grown pseudomorphic on Ge. (a) The four critical bandedges of GeSn compressively strained to Ge are shown as a function of Sn content. GeSn does not become direct bandgap due to the compressive strain, but type-I connement with respective bands in Ge (energy level in Ge denoted by dashed lines) is predicted. (b) A reduction in EL is also predicted, which favors increased population in the direct -valley and improved quantum eciency. Additionally, HHLH splitting occurs due to biaxial strain. The energy dierences shown are for 8% Sn. (c) The threshold carrier density for transparency (gain minus free-carrier absorption equal to zero) for a 20 nm GeSn-QW is shown to reduce by a factor of 5 with 8% Sn. (d) With 8% Sn, extremely high net material gain (gain minus free carrier absorption) can be achieved for the TE mode while providing no gain for the TM mode for the two lowest bound-to-bound state (1-HH1, 2-HH2) transitions in a 20 nm GeSn-QW. The four curves show carrier densities in GeSn ranging from 2 1019 to 5 1019 cm3.

nm for 8% Sn in Ge on a Ge template33,34) to prevent relaxation from mist or threading dislocations. In this Letter, we demonstrate that pseudomorphic Ge/ GeSn/Ge QWs (GeSn-QW) can improve the performance of Ge-based lasers in several ways. In this design, we consider materials and stacks that can be achieved to high quality by combining state-of-the-art GeSn-growth technology with relaxed-Ge growth technology. First, we show how reduced carrier densities for transparency can be realized by using 8% Sn (from this point forward, [x*100]% Sn refers to Ge1xSnx) grown pseudomorphic to Ge in GeSn-QW structures. Next, we experimentally explore the pseudomorphic GeSn-QW design on a Si substrate with a thick Ge buer layer (Ge-on-Si) in between. The GeSn-QW is fabricated into a compact microdisk resonator using a recently developed selective etch of Ge that allows for precise control in dening a single-transverse-mode microdisk away from highly defective regions in the Ge buer
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for improved material quality in the active region. The fabrication method presented in this work exemplies how this etch technology can be used to create Ge(Sn)-based micro/nanophotonic structures. Using microphotoluminescence (PL) in a surface-normal pump/collection conguration, we demonstrate for the rst time a single-transversemode GeSn-based microdisk resonator on Si with greatly enhanced luminescence eciency in whispering-gallery-mode (WGM) resonances. Predicted Advantages in Pseudomorphic GeSn on Ge and 20 nm GeSn Quantum Wells Compared to Bulk Ge in Laser Design. The motivation behind strain-relaxed GeSn is that strain plays an important role in the bandstructure and aects the quantum eciency of the alloy. Figure 1 illustrates the eects of both Sn alloying and strain on the bandstructure of bulk Ge. With sucient amounts of Sn (roughly 7% according to recent experimental results1921), the alloy
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Nano Letters becomes direct bandgap, as shown in Figure 1b. If the alloy is grown on a lattice-mismatched buer or substrate, the alloy will be under biaxial tensile (Figure 1c) or biaxial compressive (Figure 1d) strain, further changing the bandstructure. Additionally, strain splits the light hole (LH) and heavy hole (HH) degeneracy in the valence band (VB). In the case of GeSn grown pseudomorphic on Ge, the alloy is under compressive strain (approximately 0.15% strain per percent Sn added) and will not yield a direct bandgap with technologically interesting Sn contents (less than 15% Sn). While an unstrained or tensile-strained, direct-bandgap GeSn lm is desired for high quantum eciency, pseudomorphic, compressively strained GeSn has several advantages for developing and engineering photonic devices. In this section, we illustrate these advantages using experimentally determined bandgap values for GeSn and deformation-potential theory for pseudomorphic GeSn grown on a relaxed Ge buer. The results of the deformation-potential calculations are shown in Figure 2a and illustrate several benets that can be achieved using pseudomorphic GeSn on Ge. The rst benet is that the energy dierence between the -valley and the L-valley (EL) decreases as the Sn content increases, as seen in Figure 2a,b. Under the conditions studied, GeSn never becomes direct bandgap (dened as EL < 0), but EL does decrease as the Sn content increases (a 74 meV decrease with 8% Sn). This reduction of EL is extremely important in obtaining a higher fraction of carriers in the valley, reducing the threshold for a GeSn laser. Additionally, the compressive strain applied by the Ge buer helps to split the HHLH degeneracy, further reducing threshold carrier densities needed for inversion. The HH is the dominant band for hole population, which favors transverse-electric (TE) gain strongly over transverse-magnetic (TM) gain, greatly improving eciency in the TE lasing mode.35 Another benet is the possibility of carrier connement in the GeSn region, which is ideal for developing low-threshold lasers in double-heterostructure or QW designs. With 8% Sn, both the L- and -valley minima in GeSn should be lower in energy than their corresponding minima in Ge, and a type-I alignment is predicted. Because of the smaller bandgap in GeSn, there will be little CB-to-VB absorption loss in Ge. If integrated into a pseudomorphic GeSn double heterostructure or QW, the Ge regions can act as cladding layers in a waveguide or resonator for lasers while the center GeSn region provides gain to a guided optical mode. Furthermore, the Ge barriers might be useful in isolating the GeSn active region from top and bottom surface states, which can be detrimental to carrier nonradiative lifetimes. We extend these results by calculating the optical gain that can be achieved with a pseudomorphic GeSn-QW on Ge with a 20 nm thick GeSn well. Figure 2c demonstrates how the threshold carrier density (equal electron and hole populations) for transparency decreases as the Sn content is increased. This calculation includes free-carrier absorption (FCA) to dene transparency (material gain minus FCA equal to zero) but does not include any resonator loss. Presumably, this would be low for a high-Q resonator (loss <50 cm1). For indirect-bandgap lasers, FCA is an important loss mechanism to consider due to the high carrier densities needed to reach threshold. At 8% Sn, a 5 reduction in the threshold carrier density is predicted when compared to bulk Ge, which would correlate to reduced injection current density threshold for lasers. The kink in Figure 2c at 23% Sn is due to a transition of peak gain to
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bound-to-bound transitions. Figure 2d shows the TE and TM net-gain spectra for pseudomorphic 8% Sn with large net TE gain from the -HH transition. Stack Design and Fabrication of Precisely Dened GeSn Quantum Well Microdisk Resonators Using a Novel Selective Etch and Etch-Stop Layer. We explore the advantages predicted in the previous section by considering a GeSn-QW microdisk resonator with 8% Sn and Ge barriers on Si(001). In this design, we wish to have a GeSn gain region between Ge barriers all inside of a microdisk resonator, a structure that has been shown to display high Q-factors exceeding 104 in other material systems36,37 and mimics other extremely high-Q structures.38,39 Ideal placement of the GeSn region is in the center of the microdisk where the conned eld intensity will be largest for a single-transverse optical mode. To maintain high quality, we keep the GeSn thickness below the aforementioned critical thickness. In addition, a high-quality growth template is desired for epitaxial growth of the GeSnQW. If the GeSn-QW is grown directly on Si, it is expected that the GeSn gain region will be highly defective, which is detrimental to long nonradiative carrier lifetimes and device performance. To reduce defects in the GeSn active region, a thick and relaxed Ge buer can be used where multiple hydrogen anneals and continued Ge-epitaxy cycles in the buer are performed to reduce threading dislocations (<10 7 cm2);4043 systematic improvements in the dislocation density are seen even as total Ge thicknesses exceed 2 m.42 While high-quality GeSn can be grown on a thick Ge buffer,30,33,32,44,45 the formation of a single-transverse-mode microdisk at 2 m wavelength requires a thickness less than 250 nm for Ge or GeSn.46 Current Ge-based microdisk designs rely on a non-Ge substrate or buer material that can be used as a sacricial layer to selectively undercut, such as Si47 or lattice-matched IIIV materials.48,49 The former is more interesting for integration on Si, but growing the GeSn-QW directly on Si would result in a highly defective GeSn gain region. To solve this issue, we leverage a recently developed isotropic dry etch that has extremely high etch selectivity of Ge over GeSn using CF4 chemistry and tuned process conditions.50 In ref 50, we show that 8% Sn is not etched by CF4 chemistry (see Supporting Information Figure S1), implying that it can be used as an eective etch-stop layer when etching Ge. In addition, this dry etch enables better control of etch rates and etch thicknesses when compared to the alternative wet-etch option, which has around 8:1 selectivity.51 This technology allows for the growth of a thick, high-quality and relaxed Ge buer on Si with the GeSn-QW on top. Between the Ge buer and GeSn-QW, a thin 8% Sn etchstop layer can be inserted, as shown in Figure 3a. The Ge buer can be etched to form the microdisk post while the entire GeSn-QW is protected. With dimensions and layers of the microdisk dened epitaxially, the GeSn gain region can be precisely placed in the center of the microdisk. A WGM near the edge of the microdisk will experience tight optical connement due to the strong index contrast of GeSn/Ge and air, and the mode will be centered on the GeSn gain for optimized modal overlap. The material stack in Figure 3a was grown using an Applied Materials Centura Epi reduced-pressure chemical vapor deposition (RPCVD) system with digermane (Ge2H6) and tin tetrachloride (SnCl4) precursors at reduced growth temperatures of less than 350 C for layers above the Ge
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Figure 3. The material stack and its XRD reciprocal space map. (a) The GeSn-QW microdisk region is grown on a Si(001) substrate with a thick, relaxed Ge buer in between. The thickness of the Ge buer allows for multiple hydrogen anneal steps to enable high-quality GeSn/Ge epitaxy on top. The GeSn-QW region is dened by inserting a 10 nm GeSn etch-stop layer which allows precise denition of the microdisk region. (b) An XRD reciprocal space map was used to examine the strain of the GeSn with respect to the Ge layer. As expected, the map around the (224) reection shows that the GeSn layer is fully strained to Ge, as evidenced by alignment along the pseudomorphic line. By using the well-known elastic deformation of Ge, the pseudomorphic nature of GeSn, and Vegards Law,52 we determine that the GeSn layer has around 8% Sn and is under 1.0% biaxial compressive strain.

buer. All layers in the stack are nominally undoped. The initial 4-m-thick Ge buer shown in Figure 3a provides a smooth, high-quality template for subsequent Ge and GeSn growth using multiple hydrogen-anneal and Ge-growth steps.32,53 After growing a thin 10-nm GeSn etch-stop layer, we grow the GeSnQW that forms the entire microdisk region. The 220-nm total thickness of the microdisk region was designed to have a single mode in the transverse direction for 2-m-wavelength light emission. A 20-nm GeSn layer is located in the center of the microdisk to act as the gain region for this study. The material stack was examined using X-ray diraction (XRD) for structural analysis. An XRD 1D -2 scan around the (004) reection was used to determine that the Ge buer layer is under 0.16% tensile strain (see Supporting Information Figure S2), which is expected for relaxed Ge-on-Si growth.54 The reciprocal space map around the (224) reection (Figure 3b) conrms that the GeSn layer is pseudomorphic to the Ge buer. Analysis of lattice parameters extracted from XRD results in an 8% Sn layer that is under 1.0% biaxial compressive strain on a slightly

tensile-strained Ge buer, which are approximately the material conditions studied in Figure 2d. We note that the GeSn etchstop layer has the same Sn content as the GeSn gain region. Fabrication of GeSn-QW microdisks was achieved using optical lithography to dene circular patterns, anisotropic Cl2based dry etching to form circular mesas, a silicon nitride (SiN) sidewall spacer to protect the microdisk sidewalls, and the highly selective, isotropic CF4 etch for microdisk undercutting and Ge-post formation. A schematic of the process steps is shown in Figure 4a. During the undercut and Ge-postformation step with the CF4 selective etch, Ge regions in the GeSn-QW are protected by SiN (top and sides) and the 10 nm GeSn etch-stop layer (bottom). A scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of a completed 2.7 m GeSn-QW microdisk is shown in Figure 4b. The measured thickness of the microdisk is very close to the designed thickness (including the etch-stop layer). As seen in the SEM image, this process yields regions precisely dened by the GeSn etch-stop layer, demonstrating how robust this selective etch and etch-stop combination is in creating micro- and nanostructures in a Ge(Sn) system. Extended details of the entire fabrication process can be found in Supporting Information. Strong Whispering-Gallery-Mode Resonances from Surface-Normal Microphotoluminescence. The fabricated GeSn-QW microdisks were probed using PL with a 980 nm diode laser focused to a 3 m diameter spot size in a surfacenormal pump/collection geometry. The PL data for a 2.7 m GeSn-QW microdisk is shown in Figure 5. Figure 5a shows clear WGM resonances in the low-energy regime, which overlap the broadband GeSn emission region as shown in the 7.4 mW-pumped bulk (as-grown) spectra. The broadband PL correlates well with the bandgap predicted using the deformation-potential calculations in Figure 2 with only slight deviations (less than 50 meV from the lowest bound state of the QW, see Supporting Information). Under equivalent pump conditions at 1.4 mW, there is strong enhancement of the luminescence from the microdisk when compared to the bulk. The sizable increase from the noise oor in the broadband PL is attributed to enhanced surface-normal scattering from the microdisk edges, while the appearance of strong WGM peaks is attributed to stimulated emission. We estimate that the in-plane azimuthal mode number (m) is less than or equal to 12 for the resonances seen based on solutions to the Helmholtz equation in the eective refractive index (neff) approximation and assuming the index of GeSn is similar to Ge.55 The four marked peaks have an energy spacing of 1,2 = 0.0274 eV, 2,3

Figure 4. The process ow for forming the GeSn-QW microdisks. (a) Microdisk formation is completed through standard optical lithography with the use of the CF4 selective etch, which does not etch the GeSn in our samples. After the microdisk mesa is formed, a protective SiN layer is required to prevent etching of the Ge layers in the GeSn-QW structure during the CF4 etch. The orange layers (dark and light) represent GeSn regions. Note: These dimensions are not to scale. (b) A scanning electron micrograph of a completed 2.7 m GeSn-QW microdisk on a Ge post.
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Figure 5. PL data from a 2.7 m GeSn-QW microdisk. (a) Extremely large enhancement of the luminescence is seen for the GeSn-QW in a microdisk, as evidenced by the comparison between the microdisk spectra and the bulk (as-grown) spectra shown for the 1.4 mW excitation (the bulk spectra is almost entirely at the noise oor). The 1.4 mW conditions are denoted by solid lines, and the 7.4 mW conditions are denoted by dotted lines. Base represents recorded spectra when pumping the etched Ge buer region next to the microdisk. Strong WGM resonances are seen in the microdisk spectra, which show great luminescence enhancement. The resonances marked by red dots show relatively close energy spacings of 0.026 eV. b) Increased pump power increases the emission intensity for both the background luminescence and the WGM luminescence. The inset shows extracted peak information for the strong peak near 0.6 eV (2240 nm). The integrated peak luminescence increases only linearly, and the Qfactor falls as the pump power is increased, indicating additional loss with increased pump.

= 0.0267 eV, and 3,4 = 0.0240 eV, which we attribute to consecutive-m TE modes. The decrease in energy spacing with increasing energy (or decreasing wavelength) is expected since neff increases with increasing energy due to both the greater mode connement and the increasing refractive index at shorter wavelengths. Power-dependent spectra are shown in Figure 5b with pump power ranging from 0.4 to 1.4 mW. These spectra are characterized by an increase in the broadband and WGM PL signal without any clear signature of lasing or dominance from a single mode. The inset in Figure 5b analyzes the dominant peak near 0.6 eV (2240 nm), showing an increase in the line width or decrease in Q-factor under intense pumping. The Q-factor for this particular peak reaches a maximum value of 340 when pumped with 0.6 mW, then drops as the pump power is increased. A similar trend was seen in ref 36 (attributed to FCA and sample heating). The measured Q-factor is likely to be limited by the resolution of our setup (Qmax 500 for an innitesimally narrow peak) due to a trade-o between signal and resolution. However, the trend in the Q-factor decrease is not aected by this. The steady-state carrier densities based on pump power and pump absorption calculations are high enough to reach threshold with net material gain exceeding resonator losses (1 mW of pump power corresponds to a steady-state carrier density of around 2 1019 cm3 in a 20 nm GeSn-QW for our model described in the Supporting Information and Figure S3, and a Q of 340 corresponds to an absorption loss of roughly 380 cm1 55). Despite this prediction, lasing characteristics are not observed. Additional analysis suggests that FCA in the Ge layer (FCAGe) may provide an additional loss mechanism since a large number of carriers are still generated in the Ge barriers. In the GeSn-QW studied here, the conned optical mode overlaps only 10% with the GeSn layer while overlapping nearly 70% with the Ge barriers. Considering the 7 dierence in the
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mode overlap, FCAGe dominates the GeSn gain with increased carrier densities (see Supporting Information Figure S4). Additional GeSn gain regions in a multiple QW structure can enable positive net modal gain due to improved overlap with GeSn gain regions. We predict that a modal overlap greater than 1:2 between GeSn/Ge in similar QW structures can enable positive net modal gain using a moderate resonator (loss <150 cm1) under moderate carrier densities (<4 1019 cm3) for pseudomorphic 8% Sn. However, this may require a total GeSn thickness greater than the critical thickness to reach the 1:2 ratio and maintain a relatively thick disk for reasonable resonator Q. Tseng et al.56 and Ragan et al.57 have shown that GeSn lms with thicknesses far exceeding the theoretical critical thickness can be grown using low-temperature molecular beam epitaxy, and thick, relaxed layers of GeSn/Ge heterostructures have also been developed for other devices;45,5860 whether the quality of these materials is sucient for lasers has not been determined. These materials can leverage the same process ow described here to enable strain-relaxed GeSn microdisks with reduced FCAGe through removal of the Ge layer completely. Additionally, it has been shown that strained layers with total thickness beyond the critical thickness in the SiGe/Ge system can be achieved using superlattice or multiple QW layers,61 where the addition of Ge between strained SiGe layers can reduce the maximum relaxation energy to increase the eective critical thickness. This method could also be applied to the GeSn/Ge system. In summary, we have shown that pseudomorphic GeSn on Ge has several advantages in improving the performance of Gebased lasers, and incorporation of 8% Sn in a 20 nm GeSn-QW results in a 5 reduction in the carrier density needed for net gain. We investigated pseudomorphic GeSn on Ge by designing a GeSn-QW microdisk resonator on a thick Ge buer for improved material quality. Microdisks were formed using a recently developed selective etch and etch-stop layer, and fabricated devices showed strong WGM resonances and greatly
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Nano Letters enhanced luminescence in surface-normal PL studies. Lasing in these structures was inhibited by parasitic FCA in the Ge barriers, and improving the GeSn:Ge ratio with various technologies could overcome this issue. A combination of these technologies with the fabrication process described here to create microphotonic resonators might enable the rst GeSn-based laser on Si.

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ASSOCIATED CONTENT

S Supporting Information *

Extended details on the bandedge, gain, and pump-carrier calculations. Additionally, the fabrication process and PL measurement setup are explained in detail. Also included are additional gain calculations with FCAGe and data from an XRD 1D -2 scan. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.

AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

*E-mail: robert.chen@stanford.edu.
Notes

The authors declare no competing nancial interest.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported in part by the U.S. Government and the Naval Air Systems Command through the Advanced Photonic Integrated Circuits (APIC) Corporation, the Air Force Oce of Scientic Research (AFOSR), and the Stanford Initiative for Nanoscale Materials and Processes (INMP). R.C. would like to acknowledge nancial support from the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship (NSFGRFP Grant DGE-0645962). S.G. would like to acknowledge nancial support from the Stanford Graduate Fellowship. C.W.R. would like to acknowledge nancial support from the Joint Technologies Oce (JTO Grant FA9550-10-1-0560). The authors would also like to thank Edward Fei, Colleen Shang, and Dr. Hai Lin for technical discussions leading up to this work, in addition to the Byer group for use of equipment. Work was performed in part at the Stanford Nanofabrication Facility of National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network (NNIN), supported by the National Science Foundation.
(1) Michel, J.; Liu, J.; Kimerling, L. C. Nat. Photonics 2010, 4, 527 534. (2) Kuo, Y.-H.; Lee, Y. K.; Ge, Y.; Ren, S.; Roth, J. E.; Kamins, T. I.; Miller, D. A. B.; Harris, J. S. Nature 2005, 437, 13341336. (3) Huo, Y.; Lin, H.; Chen, R.; Makarova, M.; Rong, Y.; Li, M.; Kamins, T. I.; Vuckovic, J.; Harris, J. S. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2011, 98, 011111. (4) Nam, D.; Sukhdeo, D.; Roy, A.; Balram, K. C.; Cheng, S.-L.; Huang, K. C.-Y.; Yuan, Z.; Brongersma, M.; Nishi, Y.; Miller, D.; Saraswat, K. Opt. Express 2011, 19, 154117. (5) Jain, J. R.; Hryciw, A.; Baer, T. M.; Miller, D. A. B.; Brongersma, M. L.; Howe, R. T. Nat. Photonics 2012, 6, 395405. (6) Nam, D.; Sukhdeo, D.; Cheng, S.-L.; Roy, A.; Huang, K. C.-Y.; Brongersma, M.; Nishi, Y.; Saraswat, K. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2012, 100, 131112. (7) Suess, M. J.; Geiger, R.; Minamisawa, R. A.; Schiefler, G.; Frigerio, J.; Chrastina, D.; Isella, G.; Spolenak, R.; Faist, J.; Sigg, H. Nat. Photonics 2013, 7, 466472. (8) Liu, J.; Sun, X.; Pan, D.; Wang, X.; Kimerling, L. C.; Koch, T. L.; Michel, J. Opt. Express 2007, 15, 11272.
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