Number of zeros 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 63 66 - 120 303 600

U.S. & scientific community thousand million billion trillion quadrillion quintillion sextillion septillion octillion nonillion decillion undecillion duodecillion tredecillion quattuordecillion quindecillion sexdecillion septendecillion octodecillion novemdecillion vigintillion centillion

Other countries thousand million 1000 million (1 milliard) billion 1000 billion trillion 1000 trillion quadrillion 1000 quadrillion quintillion 1000 quintillion sextillion 1000 sextillion septillion 1000 septillion octillion 1000 octillion nonillion 1000 nonillion decillion 1000 decillion undecillion - vigintillion centillion

10 lacs = I million. 100 crore = 1 billion

How to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius

The temperature T in degrees Celsius (C) is equal to the temperature T in degrees Fahrenheit (F) minus 32, times 5/9:

T(C) = (T(F) - 32) 5/9

Example Convert 68 degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius:

T(C) = (68F - 32) 5/9 = 20 C

Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion table

Fahrenheit (F) -459.67 F -50 F -40 F -30 F -20 F -10 F 0 F 10 F 20 F 30 F 40 F 50 F 60 F 70 F 80 F 90 F 100 F 110 F 120 F 130 F 140 F 150 F 160 F 170 F 180 F 190 F 200 F 300 F 400 F 500 F 600 F 700 F 800 F 900 F 1000 F Celsius (C) -273.15 C -45.56 C -40.00 C -34.44 C -28.89 C -23.33 C -17.78 C -12.22 C -6.67 C -1.11 C 4.44 C 10.00 C 15.56 C 21.11 C 26.67 C 32.22 C 37.78 C 43.33 C 48.89 C 54.44 C 60.00 C 65.56 C 71.11 C 76.67 C 82.22 C 87.78 C 93.33 C 148.89 C 204.44 C 260.00 C 315.56 C 371.11 C 426.67 C 482.22 C 537.78 C

Electrical Voltage
Electrical voltage is defined as electric potential difference between two points of an electric field. Using water pipe analogy, we can visualize the voltage as height difference that makes the water flow down.

V = 2 - 1
V is the voltage between point 2 and 1 in volts (V). 2 is the electric potential at point #2 in volts (V). 1 is the electric potential at point #1 in volts (V). In an electrical circuit, the electrical voltage V in volts (V) is equal to the energy consumption E in joules (J) divided by the electric charge Q in coulombs (C).

V is the voltage measured in volts (V) E is the energy measured in joules (J) Q is the electric charge measured in coulombs (C)

Voltage in series
The total voltage of several voltage sources or voltage drops in series is their sum.

VT = V1 + V2 + V3 +...
VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V). V1 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V). V2 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V). V3 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

Voltage in parallel
Voltage sources or voltage drops in parallel have equal voltage.

VT = V1 = V2 = V3 =...
VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V). V1 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V). V2 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V). V3 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

Voltage divider
For electrical circuit with resistors (or other impedance) in series, the voltage drop Vi on resistor Ri is:

Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

The sum of voltage drops at a current loop is zero.

Vk = 0
DC circuit
Direct current (DC) is generated by a constant voltage source like a battery or DC voltage source. The voltage drop on a resistor can be calculated from the resistor's resistance and the resistor's current, using Ohm's law:
Voltage calculation with Ohm's law

VR = IR R
VR - voltage drop on the resistor measured in volts (V)

IR - current flow through the resistor measured in amperes (A) R - resistance of the resistor measured in ohms ()

AC circuit
Alternating current is generated by a sinusoidal voltage source.
Ohm's law

VZ = IZ Z
VZ - voltage drop on the load measured in volts (V) IZ - current flow through the load measured in amperes (A) Z - impedance of the load measured in ohms ()
Momentary voltage

v(t) = Vmax sin(t+)

v(t) - voltage at time t, measured in volts (V). Vmax - maximal voltage (=amplitude of sine), measured in volts (V). - angular frequency measured in radians per second (rad/s). t - time, measured in seconds (s). - phase of sine wave in radians (rad).
RMS (effective) voltage

Vrms = Veff = Vmax / 2 0.707 Vmax

Vrms - RMS voltage, measured in volts (V). Vmax - maximal voltage (=amplitude of sine), measured in volts (V).
Peak-to-peak voltage

Vp-p = 2Vmax
Voltage drop
Voltage drop is the drop of electrical potential or potential difference on the load in an electrical circuit.

Voltage Measurement
Electrical voltage is measured with Voltmeter. The Voltmeter is connected in parallel to the measured component or circuit. The voltmeter has very high resistance, so it almost does not affect the measured circuit.

Voltage by Country
AC voltage supply may vary for each country. European countries use 230V while north America countries use 120V.

Country Australia Brazil Canada China France Germany India Ireland

Voltage [Volts] 230V 110V 120V 220V 230V 230V 230V 230V

Frequency [Hertz] 50Hz 60Hz 60Hz 50Hz 50Hz 50Hz 50Hz 50Hz

Israel Italy Japan New Zealand Philippines Russia South Africa Thailand UK USA

230V 230V 100V 230V 220V 220V 220V 220V 230V 120V

50Hz 50Hz 50/60Hz 50Hz 60Hz 50Hz 50Hz 50Hz 50Hz 60Hz

Voltage Divider
Voltage divider rule finds the voltage over a load in electrical circuit, when the loads are connected in series.

Voltage divider rule for DC circuit Voltage divider rule for AC circuit Voltage divider calculator

Voltage divider rule for DC circuit

For a DC circuit with constant voltage source VT and resistors in series, the voltage drop Vi in resistor Ri is given by the formula:

Vi - voltage drop in resistor Ri in volts [V]. VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts [V]. Ri - resistance of resistor Ri in ohms []. R1 - resistance of resistor R1 in ohms []. R2 - resistance of resistor R2 in ohms []. R3 - resistance of resistor R3 in ohms [].

Example Voltage source of VT=30V is connected to resistors in series, R1=30, R2=40. Find the voltage drop on resistor R2.

V2 = VT R2 / (R1+R2) = 30V 40 / (30+40) = 17.14V Voltage divider for AC circuit

For an AC circuit with voltage source VT and loads in series, the voltage drop Vi in load Zi is given by the formula:

Vi - voltage drop in load Zi in volts [V]. VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts [V]. Zi - impedance of load Zi in ohms []. Z1 - impedance of load Z1 in ohms []. Z2 - impedance of load Z2 in ohms []. Z3 - impedance of load Z3 in ohms [].

Example Voltage source of VT=30V60 is connected to loads in series, Z1=3020, Z2=40-50. Find the voltage drop in load Z1.

V2 = VT Z1 / (Z1+Z2) = 30V60 3020 / (3020+40-50) = 30V60 3020 / (30cos(20)+j30sin(20)+40cos(-50)+j40sin(-50)) = 30V60 3020 / (28.19+j10.26+25.71-j30.64) = 30V60 3020 / (53.9-j20.38) = 30V60 3020 / 57.62-20.71 = (30V30/57.62) (60+20+20.71) = 15.62V100.71

Ohm's Law
Ohm's law defines a linear relationship between the voltage and the current in an electrical circuit. The DC current flow through a resistor is set by the resistor's voltage drop and the resistor's resistance. With water flow analogy we can imagine the electric current as water current through pipe, the resistor as a thin pipe that limits the water flow, the voltage as height difference of the water that enables the water flow.

Ohm's law formula Ohm's law for AC circuit Ohm's law calculator

Ohm's Law Formula / Equation

When we know the voltage and resistance, we can calculate the current.

Ohm's law definition The resistor's current I in amps (A) is equal to the resistor's voltage VR=V in volts (V) divided by the resistance R in ohms ():

V is the voltage drop of the resistor, measured in Volts (V). Sometimes E is used instead of V . E denotes electromotive force. I is the electrical current flowing through the resistor, measured in Amperes (A) R is the resistance of the resistor, measured in Ohms ()

Voltage calculation When we know the current and resistance, we can calculate the voltage. The voltage V in volts (V) is equal to the to the current I in amps (A) times the resistance R in ohms ():

Resistance calculation When we know the voltage and the current, we can calculate the resistance. The resistance R in ohms () is equal to the voltage V in volts (V) divided by the current I in amps (A):

Since the current is set by the values of the voltage and resistance, the Ohm's law formula can show that:

If we increase the voltage, the current will increase. If we increase the resistance, the current will reduce.

Example #1 Find the current of an electrical circuit that has resistance of 50 Ohms and voltage supply of 5 Volts. Solution:

V = 5V R = 50 I = V / R = 5V / 50 = 0.1A = 100mA
Example #2 Find the resistance of an electrical circuit that has voltage supply of 10 Volts and current of 5mA. Solution:

V = 10V I = 5mA = 0.005A R = V / I = 10V / 0.005A = 2000 = 2k Ohm's Law for AC Circuit
The load's current I in amps (A) is equal to the load's voltage VR=V in volts (V) divided by the impedance Z in ohms ():

V is the voltage drop on the load, measured in Volts (V) I is the electrical current, measured in Amps (A) Z is the impedance of the load, measured in Ohms ()

Example #3 Find the current of an AC circuit, that has voltage supply of 110V70 and load of 0.5k20. Solution:

V = 110V70 Z = 0.5k20 = 50020 I = V / Z = 110V70 / 50020 = (110V / 500) (70-20) = 0.22A 50

Electric Current
Electric current definition and calculations.

Electric current definition Electric current calculation Current calculation with Ohm's law Current in series circuits Current in parallel circuits Current divider Kirchhoff's current law Alternating Current (AC) Current measurement

Electric current definition

Electrical current is the flow rate of electric charge in electric field, usually in electrical circuit. Using water pipe analogy, we can visualize the electrical current as water current that flows in a pipe. The electrical current is measured in ampere (amp) unit.

Electric current calculation

Electrical current is measured by the rate of electric charge flow in an electrical circuit:

i(t) = dQ(t) / dt
The momentary current is given by the derivative of the electric charge by time. i(t) is the momentary current I at time t in amps (A). Q(t) is the momentary electric charge in coulombs (C). t is the time in seconds (s). When the current is constant:

I = Q / t
I is the current in amps (A). Q is the electric charge in coulombs (C), that flows at time duration of t. t is the time duration in seconds (s).
Example

When 5 coulombs flow through a resistor for duration of 10 seconds, the current will be calculated by:

I = Q / t = 5C / 10s = 0.5A Current calculation with Ohm's law

The current IR in anps (A) is equal to the resistor's voltage VR in volts (V) divided by the resistance R in ohms ().

IR = VR / R
Current direction

current type Positive charges Negative charges Conventional direction

from + +

to + -

Current in series circuits

Current that flows through resistors in series is equal in all resistors - just like water flow through a single pipe.

ITotal = I1 = I2 = I3 =...
ITotal - the equivalent current in amps (A). I1 - current of load #1 in amps (A). I2 - current of load #2 in amps (A). I3 - current of load #3 in amps (A).

Current in parallel circuits

Current that flows through loads in parallel - just like water flow through parallel pipes. The total current ITotal is the sum of the parallel currents of each load:

ITotal = I1 + I2 + I3 +...
ITotal - the equivalent current in amps (A). I1 - current of load #1 in amps (A). I2 - current of load #2 in amps (A). I3 - current of load #3 in amps (A).

Current divider
The current division of resistors in parallel is

RT = 1 / (1/R2 + 1/R3)
or

I1 = IT RT / (R1+RT)
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)
The junction of several electrical components is called a node. The algebraic sum of currents entering a node is zero.

Ik = 0
Alternating Current (AC)
Alternating current is generated by a sinusoidal voltage source.
Ohm's law

IZ = VZ / Z
IZ - current flow through the load measured in amperes (A) VZ - voltage drop on the load measured in volts (V) Z - impedance of the load measured in ohms ()
Angular frequency

= 2 f
- angular velocity measured in radians per second (rad/s) f - frequency measured in hertz (Hz).
Momentary current

i(t) = Ipeak sin(t+)

i(t) - momentary current at time t, measured in amps (A). Ipeak - maximal current (=amplitude of sine), measured in amps (A). - angular frequency measured in radians per second (rad/s). t - time, measured in seconds (s). - phase of sine wave in radians (rad).
RMS (effective) current

Irms = Ieff = Ipeak / 2 0.707 Ipeak

Peak-to-peak current

Ip-p = 2Ipeak
Current measurement
Current measurement is done by connecting the ammeter in series to the measured object, so all the measured current will flow through the ammeter. The ammeter has very low resistance, so it almost does not affect the measured circuit.

Kirchhoff's Laws
Kirchhoff's current law and voltage law, defined by Gustav Kirchhoff, describe the relation of values of currents that flow through a junction point and voltages in a an electrical circuit loop, in an electrical circuit.

Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)

Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

This is Kirchhoff's first law. The sum of all currents that enter an electrical circuit junction is 0. When the currents enter the junction have positive sign and the current that leave the junction have negative sign:

Another way to look at this law is that the sum of currents that enter a junction is equal to the sum of currents that leave the junction:

KCL example

I1 and I2 enter the junction I3 leave the junction I1=2A, I2=3A, I3=-1A, I4= ?
Solution:

Ik = I1+I2+I3+I4 = 0 I4 = -I1 - I2 - I3 = -2A - 3A - (-1A) = -4A

Since I4 is negative, it leaves the junction.

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

This is Kirchhoff's second law. The sum of all voltages or potential differences in an electrical circuit loop is 0.

KVL example

VS = 12V, VR1 = -4V, VR2 = -3V VR3 = ?

Solution:

Vk = VS + VR1 + VR2 + VR3 = 0 VR3 = -VS - VR1 - VR2 = -12V+4V+3V = -5V

The voltage sign (+/-) is the direction of the potential difference.

Coulomb's Law

Coulomb's law formula Coulomb's law example

Coulomb's law formula

Coulomb's law calculates the electric force F in newtons (N) between two electric charges q1 and q2 in coulombs (C) with a distance of r in meters (m):

F is the force on q1 and q2 measured in newtons (N). k is Coulomb's constant k = 8.988109 Nm2/C2 q1 is the first charge in coulombs (C). q2 is the second charge in coulombs (C). r is the distance between the 2 charges in meters (m).
When charges q1 and q2 is increased, the force F is increased. When distance r is increased, the force F is decreased.

Coulomb's law example

Find the force between 2 electric charges of 210-5C and 310-5C with distance of 40cm between them.

q1 = 210-5C q2 = 310-5C r = 40cm = 0.4m

F = kq1q2 / r2 = 8.988109Nm2/C2 210-5C 310-5C / (0.4m)2 = 37.705N

Electrical Resistance
Electrical resistance definition and calculations.

Resistance definition Resistance calculation o Resistance calculation with Ohm's law o Temperature effects of resistance o Resistance of resistors in series o Resistance of resistors in parallel Measuring resistance Superconductivity

Resistance definition
Resistance is an electrical quantity that measures how the device or material reduces the electric current flow through it. The resistance is measured in units of ohms (). If we make an analogy to water flow in pipes, the resistance is bigger when the pipe is thinner, so the water flow is decreased.

Resistance calculation
The resistance of a conductor is resistivity of the conductor's material times the conductor's length divided by the conductor's cross sectional area.

R is the resistance in ohms (). is the resistivity in ohms-meter (m) l is the length of the conductor in meter (m) A is the cross sectional area of the conductor in square meters (m2) It is easy to understand this formula with water pipes analogy:

when the pipe is longer, the length is bigger and the resistance will increase. when the pipe is wider, the cross sectional area is bigger and the resistance will decrease.

Resistance calculation with ohm's law

R is the resistance of the resistor in ohms (). V is the voltage drop on the resistor in volts (V). I is the current of the resistor in amperes (A).

Temperature effects of resistance

The resistance of a resistor increases when temperature of the resistor increases.

R2 = R1 ( 1 + (T2 - T1) )
R2 is the resistance at temperature T2 in ohms (). R1 is the resistance at temperature T1 in ohms (). is the temperature coefficient.

Resistance of resistors in series

The total equivalent resistance of resistors in series is the sum of the resistance values:

RTotal = R1+ R2+ R3+...

Resistance of resistors in parallel

The total equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel is given by:

Measuring electrical resistance

Electrical resistance is measured with ohmmeter instrument. In order to measure the resistance of a resistor or a circuit, the circuit should have the power supply turned off. The ohmmeter should be connected to the two ends of the circuit so the resistance can be read.

Superconductivity
Superconductivity is the drop of resistance to zero at very low temperatures near 0K. `

Electric Power
Electric power is the rate of energy consumption in an electrical circuit. The electric power is measured in units of watts.

Electric power definition Electric power calculation Power of AC circuits Power factor

Electric power definition

The electric power P is equal to the energy consumption E divided by the consumption time t:

P is the electric power in watt (W). E is the energy consumption in joule (J). t is the time in seconds (s).

Example Find the electric power of an electrical circuit that consumes 120 joules for 20 seconds. Solution:

E = 120J t = 20s P = E / t = 120J / 20s = 60W Electric power calculation

P=VI
or

P = I2 R
or

P = V2 / R
P is the electric power in watt (W). V is the voltage in volts (V). I is the current in amps (A). R is the resistance in ohms ().

Power of AC circuits
Real power Real or true power is the power that is used to do the work on the load.

P = Vrms Irms cos

P Vrms Irms is the real power in watts [W] is the rms voltage = Vpeak/2 in Volts [V] is the rms current = Ipeak/2 in Amperes [A] is the impedance phase angle = phase difference between voltage and current.

Reactive power Reactive power is the power that is wasted and not used to do work on the load.

Q = Vrms Irms sin

Q is the reactive power in volt-ampere-reactive [VAR] Vrms is the rms voltage = Vpeak/2 in Volts [V]

Irms is the rms current = Ipeak/2 in Amperes [A] is the impedance phase angle = phase difference between voltage and current.

Apparent power The apparent power is the power that is supplied to the circuit.

S = Vrms Irms
S is the apparent power in Volt-amper [VA] Vrms is the rms voltage = Vpeak/2 in Volts [V] Irms is the rms current = Ipeak/2 in Amperes [A]

Real / reactive / apparent powers relation The real power P and reactive power Q give together the apparent power S:

P2 + Q2 = S2
P Q S is the real power in watts [W] is the reactive power in volt-ampere-reactive [VAR] is the apparent power in Volt-amper [VA]

Power Factor
In AC circuits, the power factor is the ratio of the real power that is used to do work and the apparent power that is supplied to the circuit. The power factor can get values in the range of 0 to 1.

Power factor definition Power factor calculation Power factor correction

Power factor definition

The power factor is equal to the real or true power P in watts (W) divided by the apparent power S in volt-ampere (VA):

PF = P(W) / S(VA)
PF - power factor. P - real power in watts (W). S - apparent power in voltamps (VA).

Power factor calculations

When the circuit has a resistive impedance load, the real power P is equal to the apparent power S and the power factor PF is equal to 1:

PF(resistive impedance) = P / S = 1
The power factor PF is equal to the absolute value of the cosine of the apparent power phase angle (which is also is impedance phase angle):

PF = |cos |
PF is the power factor. is the apprent power phase angle. The real power P in watts (W) is equal to the apparent power S in volt-ampere (VA) times the power factor PF:

P(W) = S(VA) PF = S(VA) |cos |

The resistance R in ohms () is equal to the impedance Z in ohms () times the power factor PF:

R() = Z() PF = Z() |cos |

Power factor correction
Power factor correction is an adjustment of the electrical circuit in order to change the power factor to 1. When PF=1, =0 and the reactive power Q=0, the efficiency of the circuit is optimal since all the supplied power is used for work on the load. The power factor correction is usually done by adding capacitors to the load circuit, since the circuit has inductive components, like electric motor.

Electrical Units
Electrical & electronic units of electric current, voltage, power, resistance, capacitance, inductance, electric charge, electric field, magnetic flux, frequency:

Electrical & electronic units table Units prefix table Electrical units definitions

Electrical & electronic units table

Unit Name Ampere (amp) Volt Ohm Watt Decibel-milliwatt Decibel-Watt Volt-Ampere-Reactive Volt-Ampere Farad Henry siemens / mho Coulomb Ampere-hour Joule Unit Symbol Quantity Electric current (I) Voltage (V, E)

A V W dBm dBW var VA F H S C Ah J

Electromotive force (E) Potential difference ()

Resistance (R) Electric power (P) Electric power (P) Electric power (P) Reactive power (Q) Apparent power (S) Capacitance (C) Inductance (L) Conductance (G)
Admittance (Y)

Electric charge (Q) Electric charge (Q) Energy (E)

Kilowatt-hour Electron-volt Ohm-meter siemens per meter Volts per meter Newtons per coulomb Volt-meter Tesla Gauss Weber Hertz Seconds Meter / metre Square-meter Decibel Parts per million

kWh eV m S/m V/m N/C Vm T G Wb Hz s m m2 dB ppm

Energy (E) Energy (E) Resistivity () Conductivity () Electric field (E) Electric field (E) Electric flux (e) Magnetic field (B) Magnetic field (B) Magnetic flux (m) Frequency (f) Time (t) Length (l) Area (A)

Electrical units definitions Volt (V)

Volt is the electrical unit of voltage. One volt is the energy of 1 joule that is consumed when electric charge of 1 coulomb flows in the circuit.

1V = 1J / 1C Ampere (A)
Ampere is the electrical unit of electrical current. It measures the amount of electrical charge that flows in an electrical circuit per 1 second.

1A = 1C / 1s Ohm ()
Ohm is the electrical unit of resistance.

1 = 1V / 1A

Watt (W)
Watt is the electrical unit of electric power. It measures the rate of consumed energy.

1W = 1J / 1s 1W = 1V 1A Decibel-milliwatt (dBm)
Decibel-milliwatt or dBm is a unit of electric power, measured with logarithmic scale referenced to 1mW.

10dBm = 10 log10(10mW / 1mW) Decibel-Watt (dBW)

Decibel-watt or dBW is a unit of electric power, measured with logarithmic scale referenced to 1W.

10dBW = 10 log10(10W / 1W) Farad (F)

Farad is the unit of capacitance. It represents the amount of electric charge in coulombs that is stored per 1 volt.

1F = 1C / 1V Henry (H)
Henry is the unit of inductance.

1H = 1Wb / 1A siemens (S)

siemens is the unit of conductance, which is the opposite of resistance.

1S = 1 / 1 Coulomb (C)
Coulomb is the unit of electric charge.

1C = 6.2387921018 electron charges Ampere-hour (Ah)

Ampere-hour is a unit of electric charge. One ampere-hour is the electric charge that flow in electrical circuit, when a current of 1 ampere is applied for 1 hour.

1Ah = 1A 1hour
One ampere-hour is equal to 3600 coulombs.

1Ah = 3600C Tesla (T)

Tesla is the unit of magnetic field.

1T = 1Wb / 1m2 Weber (Wb)

Weber is the unit of magnetic flux.

1Wb = 1V 1s Joule (J)

Joule is the unit of energy.

1J = 1 kg 1(m / s)2 Kilowatt-hour (kWh)

Kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy.

1kWh = 1kW 1h = 1000W 1h

Hertz (Hz)
Hertz is the unit of frequency. It measures the number of cycles per second.

1 Hz = 1 cycles / s

Electrical Symbols & Electronic Symbols

Electrical symbols and electronic circuit symbols are used for drawing schematic diagram. The symbols represent electrical and electronic components.

Table of Electrical Symbols

Symbol

Component name

Meaning

Wire Symbols Electrical Wire Conductor of electrical current

Connected Wires

Connected crossing

Not Connected Wires

Wires are not connected

Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open

SPDT Toggle Switch

Selects between two connections

Pushbutton Switch (N.O)

Momentary switch - normally open

Pushbutton Switch (N.C)

Momentary switch - normally closed

DIP Switch

DIP switch is used for onboard configuration

SPST Relay Relay open / close connection by an electromagnet SPDT Relay

Jumper

Close connection by jumper insertion on pins.

Solder Bridge

Solder to close connection

Ground Symbols Earth Ground Used for zero potential reference and electrical shock protection. Connected to the chassis of the circuit

Chassis Ground

Digital / Common Ground

Resistor Symbols Resistor (IEEE) Resistor reduces the current flow. Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer (IEEE) Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals. Potentiometer (IEC)

Variable Resistor / Rheostat (IEEE) Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals. Variable Resistor / Rheostat (IEC)

Trimmer Resistor

Preset resistor

Thermistor

Thermal resistor - change resistance when temperature changes Photo-resistor - change resistance with light intensity change

Photoresistor / Light dependent resistor (LDR) Capacitor Symbols

Capacitor

Capacitor

Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as short circuit with AC and open circuit with DC.

Polarized Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitor

Polarized Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitor

Variable Capacitor

Adjustable capacitance

Inductor / Coil Symbols Inductor Coil / solenoid that generates magnetic field

Iron Core Inductor

Includes iron

Variable Inductor

Power Supply Symbols Voltage Source Generates constant voltage

Current Source

Generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source

AC voltage source

Generator

Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical rotation of the generator

Battery Cell

Generates constant voltage

Battery

Generates constant voltage Generates voltage as a function of voltage or current of other circuit element.

Controlled Voltage Source

Controlled Current Source

Generates current as a function of voltage or current of other circuit element.

Meter Symbols Voltmeter Measures voltage. Has very high resistance. Connected in parallel. Measures electric current. Has near zero resistance. Connected serially.

Ammeter

Ohmmeter

Measures resistance

Wattmeter

Measures electric power

Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols Lamp / light bulb

Lamp / light bulb

Generates light when current flows through

Lamp / light bulb

Diode / LED Symbols Diode Diode allows current flow in one direction only (left to right). Allows current flow in one direction, but also can flow in the reverse direction when above breakdown voltage Schottky diode is a diode with low voltage drop

Zener Diode

Schottky Diode

Varactor / Varicap Diode

Variable capacitance diode

Tunnel Diode

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED emits light when current flows through

Photodiode

Photodiode allows current flow when exposed to light

Transistor Symbols NPN Bipolar Transistor Allows current flow when high potential at base (middle) Allows current flow when low potential at base (middle) Made from 2 bipolar transistors. Has total gain of the product of each gain. N-channel field effect transistor

PNP Bipolar Transistor

Darlington Transistor

JFET-N Transistor

JFET-P Transistor

P-channel field effect transistor

NMOS Transistor

N-channel MOSFET transistor

PMOS Transistor

P-channel MOSFET transistor

Misc. Symbols Motor Electric motor

Transformer

Change AC voltage from high to low or low to high.

Electric bell

Rings when activated

Buzzer

Produce buzzing sound

Fuse

Fuse

The fuse disconnects when current above threshold. Used to protect circuit from high currents.

Bus

Contains several wires. Usually for data / address.

Bus

Bus

Optocoupler / Opto-isolator

Optocoupler isolates onnection to other board Converts electrical signal to sound waves Converts sound waves to electrical signal

Loudspeaker

Microphone

Operational Amplifier

Amplify input signal

Schmitt Trigger

Operates with hysteresis to reduce noise. Converts analog signal to digital numbers Converts digital numbers to analog signal Used to generate precise frequency clock signal

Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) Digital-to-Analog converter (DAC)

Crystal Oscillator

Antenna Symbols Antenna / aerial Transmits & receives radio waves Antenna / aerial

Dipole Antenna

Two wires simple antenna

Logic Gates Symbols NOT Gate (Inverter) Outputs 1 when input is 0

AND Gate

Outputs 1 when both inputs are 1.

NAND Gate

Outputs 0 when both inputs are 1. (NOT + AND)

OR Gate

Outputs 1 when any input is 1.

NOR Gate

Outputs 0 when any input is 1. (NOT + OR) Outputs 1 when inputs are different. (Exclusive OR)

XOR Gate

D Flip-Flop

Stores one bit of data

Multiplexer / Mux 2 to 1 Connects the output to selected input line. Multiplexer / Mux 4 to 1

Demultiplexer / Demux 1 to 4

Connects selected output to the input line.