The Term "Systematics" Is Sometimes Used Synonymously With "Taxonomy" and

 The term "systematics" is sometimes used
synonymously with "taxonomy" and may be confused

with "scientific classification."
 However, taxonomy is properly the describing,
identifying, classifying, and naming of organisms,
while "classification" is focused on placing organisms
within groups that show their relationships to other
organisms.
 All of these biological disciplines can be involved with
extinct and extant organisms. However, systematics
alone deals specifically with relationships through
time, requiring recognition of the fossil record when
dealing with the systematics of organisms.
SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

 Systematic biology (hereafter called
simply systematics) is the field that
 (a) provides scientific names for organisms,
 (b) describes them,
 (c) preserves collections of them,
 (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys
for their identification, and data on their

distributions,
 (e) investigates their evolutionary histories, &
 (f) considers their environmental adaptations.

 Thisis a field with a long history that in
recent years has experienced a notable
renaissance, principally with respect to
theoretical content. Part of the
theoretical material has to do with
evolutionary areas (topics e and f
above), the rest relates especially to the
problem of classification. Taxonomy is
that part of systematics concerned with
topics (a) to (d) above.

 Taxonomy, science of classifying
organisms. Probably the first scientific
study of plants was the attempt to
classify them. At first, because of the
limited knowledge of plant structures,
artificial classifications, beginning with
the most ancient one into herbs, shrubs,
and trees, were necessary.

 These simple categories merely cataloged, in a
tentative way, the rapidly accumulating material, in
preparation for a classification based on natural
relationships.
 Modern taxonomic classification, based on the
natural concepts and system of the Swedish botanist
Carolus Linnaeus, has progressed steadily since
the 18th century, modified by advances in
knowledge of morphology, evolution, and genetics.

 in biology, identification, naming, and
grouping of organisms into a formal
system based on similarities such as
internal and external anatomy,
physiological functions, genetic makeup,
or evolutionary history. With an estimated
10 million to 13 million species on
Earth, the diversity of life is immense.

 Determining an underlying order in the
complex web of life is a difficult undertaking
that encompasses advanced scientific
methods as well as fundamental philosophical
issues about how to view the living world.
Among the scientists who work on
classification problems are systematists,
biologists who study the diversity of
organisms and their evolutionary relationship.

 Classification determines methods for
organizing the diversity of life on Earth. It
is a dynamic process that reflects the very
nature of organisms, which are subject to
modification and change over many, many
generations in the process of evolution.
 Since life first appeared on Earth 3.5
billion years ago, many new types of

organisms have evolved.

 Many of these organisms have become
extinct, while some have developed into
the present fauna and flora of the world.
Extinction and diversification continue
nonstop, and scientists are frequently
encountering fluctuations that may affect
the way an organism is classified.

 In addition to ordering organisms,
scientists give a new species a scientific
name, typically a two-word name in
Latin, to distinguish it from similar
organisms. This naming process creates a
standard way for scientists around the
world to communicate about the same
organism. This standard minimizes
confusion, particularly when common
names are applied to organisms.

 Forinstance, the bird Europeans
commonly call a robin is a different
species of bird from the robin Americans
recognize. The confusion ends when the
birds are referred to by their scientific
names: the European robin is Erithacus
rubecula, while the American robin is
Turdus migratorius.

 When classifying organisms, scientists study
a wide range of features, including those
visible to the naked eye, those detectable
only under a microscope, and those that
can be determined only by chemical tests.
 Scientists compare the external shapes
and sizes of organisms as well as the

anatomy and function of internal
organs and organ systems, such as the
digestive or reproductive systems.

 Biochemists study and compare the
molecular interactions within an organism
that enable it to grow, make and store
energy, and reproduce.
 The early stages of an organism’s
development, or embryology, as well as an

organism’s behavior, or ethology, are also
useful in grouping organisms. Even the role
an organism plays in its habitat can help
place it in a particular group.

 Scientists use the fossil record to learn how
certain animals have changed and evolved
through Earth’s history, which may provide
clues for classification.
 More recently, scientists have employed the
techniques of molecular biology to compare the
units of heredity, or genes, among organisms.
Scientists study the fundamental units of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the molecule that
makes up genes, and organisms that share a
similar DNA structure may be more closely
related.

 Called molecular systematics, this
approach is a powerful analytical tool. Used in
combination with the other features studied
in classification, molecular systematics can
provide valuable insight into classification
problems.
 For many organisms, molecular systematics
studies have supported traditional
classification; however, in some cases, the
evidence from genetics studies has indicated
that organisms should be reclassified.

 Skunks, for example, traditionally have
been classified with badgers, ferrets, and
minks in the family Mustelidae. But
recent studies of molecular traits indicate
that skunks differ significantly from these
animals and may warrant classification in
their own family.

 Scientists classify organisms using a series
of hierarchical categories called taxa
(taxon, singular). This hierarchical
system moves upward from a base
containing a large number of organisms
with very specific characteristics. This base
taxon is part of a larger taxon, which in
turn becomes part of an even larger taxon.
Each successive taxon is distinguished by
a broader set of characteristics.

 The base level in the taxonomic hierarchy
is the species. Broadly speaking, a
species is a group of closely related
organisms that are able to interbreed and
produce fertile offspring.
 On the next tier of the hierarchy, similar
species are grouped into a broader taxon

called a genus (genera, plural).

 The remaining tiers within the hierarchy
are formed by grouping genera into
families, then families into orders,
and orders into classes.
 In the classification of animals, bacteria,
protists (unicellular organisms, such as

amoebas, with characteristics of both
plants and animals), and fungi, classes are
grouped into phyla.

 while plant classes are grouped into
divisions.
 Both phyla and divisions are grouped
into kingdoms.
 Some scientists go on to group
kingdoms into domains.

 SPECIES
 GENUS
 FAMILY
 ORDER
 CLASS
 PHYLUM/DIVISION
 KINGDOM
 DOMAIN
 LIFE

 The names of species are binomial, with the
first name designating the GENUS to which
the species belongs (capitalized) followed by
a species epithet (lower case), both written in
italics.
 Ex. Squalus acanthias,
(DOGFISH SHARK)

 Grouping organisms according to shared
characteristics is not a simple task, and
scientists often disagree about the best way to
classify organisms. Some think that organisms
should be grouped according to differences or
similarities in the way they look or act. Other
scientists argue that classification should be
based on characteristics derived from a shared
evolution. Conflicting philosophies about
classification have resulted in a variety of
classification methods, each with their own set
of assumptions, techniques, and results.

 The classification of insects,
birds, and bats illustrates a
traditional classification process.
Insects, birds, and bats are all
animals—that is, they are
multicellular organisms that
obtain energy from food.
Scientists group these organisms
into the Kingdom Animalia.

 Birds and bats both have spinal cords,
causing scientists to classify both birds
and bats in the phylum Chordata. Within
the phylum Chordata, key features cause
scientists to separate birds and bats. Birds
are placed in the class Aves, which
includes egg-laying animals, while bats
are placed in the class Mammalia, which
includes animals that give birth to live
young and nurse their young from
mammary glands.

 Insects,
which lack spinal cords,
are classified in the phylum
Arthropoda, the taxon that
includes animals with jointed legs
and a skeleton on the outside of
the body. Insects are further
divided based on such broad
physical features as the presence
or absence of wings.

 Scientists using the classical
approach must judge the relative
importance of characteristics. They
may decide, for example, that wing
structure is more important than the
presence of fingernails in certain cases
of classification. Some critics argue
that this interpretation and evaluation
is too subjective. To introduce more
objectivity into classification, some
scientists devised the phenetics
approach to classification.

 In the phenetics approach,
scientists rely on quantitative
methods and consider only the
observable characteristics of modern
organisms. Pheneticists identify a
set of characteristics to measure and
assign a certain numerical value to
each characteristic. The tally is used
to determine the extent of similarity
between organisms.

 Forexample, pheneticists may find
that, overall, birds and reptiles have
a 77 percent similarity of body
structure, or morphology, compared
to a 55 percent morphological
similarity between birds and
mammals. From this measurement,
pheneticists would suggest a
classification that grouped birds and
reptiles more closely than birds and
mammals.

 A third classification method is the
cladistic approach, which strives to
classify organisms by natural evolutionary
relationships, known as phylogeny.
 Cladists use the fossil record, molecular
genetics, and other techniques to create an
evolutionary tree called a cladogram. This
branched diagram shows the relationship of a
group of species based on the fewest number
of shared changes that have occurred from
generation to generation.

 The general taxonomic structure
is as follows:
◦Order (-virales)
◦Family (-viridae)
◦Subfamily (-virinae)
◦Genus (-virus)
◦Species (-virus)
 infectious agent found in virtually all life
forms, including humans, animals, plants,
fungi, and bacteria. Viruses consist of genetic
material—either deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
or ribonucleic acid (RNA)—surrounded by a
protective coating of protein, called a capsid,
with or without an outer lipid envelope.
Viruses are between 20 and 100 times
smaller than bacteria and hence are too small
to be seen by light microscopy.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI
 Viruses vary in size from the largest
poxviruses of about 450 nanometers (about
0.000014 in) in length to the smallest
polioviruses of about 30 nanometers (about
0.000001 in).
 Viruses are not considered free-living, since
they cannot reproduce outside of a living cell;

they have evolved to transmit their genetic
information from one cell to another for the
purpose of replication.
 Viruses often damage or kill the cells that
they infect, causing disease in infected
organisms. A few viruses stimulate cells to
grow uncontrollably and produce cancers.
Although many infectious diseases, such as
the common cold, are caused by viruses,
there are no cures for these illnesses.
 The difficulty in developing antiviral
therapies stems from the large number of
variant viruses that can cause the same
disease, as well as the inability of drugs to
disable a virus without disabling healthy
cells.
 However, the development of antiviral
agents is a major focus of current research,

and the study of viruses has led to many
discoveries important to human health.
 Individual viruses, or virus particles, also called
virions, contain genetic material, or genomes,
in one of several forms. Unlike cellular
organisms, in which the genes always are made
up of DNA, viral genes may consist of either DNA
or RNA.
 Like cell DNA, almost all viral DNA is double-
stranded, and it can have either a circular or a
linear arrangement. Almost all viral RNA is
single-stranded; it is usually linear, and it may
be either segmented (with different genes on
different RNA molecules) or nonsegmented (with
all genes on a single piece of RNA).
 The viral protective shell, or capsid, can be
either helical (spiral-shaped) or icosahedral
(having 20 triangular sides). Capsids are composed
of repeating units of one or a few different
proteins.
 These units are called protomers or capsomers.
The proteins that make up the virus particle are
called structural proteins. Viruses also carry genes
for making proteins that are never incorporated
into the virus particle and are found only in
infected cells. These viral proteins are called
nonstructural proteins; they include factors
required for the replication of the viral genome
and the production of the virus particle.
 Capsids and the genetic material (DNA or
RNA) they contain are together referred to
as nucleocapsids. Some virus particles
consist only of nucleocapsids, while others
contain additional structures.
 Some icosahedral and helical animal viruses
are enclosed in a lipid envelope acquired
when the virus buds through host-cell
membranes. Inserted into this envelope are
glycoproteins that the viral genome
directs the cell to make; these molecules
bind virus particles to susceptible host cells.
 The most elaborate viruses are the
bacteriophages, which use bacteria as their
hosts. Some bacteriophages resemble an
insect with an icosahedral head attached to a
tubular sheath. From the base of the sheath
extend several long tail fibers that help the
virus attach to the bacterium and inject its
DNA to be replicated and to direct capsid
production and virus particle assembly inside
the cell.
 Viroids and prions are smaller than
viruses, but they are similarly associated
with disease. Viroids are plant pathogens
that consist only of a circular, independently
replicating RNA molecule. The single-
stranded RNA circle collapses on itself to
form a rodlike structure. The only known
mammalian pathogen that resembles plant
viroids is the deltavirus (hepatitis D), which
requires hepatitis B virus proteins to
package its RNA into virus particles.
 Co-infection with hepatitis B and D can produce
more severe disease than can infection with
hepatitis B alone. Prions are mutated forms of a
normal protein found on the surface of certain
animal cells. The mutated protein, known as a
prion, has been implicated in some neurological
diseases such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy. There is
some evidence that prions resemble viruses in
their ability to cause infection. Prions, however,
lack the nucleic acid found in viruses.
 Viruses are classified according to their type of
genetic material, their strategy of replication, and
their structure. The International Committee
on Nomenclature of Viruses (ICNV),
established in 1966, devised a scheme to group
viruses into families, subfamilies, genera, and
species.
 The ICNV report published in 1995 assigned more
than 4000 viruses into 71 virus families.
Hundreds of other viruses remain unclassified
because of the lack of sufficient information.
 The genome replication of most DNA viruses
takes place in the cell's nucleus. If the cell
has the appropriate receptor on its surface,
these viruses enter the cell by fusion with the
cell membrane or by endocytosis. Most DNA
viruses are entirely dependent on the host
cell's DNA and RNA synthesising machinery,
and RNA processing machinery. The viral
genome must cross the cell's nuclear
membrane to access this machinery.
 These viruses are unique because their genetic
information is encoded in RNA. Replication
usually takes place in the cytoplasm. RNA viruses
can be placed into about four different groups
depending on their modes of replication. The
polarity (whether or not it can be used directly to
make proteins) of the RNA largely determines the
replicative mechanism, and whether the genetic
material is single-stranded or double-stranded.
RNA viruses use their own RNA replicase enzymes
to create copies of their genomes.
 these replicate using reverse transcription, which is
the formation of DNA from an RNA template. Reverse
transcribing viruses containing RNA genomes use a
DNA intermediate to replicate, whereas those
containing DNA genomes use an RNA intermediate
during genome replication. Both types use the
reverse transcriptase enzyme to carry out the nucleic
acid conversion. Retroviruses often integrate the DNA
produced by reverse transcription into the host
genome. They are susceptible to antiviral drugs that
inhibit the reverse transcriptase enzyme, e.g.
zidovudine and lamivudine. An example of the first
type is HIV, which is a retrovirus. Examples of the
second type are the Hepadnaviridae, which
includes Hepatitis B virus.
 Outside of a host cell, a virus is an
inert particle. Once inside a cell, a
virus can replicate many times,
creating thousands of viruses that
leave the cell to find host cells of
their own. Viruses that cause disease
do so by destroying or damaging
cells as they leave them.
The adenovirus is one
of the 100 virus types
that causes the common
cold. The adenovirus
can enter a human host
through the respiratory
and gastrointestinal
tracts or through the
eye.
Adenovirus Common cold
Bunyavirus Hantaan Kidney failure
La Crosse Encephalitis (brain
Sin Nombre infection)
Lung syndrome
Calicivirus Norwalk Gastroenteritis (diarrhea,
vomiting)
Coronavirus Corona Common cold
Filovirus Ebola Hemorrhagic fever
Marburg Hemorrhagic fever
Flavivirus Hepatitis C (non- Hepatitis
A, non-B) Hepatitis, hemorrhage
Yellow fever
Hepadnaviru Hepatitis B virus Hepatitis, liver
s (HBV) carcinoma
Herpesvirus Cytomegalovirus Birth defects
Epstein-Barr virus Mononucleosis,
(EBV) nasopharyngeal
Herpes simplex carcinoma
type 1 Cold sores
Herpes simplex Genital lesions
type 2 Kaposi's
Human herpesvirus sarcoma
8 (HHV8) Chicken pox,
Varicella-zoster shingles
Orthomyxovirus Influenza types A Flu
and B
Papovavirus Human Warts, cervical
papillomavirus (HPV) carcinoma
Picornavirus Coxsackie virus Myocarditis (heart
Echovirus muscle infection)
Hepatitis A Meningitis
Poliovirus Infectious hepatitis
Rhinovirus Poliomyelitis
Common cold
Paramyxovirus Measles Measles
Mumps Mumps
Parainfluenza Common cold, ear
infections
Parvovirus B19 Fifth disease, chronic
anemia
Poxvirus Orthopoxvirus Smallpox (eradicated)
Reovirus Rotavirus Diarrhea
Retrovirus Human Acquired
immunodeficienc immunodeficiency
y virus (HIV) syndrome (AIDS)
Human T-cell Adult T-cell leukemia,
leukemia virus lymphoma, neurologic
(HTLV-I) disease
Rhabdovirus Rabies Rabies
Togavirus Eastern equine Encephalitis
encephalomyeliti Rubella, birth defects
s
Rubella
 Bacteria, one-celled organisms visible only
through a microscope. Bacteria live all around
us and within us. The air is filled with bacteria,
and they have even entered outer space in
spacecraft. Bacteria live in the deepest parts
of the ocean and deep within Earth.
 They are in the soil, in our food, and on plants
and animals. Even our bodies are home to
many different kinds of bacteria. Our lives are
closely intertwined with theirs, and the health
of our planet depends very much on their
activities.
Single-
celled
Microscopic
Simple
1. Bacilli –
Rod Shaped
2. Cocci –
Sphere
Shaped
3. Spirilla –
Spiral
Shaped
Cell without a nucleus.
Asexualreproduction
where one single-celled
organism splits into 2.
Thick protective coat that
lets some bacteria survive
heat, cold, or dry periods
of time.
Protectiv
e Coat
Nitrogen Fixing (food for
plants)
Decomposes dead
material
Bioremediation
– Change
harmful chemicals into
harmless chemicals
Food– yogurt, cheese,

buttermilk, sour cream
 Some members of the genus Pseudomonas are able
to metabolise chemical pollutants in the
environment, and as a result can be used for
bioremediation. Notable species demonstrated as
suitable for use as bioremediation agents include:
 P. alcaligenes, which can degrade
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.[20]
 P. mendocina, which is able to degrade
toluene.[21]
 P. pseudoalcaligenes is able to use
cyanide as a nitrogen source.[22]

 P. resinovorans can degrade carbazole.[23]
 P. veronii has been shown to degrade a variety of
simple aromatic organic compounds.[24][25]
 P. putida has the ability to degrade organic solvents
such as toluene.[26] At least one strain of this bacterium
is able to convert morphine in aqueous solution into the
stronger and somewhat expensive to manufacture drug
hydromorphone (Dilaudid).
 Strain KC of P. stutzeri is able to degrade carbon
tetrachloride.[27]
 Antibiotics & Other medicines
Antibiotics kill bacteria and

help you feel better when you
get sick.
Pathogen – Causes disease
in living things.
Examples: Strep Throat,

Food Poisoning,
Pneumonia,
 The Archaea [ɑrˈkiə] (help·info) are a group of single-
celled microorganisms. A single individual or species
from this domain is called an archaeon (sometimes
spelled "archeon"). They have no cell nucleus or any
other organelles within their cells. In the past they were
viewed as an unusual group of bacteria and named
archaebacteria but since the Archaea have an
independent evolutionary history and show many
differences in their biochemistry from other forms of
life, they are now classified as a separate domain in the
three-domain system.
 In this system the three main branches of
evolutionary descent are the Archaea, Eukarya
and Bacteria. Archaea are further divided into four
recognized phyla, but many more phyla may exist.
Of these groups the Crenarchaeota and the
Euryarchaeota are most intensively studied.
 Classifying the Archaea is still difficult, since the
vast majority have never been studied in the

laboratory and have only been detected by analysis
of their nucleic acids in samples from the
environment.
 Although archaea have, in the past, been classed with
bacteria as prokaryotes, this classification has been
described as outdated, since it fails to distinguish
between the three very distinct domains of life.
 Generally, archaea and bacteria are quite similar in size
and shape, although a few archaea have very unusual
shapes, such as the flat and square-shaped cells of
Haloquadra walsbyi. Despite this visual similarity to
bacteria, archaea possess genes and several metabolic
pathways that are more closely related to those of
eukaryotes: notably the enzymes involved in
transcription and translation.
 Other aspects of archaean biochemistry are
unique, such as their reliance on ether lipids in
their cell membranes. The archaea exploit a much
greater variety of sources of energy than
eukaryotes: ranging from familiar organic
compounds such as sugars, to using ammonia,
metal ions or even hydrogen gas as nutrients. Salt-
tolerant archaea (the Halobacteria) use sunlight as
a source of energy, and other species of archaea
fix carbon; however, unlike plants and
cyanobacteria, no species of archaea is known to
do both.
 Archaea reproduce asexually and divide by binary
fission, fragmentation, or budding; in contrast to
bacteria and eukaryotes, no species of archaea
are known that form spores.
 Initially, archaea were seen as extremophiles that
lived in harsh environments, such as hot springs

and salt lakes, but they have since been found in
a broad range of habitats, such as soils, oceans,
and marshlands. Archaea are particularly
numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in
plankton may be one of the most abundant
groups of organisms on the planet.
 Archaea are now recognized as a major part
of life on Earth and may play an important
role in both the carbon cycle and nitrogen
cycle. No clear examples of archaeal
pathogens or parasites are known, but they
are often mutualists or commensals. One
example are the methanogenic archaea that
inhabit the gut of humans and ruminants,
where they are present in vast numbers and
aid in the digestion of food.
 Archaea have some importance in
technology, with methanogens used to
produce biogas and as part of sewage
treatment, and enzymes from
extremophile archaea that can resist high
temperatures and organic solvents are
exploited in biotechnology.
Methanogens
These Archaeabacteria are
anaerobes. They make
methane (natural gas) as a
waste product. They are found
in swamp sediments, sewage,
and in buried landfills. In the
future, they could be used to
produce methane as a
byproduct of sewage
treatment or landfill operation.
Halophiles
These are salt-loving Archaebacteria that grow
in places like the Great Salt Lake of Utah or salt
ponds on the edge of San Francisco Bay. Large
numbers of certain halophiles can turn these
waters a dark pink. Pink halophiles contain a
pigment very similar to the rhodopsin in the
human retina. They use this visual pigment for
a type of photosynthesis that does not produce
oxygen. Halophiles are aerobes, however, and
perform aerobic respiration.
Extreme halophiles can live in extremely salty
environments. Most are photosynthetic autotrophs. The
photosynthesizers in this category are purple because
instead of using chlorophyll to photosynthesize, they use
a similar pigment called bacteriorhodopsin that uses all
light except for purple light, making the cells appear
purple.
Thermophiles
These are Archaebacteria from hot springs
and other high temperature environments.
Some can grow above the boiling
temperature of water. They are anaerobes,
performing anaerobic respiration.
Thermophiles are interesting because they
contain genes for heat-stable enzymes
that may be of great value in industry and
medicine. An example is taq polymerase,
the gene for which was isolated from a
collection of Thermus aquaticus in a
Yellowstone Park hot spring. Taq
polymerase is used to make large numbers
of copies of DNA sequences in a DNA
sample. It is invaluable to medicine,
biotechnology, and biological research.
Annual sales of taq polymerase are roughly
half a billion dollars.
 Protists are single celled eukaryotes. A few
forms are multi-cellular.
 Protists often have a very complicated
internal structure: a single cell must do all
the functions that we have many different
cell types to do.
 Protists can be divided into plant-like,
fungus-like, and animal-like forms. This
division probably has little to do with their
evolutionary history.
 Protists are very
diverse, and
probably
represent several
different
evolutionary
lineages, more
distinct from
each other than
plants, animals,
and fungi are.
 Water molds and slime molds
 Like fungi, they are heterotrophs:
they get food and energy from
other organisms. Many are
decomposers of dead organisms.
 Unlike fungi, the fungus-like
protists produce motile (moving)
cells during part of their like
cycle. Also, these protists
surround and engulf bacteria as
food.
 Slime molds live as separate cells
most of their lives, feeding on
bacteria. When conditions get
harsh, they aggregate into a
multicellular slug, which migrates
to a new location. The slug then
forms a fruiting body that
generates spores. The spores
from the fruiting body are very
hardy.
 Slime molds
can be rather
large and
colorful.
 The water molds include some of
the worst plant diseases.
 Phytphthora infestans causes rot
in plants. In the 1840’s,
Phytophthora caused the potato
blight in Ireland. The Irish were
poor and overcrowded, and lived
mostly on potatoes. The blight
caused crop failures in several
years, resulting in the deaths of of
the population. Many Irish came
to the US at that time.
 The animal-like protists are classified
according to how they move: amoeba-
like, ciliated, or flagellated.
 Amoeba-like protists move by
extending pseudopods, part of their
cytoplasm, then pulling the rest of the
cell along behind. The can surround
and engulf their food this way.
 Some amoeba-like protists have hard
shells. The foraminiferans are covered
in calcium carbonate—chalk, which
we use on chalk boards.
 Cilia are small hairs
surrounding the protist’s
body. The cilia beat in a
synchronized pattern to
cause movement.
 Paramecium is a typical
ciliate. It has a gullet to
swallow food, and a
contractile vacuole to get
rid of excess water.
 Genetics: the DNA used for
sexual reproduction is
stored in the small
micronucleus. A copy of
this information is used to
run the cell: the copy is
kept in the much larger
macronucleus.
 Flagellates have a small
number of long flagella, long
whiplike hairs that beats to
propel the cell.
 Some nasty parasites are
flagellates, including Giardia
lamblia, which causes diarrhea
and which is found in most of
the surface waters of the US.
Another is Trypanosoma brucei,
which causes sleeping sickness
in Africa. Also Trichmonas
vaginalis, a sexually
transmitted disease.
 Sporozoans are animal-like protists
that have part of their life cycle inside
the cells of their hosts.
 The most important example is
Plasmodium, the parasite that causes
malaria. Malaria kills 1-2 million
people each year.
 Mosquitoes are part of the life cycle.
They suck blood from infected
humans, ingesting the sporozoans.
The sporozoans undergo sexual
reproduction in the mosquito’s gut.
 When the mosquito bites another
person, the sporozoans infect the
blood and liver of the host. The
parasites multiply asexually inside
the red blood cells, destroying them
as they leave.
 The plant-like protists are
called algae. Most are
single-celled, but a few
form large multicellular
seaweed.
 The plant-like protists
have chloroplasts. Some,
like the Euglena, also
have flagella for
movement.
 Some, such as the
diatoms, have calcium
carbonate (chalk) or silica
shells.
 Algae blooms are the
sudden growth of a large
population of single celled
algae. They occur near the
coastlines, with the algae
feed on fertilizer runoff and
sewage. Algae blooms
deplete the oxygen in the
water, killing fish and other
organisms. Some of the
algae also secrete toxins.
Red tide and Pfiesteria are
examples of this.
 The multicellular algae are commonly
called seaweed. They can be
classified into red, brown, and green
algae. All have chloroplasts, but the
pigments in the chloroplasts vary,
giving the different colors.
 Some, like kelp, are very large and
contain several different types of cells
and tissues to do specialized work.
These include leaves for
photosynthesis, gas-filled bladders for
buoyancy, the root-like holdfast, and
tubes to transport nutrients
throughout the body.
 Algae contain the polysaccharide
“agar”, which is tasteless and is used
to thicken foods such as soft ice
cream.
 The green algae are the ancestors of plants.
The term “plant” implies living on the land
or derived from plants living on the land.
Green algae and plants have very similar
chloroplasts.
 Green algae have some unicellular species
(such as Chlamydomonas), some simple
colonies (such as Volvox), and some
relatively complex multicellular organisms
(such as Acetabularia).
 Green algae are haploid most of their live
cycle, with only a very short diploid phase.
MICROSOFT® ENCARTA
2009, STUDENT EDITION
SCRIBD.COM
GOOGLE SEARCH
WIKIPEDIA.ORG

The Term "Systematics" Is Sometimes Used Synonymously With "Taxonomy" and

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The Term "Systematics" Is Sometimes Used Synonymously With "Taxonomy" and

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 The term "systematics" is sometimes used

synonymously with "taxonomy" and may be confused

SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

 (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys

for their identification, and data on their

SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

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SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

billion years ago, many new types of

SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

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SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

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and sizes of organisms as well as the

SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

development, or embryology, as well as an

SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

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SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

species are grouped into a broader taxon

SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

protists (unicellular organisms, such as

SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

kingdoms into domains.

SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

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SYSTEMATICS MR. IRVIN N. ECALNIR, MAED-SCI

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they cannot reproduce outside of a living cell;

agents is a major focus of current research,

Food– yogurt, cheese,

cyanide as a nitrogen source.[22]

Antibiotics kill bacteria and

Examples: Strep Throat,

vast majority have never been studied in the

lived in harsh environments, such as hot springs

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