Chapter - 3

Consolidation
Assumptions used in the development of one dimensional consolidation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The soil must be clay The soil medium is isotropic and homogeneous The soil medium is completely saturated The soil particles and water are incompressible Darcys law is valid for flow of water The coefficient of permeability and the coefficient of volume compressibility remain constant throughout the process 7. Pressure increment is applied instantaneously 8. There is a unique relationship, independent of time, between the void ratio and effective stress 9. Flow is one dimensional in the vertical direction Criticism All the assumptions are valid for Targaghis theory of one dimensional consolidation. 1st, 2nd and 3rd assumptions are satisfied for layered clay soils which is surrounded by permeable soil 4th assumption is satisfied because consolidation takes place due to the expulsion or dissipation of pore water from void of soil 5th and 6th is not valid if is decreases with increase of effective stress and 5th assumption is not valid for very low hydraulic gradient. 7th assumption is based on soil mass subjected to static steady loading. 8th assumption is based on permeability of soil is governed consolidation. The 9th assumption means soil is only consolidated in vertical direction. Governing differential equation for three dimensional equation A soil particle has the side of , and at a point ( , , ) in the soil mass is considered. The velocity component of the flow at the point be assumed as , .

The volume of water flowing into parallelepiped per unit time is given by =

--------------- (1)

So the volume water flowing out parallelepiped per unit time is given by = +

+ +

+ +

--------------- (2)

. 2

+ 2

dz dy

dx

Volume of water squeezed out per unit time = or, =

--------------- (3)

Volume of water squeezed out per unit time should be equal to volume of change of the parallelepiped per unit time

--------------- (4)

= 1 + = + or, or,

= =

V Vs

But, = 1 + = or,
1+

= =

1+

--------------- (5)

From equation (4) and (5)

= 1 +

--------------- (6)

As Darcys law is assumed to be valid = =

Now, the change in hydraulic head is due to the excess pore water pressure i.e. = or, = or,
1
h u=
wh

= Similarly, = =
1 1

------------- (7 - a)

------------- (7 - b) ------------- (7 - c)

Substituting these values in equation (6), we get

1+

2 2

2 2

2 2

--------------- (8)

Now the increasing of effective stress with time is the decrease of pore water pressure. Mathematically,
= =

--------------- (9) --------------- (10)

Also,

By definition, = or, Again, =

--------------- (11)

--------------- (12)

From equation (8) and (12) we get

1+

2 2

2 2

2 2

--------------- (13)

Now, = Again, = Thus,

1+ 1 1+ 2 2 2 2 2 2

--------------- (14)

Therefore,

2 2

2 2

2 2

--------------- (15)

This is the 3 D consolidation equations in Cartesian co-ordinates. Governing differential equation for the dissipation of pore water pressure within a soil mass due to a sand drain 3 D consolidation equation in Cartesian Co-ordinate is

2 2

2 2

2 2

For transformation from Cartesian Co-ordinates to polar Coordinates we have, = =

r
0 O

and Where,

= ( ) 4

 = Thus, = or, and

= 1 =

--------------(1) --------------(2)

2 + 2

Differentiating equation (2),

= =
2 2

1 2

2 2 + 2

or, Likewise, Now,

= =

= or, or, or, or, or, Similarly,

1 = 1 + 1 +

+ cos

= cos
2 2 2

2 2 2

1= =

2 2 2

2 2

Using this relationship and considering excess hydrostatic pore pressure, as a function of ,

= = =

or, or,

cos + sin cos

sin

Also,
2 2

= = =

or, or,

2 2 2 2

2 2

cos sin 2 2
2

cos +

. sin + 2

sin cos

sin cos 2

2 2

2 2

--------------(3) Similarly,
2 2

2 2

2 + 2

sin cos

sin cos

2 2

2 2

--------------(4) From equation (3) and (4),

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 2

For the case of radius symmetry, is independent of and hence,

2 2

2 2

2 2

--------------(5)

Putting this value in 3-D consolidation equation, we get

2 2

2 2

2 2

For Homogeneous Soil, = =

= =

2 2 2 2

+ +

2 2

2 2 2 2

or,

--------------(6)

Equation (6) is the governing consolidation differential equation for the case of sand drain which is a special case of 3-D consolidation.

The solution of three dimensional consolidation equation for design of sand drain. 3 D consolidation equation in cylindrical co-ordinates in given by equation

2 2

2 2

-------------- (1)

Equation (1) consists two parts namely, For 1 D flow For radial flow

= =

2 2 2 2

-------------- (2) +
1

-------------- (3)

Carrillo has shown that the solution of equation (1) is given by the combination of solution of equation (2) and (3) as follows. 1 = 1 1 Here, = 3 = 1 = When,
U

-------------- (4)

U = 50% U = 90%

= 0.197 = 0.848

Tarzaghi gave the solution of equation (2) as = Where, = = Where, = 0 53%, =

% 4 100 2

Tv

= 54 100%, = 1.781 0.933 100 Rendulic obtained the solution of radial flow expressing the relationship between and by the characteristics equation as = 7

Where =
2 2

2 = The volume of is founded by replacing the vertical prismatic block which surrounded the drain well, by cylindrical blocks with equal horizontal cross sectional area, For square arrangement, For triangular arrangement, = 0.554 = 0.525
Surcharge Sand Blanket

having well spacing =

Sand Drain

2H

r Sand Drains Installation

Spacing (S) Spacing (S)

R R R = 0.525 S R = 0.564 S

Square Pattern

Triangular Pattern

Patterns of Sand Drains

Ratio, =

Where, =

Problem An embankment to be constructed over a layer of clay 10 thick, with an impermeable lower boundary. Construction of the embankment will increase the total vertical stress in the clay layer by 65 /2 . For the clay, = 4.7 2 / , = 7.9 2 /, and = 0.25 2 / . The design requirement is that all but 25 of the settlement due to consolidation of the clay layer will have taken place after 6 . Determine the spacing in a square pattern of 400 diameter sand drains to achieve the above requirement. Solution Here, = 0.25 2 / =
0.25 1000

2 /

= 65 /2 = 10 So, = = For = 6 =
162.5 25 162.5 0.25 1000

65 10 = 162.5

= 84.62% = 0.8462 400 = 0.4 i.e. = = = 0.2

0.4 2

Diameter of sand drain is Radius of cylindrical block The layer is drained in one way. Therefore, = 10 = For (let = 0 53%) = or, or,

= 0.2 .

4.7 0.5 = = 0.0235 2 102

% 2 4 100 4 % 2 100

0.0235 =

= 17.3% = 0.173 9

Now, or, or, Now, 1 = 1 1 1 0.8462 = 1 0.173 1 = 0.814 = =

2 2 24.7

7.9 0.5 2 0.2 2

Now, = 0.814 using the following Graph

0 20 40 n=5 Ur (%) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 99 0.05 0.01 n=5 0.012 0.026 0.042 0.060 0.081 0.107 0.137 0.188 0.270 0.351 0.539 n = 10 n = 40 0.021 0.046 0.070 0.101 0.137 0.180 0.231 0.317 0.455 0.590 0.907 0.039 0.062 0.131 0.188 0.255 0.337 0.431 0.592 0.847 1.102 1.693

Ur (%)

n = 40 60 80 100 0.01 Equal Strain Free Strain n = 10

0.02

0.05

0.01

0.02

For, = 0.814 = 5 = 10 = 15 Plotting

24.7 ,

= 0.20 = 0.33 = 0.42

24.7 24.7 24.7

= 11.11 = 8.65 = 7.67

we get = 9.

15
24.7 Tr 10

5 n = 90
45

10

15

. . = 0.2 = 0.2 9 = 1.8 For square pattern, 10

Spacing, S =

0.564

1.8 0.564

= 3.2

Problem Determine the spacing in a rectangular pattern, of 65 diameter sand wicks drain for installation in a 10 thick clay layer underlain by an impervious hard stratum such that the clay layer may undergo 91% consolidation in 6 months after being loaded. The clay has the following properties. = 2.5 2 / and Solution Here, = 91% Diameter of sand drains = 65 = = 0.0325 The layer is drained in upper portion, Therefore, = 10 = Again, or, or, Here, = 2.5 2 / and or, Now, = = Now, or,

= 2.0. Recall that = 1.13

0.065 2

= 0.0325

2.5 0.5 = = 0.0125 2 102

% 2 4 100 % 2 4 100

0.0125 =

= 12.6% = 0.126

= 2.0.

=
2 2 592

= 2.5 2 = 5 2 /

5 0.5 2 0.0325 2

1 = 1 1 1 0.91 = 1 0.126 1 11

or,

= 0.897 0.90 90% = 5 = 10 = 15 = 0.27 = 0.455 = 0.567

592 24.7 24.7

= 90%

= 46.8 = 36.1 = 32.3

Plotting

592 ,

we get = 4.5.

592 Tr

50 40 30 20 10

n = 4.5
45

5
. . = 0.325 = 0.325 4.5 = 1.46

10
.

For Triangular pattern, Spacing, S =

0.525

1.46 0.525

= 2.79

Smear A smear zone is formed around a sand drain during to the remolding of clay caused during its construction. Affect A decrease in the co-efficient of permeability in the radial direction occurs due to remolding as a result degree of consolidation is decreased. The net effect of the smear zone on the consolidation is that the influenced area of the sand drain is reduced Effect of smear into account The analysis is based on the assumption that the clay in the smear zone has zero excess pore water pressure on the inner boundary and the time dependent excess pore water pressure on the outer boundary.

12

Sand

Clay

Clay Sand Drain Smear Zone

rw

rs

= = = . . The excess pore water pressure in this case is given by 1 2 2 = + 2 2 2 2 2

Where, = = =
2 2 2

=
3 4 2 4 2

=
2 2 2

= and

= 0

13

The average degree of consolidation is given by, = 1

0

= 1 8

The solution for different values of If = 1, there is no smear.

and and .

Formula for solution of 1-D consolidation by boundary value method The 1-D consolidation is

2 2

-------------- (1)

is a dependent variable consisting of two independent variable . Let be the product of two function of and , Let So, Again, = (). ()
2 2

= (). ()

(). () = (). ()

So equation (1) takes form . = (). () or,

.

-------------- (2)

The L.H.S of equation (2) is a function of only and similarly R.H.S is a function of only and they are independent of and respectively. So they must equal to a constant, say 2 . . . = 2 -------------- (3)

A solution of equation (3) can be given by = 1 + 2 Where, 1 2 are constant. Again R.H.S of equation (2) gives = 2 The solution is given by = 3 2 Combining equation (4) and (5), we get, = 1 + 2 3
2

-------------- (4)

-------------- (5)

14

or,

= 4 + 5

-------------- (6)

The constant of equation (6) can be evaluated from boundary conditions, which are as follows: 1. At time, = 0, = = 0, = 0 = = 2 = 0 From second boundary conditions, 4 = 0 For 3rd boundary conditions 5 2 = 0 or, 2 = or, Where, n is any integer, So, the general solution is
=

z u
2H = H t

Considering homogeneous double drainage

=
=1

2 2 4

-------------- (7)

Where, is non dimensional time factor and equal to To satisfy the 1st boundary condition,
=

=1

-------------- (8)

Equation (8) is a Fourier sine series and can be given by =

1 2 0

-------------- (9)

Combining equation (7) and (9) we get,

1 =1

2 0

2 2 4

-------------- (10)

This is general pore pressure equation. Assumption of 1. Constant with depth. If is constant with depth i,e. = 0

u=0 z u

15

Then from equation (10) 1 = = = = From, equation (10) and (11)

2

0 1 2 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 2 2
0

2 0 1

2 0

-------------- (11)

2 0 =1

2 2 4

-------------- (12)

The term, 1 = 0, when is even. For non zero term it is convenient to put = 2 + 1 where is any interger.

2 0 2 +1 =0

1 2 + 1

2 +1 2

2 +1 2 2 4

2 0 =0

-------------- (13)

Where,

2 + 1

At a given time, degree of consolidation at = =

=1

-------------- (14)

Here, is increased in effective stress, at a depth due to consolidation. From equation (13) and (14) we get, = 1 = 1
0 = 2

=0

16

u u0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

1.5

Tv = 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

z H

0.5

0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

uz = u 0
In most of the case we need to obtain the average degree of consolidation for the entire layer this is given by 1 1 0 0 = 1 0 = 2 , Then 1 2 1 0 = 2 = 0 2 0 2 0 0 Again,
2 2

1 2

=
0

1 2
0 =0

20 2
2 0

1 . 20 2

1 =0

2 0 2 2 =0

0 1

=0

2 2 2

= 0 1

2 2 2 =0

17

Terzaghi suggested the following empirical relationship. For For = 0 53% 53% =
% 2 4 100

= 1.781 0.933 10 100 %

Problem On a reclamation site the water table is at the ground surface, a layer of silt, sand, 4 m thick overlies a layer of soft clay 10 m thick. Underlying the clay layer is sandy gravel. A 9 m thick layer of fill is to be laid over the site. The following data have been unit weights- 21 3 , 20 3 , 18 3 . Coefficient of volume compressibility of the clay 2.2 104 2 , Coefficient of consolidation of the clay = 0.8 2 . Calculate the consolidation settlement of the clay layer due to the placing of fill. State the assumption you made in the calculation. Solution
10 1+0 0 = 1+0

0 +0 0

= 0.435

Where, = = For fill no capillary rise of water. = or,

1+0 0.435 1+0

0.435

= 2.2 104 2

Assume, = 10 /2 = . = 3 21 = 63 /2 0 = 4 20 10 +
1+0 10 2

18 10 = 80 /2

0 = 10

2.210 4 63 0.435

= 0.0319
80+63 80

= 0.0319 10 10

= 0.0805 = 8.05 18

Problem A Clay Layer of 5.0 thickness lies in between two sand layers. Due to certain loading condition, the initial excess pore water pressure in the clay layer is of a sinusoidal nature, given by the equation, = 100
2

/2 , where 2H is the thickness of the layer. Calculate the excess

pore water pressure at the bottom quarter of the clay layer for = 0.30, 0.50 0.80.
= =1
2 2 4

Note That the pore water pressure, is given by, = Solution: Now,
1 2 0

2 0

= = = = = = = = =

1 2 100 0 2

Putting = 1

100 2 2 0 2 100 2 1 22 0 2 2

50 2 22 0 2 50 2 0 50 2 0

1 2 1 2
50 50

50 2 1 0 50 50

50 2 2 0 2

2 0

2 0

00

= 100 =
2 2 100 4 2

At the bottom quarter of the clay layer i,e. = = 100

2 2 4 2 2

2 4

.
2 2 4

= 100

2 2 4

= 70.71

19

The values of the excess pore water pressure are tabulated below 0.30 0.50 0.80 = 70.71
2 2 4

/2

33.75 20.59 09.82

Problem A saturated sample of soil weighting 39.40 gms has a volumes of 20.4 3 on drying it weights 30.2 gms and its volume is determined by displacement of mercury as 16.0 3 . The specific gravity of soil particles is 2.7. Find the shrinkage ratio and volumetric shrinkage.

Solution 2 = 20.4 3
3 = 16.0

= 1 /3 = 32.2

= = Now,

20.416 1 32.2

0.1375

= = or, 0.1375 = or,

1 .

1 . 1 .

1 1 2.7

S.R = Shrinkage Ratio

= 0.5078

or, . = 1.969 And = =

2

100 =

20.416 16

100 = 27.5%

20

Formula for the numerical solution of One Dimensional consolidation equation.

or

Expression for Non Dimensional pore water pressure at a point at Non Dimensional time + in terms of pore water pressure at Non Dimensional .

Solution The One Dimensional consolidation equation

2 2

Let, , and be any arbitrary reference excess pore water pressure, time and distance respectively. From these we can define the following Non Dimensional terms: Non Dimensional excess pore water pressure Non Dimensional time Non Dimensional depth Now,

- = - = - =

and So, or,

2 2

2 2 2

= =

2 2 2 2 2 2
2

If we adopt the reference time in such as way that = Then

2 2

The Left Hand Side of above equation can be written as,

0,

0,

Where 0, + are the Non-Dimensional pore water pressure at point 0 as figure - .. at NonDimensional times and + .

21

Again, similarly,
2 2

1 2

1,

+ 3,

20,

1 z 2 0 4 z 3
Equating,
1

1 Clay 2 0 Impervious Layer 3 4 z z

0,

0,
2

1 2

1,

+ 3,

20,

or,

0,

1,

+ 3,

20,

+ 0,

Which is the required expression or formula; it converges that and must be chosen such that
2

is less than 0.5. When solving for pore water pressure at the interface of a Clay layer

and an impervious layer, then we need to take point 3 of figure as the mirror image of point 1 as figure; thus u1, t = u3, t So, 0,
+

21,

20,

+ 0,

The expression for numerical solution for radial drainage The equation of radial drainage in cylindrical coordinate,

2 2

Let , and be any reference excess pore water pressure, time and radial distance, respectively. So, Non-Dimensional excess pore water pressure = = Non-Dimensional time = =

Non-Dimensional radial distance = =

22

Substituting equations, we have

2 2

r
Referring to Figure

= =

0,

0, + 3,

2 2

1 2

1,

20,

and

1 3, 1, 2 1

If we adopt in such a way that 0, =

and then by substitution, +

3, 1, 2

1,

+ 3,

+ 0,

It is required expression.

Problem For a Sand drain problem, = 1 , = 1 , = 6 and = 0.03 2 . If a uniform load 2000 2 is applied at the ground surface, find the distribution of the excess pore water pressure after 50 days of load application use the numerical method. Consider that there is radial drainage only. Solution Let, = 1 , = 1.0 , = 10 So, =

6 1

=1

23

 = = and Let,
2

= =

1 1

=1 =
0.03 10 1 2

= 0.30 Must be than 0.50

2000 20

0.30 1 2

= 0.30 < 0.50

= 20 2 , So immediately after load application, =

= 100 =

r (ft) 1.00' 2.00' 3.00' 4.00' 5.00'

S=r e = 6' 6.00'

1 0

2 100

3 100

4 100

5 100 100

77.5

100

100

100

100

10

Centre Line of Sand Drain

68.5

98.4

100

100

100

20 Time (Days)

62.5

89.88

98.64

100

100

30

0 0

58.81 55.93

86.16 83.05

96.80 94.96

99.62 98.984

100 100

40

50

Pressure distribution at time, = 0 (Note that at = 1, = 0 due to the drainage face.)

at 10 days - = 0, We have, 0, At, = 2 0, At, = 3

+ +

= 1

1,

+ 3,

3, 1, 2

20,

+ 0,

= 0.30 0 + 100 +

100 0 2 1
2

2 100 + 100 = 77.50

24

0, Similarly,

= 0.30 100 + 100 +

100 0 2 1
3

2 100 + 100 = 100

= 4, = 5, = 6, 0,
+

= 100 = 1, ) = 1

(Note that, here 3,

at 20 days - = 0, At, = 2 0, At, = 3 0, At,

+ +

= 0.30 0 + 100 +

100 0 2 1
2

2 77.50 + 77.5 = 68.50

= 0.30 77.5 + 100 +

100 77.5 2 1
3

2 100 + 100 = 94.38

= 4, = 5, = 6, = 100

at 30 days - = 0, At, = 2 0, At, = 3 0, At,

+ +

= 1

= 0.30 0 + 94.38 +

94.38 0 2 1
2

2 68.50 + 68.50 = 62.78

= 0.30 68.50 + 100 +

100 68.5 2 1
3

2 94.38 + 94.38 = 89.88

= 4, = 5, = 6, = 100

at 40 days - = 0, At, = 2 0,
+

= 1

= 0.30 0 + 89.88 +

89.88 0 2 1
2

2 62.78 + 62.78 = 58.817

25

At,

= 3 0,
+

= 0.30 62.78 + 100 +

100 62.78 2 1
3

2 89.88 + 89.88 = 86.647

At,

= 4, = 5, = 6, = 100

at 50 days - = 0, At, = 2 0, At, = 3 0, At,

+ +

= 1

= 0.30 0 + 86.647 +

86.647 0 2 1
2

2 58.817 + 58.817 = 56.02

= 0.30 58.817 + 100 +

100 58.817 2 1
3

2 86.647 + 86.647 = 84.367

= 4, = 5, = 6, = 100

Let, = 1.5 = =
2

= 1.5

= 10

=1 =
2

10 0.03 1.5 2

= 0.133

= 0.133

6 1.5

=4

26

Coefficient of consolidation and Determination of coefficient of consolidation Coefficient of consolidation may be defined as = Where, = = = is determined by two graphical method Logarithm of time method Square root of time method
2

Logarithm of time method Plot the dial readings for specimen deformation for a given load increment against time on semi-log graph paper as shown in Figure Plot two points, and , on the upper portion of the consolidation curve, which correspond to time 1 and 2 respectively. Note that 2 = 41 . The difference of dial readings between and is equal to . Locate point , which is at a distance above point .

d0

P Q

x x

Stage - 1 - Immediate Consolidation

Dial Reading

d50

V
Stage - 2 - Primary Consolidation

d100

H Stage - 3 - Secondary Consolidation

t1

t2= 4t1

t2= t50

t1

t2

is 0 , which corresponds to 0% Draw the horizontal line . The dial reading corresponding to this line , = consolidation. 2 1 27

Project the straight-line portions of the primary consolidation and the secondary consolidation to intersect at . The dial reading corresponding to is 100 , i.e., 100% primary consolidation. Determine the point on the consolidation curve that corresponds to a dial reading of The time corresponding to point is 50 , i.e., time for 50% consolidation. Determine from the equation = So, =
0.197 2 . 50 . 2 0 + 100 2

= 50 .

The value of for = 50% is 0.197.

Square root of time method Plot the dial reading and the corresponding square-root-of-time as shown in Figure . Draw the tangent to the early portion of the plot. Draw a line such that = 1.15 The abscissa of the point S (i.e., the intersection of PR and the consolidation curve) will give (i.e., the square root of time for 90% consolidation). The value of for = 90% is 0.848. So, =
0.848 2 . 90

Dial Reading

d90

t90 Q

time

28

Comparison of the log of time and square root of time method For some soils in square root of time plot does not give me a straight line for the initial portion and therefore to locate the corrected zero 0 becomes difficult. for such soils, the log of time method is better. Square root of time is more suitable for soil, exhibiting high secondary consolidation. In such soil Log of time does not the characteristic shape required to locate the point 100 . Square root of time is more convenient to log of time because dial gauge reading plot for shorter time log of time is requires accurate plotting of secondary consolidation curve in order to locate the asymptote.

Definition of Coefficient of Compressibility Coefficient of volume change/compressibility Compression index Expansion index Recompression index

Coefficient of Compressibility Coefficient of Compressibility is defined as decrease in void ratio per unit increase in effective stress. =

de d

Coefficient of volume change/compressibility Coefficient of volume change/compressibility is defined as the volumetric strain per unit increase in effective stress = = or, and
1+ 0

Vv

e0

Vs

= 0 =
1+0

Compression index Compression index is equal to slope of the linear portion of the void ratio verses plot. 29

10 0

10
0 + 0

Undisturbed, = 0.009 10 Disturbed, = 0.007 10 =

1+0 0.435 0 0.435

de log d

Slope Cc

log

Expansion index Expansion index is the slope of the obtained during unloading. =
10
+

plot
A Reloading C F Loading

The position AB of the curve represents the soil of undisturbed clay in field would exhibit. The curve is called virgin compression curve. Recompression index Recompression index is the slope of the plot obtained reloading curve. =
10
+

E Unloading D

B G

log

Pre-consolidation pressure, The maximum effective pressure to which an over-consolidated soil has been subjected in the past is known as Pre-consolidation pressure. A soil is called normally consolidated if the present effective overburden pressure is the maximum to which the soil has ever been subjected i.e. > . A soil is called over consolidated if the present effective over burden pressure is less than the maximum pressure to which the soil was ever subjected in past i.e. < .
from a plot is determined by graphical procedure. The pre-consolidated 1. Viscosities determine the point P (on the upper curved portion of the plot) that has the maximum curvature. 2. Draw a horizontal line PQ. 3. Draw a tangent PR at P.

30

4. Draw the line PS bisecting the angle QPR. 5. Produce the straight line portion of the plot backward to intersect PS at T. . 6. The effective pressure corresponding to point T is the

OC P
T

Q S R

Nc

log

Causes of 1. Pre-consolidation may be due to the over burden which had been later removed by erosion. 2. If may be due to melting of glaciers which covered the soil deposit in the past. 3. It may be due to loads of buildings and other structures which had been demolished. 4. Pre-consolidation may be due to capillary pressure which acted on the soil in the past but was later destroyed due to a rise in water table. 5. Pre-consolidation may be due to desiccation (drying) of the clay deposit. 6. By sustained downward seepage forces. 7. By tectonic forces caused by the movement of earths crust which later become less serve. Limitations of Consolidation theory One dimensional consolidation theory is based on a number of assumptions which are not realized in practice. The equation has the following limitations. is assumed to be constant. In reality it changes with a change in the consolidation pressure. Drainage path cannot measure accurately in the field; the thickness of the deposit is generally variable. To difficult in locating the drainage faces. In field, consolidation is generally 3 dimensional. The immediate and secondary consolidations have been neglected but sometimes they play important roles. In the field, the load is seldom applied instantaneously. In actual practice, the pressure distribution may be for from linear or uniform. The theory becomes complicated when corrected distribution is considered. 31

Some comments on standard One Dimensional Consolidation Test Specimen Thickness Effect
Time Deformation

Deformation

Thick Specimen

Thin Specimen

Effect of load-increment ratio

>1 =1

<1

log

Effect of Load Duration

Ht Ht

a c b
log

Curve a Curve b Curve c

At the end of primary, = 2.65 /2 At the end of one day, = 1.85 /2 At the end of one week, = 1.33 /2

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Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Define and differentiate normally consolidated (NC) clay and over consolidated (OC) clay. . How it is measured? Define pre-consolidation Pressure Define over consolidation ratio (OCR). What are its significances? What are causes of pre-consolidation pressure? What are the difference between coefficient of compressibility and coefficient of volume compressibility ? 6. What are difference between compression index , expression index / swelling index and recompression index ? 7. What is meant by coefficient of consolidation? What are the methods used for calculation? 8. How will you find 50 and from logarithm of time method? 9. How will you find 90 and from square root of time method? 10. What are difference between log of time and square root of time methods? 11. What are the limitations of consolidation theory? 12. State the assumptions for derivation of one dimensional consolidation equation. 13. Criticize the assumptions for derivation of one dimensional consolidation equation. 14. Derive the three dimensional consolidation equations in Cartesian co-ordinates. 15. Derive the governing differential equation for the dissipation of pore water pressure due to a sand drain. (i.e. derivation of consolidation equation in cylindrical coordinates) 16. Deduce a formula for the solution for the solution of three dimensional consolidation equations in case of design sand drain. 17. What is smear? Show the smear zone. 18. How does smear affect the degree of consolidation? 19. How does the effect of smear is taken into account by approximation? 20. Deduce a formula for solution of one dimensional equation by boundary value method. 21. Deduce a formula for the numerical solution of one dimensional consolidation equation. 22. Deduce the expression for numerical solution for radial drainage.

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