D.J.

DUNN 1
Unit 24: Applications of Pneumatics and Hydraulics
Unit code: J/601/1496 QCF level: 4 Credit value: 15
OUTCOME 2

TUTORIAL 11 AIR COMPRESSORS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The material needed for outcome 2 is very extensive so there are 11 tutorials in this outcome. You
will also be completing the requirements for outcome 1 which is integrated into it. The series of
tutorials provides an extensive overview of fluid power for students at all levels seeking a good
knowledge of fluid power equipment.

2 Understand the construction, function and operation of pneumatic and hydraulic
components, equipment and plant
Pneumatic equipment: types, construction, function and operation e.g. air compressors, coolers,
dryers, receivers, distribution equipment, fluid plumbing and fittings, drain traps, FRL air
service units, valves, actuators, seals
Hydraulic equipment: types, construction, function and operation e.g. fluids, pumps, motors,
actuators, reservoirs, accumulators, fluid plumbing and fittings, valves, filters, seals, gauges
Performance characteristics: air compressors e.g. volumetric efficiency, compression ratio,
isothermal efficiency; hydraulic pumps e.g. operating efficiency, losses, flow rate, operating
pressure, shaft speed, torque and power


On completion of this tutorial you should be able to do the following.

Explain the basic properties of air.

Explain how moisture is formed in compressed air.

Define and calculate Free Air Delivery.

Explain the basic principles of a reciprocating air compressor.

Explain and calculate various efficiencies of air compressors.

Explain the basics of air distribution systems.

Explain the principles used to condition compressed air for use with
pneumatic systems.


D.J.DUNN 2
1. INTRODUCTION

One advantage of air over oil as a power medium is that it can be piped from one source to all the
user points. This is because air has a low viscosity and flows much more easily than oil. In addition
to this, air, once used, may be vented back into the atmosphere, whereas oil must be returned to the
tank with a return pipe.

The disadvantage of air is that it is an expansive substance and dangerous when used at high
pressures. For this reason, applications are confined to things requiring low pressures (10 bar or
lower).

The common source of the air is the compressor. There are many types of compressors with
different working principles and working conditions. The function of all of them is to draw in air
from the atmosphere and produce air at pressures substantially higher. Usually a storage vessel or
receiver is used with the compressor.

Atmospheric air contains WATER VAPOUR mixed with the other gases. When the air is cooled to
the dew point, the vapour condenses into water and we see rain or fog. The ratio of the mass of
water vapour in the air to the mass of the air, is called the ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY. The quantity of
water that can be absorbed into the air at a given pressure depends upon the temperature. The hotter
the air, the more water it can evaporate. When the air contains the maximum possible amount of
vapour it is at its dew point and rain or fog will appear. The air is then said to have 100% humidity.
When the air contains no water vapour at all (dry air), it has 0% humidity. This refers to RELATIVE
HUMIDITY. For example if the air has 40% humidity it means that it contains 40% of the maximum
that it could contain. There are various ways to determine the humidity of air and instruments for
doing this are called HYGROMETERS.

The importance of humidity to air compressors is as follows. When air is sucked into the
compressor, it brings with it water vapour. When the air is compressed the pressure and the
temperature of the air goes up and the result is that the compressed air will have a relative humidity
of about 100% and it will be warm. When the air leaves the compressor it will cool down and the
water vapour will condense. Water will then clog the compressor, the receiver and the pipes.

Water causes damage to the air tools, corrodes the pipes and equipment and ruins the paint sprays.
For this reason the water must be removed and the best way is to use a well designed compressor
installation and distribution network. The diagram overleaf shows the layout of a two cylinder
reciprocating compressor, typically for supplying a workshop.

It is important to note that air supplies need to be filtered and dried to various degrees
depending on the use. This is covered in the second half of the tutorial.
D.J.DUNN 3
TYPICAL AIR COMPRESSOR LAYOUT FOR A WORKSHOP

Figure 1

1. Induction box and silencer on outside of building with course screen.
2. Induction filter.
3. Low pressure stage.
4. Intercooler.
5. High pressure stage.
6. Silencer.
7. Drain trap.
8. After cooler
9. Pressure gauge (legal requirements for safety).
10. Air receiver.
11. Safety pressure relief valve (legal requirements for safety).
12. Stop valve (legal requirements for safety).

In addition to this, the pressure vessel must be inspected regularly for corrosion and hydrostatically
tested at the maximum pressure. The safe working pressure (SWP) must be shown on the storage
vessel.

2. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

A simple single reciprocating compressor has a piston that is made to move up and down inside a
cylinder by a crank and connecting rod. A suitable motor rotates the crank. The piston sucks air into
the cylinder pulling open the inlet valve and then compresses the air until it exceeds the outlet
pressure and then the outlet valve opens to allow the air out.

Figure 2
D.J.DUNN 4
2.1. THE CYCLE

IDEAL CYCLE

Ideally the piston sucks in a full cylinder of air and then expels it
by moving right up to the cylinder head. If the outlet is connected
to a storage vessel, the pressure will gradually rise in the vessel as
more and more air is pumped into it. The cycle may be explained
with the aid of a pressure volume - diagram as follows.

Figure 3

1. The piston draws in a full cylinder of air from 4 to 1.
2. The piston moves towards the cylinder head. The air will not leave the cylinder until it is
compressed to a pressure equal to the outlet pressure. Compression takes place from 1 to 2.
3. When the pressure inside the cylinder is large enough to overcome the pressure outside, the outlet
valve opens and air is expelled from 2 to 3 at the high pressure. The piston expels all the air by
moving right up to the cylinder head.
4. The piston moves away from the cylinder head and because there is nothing inside, the inlet
valve opens and air is drawn in at low pressure from 4 to 1.

REALISTIC CYCLE

In reality it is not possible to construct an
air compressor in which the piston goes
right up to the cylinder head. The piston
stops short at point 3 and a small clearance
volume V
3
is trapped inside at high
pressure. As the piston moves away from
the head, this volume must expand until
the pressure is low enough to let fresh air
in at point 4. The air drawn in is now V
1

V
4
and not V
1
.
Figure 4

The maximum volume of air that could be drawn in is V
1
V
3
that is the SWEPT VOLUME.
The effect of the clearance volume is to reduce the volume of air drawn in. This gives rise to the
idea of VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY. This is defined as follows.

3 1
4 1
V

Volume Swept
Volume Induced
V V
V
vol

In reality any leaks or slippage of compressed air that does not arrive at the outlet should be
subtracted from the induced volume making the efficiency even lower.
D.J.DUNN 5
2.2. THE TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR and ISOTHERMAL EFFICIENCY

When air is compressed rapidly it gets hotter so we expect
the compressed air to be hotter at the outlet. The final
temperature depends on the degree of cooling that occurs
during the compression stroke.

If there is no cooling the process is called ADIABATIC and
the compressed air is as hot as it can possibly be.

If the compressor cylinder is cooled (covered later) the final
temperature is reduced and in the extreme case if it is cooled
so that it does not get any hotter at all, the process is called
ISOTHERMAL. Figure 5

Because the air is cooler, the pressure at any point on the graph is lower. This means that the force
required to compress it is reduced and so the power input to the compressor is reduced.

This is used to determine the effectiveness of the cooling. It is the ratio of the indicated power with
perfect (isothermal) cooling to the actual power with less cooling.

(iso)
= Isothermal Efficiency = Isothermal Power/Actual Power

2.3. WORK OF COMPRESSION and INDICATED POWER

Work done is defined as force x distance moved. The area under a force distance graph represents
the work done. The area under a p V graph is essentially the same kind of graph and the area
under the graph is the work done to compress the air. It follows that the isothermal process gives the
minimum work done so cooling an air compressor reduces the power input. The indicated work per
cycle is the shaded area enclosed by the p - V diagram.

Formulae can be derived for the work done in terms of pressures and volumes and this is covered in
the tutorials on Thermodynamics for those who
are interested. The ratio of the isothermal work
to the actual work is called the ISOTHERMAL
EFFICIENCY and the better the cooling of the
compressor, the higher this will be. It follows
that isothermal compression requires the least
work input. This is a good reason to cool the
compressor cylinder.
Figure 6

If suitable equipment is used the p V diagram may be created for a given air compressor and the
shaded area may be determined. This is known as an indicator diagram from old mechanical
equipment originally used to draw them but now it is all done electronically. W is called the
indicated work. The indicated power is found by multiplying W by the strokes per second (The
crank speed).
I.P. = W x N where N is the shaft speed in Rev/s
D.J.DUNN 6
2.4 MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

If the actual power input to the shaft of the compressor is determined, it is called the Shaft Power
S.P.). Because there are mechanical losses in the air compressor to overcome friction, operate the
valves, pump the lubricating oil and so on, the power delivered into compressing the air is less. The
mechanical efficiency of the air compressor is defined as:

(mech)
= Indicated Power/Shaft Power = I.P./S.P.


WORKED EXAMPLE No. 1

The indicated work found for a single cylinder reciprocating air compressor is found to be 120
Joules per cycle when running at 360 rev/min. The shaft power is determined as 910 Watts.
What is the mechanical efficiency?

SOLUTION
I.P. = 120 (Joules/cycle) x 360/60 (rev/s)= 720 Watts

(mech)
= I.P./S.P. = 720/910 = 0.79 or 79%


3. FREE AIR DELIVERY

When air flows in a pipe, the mass depends upon the pressure and temperature. It would be
meaningless to talk about the volume of the air unless the pressure and temperature are considered.
For this reason the volume of air is usually stated as FREE AIR DELIVERY or FAD.

FAD refers to the volume the air would have if let out of the pipe and returned to atmospheric
pressure and temperature.

The FAD is also the volume of air drawn into a compressor from the atmosphere. After
compression and cooling the air is returned to the original temperature but it is at a higher pressure.
Suppose atmospheric conditions are p
a
T
a
and V
a
(the FAD) and the compressed conditions are p, V
and T. Applying the gas law we have
F.A.D.
Tp
pVT
V
T
V p
T
pV
a
a
a
a
a a

Usually it is assumed that the compressed air has been cooled back to the the same temperature as
the atmosphere. In this case the temperature cancels in the expression and
F.A.D. V r
p
pV
V
p
a
a

FAD = Volume of compressed air x pressure ratio

If the pressure is given as gauge the absolute pressure is found by adding on atmospheric pressure.
Since this is approximately 1 bar pressure ratio may be defined as follows.

Pressure ratio = r
p
= (gauge pressure + 1)/1

Note that since the air sucked in at atmospheric pressure is the same air that is delivered at the outlet
pressure, the induced volume of the compressor is related to the F.A.D.

F.A.D. = Induced Volume x crank speed
D.J.DUNN 7


WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

An air compressor is rated at 12 dm
3
/s FAD. Calculate the volume of compressed air delivered
at 10 bar gauge.

SOLUTION

pressure ratio = 10 + 1 = 11
volume of compressed air = 12/11 = 1.091 dm
3
/s



WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

An air compressor has a swept volume of 1 litre and runs at 300 rev/min. It delivers 247
litres/min of F.A.D. Calculate the volumetric efficiency.

If the delivery pressure 5 bar gauge, what is the volume of compressed air delivered?

SOLUTION

The swept volume is 1 litre (or 1 dm
3
)
The induced volume is the volume of atmospheric air drawn in and hence it must be the F.A.D.
per cycle.

Induced volume = 247/300 = 0.823 litres

% 3 . 82
1
0.823

Volume Swept
Volume Induced

vol

The compression ratio = (5+1)/1 = 6
Volume of compressed air (at atmospheric temperature) = 247/6 = 41.17 litres/min


D.J.DUNN 8


SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. Air flows in a pipe at 12 bar gauge and with a rate of 1.3 m
3
/min. Determine the FAD
equivalent to this.

2. A workshop consumes 2 m
3
/min of air at 14 bar gauge. Calculate the FAD rating of the
compressor required.

3. A reciprocating air compressor has a free air delivery of 170 dm
3
/min when running at 260
rev/min. The swept volume is 0.75dm
3
. The inlet is at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar. The
delivery pressure is 7 bar.

The input power to the compressor is 410 watts. An indicator diagram shows that the indicated
work is 81 Joules per cycle.

Calculate

the volumetric efficiency. (87.2%)
the volume of compressed air at atmospheric pressure. (24.286 dm
3
/min)
the Mechanical Efficiency based on the Indicated Power. (86%)


SOLUTION

COMPRESSION RATIO = 7/1

Crank speed = 260/60 = 4.333 cycles/s
Induced volume = 170/260 = 0.654 dm
3

% 2 . 87
75 . 0
0.654

Volume Swept
Volume Induced

vol

Compressed air = 170/7 = 24.286 dm
3
/min

Indicated Power = 81 x 260/60 =351 Watts

(mech)
= I.P./S.P. =351/410 = 0.86 or 86%





D.J.DUNN 9
4. FLOW IN PIPES

First we need to understand the difference between a quantity of fluid and a flow rate of fluid.

A quantity is measured in kg or cubic metres or some multiple of these.

A flow rate is a quantity flowing past a given point in 1 second, minute or hour. Flow rate is found
by timing the passing of a quantity.



SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2

1. 320 litres of water flows out of a pipe into a tank in 2 minutes 20 seconds. Calculate the flow
rate in litres per second.

2. 5000 kg of oil flows into a tank in 1 hour 30 minutes. Calculate the flow rate in kg per hour.

3. Air flows in a pipe at a rate of 3m
3
/minute. Calculate the quantity used in 1 hour.


VELOCITY

The mean velocity of a fluid flowing in a pipe is found by dividing the flow rate by the cross
sectional area.
velocity = Q/A

where Q is the quantity in m
3
/s and A is the cross sectional area in m
2
.



SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3

1. 0.5 m
3
/s of air flows in a rectangular duct 0.5 m x 0.4 m. Determine the mean velocity.

2. 0.5 m
3
/s of air flows in a pipe 50 mm bore diameter. Calculate the mean velocity.

3. Air flows in a pipe 100 bore diameter with a mean velocity of 8 m/s. Calculate the flow rate.

4. An air compressor draws in 0.3 m
3
of free air and delivers it at 8 bar gauge. Calculate the flow
rate of the compressed air.


D.J.DUNN 10
4. STORAGE and DISTRIBUTION

The air compressor supplies the air to the receiver where it is stored. The use of a storage vessel
enables cooling and water removal. It also enables the compressor to work at a steadier rate filling
up the receiver when air is not being drawn off and maintaining the supply during periods of high
demand. When the receiver is full, the compressor turns itself off or idles to save energy.

The best way of ensuring all the users in a workshop have a constant supply of air is by using a ring
main connected to the receiver. This enables the air to arrive at the point of use from two directions
and so everyone has the same pressure. If a single long main was used, the user at the end of the
chain would not have much pressure when the other users are taking it.

Figure 7

The diagram shows a simple ring main. The points marked x are at the lowest points in the pipe
runs and at the corners where water will collect. Drain traps are fitted at these points to trap the air
and release the water.

The take off points should be from the top of the main to reduce the risk of water and sludge being
picked up from the main.
D.J.DUNN 11

Figure 8
DRAIN TRAPS

Drain traps are units designed to trap the air and let out the water. The diagram shows a very simple
drain trap.

Figure 9
D.J.DUNN 12


SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 4

1. Air flows in a pipe at 12 bar gauge. What is the compression ratio?

2. An air receiver contains 1.3 m
3
of air at 14 bar gauge. What is the free air stored?

3. An air compressor draws in 0.3 m
3
of air from the atmosphere and delivers it at 8 bar gauge.
Estimate the flow rate of the compressed air.
The mean velocity must not exceed 8 m/s. Determine a suitable pipe bore.

4. Air flows in a pipe 50 mm bore diameter with a pressure of 5 bar gauge and a velocity of 5 m/s.
Estimate the FAD.



AIR FILTERS, REGULATORS, AND LUBRICATORS.

FILTER/DRYERS

When air is drawn from the ring main for use in a workshop, it must be conditioned into a state fit
for use. This usually involves removing the water,
filtering it, regulating the pressure and adding
lubricating oil.

Water must be removed to stop corrosion and
clogging of the equipment. High speed hand tools
may be damaged by water droplets.

Dirt must be filtered to stop wear to the
equipment. The sort of contaminants removed by
the filter are rust, sediment, grit, shards of thread,
shards of sealing tape, scale, welding beads and so
on. Most of this result from installation or repair to
the pipe work. Filters and dryers are usually
combined in one unit as shown.

Figure 10

The air enters the bowl through a spiral passage which makes it spin and throws water droplets
against the bowl. These run down and are collected at the bottom. The water must be drained either
manually or by a simple float valve.

The air passes through the filter element on the way out and this traps the dirt.
D.J.DUNN 13

REGULATORS

Ring mains operate typically at 14 bar but
tools and pneumatic equipment work at 3 or 4
bar. The pressure must be reduced and kept
constant whether a small amount of air is used
or a lot. The regulator sets the pressure and
keeps it constant. When the air pressure rises
on the outlet, the diaphragm is pushed down
onto the spring and closes the valve. When
the pressure falls on the outlet, the spring
pushes the valve open to let more air through.
Often the regulator and filter unit are designed
as one unit.



Figure 11
LUBRICATORS

Not all applications need lubrication. Paint spraying and shot
blasting are two examples. Applications such as air drills do
need it. Pneumatic cylinders and other equipment may not
need lubricating if low friction materials are used in their
design.

The basic principle is that a small restriction in the air
passage causes a slight drop in pressure which forces oil up
into the dome from where it drips down into the air flow and
becomes atomised in the air stream to produce air with a fine
mist of oil at exit. The drip rate is controlled by a small
restrictor screw in the drip tube.



Figure 12

SYMBOLS

Figure 13
D.J.DUNN 14

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 5

The diagram shows the man parts of a typical regulator.


Name the components numbered and state its function.

Item 1 is ____________________________________________________________

Its function is _________________________________________________________

Item 2 is ____________________________________________________________

Its function is _________________________________________________________

Item 3 is ____________________________________________________________

Its function is _________________________________________________________

Item 4 is ____________________________________________________________

D.J.DUNN 15


The diagram shows a typical lubricator.

Item 1 is ____________________________________________________________

Its function is _________________________________________________________

Item 2 is ____________________________________________________________

Its function is _________________________________________________________

Item 3 is ____________________________________________________________

Its function is _________________________________________________________




Draw combined symbol for a filter/dryer/regulator and lubricator here.





Draw the simplified combined symbol here.