Type Of Flowmeter A.

Nozzles
Flow nozzles are often used as measuring elements for air and gas flow in industrial applications.

A nozzle is a device used for accelerating the fluid flow at the expense of the fluid pressure. It is basically a tapering tube, with the outlet diameter lesser than the inlet diameter. Due this reduction in cross sectional area , the fluid experiences a pressure drop as it exits from the other end of the nozzle, but its flow velocity increases considerably. Nozzles are frequently used to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the stream that emerges from them. Nozzles can be described as convergent (narrowing down from a wide diameter to a smaller diameter in the direction of the flow) or divergent (expanding from a smaller diameter to a larger one). I. Convergent Nozzles Convergent nozzles accelerate subsonic fluids. If the nozzle pressure ratio is high enough the flow will reach sonic velocity at the narrowest point (i.e. the nozzle throat). In this situation, the nozzle is said to be choked. Increasing the nozzle pressure ratio further will not increase the throat Mach number beyond unity. Downstream (i.e. external to the nozzle) the flow is free to expand to supersonic velocities. Note that the Mach 1 can be a very high speed for a hot gas; since the speed of sound varies as the square root of absolute temperature. Thus the speed reached at a nozzle throat can be far higher than the speed of sound at sea level. This fact is used extensively in rocketry where hypersonic flows are required, and where propellant mixtures are deliberately chosen to further increase the sonic speed. Divergent Nozzles Divergent nozzles slow fluids, if the flow is subsonic, but accelerate sonic or supersonic fluids.

II.

III.

Convergent Divergent Nozzles The convergent divergent nozzle has 3 distinct sections, the entry, throat section and the exit. At the entry , air velocity with mach number less than 1 enters, and as it flows through the throat section, the mach number becomes 1, (velocity increases). Then it flows through the divergent portion of the nozzle and at its exit the mach number becomes greater than 1 (supersonic velocity is achieved).

Advantages relative simple and cheap, and available for many applications in many materials. require less upstream piping and incur lower permanent pressure loss. accuracy can be sustained indefinitely since there are no sharp edges to wear.

Disadvantages in the convergent-divergent nozzle as a shock wave can take place in the nozzle. It raises the velocity to over than sonic speed making supersonic flow, this could make a shock wave in the nozzle that turns the supersonic flow to subsonic flow. more difficult to replace than the orifice unless it can be removed as part of a spool section.

B. Rotameters
The rotameter consists of a vertically oriented glass (or plastic) tube with a larger end at the top, and a metering float which is free to move within the tube. Fluid flow causes the float to rise in the tube as the upward pressure differential and buoyancy of the fluid overcome the effect of gravity.

The float rises until the annular area between the float and tube increases sufficiently to allow a state of dynamic equilibrium between the upward differential pressure and buoyancy factors, and downward gravity factors. The height of the float is an indication of the flow rate. The tube can be calibrated and graduated in appropriate flow units. The rotameter meter typically have a TurnDown Ratio up to 12:1. The accuracy may be as good as 1% of full scale rating. Magnetic floats can be used for alarm and signal transmission functions.

Principle of Operation The rotameter's operation is based on the variable area principle: fluid flow raises a float in a tapered tube, increasing the area for passage of the fluid. The greater the flow, the higher the float is raised. The height of the float is directly proportional to the flowrate. With liquids, the float is raised by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the velocity head of the fluid. With gases, buoyancy is negligible, and the float responds to the velocity head alone. The float moves up or down in the tube in proportion to the fluid flowrate and the annular area between the float and the tube wall. The float reaches a stable position in the tube when the upward force exerted by the flowing fluid equals the downward gravitational force exerted by the weight of the float. A change in flowrate upsets this balance of forces. The float then moves up or down, changing the annular area until it again reaches a position where the forces are in equilibrium. To satisfy the force equation, the rotameter float assumes a distinct position for every constant flowrate. However, it is important to note that because the float position is gravity dependent, rotameters must be vertically oriented and mounted. Advantages

Requires no external power or fuel, it uses only the inherent properties of the fluid, along with gravity, to measure flow rate. A relatively simple device that can be mass manufactured out of cheap materials, allowing for its widespread use. The rotameter's scale is linear because the measure of flow rate is based on area variation. This means that the flow rate can be read with the same degree of accuracy throughout the full range. Can be modified to cater to the needs of individual operation. Eg:In case of a rotameter with a metal case, the float can have an extension. The float of the rotameter does not rotate in modern designs as it used to in the early ones. Float shapes and proportions can be varied for different applications. With a properly maintained rotameter the operator can expect sustained high repeatability. Rotameters offer wide flow measurement ranges or rangeability. A typical ratio of 10:1 from maximum to minimum flow rate can be expected. Operators will be able to measure minimum flow rates as low as 1/10 of the rotameter's maximum flow rate without impairing the repeatability. Pressure loss due to the rotameter is minimal and relatively constant because the area through the tapered tube increases with flow rate. This results in reduced pumping costs.

Disadvantages

Due to its use of gravity, a rotameter must always be vertically oriented and right way up, with the fluid flowing upward. Due to its reliance on the ability of the fluid or gas to displace the float, graduations on a given rotameter will only be accurate for a given substance at a given temperature. The main property of importance is the density of the fluid; however, viscosity may also be significant. Floats are ideally designed to be insensitive to viscosity; however, this is seldom verifiable from manufacturers' specifications. Either separate rotameters for different densities and viscosities may be used, or multiple scales on the same rotameter can be used. Due to the direct flow indication the resolution is relatively poor compared to other measurement principles. Readout uncertainty gets worse near the bottom of the scale. Oscillations of the float and parallax may further increase the uncertainty of the measurements. Normally require the use of glass (or other transparent material), otherwise the user cannot see the float. This limits their use in many industries to benign fluids, such as water. Not easily adapted for reading by machine; although magnetic floats that drive a follower outside the tube are available. Usually rotameters aren't made in very large sizes (more than 4 inches/100 mm), but bypass designs are sometimes used on very large pipes.

Calorimetric Flowmeter
A calorimeter is a container with two chambers. The first chamber holds the reaction you want to measure. The second chamber has a measured volume of water. These two chambers are separated by a metal wall that conducts the heat from the reaction to the water without letting the water mix in. They are both insulated so the heat stays inside the calorimeter as much as possible. A thermometer measures the temperature of the water. The calorimeter's sealed around the thermometer to prevent heat and water from escape.The calorimetric principle for fluid flow measurement is based on two temperature sensors in close contact with the fluid but thermal insulated from each other.

One of the two sensors is constantly heated and the cooling effect of the flowing fluid is used to monitor the flowrate. In a stationary (no flow) fluid condition there is a constant temperature difference between the two temperature sensors. When the fluid flow increases, heat energy is drawn from the heated sensor and the temperature difference between the sensors are reduced. The reduction is proportional to the flow rate of the fluid. Response times will vary due the thermal conductivity of the fluid. In general lower thermal conductivity require higher velocity for proper measurement. Calorimetry is a quantitative measurement of the heat required or made during a chemical reaction. When heat is transferred to an object, the temperature of the object increases, and when heat is removed, the temperature of the object decreases. A calorimeter is the instrument in which the chemical reaction or physical process takes place. It is well-insulated so that no heat can enter or leave the device, in order for the measurement to be accurate.

Type of Calorimeter
There are five types of calorimeter.There are: Bomb calorimeter, Calvet-type calorimeter, constant-pressure calorimeter, differential scanning calorimeter and isothermal calorimeter. Bomb Calorimeter A bomb calorimeter is a type of constant-volume calorimeter used in measuring the heat of combustion of a particular reaction

Bomb Calorimeter

Calvet-type reaction The detection is based on a three-dimensional flux meter sensor. The flux meter element consist a ring of several thermo couple in series. The corresponding thermopile of high thermal conductivity surrounds the experimental space within the calorimetric block. The radial arrangement of the thermopile guarantees an almost complete integration of the heat. This is verified by the calculation of the efficiency ratio that indicates that an average value of 94% +/1% of heat is transmitted through the sensor on the full range of temperature of the Calvet-type calorimeter. In this setup, the sensitivity of the calorimeter is not affected by the crucible, the type of purge gas or the flow rate. The main advantage of the setup is the increase of the experimental vessel's size and consequently the size of the sample without affecting the accuracy of the calorimetric measurement.

Calvet-type Calorimeter

Constant-pressure calorimeter A constant-pressure calorimeter measures the change in enthalpy of a reaction occurring in solution during which the atmospheric pressure remains constant.

Constant-pressure Calorimeter

Differential scanning calorimeter In a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), heat flow into a sample usually contained in the small aluminium capsule or 'pan' is measure differentially by comparing it into an empty reference pan.

Differential-scanning Calorimeter

Isothermal titration calorimeter In an isothermal titration calorimeter, the heat of reaction is used to follow a titration experiment

. Isothermal-titration Calorimeter

Advantages

The calorimetric flowmeter can achieve relatively high accuracy at low flow rates. Calvet calorimeters and thermal analyzers provide the whole heat-flow measurement. As long as the sample during the measurement procedure is totally begirded by the thermodetector it (thermodetector) measures the full heat-flow around the sample.

Disadvantages

A constant-volume calorimeter is a calorimeter always loses some heat in measurement. An electromagnetic calorimeter is one specifically designed to measure the energy of particles that interact primarily through electromagnetism.