OXYGEN

Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetallic element and oxidizing agent that readily forms compounds (notably oxides) with most elements.[1 !y mass" oxygen is the third#most abundant element in the universe" after hydrogen and helium.[$ %t &'(" two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen" a diatomic gas that is colorless" odorless" and tasteless) with the formula *$. +any ma,or classes of organic molecules in living organisms" such as proteins" nucleic acids" carbohydrates" and fats" contain oxygen" as do the ma,or inorganic compounds that are constituents of animal shells" teeth" and bone. +ost of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as it is a part of water" the ma,or constituent of lifeforms (for example" about two#thirds of human body mass). -lemental oxygen is produced by cyanobacteria" algae and plants" and is used in cellular respiration for all complex life. *xygen is toxic to obligately anaerobic organisms" which were the dominant form of early life on -arth until *$ began to accumulate in the atmosphere. .ree elemental *$ only began to accumulate in the atmosphere about $./ billion years ago (see 0reat oxygenation event) about a billion years after the first appearance of these organisms.[1 [2 3iatomic oxygen gas constitutes $4.85 of the volume of air.[/ *xygen is the most abundant element by mass in the -arth6s crust as part of oxide compounds such as silicon dioxide" ma7ing up almost half of the crust6s mass.[8 *xygen is an important part of the atmosphere" and is necessary to sustain most terrestrial life as it is used in respiration. 9owever" it is too chemically reactive to remain a free element in -arth6s atmosphere without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms" which use the energy of sunlight to produce elemental oxygen from water. %nother form (allotrope) of oxygen" ozone (*1)" strongly absorbs :;! radiation and conse<uently the high#altitude ozone layer helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation" but is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by#product of smog. %t even higher low earth orbit altitudes" atomic oxygen is a significant presence and a cause of erosion for spacecraft.[= *xygen is produced industrially by fractional distillation of li<uefied air" use of zeolites with pressure#cycling to concentrate oxygen from air" electrolysis of water and other means. :ses of elemental oxygen include the production of steel" plastics and textiles" brazing" welding and cutting of steels and other metals" roc7et propellant" oxygen therapy and life support systems in aircraft" submarines" spaceflight and diving. *xygen was discovered independently by >arl ?ilhelm &cheele" in :ppsala" in 1==1 or earlier" and @oseph (riestley in ?iltshire" in 1==2" but (riestley is often given priority because his wor7 was published first. 'he name oxygen was coined in 1=== by %ntoine Aavoisier"[8 whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then#popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. Its name derives from the 0ree7 roots BCD (oxys) (EacidE" literally EsharpE" referring to the sour taste of acids) and #FGHID (#gInos) (EproducerE" literally EbegetterE)" because at the time of naming" it was mista7enly thought that all acids re<uired oxygen in their composition.

Characteristics
Structure

*xygen *$ molecule. 1

%t standard temperature and pressure" oxygen is a colorless" odorless gas with the molecular formula * $" in which the two oxygen atoms are chemically bonded to each other with a spin triplet electron configuration. 'his bond has a bond order of two" and is often simplified in description as a double bond[J or as a combination of one two#electron bond and two three#electron bonds.[14 'riplet oxygen (not to be confused with ozone" *1) is the ground state of the *$ molecule.[11 'he electron configuration of the molecule has two unpaired electrons occupying two degenerate molecular orbitals.[a 'hese orbitals are classified as antibonding (wea7ening the bond order from three to two)" so the diatomic oxygen bond is wea7er than the diatomic nitrogen triple bond in which all bonding molecular orbitals are filled" but some antibonding orbitals are not.[11 In normal triplet form" *$ molecules are paramagnetic. 'hat is" they form a magnet in the presence of a magnetic fieldKbecause of the spin magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons in the molecule" and the negative exchange energy between neighboring *$ molecules.[1$ Ai<uid oxygen is attracted to a magnet to a sufficient extent that" in laboratory demonstrations" a bridge of li<uid oxygen may be supported against its own weight between the poles of a powerful magnet.[11 [b &inglet oxygen is a name given to several higher#energy species of molecular *$ in which all the electron spins are paired. It is much more reactive towards common organic molecules than is molecular oxygen per se. In nature" singlet oxygen is commonly formed from water during photosynthesis" using the energy of sunlight.[12 It is also produced in the troposphere by the photolysis of ozone by light of short wavelength"[1/ and by the immune system as a source of active oxygen.[18 >arotenoids in photosynthetic organisms (and possibly also in animals) play a ma,or role in absorbing energy from singlet oxygen and converting it to the unexcited ground state before it can cause harm to tissues.[1=

Physical properties
*xygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen is. ?ater in e<uilibrium with air contains approximately 1 molecule of dissolved * $ for every $ molecules of L $" compared to an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1M2. 'he solubility of oxygen in water is temperature# dependent" and about twice as much (12.8 mgNAO1) dissolves at 4 P> than at $4 P> (=.8 mgNAO1).[$/ [$8 %t $/ P> and 1 standard atmosphere (141.1 7(a) of air" freshwater contains about 8.42 milliliters (mA) of oxygen per liter" whereas seawater contains about 2.J/ mA per liter.[$= %t / P> the solubility increases to J.4 mA (/45 more than at $/ P>) per liter for water and =.$ mA (2/5 more) per liter for sea water. *xygen condenses at J4.$4 Q (O18$.J/ P>" O$J=.11 P.)" and freezes at /2.18 Q (O$18.=J P>" O181.8$ P.).[$8 !oth li<uid and solid * $ are clear substances with a light s7y#blue color caused by absorption in the red (in contrast with the blue color of the s7y" which is due to Rayleigh scattering of blue light). 9igh#purity li<uid * [$J $ is usually obtained by the fractional distillation of li<uefied air. Ai<uid oxygen may also be produced by condensation out of air" using li<uid nitrogen as a coolant. It is a highly reactive substance and must be segregated from combustible materials.[14 *xygen is the most abundant chemical element by mass in the -arth6s biosphere" air" sea and land. *xygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe" after hydrogen and helium.[$ %bout 4.J5 of the &un6s mass is oxygen.[/ *xygen constitutes 2J.$5 of the -arth6s crust by mass[8 and is the ma,or component of the world6s oceans (88.85 by mass).[/ *xygen gas is the second most common component of the -arth6s atmosphere" ta7ing up $4.85 of its volume and $1.15 of its mass (some 141/ tonnes).[/ [1= [c -arth is unusual among the planets of the &olar &ystem in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphereM +ars (with 4.15 *$ by volume) and ;enus have far lower concentrations. 9owever" the *$ surrounding these other planets is produced solely by ultraviolet radiation impacting oxygen#containing molecules such as carbon dioxide.

'he unusually high concentration of oxygen gas on -arth is the result of the oxygen cycle. 'his biogeochemical cycle describes the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs on -arthM the atmosphere" the biosphere" and the lithosphere. 'he main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis" which is responsible for modern -arth6s atmosphere. (hotosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere" while respiration and decay remove it from the atmosphere. In the present e<uilibrium" production and consumption occur at the same rate of roughly 1S$444th of the entire atmospheric oxygen per year. .ree oxygen also occurs in solution in the world6s water bodies. 'he increased solubility of *$ at lower temperatures (see (hysical properties) has important implications for ocean life" as polar oceans support a much higher density of life due to their higher oxygen content.[18 ?ater polluted with plant nutrients such as nitrates or phosphates may stimulate growth of algae by a process called eutrophication and the decay of these organisms and other biomaterials may reduce amounts of *$ in eutrophic water bodies. &cientists assess this aspect of water <uality by measuring the water6s biochemical oxygen demand" or the amount of *$ needed to restore it to a normal concentration.[1J

Analysis

/44 million years of climate change vs 18* (aleoclimatologists measure the ratio of oxygen#18 and oxygen#18 in the shells and s7eletons of marine organisms to determine what the climate was li7e millions of years ago (see oxygen isotope ratio cycle). &eawater molecules that contain the lighter isotope" oxygen#18" evaporate at a slightly faster rate than water molecules containing the 1$5 heavier oxygen#18) this disparity increases at lower temperatures.[24 3uring periods of lower global temperatures" snow and rain from that evaporated water tends to be higher in oxygen# 18" and the seawater left behind tends to be higher in oxygen#18. +arine organisms then incorporate more oxygen#18 into their s7eletons and shells than they would in a warmer climate.[24 (aleoclimatologists also directly measure this ratio in the water molecules of ice core samples that are up to several hundreds of thousands of years old. (lanetary geologists have measured different abundances of oxygen isotopes in samples from the -arth" the +oon" +ars" and meteorites" but were long unable to obtain reference values for the isotope ratios in the &un" believed to be the same as those of the primordial solar nebula. 9owever" analysis of a silicon wafer exposed to the solar wind in space and returned by the crashed 0enesis spacecraft has shown that the &un has a higher proportion of oxygen#18 than does the -arth. 'he measurement implies that an un7nown process depleted oxygen#18 from the &un6s dis7 of protoplanetary material prior to the coalescence of dust grains that formed the -arth.[21 *xygen presents two spectrophotometric absorption bands pea7ing at the wavelengths 88= and =84 nm. &ome remote sensing scientists have proposed using the measurement of the radiance coming from vegetation canopies in those bands to characterize plant health status from a satellite platform.[2$ 'his approach exploits the fact that in those bands it is possible to discriminate the vegetation6s reflectance from its fluorescence" which is much wea7er. 'he measurement is technically difficult owing to the low signal#to#noise ratio and the physical structure of vegetation) but it has been proposed as a possible method of monitoring the carbon cycle from satellites on a global scale.

Biological role of O2
In nature" free oxygen is produced by the light#driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. %ccording to some estimates" 0reen algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about =45 of the free oxygen produced on -arth and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants.[21 *ther estimates of the oceanic contribution to atmospheric oxygen are higher" while some estimates are lower" suggesting oceans produce T2/5 of -arth6s atmospheric oxygen each year.[22 % simplified overall formula for photosynthesis isM[2/ 8 >*$ U 8 9 $* U photons V > 89 1$* 8U8*
$

or simply carbon dioxide U water U sunlight V glucose U dioxygen (hotolytic oxygen evolution occurs in the thyla7oid membranes of photosynthetic organisms and re<uires the energy of four photons.[d +any steps are involved" but the result is the formation of a proton gradient across the thyla7oid membrane" which is used to synthesize %'( via photophosphorylation.[28 'he *$ remaining after oxidation of the water molecule is released into the atmosphere.[e +olecular dioxygen" *$" is essential for cellular respiration in all aerobic organisms. *xygen is used in mitochondria to help generate adenosine triphosphate (%'() during oxidative phosphorylation. 'he reaction for aerobic respiration is essentially the reverse of photosynthesis and is simplified asM > 89 1$* 8U8* $ V 8 >*$ U 8 9 O1 $* U $884 7@Nmol In vertebrates" *$ diffuses through membranes in the lungs and into red blood cells. 9emoglobin binds *$" changing its color from bluish red to bright red[1J (>*$ is released from another part of hemoglobin through the !ohr effect). *ther animals use hemocyanin (molluscs and some arthropods) or hemerythrin (spiders and lobsters).[1= % liter of blood can dissolve $44 cm1 of *$.[1= Reactive oxygen species" such as superoxide ion (*O$) and hydrogen peroxide (9$*$)" are dangerous by# products of oxygen use in organisms.[1= (arts of the immune system of higher organisms" however" create peroxide" superoxide" and singlet oxygen to destroy invading microbes. Reactive oxygen species also play an important role in the hypersensitive response of plants against pathogen attac7.[28 %n adult human in rest inhales 1.8 to $.2 grams of oxygen per minute.[2= 'his amounts to more than 8 billion tonnes of oxygen inhaled by humanity per year.[f

History
Early experiments

(hilo6s experiment inspired later investigators. *ne of the first 7nown experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the $nd century !>- 0ree7 writer on mechanics" (hilo of !yzantium. In his wor7 Pneumatica" (hilo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle and surrounding the vessel6s nec7 with water resulted in some water rising into the nec7.[/8 (hilo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. +any centuries later Aeonardo da ;inci built on (hilo6s wor7 by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration.[/J In the late 1=th century" Robert !oyle proved that air is necessary for combustion. -nglish chemist @ohn +ayow (1821W18=J) refined this wor7 by showing that fire re<uires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus or ,ust nitroaereus.[84 In one experiment he found that placing either a mouse or a lit candle in a closed container over water caused the water to rise and replace one#fourteenth of the air6s volume before extinguishing the sub,ects.[81 .rom this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion. +ayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated" and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it.[84 9e also thought that the lungs separate nitroaereus from air and pass it into the blood and that animal heat and muscle movement result from the reaction of nitroaereus with certain substances in the body.[84 %ccounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1888 in his wor7 Tractatus duo in the tract E3e respirationeE.[81

Discovery
*xygen was first discovered by &wedish pharmacist >arl ?ilhelm &cheele. 9e had produced oxygen gas by heating mercuric oxide and various nitrates by about 1==$.[/ [/J &cheele called the gas Efire airE because it was the only 7nown supporter of combustion" and wrote an account of this discovery in a manuscript he titled Treatise on Air and Fire" which he sent to his publisher in 1==/. 9owever" that document was not published until 1===.[81 In the meantime" on %ugust 1" 1==2" an experiment conducted by the !ritish clergyman @oseph (riestley focused sunlight on mercuric oxide (9g*) inside a glass tube" which liberated a gas he named Edephlogisticated airE.[/ 9e noted that candles burned brighter in the gas and that a mouse was more active and lived longer while breathing it. %fter breathing the gas himself" he wroteM E'he feeling of it to my lungs was not sensibly different from that of common air" but I fancied that my breast felt peculiarly light and easy for some time afterwards.E[$/ (riestley published his findings in 1==/ in a paper titled E%n %ccount of .urther 3iscoveries in %irE which was included in the second volume of his boo7 titled Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air.[/J [82 !ecause he published his findings first" (riestley is usually given priority in the discovery. /

'he noted .rench chemist %ntoine Aaurent Aavoisier later claimed to have discovered the new substance independently. 9owever" (riestley visited Aavoisier in *ctober 1==2 and told him about his experiment and how he liberated the new gas. &cheele also posted a letter to Aavoisier on &eptember 14" 1==2 that described his own discovery of the previously un7nown substance" but Aavoisier never ac7nowledged receiving it (a copy of the letter was found in &cheele6s belongings after his death).[81

Lavoisier's contribution
?hat Aavoisier did indisputably do (although this was disputed at the time) was to conduct the first ade<uate <uantitative experiments on oxidation and give the first correct explanation of how combustion wor7s.[/ 9e used these and similar experiments" all started in 1==2" to discredit the phlogiston theory and to prove that the substance discovered by (riestley and &cheele was a chemical element. In one experiment" Aavoisier observed that there was no overall increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container.[/ 9e noted that air rushed in when he opened the container" which indicated that part of the trapped air had been consumed. 9e also noted that the tin had increased in weight and that increase was the same as the weight of the air that rushed bac7 in. 'his and other experiments on combustion were documented in his boo7 Sur la combustion en gnral" which was published in 1===.[/ In that wor7" he proved that air is a mixture of two gases) 6vital air6" which is essential to combustion and respiration" and a ote (07. !"#$% ElifelessE)" which did not support either. A ote later became nitrogen in -nglish" although it has 7ept the name in .rench and several other -uropean languages.[/ Aavoisier renamed 6vital air6 to oxyg&ne in 1=== from the 0ree7 roots '() *oxys+ (acid" literally EsharpE" from the taste of acids) and ,-.%/) *,gen0s+ (producer" literally begetter)" because he mista7enly believed that oxygen was a constituent of all acids.[8 >hemists (notably &ir 9umphry 3avy in 181$) eventually determined that Aavoisier was wrong in this regard (it is in fact hydrogen that forms the basis for acid chemistry)" but by that time it was too late) the name had ta7en. Oxygen entered the -nglish language despite opposition by -nglish scientists and the fact that the -nglishman (riestley had first isolated the gas and written about it. 'his is partly due to a poem praising the gas titled E*xygenE in the popular boo7 T1e 2otanic 3arden (1=J1) by -rasmus 3arwin" grandfather of >harles 3arwin.
[81

Later history
@ohn 3alton6s original atomic hypothesis assumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. .or example" 3alton assumed that water6s formula was 9*" giving the atomic mass of oxygen as 8 times that of hydrogen" instead of the modern value of about 18.[8/ In 184/" @oseph Aouis 0ay#Aussac and %lexander von 9umboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen) and by 1811 %medeo %vogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water6s composition" based on what is now called %vogadro6s law and the assumption of diatomic elemental molecules.[88 [g !y the late 1Jth century scientists realized that air could be li<uefied" and its components isolated" by compressing and cooling it. :sing a cascade method" &wiss chemist and physicist Raoul (ierre (ictet evaporated li<uid sulfur dioxide in order to li<uefy carbon dioxide" which in turn was evaporated to cool oxygen gas enough to li<uefy it. 9e sent a telegram on 3ecember $$" 18== to the .rench %cademy of &ciences in (aris announcing his discovery of li<uid oxygen.[8= @ust two days later" .rench physicist Aouis (aul >ailletet announced his own method of li<uefying molecular oxygen.[8= *nly a few drops of the li<uid were produced in either case so no meaningful analysis could be conducted. *xygen was li<uified in stable state for the first time on +arch $J" 1881 by (olish scientists from @agiellonian :niversity" Xygmunt ?rYblews7i and Qarol *lszews7i.[88 In 18J1 &cottish chemist @ames 3ewar was able to produce enough li<uid oxygen to study.[1$ 'he first commercially viable process for producing li<uid oxygen was independently developed in 18J/ by 0erman 8

engineer >arl von Ainde and !ritish engineer ?illiam 9ampson. !oth men lowered the temperature of air until it li<uefied and then distilled the component gases by boiling them off one at a time and capturing them.[8J Aater" in 1J41" oxyacetylene welding was demonstrated for the first time by burning a mixture of acetylene and compressed *$. 'his method of welding and cutting metal later became common.[8J In 1J$1 the %merican scientist Robert 9. 0oddard became the first person to develop a roc7et engine that burned li<uid fuel) the engine used gasoline for fuel and li<uid oxygen as the oxidizer. 0oddard successfully flew a small li<uid#fueled roc7et /8 m at J= 7mSh on +arch 18" 1J$8 in %uburn" +assachusetts" :&.[8J [=4

Industrial production
&ee alsoM %ir separation" *xygen evolution" and fractional distillation 'wo ma,or methods are employed to produce 144 million tonnes of *$ extracted from air for industrial uses annually.[81 'he most common method is to fractionally distill li<uefied air into its various components" with L$ distilling as a vapor while *$ is left as a li<uid.[81

9ofmann electrolysis apparatus used in electrolysis of water. 'he other ma,or method of producing *$ gas involves passing a stream of clean" dry air through one bed of a pair of identical zeolite molecular sieves" which absorbs the nitrogen and delivers a gas stream that is J45 to J15 *$.[81 &imultaneously" nitrogen gas is released from the other nitrogen#saturated zeolite bed" by reducing the chamber operating pressure and diverting part of the oxygen gas from the producer bed through it" in the reverse direction of flow. %fter a set cycle time the operation of the two beds is interchanged" thereby allowing for a continuous supply of gaseous oxygen to be pumped through a pipeline. 'his is 7nown as pressure swing adsorption. *xygen gas is increasingly obtained by these non#cryogenic technologies (see also the related vacuum swing adsorption).[=1 *xygen gas can also be produced through electrolysis of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen. 3> electricity must be usedM if %> is used" the gases in each limb consist of hydrogen and oxygen in the explosive ratio $M1. >ontrary to popular belief" the $M1 ratio observed in the 3> electrolysis of acidified water does not prove that the empirical formula of water is 9$* unless certain assumptions are made about the molecular formulae of hydrogen and oxygen themselves. % similar method is the electrocatalytic *$ evolution from oxides and oxoacids. >hemical catalysts can be used as well" such as in chemical oxygen generators or oxygen candles that are used as part of the life#support e<uipment on submarines" and are still part of standard e<uipment on commercial airliners in case of depressurization emergencies. %nother air separation technology involves forcing air to dissolve through ceramic membranes based on zirconium dioxide by either high pressure or an electric current" to produce nearly pure *$ gas.[1J In large <uantities" the price of li<uid oxygen in $441 was approximately Z4.$1S7g.[=$ &ince the primary cost of production is the energy cost of li<uefying the air" the production cost will change as energy cost varies. .or reasons of economy" oxygen is often transported in bul7 as a li<uid in specially insulated tan7ers" since one liter of li<uefied oxygen is e<uivalent to 824 liters of gaseous oxygen at atmospheric pressure and $4 P> (88 P.).[81 &uch tan7ers are used to refill bul7 li<uid oxygen storage containers" which stand outside hospitals and other institutions with a need for large volumes of pure oxygen gas. Ai<uid oxygen is passed through heat =

exchangers" which convert the cryogenic li<uid into gas before it enters the building. *xygen is also stored and shipped in smaller cylinders containing the compressed gas) a form that is useful in certain portable medical applications and oxy#fuel welding and cutting.[81

Applications
&ee alsoM !reathing gas" Redox" and >ombustion

Medical
:pta7e of *$ from the air is the essential purpose of respiration" so oxygen supplementation is used in medicine. 'reatment not only increases oxygen levels in the patient6s blood" but has the secondary effect of decreasing resistance to blood flow in many types of diseased lungs" easing wor7 load on the heart. *xygen therapy is used to treat emphysema" pneumonia" some heart disorders (congestive heart failure)" some disorders that cause increased pulmonary artery pressure" and any disease that impairs the body6s ability to ta7e up and use gaseous oxygen.[=1 'reatments are flexible enough to be used in hospitals" the patient6s home" or increasingly by portable devices. *xygen tents were once commonly used in oxygen supplementation" but have since been replaced mostly by the use of oxygen mas7s or nasal cannulas.[=2 9yperbaric (high#pressure) medicine uses special oxygen chambers to increase the partial pressure of *$ around the patient and" when needed" the medical staff.[=/ >arbon monoxide poisoning" gas gangrene" and decompression sic7ness (the 6bends6) are sometimes treated using these devices.[=8 Increased *$ concentration in the lungs helps to displace carbon monoxide from the heme group of hemoglobin.[== [=8 *xygen gas is poisonous to the anaerobic bacteria that cause gas gangrene" so increasing its partial pressure helps 7ill them.[=J [84 3ecompression sic7ness occurs in divers who decompress too <uic7ly after a dive" resulting in bubbles of inert gas" mostly nitrogen and helium" forming in their blood. Increasing the pressure of *$ as soon as possible is part of the treatment.[=1 [81 [8$ *xygen is also used medically for patients who re<uire mechanical ventilation" often at concentrations above the $15 found in ambient air.

Life support and recreational use

% notable application of *$ as a low#pressure breathing gas is in modern space suits" which surround their occupant6s body with pressurized air. 'hese devices use nearly pure oxygen at about one third normal pressure" resulting in a normal blood partial pressure of *$.[81 [82 'his trade#off of higher oxygen concentration for lower pressure is needed to maintain flexible spacesuits. &cuba divers and submariners also rely on artificially delivered *$" but most often use normal pressure" andSor mixtures of oxygen and air. (ure or nearly pure *$ use in diving at higher#than#sea#level pressures is usually limited to rebreather" decompression" or emergency treatment use at relatively shallow depths (T8 meters depth" or less).[8/ [88 3eeper diving re<uires significant dilution of *$ with other gases" such as nitrogen or helium" to help prevent oxygen toxicity.[8/ (eople who climb mountains or fly in non#pressurized fixed#wing aircraft sometimes have supplemental *$ supplies.[h (assengers traveling in (pressurized) commercial airplanes have an emergency supply of *$ automatically supplied to them in case of cabin depressurization. &udden cabin pressure loss activates chemical oxygen generators above each seat" causing oxygen mas7s to drop. (ulling on the mas7s Eto start the flow of oxygenE as cabin safety instructions dictate" forces iron filings into the sodium chlorate inside the canister.[1J % steady stream of oxygen gas is then produced by the exothermic reaction. *xygen" as a supposed mild euphoric" has a history of recreational use in oxygen bars and in sports. *xygen bars are establishments" found in @apan" >alifornia" and Aas ;egas" Levada since the late 1JJ4s that offer 8

higher than normal *$ exposure for a fee.[8= (rofessional athletes" especially in %merican football" also sometimes go off field between plays to wear oxygen mas7s in order to get a EboostE in performance. 'he pharmacological effect is doubtful) a placebo effect is a more li7ely explanation.[8= %vailable studies support a performance boost from enriched *$ mixtures only if they are breathed during aerobic exercise.[88 *ther recreational uses that do not involve breathing the gas include pyrotechnic applications" such as 0eorge 0oble6s five#second ignition of barbecue grills.[8J

Industrial
&melting of iron ore into steel consumes //5 of commercially produced oxygen.[1J In this process" *$ is in,ected through a high#pressure lance into molten iron" which removes sulfur impurities and excess carbon as the respective oxides" &*$ and >*$. 'he reactions are exothermic" so the temperature increases to 1"=44 P>.[1J %nother $/5 of commercially produced oxygen is used by the chemical industry. [1J -thylene is reacted with *$ to create ethylene oxide" which" in turn" is converted into ethylene glycol) the primary feeder material used to manufacture a host of products" including antifreeze and polyester polymers (the precursors of many plastics and fabrics).[1J +ost of the remaining $45 of commercially produced oxygen is used in medical applications" metal cutting and welding" as an oxidizer in roc7et fuel" and in water treatment.[1J *xygen is used in oxyacetylene welding burning acetylene with *$ to produce a very hot flame. In this process" metal up to 84 cm thic7 is first heated with a small oxy#acetylene flame and then <uic7ly cut by a large stream of *$.[J4 Aarger roc7ets use li<uid oxygen as their oxidizer" which is mixed and ignited with the fuel for propulsion.[citation needed

Safety and precautions

'he L.(% =42 standard rates compressed oxygen gas as nonhazardous to health" nonflammable and nonreactive" but an oxidizer. Refrigerated li<uid oxygen (A*[) is given a health hazard rating of 1 (for increased ris7 of hyperoxia from condensed vapors" and for hazards common to cryogenic li<uids such as frostbite)" and all other ratings are the same as the compressed gas form.

Toxicity
+ain articleM *xygen toxicity

+ain symptoms of oxygen toxicity[JJ

*xygen toxicity occurs when the lungs ta7e in $\ higher than normal *$ partial pressure" which can occur in deep scuba diving. *xygen gas (*$) can be toxic at elevated partial pressures" leading to convulsions and other health problems.[8/ [, [144 *xygen toxicity usually begins to occur at partial pressures more than /4 7ilopascals (7(a)" e<ual to about /45 oxygen composition at standard pressure or $./ times the normal sea#level *$ partial pressure of about $1 7(a. 'his is not a problem except for patients on mechanical ventilators" since gas supplied through oxygen mas7s in medical applications is typically composed of only 145W/45 *$ by volume (about 14 7(a at standard pressure).[$/ (although this figure also is sub,ect to wide variation" depending on type of mas7). %t one time" premature babies were placed in incubators containing *$#rich air" but this practice was discontinued after some babies were blinded by the oxygen content being too high.[$/ !reathing pure *$ in space applications" such as in some modern space suits" or in early spacecraft such as %pollo" causes no damage due to the low total pressures used.[81 [141 In the case of spacesuits" the *$ partial pressure in the breathing gas is" in general" about 14 7(a (1.2 times normal)" and the resulting *$ partial pressure in the astronaut6s arterial blood is only marginally more than normal sea#level *$ partial pressure (for more information on this" see space suit and arterial blood gas). *xygen toxicity to the lungs and central nervous system can also occur in deep scuba diving and surface supplied diving.[$/ [8/ (rolonged breathing of an air mixture with an *$ partial pressure more than 84 7(a can eventually lead to permanent pulmonary fibrosis.[14$ -xposure to a *$ partial pressures greater than 184 7(a (about 1.8 atm) may lead to convulsions (normally fatal for divers). %cute oxygen toxicity (causing seizures" its most feared effect for divers) can occur by breathing an air mixture with $15 *$ at 88 m or more of depth) the same thing can occur by breathing 1445 *$ at only 8 m.[14$ [141 [142 [14/

ombustion and other ha!ards

9ighly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion. .ire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity) however" an ignition event" such as heat or a spar7" is needed to trigger combustion.[148 *xygen itself is not the fuel" but the oxidant. >ombustion hazards also apply to compounds of oxygen with a high oxidative potential" such as peroxides" chlorates" nitrates" perchlorates" and dichromates because they can donate oxygen to a fire. >oncentrated *$ will allow combustion to proceed rapidly and energetically. [148 &teel pipes and storage vessels used to store and transmit both gaseous and li<uid oxygen will act as a fuel) and therefore the design and manufacture of *$ systems re<uires special training to ensure that ignition sources are minimized.[148 'he fire that 7illed the %pollo 1 crew in a launch pad test spread so rapidly because the capsule was pressurized with pure *$ but at slightly more than atmospheric pressure" instead of the 1]1 normal pressure that would be used in a mission.[7 [148 Ai<uid oxygen spills" if allowed to soa7 into organic matter" such as wood" petrochemicals" and asphalt can cause these materials to detonate unpredictably on subse<uent mechanical impact.[148 %s with other cryogenic li<uids" on contact with the human body it can cause frostbites to the s7in and the eyes. 14

11