Universidad Politcnica Metropolitana de Hidalgo

Carrera: Ingeniera en Aeronutica

Estudiante: Fernando Antonio Herrera Hernndez Materia: Structural Design Trabajo: Questionary #1 Profesor: Ing. Celedonio Posadas

8 Cuatrimestre Grupo: nico

Fecha de Entrega: 01/02/2014

1. - Define and explain the following terms:

A) LOAD FACTOR Forces acting on an aircraft during a level coordinated turn, like is shown in the next figure

Figure 1 The load factor is a very important structural design parameter of an aircraft, as it indicates the amount of the load which the structure of an aircraft can bear. For this reason, the maximum load factor is a maneuvering and performance limit. The limit of it, is the highest load factor to be expected over the lifetime of the aircraft. The load factor is not dependent to aircraft weight and size. Whatever the type of aircraft is, same load factors apply for same bank angles. The load factor limitations of aircraft are defined by airworthiness regulations such as, FAR23 for small aircraft, and FAR25 for large aircraft. Load factor limitations of an aircraft are shown by a graphics called maneuvering envelope or V n diagram as it shows the load factor versus airspeed in terms of EAS, An aircraft cannot fly out of the load factor boundaries given by the maneuvering envelope.

The FAR25 specifies the limiting load factors of transport category aircraft. During a steady, coordinated turn the lift required to balance the airplane weight in order to keep the altitude constant. L cos = W Where is the bank angle. Therefore, the ratio of the lift to weight is 1 + (1) cos Since the lift is greater than the weight in a banked turn because cos < 1, the ratio of lift to weight is the normal load factor = 1 . . . cos = (2)

Table shows load factor for various types of aircraft:

Table 1

In the follow figures, is shown Firstable the equations (Figure 3), about the load factor I terms of weight, and the second the wing load cases (Figure 4) that it may have.

Figure 3

Figure 4

B) V-n DIAGRAM (FLIGHT ENVELOPE)

In this figures, it shown the V-n Diagram. A V-n diagram shows the flight load factors that are used for the structural design as a function of the air speed. These represent the maximum expected loads that the aircraft will experience. These load factors are called as limit load factors. The combined V-n diagram is plotted in three steps: 1. Basic V-n diagram, 2. Gust V-n diagram, 3.Combined V-n diagram. Like in this diagram.

The limit of "A" corresponds to the horizontal line "AD." Point D occurs at higher flight speed, which is the speed dive. VC point represents cruise. Cruise In, n = 1, shown as the dotted horizontal line. The intersection that align with the curve "OA" corresponds to the stall speed, VS, which is the minimum rate at which aircraft can maintain level flight.

Line HF represents negative loading factor greater for the aircraft, which are generally less than the maximum load factor positive. The point F corresponds to the intersection of the load limit and the maximum negative design cruise speed, VC. The above negative load factor n = 0 point is then closed by the line at the point F in which the diving speed, VD.

C) GUST DIAGRAM The loads associated with vertical gusts must also be evaluated over the range of speeds. The FAR's describe the calculation of these loads in some detail. Because some of the speeds (VB) are determined by the gust loads, the process may be iterative.

Figure 8

The gust load may be computed from the expression given in FAR Part 25. This formula is the result of considering a vertical gust of specified speed and computing the resulting change in lift. The associated incremental load factor is then multiplied by a load alleviation factor that accounts primarily for the aircraft dynamics in a gust. The atmosphere is a dynamic system that encompasses variety of phenomena. In this point, we concentrate on only gust, since it is not predictable, but is happening during most high altitude flights. When an aircraft experiences a gust, the immediate effect is an increase or decrease in the angle of attack. Figure C.2 shows the geometry of an upward gust. When an upward gust with a velocity of Vg, hits under the nose of an aircraft with the velocity of V, the instantaneous change (increase) in the angle of attack (), is determined through.

There are an equation for modeling the "gust induced load factor" as a function of gust speed:

Where kg is a coefficient that is determined by the following expression:

And g is called the aircraft mass ratio and is calculated through:

There are an intersections between these three lines respectively with maneuver speed (VA), cruising speed (VC), and dive speed (VD) must be marked. The gust V-n diagram is plotted for several altitudes to determine the highest load factor. This diagram is finally combined; in a special technique; with the basic V-n diagram, to obtain the final applicable V-n diagram, like in the Figure C3.

2. - Describe 3 situations where the airplane will perform symmetric maneuver and 3 others situations where each will perform an asymmetric maneuver.
a) Symmetric maneuver. Is symmetric when a maneuver is performed on the main longitudinal axis (roll, pitch or yaw). 1) Loop

2) Yaw

3) Take off

B) Asymmetric maneuver. Is asymmetric when there are more than two movements in the principal axes the entry into loss, the auger. 1)

2)

3)

3- Explain applicability of FAR-23 and FAR-25 define the design velocities and the limit load factors for the different airplane categories contain in FAR-23 and FAR-25 for symmetric maneuvers and gust conditions.
The FAR 23: Contains the airworthiness standards for aircraft, utility, acrobatic among others, the airplane must be safely controllable and maneuverable under all phases of flight such as takeoff, descent climb and level flight. It must be possible to make a gradual transition from one flight regime to another (including turns and slips) without danger of exceeding the limit load factor. The FAR 25: Except where limited by maximum (static) lift coefficients, the airplane is assumed to be subjected to symmetrical maneuvers resulting in the limit maneuvering load factor prescribed this section. Pitching velocities appropriate to the corresponding pull-up and stead turn maneuvers must be taken into account.

4. - Derive the equations for the load factor experience by an airplane while performing the following maneuvers:

a. Turn
The load factor is the ratio between the total load supported by the wings and the gross weight of the aircraft with its contents: (Load Factor = Load supported / Gross weight of the aircraft). As the weight is due to the force of gravity, the load factor is usually expressed in terms of relation to it: in "g". So a load factor of 3 "manage" means that the load on the airframe is 3 times your current weight. This factor can be positive or negative. Is positive (positive g) when the force is down, and

is negative (negative g) when it is up, in the positive g increases the rider's weight being "stuck" to the seat, while negative g weight decreases and the pilot "floats" on the seat. The load factor is important for two reasons: On the structural load imposed on the wings, you might get to break them, and because the rate of loss increases in proportion to the load factor. During the flight, the wings of the airplane must bear the full weight of this, to the extent that it moves at a constant speed and in straight flight, the load imposed on the wings is constant and a velocity change in this situation does not occur appreciable change in the load factor. Therefore any change of aircraft trajectory implies a greater or lesser extent a centrifugal force that increases the load factor. Any force applied to an aircraft (Like in the next picture) to take him out of his path produce stress on its structure, the total of which is the load factor.

The load factor in turns. In any aircraft, at any rate, if stays a constant altitude during a coordinated turn, the load factor for a given pitch is the same, like in the following diagram.

Categories. All airplanes are designed fulfilling some requirements of effort, depending on the intended use to do the same. The classification according to these requirements are called categories. To get certified by the competent authorities, the structural stress (load factor) must conform to the prescribed standards. The categories and the maximum load factor for each are as follows (according to the FAA): Normal: 3.8 G. Utility: 4.4 G Acrobatic 6 G.

b. Dive Recovery (Dicovering) The load factor in the recovery is up to approximately 4 Gs and Gs in 3 ascent (Figure 1.8.9). The plane will end in same way, but inevitably to a lower height. This maneuver is especially difficult orientation and energy inefficient to be the initial point of reference hidden at the beginning and middle of the maneuver.

c. Circular ascend and descend ASCEND:

The rise is a basic maneuver during which a suitable combination of power and attitude makes the plane gain altitude. It means two keys, power and speed. The power is needed to overcome the drag of the aircraft. The amount of resistance is dependent on the beat rate of a graphic form whose expression is shown in Figure 5.5.1.

This figure shows the evolution of resistance with speed through the curve of power needed to counter it. In another power available curve shown, which owes its form to the gradual loss of efficiency of the propulsion system. The intersection of the two curves indicates the maximum speed, one in which all the power consumed in overcoming resistance not being available quantity for promotion.

From the above figure we can get: To maintain a given speed requires sufficient power to overcome resistance. Fly with a higher or lower strength to lower the speed requires more power. For any given speed, climb requires more power to maintain level flight. If more power is applied, the excess of overcoming resistance causes the air to rise.

This graph shows that for a constant power you can get the same rate of climb at low speed (v) or with a much higher speed (v '). In an extreme case of low (z) or high speed (z '), all the power is consumed in overcoming resistance precluding the rise of the aircraft.

In summary, the keys to promotion are: Ascender requires more power than level flight. Increase power by keeping the angle of attack (speed) makes the plane climb. With the same power, for all possible speeds the best rate of climb is obtained with specific. This corresponds to an angle of attack. The best rate of climb is not obtained with a higher angle of attack (attitude steep climb) but with the right mix of power and speed. DESCEND: Falling should adjust both pitch attitude, as power. same is necessary. The decrease in plan requires greater control of the flight path, then provide power to the engine not only has the attitude to control the airplane and do not provide many variations on the rate of descent speed or distance traveled. Basically we define the descent as a basic maneuver in which the airplane loses altitude flying in a controlled manner in a downward (forward and down) path, with or without power applied. Declines assisted engine

performed when precise control of the rate of decline and the distance traveled during the

Drop the keys are: Descend requires less power to fly level. Reduce power maintaining speed (angle of attack) causes the plane descends. With the same power, all the best speeds possible rate decrease (less sag) is obtained with a specific, corresponding to a particular angle of attack. The best rate of descent is obtained (the same as climbing) with a suitable combination of power and speed. 5. - Describe the differences between the following: True airspeed, Indicated airspeed, Calibrated airspeed and Equivalent airspeed. TRUE AIRSPEED
(TAS) of an aircraft is a relative measurement. The actual flight speed of an airplane relative to an air mass is termed as true airspeed, and it is primarily used for navigational purposes. In short: -Flight speed shown on the instrument (not corrected for instrument error, altitude, density and temperature) is called indicated airspeed. -The actual speed of an aircraft through the air is termed as true airspeed.

INDICATED AIRSPEED

CALIBRATED AIRSPEED

EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED
Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is the airspeed at sea level in the International Atmosphere at Standard which the

(IAS) of an aircraft is simply Calibrated airspeed (CAS) the value that an airspeed is the speed shown by a indicator denotes on its scale. conventional airspeed indicator after correction for instrument The value is obtained through error and position error. a pitot-static system which includes a pitot tube and two When flying at sea level static vents. Indicated under International Standard airspeed is used Atmosphere conditions aerodynamically, and is calibrated airspeed is the same important to aircraft as equivalent airspeed and true performance. airspeed. If there is no wind it is also the This Speeds related to take- same as ground speed. off, stall, lift, turns, etc. are all in terms of IAS .

dynamic pressure is the same as the dynamic pressure at the true airspeed and altitude at which the aircraft is flying. In low-speed flight, it is the speed which would be shown by an airspeed indicator with zero error. It is useful for predicting aircraft handling, aerodynamic loads, stalling etc.

6.- Sketch the V-n diagram for the following Commercial Airplane which his weight is 88,000 lb, wing surface is 12000ft2, Cl= 1.3, cruise speed 325 knots, equivalent air speed dive velocity 400 knots equivalent air speed. Use the following altitude 10,000 ft.
DATOS 88000 1200 1.3 548.54 675.12 10000 0.05648

W Sw Cl Vc Ve Altitude Density

lbf ft^2 adm ft/s ft/s ft lbm/ft^3

Firstable in the FAR 25, section 33.7, we can find an equation or formule that, give us a maximum load factor: = + 10 000 = 2.177 ~ 2.5 21 000 + 24 000

Before that, we continuous to realize the V-n Diagram. 0.05648 l/ft^3 = 0.001756 slugs

88000 = = 80.25 / 0.5 0.5 (0.001756)(12000)(1.3)

 = = 126.95 / N min = 1.5

= = 98.33 /

= 1.4 = 767.95 / Then, the next step is to make the table, for we can graphic the Diagram.
Vs (ft/s) Positivo Vs 0 40.145 56.7736035 69.5331797 80.29 89.766949 98.3347657 106.213686 113.547207 120.435 126.949637 80.29 Negativo Vs 0 40.145 56.7736035 69.5331797 80.29 89.766949 98.3347657 106.213686 113.547207 120.435 126.949637

n 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5

n 0 -0.25 -0.5 -0.75 -1 -1.25 -1.5 -1.75 -2 -2.25 -2.5

V-n Diagram
3
2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

VS
0 100

VA
200 300 400 500

VC
600 700

VD
800 900

-0.5 -1

VG

-1.5
-2

7. - Describe the concepts of gust and its effects on the loads experienced by the airplanes. Whether due to discrete gusts or continuous turbulence, are ordinarily considered to be the result of a change in angle of attack due to a component of gust velocity at right angles to the flight path. Vertical and lateral gusts fall into this category. The change in angle of attack, in radians, is equal to the gust velocity divided by the forward speed.

If we consider, for example, a vertical gust, the change in lift due to the gust is:

Head- On gust This case can also be important. Here all that changes is the dynamic pressure. (The angle of attack is simply the constant pitch attitude of the airplane).

Ratio of Lifts, Head on to vertical Gust

Values of this ratio for typical situations are shown in the next to last column of the following table:

8. - Derive the equations used to sketch the gust envelope and mention the 3 different velocities for gust use in this diagram.
The gust can be considered as if the plane goes into a vertical air stream instant:

To adapt the theoretical instantaneous gust to reality, the rules include an attenuation factor of bursts, kg, where: