Chapter9

Migrationand Security

relations andinternational security Priorto 9/11.students of intemational pdd scantattention migration. sludenls of to international Conversely, the implications of intemational inlemational migrationrarelyanalysed of internationalrclations or migration foa securily,or for understanding world politics(Tirman,2004). fhe attacks on 9/11 and the subsequent greatlyaltered that state of bombings in Madrid.Londonandelsewherc of in the increased rclcvancc of the security dimension affairs, resulting given new to rnigration and inlemalional migration. Indeed, the scrutiny migrrtbn whichwas security is partof thepoliticization of international l. tendency ofthe ageofmigrationin Chapter identified as{ dellning examinethe nexus bctween This chaptercannot comprehensively migriltionand security.Instead.the first sectionol'this chapterwill a much to elucidate why migration and security havebecome endeilvour moresalient concern in the post-Cold War periodth4nin the post-world migrationis now perceived as a War II era.The fact that international ideational sigDilicant or prioity issuevirtually arcundthe worldreflecls Thesecond section will examine kcy as well asrnaterial lransformations. sections will assess dimensions ol- migrationand security. Subsequenl in the the threatposedby immigrant-background lslamic populations arcrxndrndl)se lheWaronTerrorisrn. lrun(atlin(rc

Why the rediscovery of the Internatlonal nxus? mlgratlonand security

migrationhas continuously tin ged As rccounted in Chapter4, intemational oftcn societies andstates silce tirneimmemoia].Migrations andretbrged peaccfully, conflicts. Sutliceit proceeded but manyengendercd various in the nigrationsto theNewWorldresulted Io rccallthatmass European populations. decimation andsubiugation of indigenous 1945 and 1980 wasunusual. The ln mrny respecfs. theperiodbetween the xenophobia of the extreme right horrorsol WorldWar II discredited and perceptions of migrantsas a securitythrcat.Indeed,international phenomenon and a largely wasoftenviewedas an economic Drigration international miSrationwas believed beneficial one at that. Moreover, phenomenon, especially in Western or conjunctural to be a ternporary Europc. 201

208

The Ag? oJMigrLtti)n

to Germany of the PKKinsurgency Box 9-I Spillover

Rcpublicof Germrnyrecruited the Feder,rl nnd 1970s. Dudng thc 1960s scrvicesManv ol Turkishcilizcnsto work in ils indusries.rnd thousaDds ro be of This secnrcd wereol Kurdish background cilizens of these Turkish period, but bccame mass recruitncnL duringthe little poljticalconlequcnce penJen(e Jrrn4om) ftorn inr. or *uc J.p ir.orl' ior pollr!Ll .,. KJrJr.h .r asanImpotant ThePKK emerged anized duringthe 1980s. Turkey wercg.r1! lgainsl the leadingan amcd insunection organizati()n KurdishieparaList Turkish Republic. in Gernan) ciLizens residenl oi theover2 rnillionTurkish Up to one-third 50.000 of thele indivlduals wcrc of Kurdishorigin.Pefhaps by the 1990s ol the members became aclive whh thePKK anduDto 12.00{) svmDatlrizcd al Turkish (BoLrl.tnger. 2000:23) By striking pirry or its frontorganizations andothcr Gcrmany thePKKtrnnstbrmed {irlinesandbrsincsses, coDsutates. rcFcssion of Turkish liont. Morcovcr, s(a(es intoasccond Eurcpcnn Wcstcm ol lives, complicated tcns ofthous.mds cy. which took PKK-lcd inlurge the rnc,nri(' lurkr'hcn.rnrerin'urP(n() l'(:uih El mcmbcrrlrre.. .rnlnrnrri. u d lbrcedrelocL'lion andthc uprootirrg myslclious deathsquads included PKK ttctivitte! rendered oi Inillionsol Kudish civililns. This trackdrop cmotive highly Tufkish countenrlc.rsulcs urd soil andCcrirran on Germ.rn vilitl I Ccrn n thc PKK hrd hccome lhc mid-1990s, By rnd signillcanl. Abdall. ndtionAlsecurilyconcer. particularly0t1erthc PKK leL'dcr. Oc ldn, lhrertcncdlo $endsuicidebombcrsagainstGcnnanlargc$ nr with thc PKK. to Tufkeyin its struggle ibr Ccnnrn:lssistnncc retalirti(nr orgrnizrliorrs. PKK rnd its liont 10 outlaw lhe decision l)cspirc theCerlnrn in Oc nany inlirstruclure an crlensivcorgaDizalional ihe PKK possesscd rnd nca$y Europernttatcs.PKK trctics I'eirtured l]rot.st mr&hcs .lnd issuesthough on Kurdish andTurkish Street dcmonslrrlions slrikcs. hunger resulied werstagcd andlrequcnllv bLrnncd by German uthorities. routincly ' cn g , { d n a r e n r , r u ! l r t r ' , . l r c n tirl h r rroten r lrr . h r . l n l 0 q 0 l.h r G e f l n rrr

For rnainslretn sntdeDlsol iltcrnrtioDal rclatiolrs. l tional strles consliluled the pfincipil cctofs in illcrnatioD l rclafions. rDd all othel The key qucslionsiD irlcrnationirlrehtions inlo insignillcancc. actorspiLlcd migralion did Dot appear to lnternalional pcrtained to peace lnd war. nearly total l ck of conDection berf importantly upon ehher. hc cc the ol bctweenthe sludy ol intcrnationalrelationsand intcrnalionrl migration This stateof.lffairs llegiD to evolvein thc I970s. Somc sludent\of world 'low politics' as opposedlo the high politics' politics beganto invesligalc of peaceand war. Keohaneand Nle broadenelllhc scopeol inquirv to political evenlsthet affict iLtleasl two incLude tfan\rttional pher'Io1nena. statesconcurently (Keoh ne and Nye. 1977).A window on lhe study of inlernationrl nigratim and internalionalrclationshad opened The frilure ol poslwar guestworkerpolicics in We\tem Europe by ltnd famil)' migfant scttlement resulledin unexpectcd thc mid-1970s

Migrati'n andSe(uiry 209

ban on PKK streelproteslsby maknrgparlicipation h sucheventsa najor oftence.Several Kurdishprolcstcrs were subsequently apprehended and recommended tbr depor{alion, clcn thooghhungerstritries in Turksh prisons had cosl thc livcs of numerous prisoners alrdthe tortureand ill treatmcfll of Kurdishprisoners was believed to bc commonplace. As a result.the depofalionol Kurdishaclivislsrxisedimpoddntlegal and humanrighls issucs, whichpolarizcd Gcman publjcopnrioD. The rlTcslotAbdalhh Ocalan by Turkilh aurhorities in 1999sparked.t massive waveol Kurdishprotcsts in Aurope a,nd as far awayasAustalia. ThrceKurdsr{,cni killcd af(e.rryingto nterthe lsraeliconsulare in Bcrhr and scores of prolesters wereinjured. During his subscqucnt trial, Ocalan calledupon his followersto abandon arncd slruggle, which rcsulted in rcduccdKurdishmililant acdvitieson Grmansoil. brl thc unrcsdled K rdishqueslion remained and.with it, rhc potentr. for renewd condict. SLrch conccrns undoublcdly contributed to Geflnany s opposition lo thcUSled rttrck upon I|.q in 2003.which damaSed ovcralldiplomatic rcl{lions bctwccn thc knrg-timc rllies. This dramadc turn of evenls hadnruchto do wilh differirg Gennanand US peffipectives on the migration &ndscourity nexus in theMiddleEast. As thcl aqwrfclolvcd intoa prctracted quagmire fbr theUSA,Ccrman apprchcnsions aboutthc inl,urjion lppesledwell founded. ln additionto rhc hugc toll ol killcd and woundcd. ut leasl2 million refugees flowed to nearby strtes,sonre of whonrwere rcselllcd in Europc.parLicularly in (see Sweden Chapter 8).ln thel.n'gcly autonomous Kurdish-ruled nclnve in nonhern ol lhc PKK rcorgAnized haq. rcmnants and.by 2007.luunched slrikcs on Turkish troops within Turkey. Kurdish militants simil0rly ahckcd trrgeis in lran lronr lrnqi territory.Bolh lran aodTL[keysliuck possiblcas Turkish back, rnd a najor escahlionof lighting nppearcd aircrAltund soldiersaMcked PKK lar8etsinside lraqi territory in late 2007andcarly 2(X)8.

rcunincadon. At this tirrc. thc prospcclsti)r coDventiontl or nuclear w r belweeDNATO rDd WafsiLw bloc-atfiliated stateshad declined (Barnett.2004). \igniiicantly Inte$tateconflicts had also declincd (Kaldor.2001)-The accretion ol setllers. slvelled by an iDflux of asylumscckcrs andunaulhorized migranlsin the l9iJ()s. resulled in the securiliziLtion of migratio issues: the linking of migration issues to (Wacvcr secuitystudies ef al..lg93;tsuzan et a1-, 1998: Tirrran,2(X)41 Messina,2007). Concuficntly.combatingtelrorismernerged sanational secudtypriority in manystatcs, not cxclusivcly in rhetransadanlic arex (Laqueu, 2003).However, thc undc$tanding of the irterlacebetween inremationrl nrigration dndterrorism lagged far behinddevelopments in lhe real world. Boxes how conflicts 9.1and9.2recount in TurkeyandAlgeriaspilled over into Germany and Fmnce rcspectirclyduring the 1990s.By

lln

Th, 4!e of A4i!titti,,lt

in Algeriato France of insurgency Box9.2 Spillover

ln 1992, an orfshoot ol the lslamic Salvation Front' LheArmcd lslamic Group (GlA), pxrsued rn hsurgcncv againsr lhe Algenan gorcrnmenr' Tens ol thousandsdied ilr .r nerciless war ol tefforism and countertel rorism. Flnnce provided lnilit]ry and ccononic support to the Algcrirn govel.nmenl.which became the pretext for the extension of GIA opera fions to French rcil. A network of militarts wnged a bombing ca'npargn' ' e r i , n I n l o o 5 b < ' o r cb ( ' n g d i ' n d n r l < dI n l r r ' f l r n c i I J l l , I n r n c P : r r rr lnorl(t -JL h',rnbirri r h o r , r l -rro h J \ c b { e n b e h ; n .J . ' 1 . ' b .n . C I A { , , . r h ( lrlJJl Some lr<nch ' p o n ' ; h i l . l ) I n t r . r o o i n u rl.hoLrn cr',.rp J) ' . . r n . , ' f i . r ' " n l ' . h , 1 . ' ^ b . l ' . . ( d r l J r r h e L , l q h a d h e ( n p e n e r r r r r rb into attrcking urgcis mjlitanls GTA m njpulaled who lhcn asenls Alserirn -France in rn order lo bolsler French support for lhe Algerian go!rnment (Aggou and Ri!oire. 200'l) numet'us steps1()prevenrbombings'rnd to FLcnchrurhorjties LrndeLttx)k were rounnerv ol Noth Aldcan apPcarance Pcrsons bombets. the caDtLnc $uiiectcd ta idcnlity chccks. Mosl Frcnch cilizens rnd residcnt aliens ol No;lh Aliicfln bucksroundacceptcdsrrchchccks as I nccessat)inconvcniercc. lndecd.infb nr|rion suppliedby srrchindi!idtrals grcrtlv 'ridcd in the oi thc te lrist grouf, severlll ol whom were killcd in shootclismLrntling policc. Nelcrtheless,French police rcundcd up scoresol with French ouls ol attacks occas ion$rs apprehcnsion CIA synrplthireN on scvef.rl suspcctcd rcnrrini'd hiirh. .----->

mid (lee .lc. hoth h d bcconlc kcy rati()rlll secufity conccrns Morcover'' Crorp WorkersPa(y (PKK) anLilhe Amcd IslaDrie bolh LhcKurclish rirpllncs inlo targetsSuchthfcrls (CIA) hirdlhfealeDcd to lly hijackcd ing us ushct rrc olicn interyrctcd 9/ll. whi.h of attacks {iowed lhc lbrcsh g/11lttacksaclually fellectc(l the politics. Ho\\,cvcr. worltL cfa in iD ri llew attrcksof ilr thc making tbr decadcsln rctrospect. ifen.lsrnd pattefns of lnclon (SheDon. conlluencc but a 2001i). prcclictablc wcre thrt narufe the lbrelt, lrrNsked ln the poslw r cra, securily studies ccntred on the rsses\nclt ol thrcatseiranalinS fr(m stales.Lcss altention was given to !hfeals poscd by non sate actois.Al Qaida. which lilerxlly means the base in Arabic' ir the actor' As documenlecl aDclits allics constituied such I non_statc pool tfoll1 sutlerecl agencies sccurity 9/lI Comnlission Reporl. US very iactofs Thc sharing to infbrmation llDd lcgal bafiefs coorclinatiorl lhat exDhin the lack ol conDectionbeLwcenthc study of international nigrad;n and inlemati( 41relrtions lafgely expltin why lhc thferl posed bv-Al-Oaida \tts insufliciently and bclatedly apprehendedlnlernalronal migr i;n affects the security of statesin wirys lhat diffef fl{nn other thrcat\ due ro its highly conlplcx. diffuse and often contlidictory nirture (Adamson,2006: 197).

ll4igrulirri tLill S(.ut il\

2ll

r ____+
Such leLrr qpcared warrantedin the afiemalh of ll Scptcrnbcr2001. Scoresof CtA rnd Al Qxidalinked irdividuals. nrainl\ of Nonh Allicxn background.$eN.lchnrcd lbr nrlohemert in vafious plots. m.lnding onc tr) rLtacl llre LIS embassyin Puris. Scvcrrl ol those it1ested rvefe French citizens of NuLh Aliic.rr backgroundlike Zicafias NloNsaoui, \!ho $as {ccuscclof plotting wilh the pcrFtrdors ol thc 9/ll attacks.At lelst oDc ljrench ciLizcnol Nort]r Atrican backsrounddicd duing thc Allied n litary A.l g e r i a n s and c a n r f r i g nx g r n r s tt h e T a l l b a na n d A l Q r i d r i n A l g h x n i s L a n olhcf iDdi!icllrls oi Nofth Atiic.rn lvluslimhrckgroundwiLhlinks to ihe CilA figurd trlnnincntly in the hundredsof drests in rhc trxrsatl.inticrrea. The antiWeltein rcsc trncnt ol sorneof those rufesled$rs linkcd to pcrcciled inltrsliccs e n d u r e db y m i g r r n t s r n d t h c i r l a r r i l i e s . D e s p i l e i n o c a l c d v i g i l r n c e .s e ! e r r l l - . c n t h c i r i r c n s w e r e i n v o l v e di r t a ! o i L s o l s L r i c i d t ' bombing! ol $tstcm targetsin C|s.rtrlrnc! in 100.r.Sc\crLrlol rhc lroinbers s d in l etwork i n t b eP r i s i u s u b u r b n h a db e e nr e c r u i r c ( l t o r l u n d d l r c n t r l i sn ( l i s t u r h i nt g popLrhljon .l c L u d i n : r )r h c F r c n c h if r h c i ri n v o l \ c n r c nN r i r sd e e p l y n r ) s to l r h c h h r l i c r o n r n l l i n i t y D e s p i r . r n x r n n c n t o l l c r l r o m l h c A l B c r i x ng o l c r n c l l l 1 o I s l l l l l i c lo lighl. In r n i l i l r n t s$ h o h i d r l o $ n t h c i r r a r s i n l ( X ) 6 . n r a n vc o n t i n u e d A l Q r i d r i n L h el s l a | r r j c Ml!hrch rcnrnred lhems.lvcs 1 0 0 ? .l h c s cn r i l i t r n t s r n r u f d c r o ub so | n b i n !c n l r i f r i s ni n A l g i c l \ . | f c n c h r u r do t h c l rnd huIrchcd [u(,pcu| i]rtciligcnco c l ' l i . i r l s c o n t i n u c[ , w o n y . r b o u l l h c p o l c n l i r l ] i n '

Polilieirl n(l sccurily rnrl!sls $e|lj \lo$ lo gfrsp how polilicirl lcfrori\m.\'iol.nr!'dif.etcdirglinslit civitixlr nlrvemtntsinclinctlto Lrse lo lrchievc |ofuhlior folitirxl sorl\. couldlhfi!c in nislfxntrnd displLtccd popLrl.lriln\. Inrcfnxtidrllnrobilit] hccrnrcr kcv ltrlurc 01 rls!nrnrelfic pilling oretcchnologicall!, irdlrnccdrnd po\\erlirlnrt iint siltc\ conllicls xs il mo\t'rncnts. Al Qeich c\cmplitiessuch thr(]xls. Lrgrinsl ir)sufgerrl in I \!nf ugrinn ensrged r(mstiturrs a llcl\!ofkol hrgcll lnigfarl rnilitarlts lhe $/est(Ro).l00li Tifnran,100.+).

migrationand security of the international Keydimensions nexus

Trrdilionrlly. scclrfityhl|.\beeDlicwcd rhrcughthe pfism ol stdlesccufity. ha\,csoughlto conceptulize whal can be As r fesull,irl.ldvely te\\' scholrus secufityne\us (Miller. 2000;Tirlnan.200'l). Ho\t telmedthe migr ti()lrL1nd andis inclusircofhuman ofsecufityconccnsis inuchbrorder, e!er.drescopc Intemdi()rx1irig: antsolien sufer irsecu sccuritt (Pokumd Crrlalrl. 199E). riLylindccd.thei| insecurit)shouldbc a mrlor tocu\ ol secuity studics.

212 TheAgeofMigrdtion Much migration from thc Southis ddven by the lack of humansecu ty jn impovedshment, rightsand violence, lackot'human tlat Iindsexprcssion islinked andeconom ic underdevelopment social weakstates. Suchpolitical, of globalinequality condition andthe present to histories ot'colonialism systems to crcate legalmigration (see areunable 3). Wherestatcs Chapter condito move uDder are also fbrced labour, many migrants for necessar-y labour and trafficking, bonded insecurity. Smuggling, tionsof considerable Even rnillions ofmigrantsrights are the fate of 1rckofhurnanandwofter status and be vulnerable residence legalmigranlsmay havern insecure racist violence. Sometimcs discrimination and exploitation, to cconomic to thc as happened push migrants into illegality, can existiDg legalchaneies people ofthe pdzir,'r The frequent insecurity in thc 1990s. in France salrr yet in discussions ol statesecurity' is oftenlorgotten of poorercountrjes linked. arcclosely thetwo phenomena threats. such migrcnt insecurityis linkcd to pe.ceived Frequently, and cultural.socioeconomic whichcan be dividedinto threecategories: of thrert, the perception 2005).The lirst perceived poliliorl (Lucassen, the culturul populations as chBllenging rlligrant.rndmigraDt-brckground mostto migrantinsecurilySuchperceptions slntusquo.may oonlributc to the andhave contributed duringthe 1980s in Europe wcrccomrnonplace 2007.1 of migrationpolicies (Messina, securitizalion forcmcntioned 'Hisp4nic' alsobeenviewed migmnts to the USAhave Mxican andother (Huntington, the religbus 2004). Oftentimes, posing lhreat a cultural as pelceived large itl practiccs migrants loom of idcntity and linguistic perception ol-migrant perccived threul,lhe second ExAmples ofthe thrcats. include Italiansi$ Third RePublic threats, 1|-s sociocconomic DoDulalions Asia. Syroof Southeasl in much Frunce.elhnic Chinesediasporas populations and other inWestAfrica,andChechen conmunities I-ebancse post-Soviet LiNlly, thethird Russian Fedcration in the fromtheCaucasus politically potentially disloyal perceptions of migrants as pefoeived thrcat, residing populations suchas Palestinians )nigrant includes or subversive. Arabia living in SaDdi in Kuwait prior to the lirs1Culf War,Yemenites political juncturc. of suspected in Indonesia ethnicChinese rt thc same andethn ic Russian stChinain the 1960s muni subversion onbehalfof Com of the SovieI aftcr the collapse in Ballic Republics populatbns stranded Unbn. )nigrationto nationalidentity thrcatsoI inlernational Thc perceived are an imporlantirspcct of culturulcohesiveness and the mainteniLnce statc posed migmtionto the sovercign by intentational of the challcnges of states, the autonomy (Adamson, migration affects 2006).International fanspiringwithin prerogafive of controloverall matters their sovercign the terrjtory of the stale, and tle capacityof statesto implementpublic internafional 2006).Alternatively, laws(Adamson, policies andto enforce migntion can also increasestate power Intemational miSration oiien to viewed as indispensable econo ic growthandis frequently tacililates a state'seconomicwellbeing.Influxes of migrantsoften slow population

MitrtrtiL) tntl Secutit\ 213 conLfrctioli and thc agcing of popL atioDs.which crn adlerselv affccl nan,"'m cconomicpertbrnrnce Llndovenll sratesecurill. Additronalll', irnrnigrnnts scrve rs soldier\. .rnd intelligeDcerervices tcqucntl-,' tup If efleltive public innnigranr cripcltisc and knon4edgeof lxngulLges. policiesarc pursuc.l. frlhef th.ln intcrnaiional migratior cnn enh.Lnce 2004j:I85i. dctact tio1n \1alepo$'ef(Ad.rnrs()n. A \trte s ilnmisratior policicscan rlsLrcontribute to its \olj po$er'. lrithoul irs ibiljiv rc rchieve Ii)reigr policy ancl security {rbicctivcs Nlc \ic$s thc fccoufscto l11ilitifl or economicnerns ol lersu.rsion. stndyinsin thc LISA rs illl imporllllt lrrgc bod) ol fof!'ign students soufceof soll lo!\'cf (Nyc. 100-1). Similr v. trerlmentol ilnnligfinls nrttcr li)l crn .Lfftrt a stlte s fcprlllion rbroad.ir uol iirconsequenli.rl 'smll-t jnllucnceth 1 rfises ir'() invesliIg in dipl(nn.Lc\' l0d Io!!cr'. glob.rl stat,:s to addrcss challc|gcs(Cf.rsl()birl toods thathetlerenal.le Att.rcks ufof on Tef|'(r'ist hlrn.rnd Poku.l{)00: N.rtionll Conrnrlssior rhii Llnircd Srlrcs.100.1). InLenrirti(nhl rriSfrlion hrt\ rls{) hLr(l.L rlsnili(rnt iIrpncL on lhc rrn inLcfrcl$,ilh chrnging nnturr ol violcnl conllirl\ MiSfrlion l'lows ()rhrr lrclors lo lonrcnl !iol(nt c() llicL ir thfcc wrtls: by pfovi(ling ntiL conllicl\,hy ircililrling nrlworksol orgrnrzc(l fcs{)Lrrr.\ LIrl lircl ilrl':l \cr!rn! r(nrdllils lir intcrnutirr ul lcflnisrn (AdLlnrs(nr. crirrrcarrdbJ irs r o | l r n r u r r i l io cls l e nt n o ! i d cl i n l I l i l 0 6 : l 9 { ) l 9 l ) . i V i ! f r n l i l n dd i r \ p o r i r L:ialaiLl:rnrlfcrfuils lo groufs flrga!rd irl forrlliclsi0 lhcir htnnrLul't. in Wrsl.rn liIot)c ll|rdN{rflh ,^rn.ncir Koso!l|| All)irrjrn r('rnnrrnilics nrLrrh ol lhc linulrcirrg xn(i Irur) rtrruilt lin lhc liif rnstll|rr]j. IrrNiLtLrl ongugcd in Ircr!t liglrl Kos(^'o l-rbrrrti(nr Anr) \rhi(h. h! lhe lirlc l(l()0s. in! wirh Scr{)irn lixcc\ iD lhc lin'mer Sufiir. fcpublicwhith rcfcdcd tii lxruil Sri I-.rnkuns in Eurl)fe.Clnrih. inLlrpcn(l.nee in l00li. SimiLrfh-. hrLvr ridcl nlldrtri]ltcd ihc TirnrilTiScri insuff.rli(nr ludiirln(lclse\r'hcfc ln Sri LrnLr. ol lnost slrilcs Sirrec1990.the lirrign lud l)ulio|nl sccufitypolieics thL'conlbrting of hurllanlr llirkiDg iroLLnd the \u)dLlhrvc prioritizccl insl.Lrrce\. In sonrc xndorhcrlyfcsol tfrn\nrti( rlcrir)rc(\ccChaplcr'li). (rfltxDizrrious lic$ed.rs engrsingin lcffofi\n. s ch as lhc PKK. hl\'c \ilnrlt neousl)bc('rr irvolvcdir hufian tf.rlli.king.Othefsuth irrgrrliTil in \lfucsrnd .l ns \n1uggling. Whilc the gfo\\'ins tiors hr\'cbccocngaee(l \inLe9/l I of inlclnrlional misfiLtit)n awrrcrL-ss of rhesecufit!Llinrensions polic)mersures. il should bc obvious lhrt hr\ sonerilncs lcd 1oreslrictive policics hlend\ ol'public cnhauce kinds of nligrition rnd certilir cerlxin secufit!. fathcf than urldcrmire it Stmng slatesc prble ol inplcr cntillg flrhli. policics successlullyand enfbfcing l ws rrc Lr.\l posiliLnledto hlrness the fo\ler ol intcrnatioDrl migfaiio (Adrlnson. 2006: 199). h is also clear thilt mrny slillcs. cspccially in Eurofe, afe felinquishol their L1utonom,a_ in ordef to betlef lnlLinlainthe.1bi1ilyto ing elenrents regulite thc Dovenrert of Soods.capilrl. peolrlcrnd iclcasacrosshofdef\ {\ee Ch.rprer\8 and l2). Suchmersureshxve enhlnceclstrle po\\,crrath!1'

214 TheAgeof MiSnttion by are olientimesthreatened than diminjshedit. Alternatively,weakstates issues security migration-related inlernational

lmmigrantand lmmigrant-background security Muslims and transatlantlc

pertaining to theincorporationofMuslimimmigrants Since 9/l I. questions geostraleglc hnveassumed and their offspringin Westemdemocracies pe aslhelhird lo trrr in 200b relerred heJring .ianinJJncc. A US Senare rnd rrticle' gooJ ol bools. number li;nL in lhe war on terrori'm rrndJ sinc arca transatlantic in the Islamicpopulations haveanalysed rcports 2001 . on Muslim scholarship Prior to 200t, there had been considerable immigrflntsand their offspring. Aside tiom areas likc the former populnli"ns ha\e re'idcd whcrclrrEcMuslrm an.l Bulgana Yug.llLvia are!lrc po\l-W'rrld in lhetran5irllJntlc rnosl Mu\liln:' tirr-mrnr renturie.. somewhal Franceconslitutes War ll imrnigrantsor thcir descendants. Republic to the putlerndue to the lact that the French ol an excepti6n indcAlgeriun until century nineleenth from the Algeria encomp0ss;d Muslim personsot Algerian many Upon indepcndcnce' pendence in t962. cilizentheirFren.h retaine.l France li\inq In melropolitrn Lr"ekcroun,l oi Algctirn lroops oi Frcnch f/'rr,(r'r. rhous.rn,l. tcnr,'t ,h,n.iurthcrm,,rcl lhe Ho\ e\cl.during tt' rrordreFrisijls ie,l tu Fran'e birlker.rund, MLislinr porpriol Muslin-backgrcund 1914, many to and cvcn interwa|oerilod. in melrcpoliltln tbr empk)ymcnt wererecruited AlSeria sonsfroln French populalion in inte{war Muslim Alglian Thc France. and sonrescttled. (Roscnberg, threat a sccurity was widcly viewedas constituting F-rance 2006). War II migmtiol of MuslimsIo the For fie nrostpart, post-World ID and 1980s' problem udil the 1970s as a security Westwasnot viewed were worken tbreign andseasonal Muslimguestworkels mostinstances. The repatriate who wouldeventually residents to be temporary assumed migranls to ihc patternas Conmonweallh an exception UK constituted Postwar Fnncepursucd couldsettle. andelsewhcre fron India.Pakistan of imrnigrants settlement policy.welcoming immigration a two-prcnged fiom workers foreign slates like Ilaly butregarding frrrmnearb!European Algeria and'after1962' Tu*ey, Tunisia IikeMorocco, sfates Islamic larselv By the 1970s, 1975). iate(Tap;nos' whowouldrepatt migrants asiernporary policies hadunravelled. worker foreign temporary the supposedly activein West_ move)nents whlie therewcre Islamicfundamentalist as posingmuchot a ern Europein the l9?0s,they werenot perceived to in Iran in 1979began of the IslamicRevolulion threat.Tie success 'ecular-rrflenled [urke]. percepllon. Arrb.trtct;n,l tn manl lhirt chrnAe $hich mo\ementc lundrmenlalrst b) lslamic fehlhrerlened sor.inmen'i

Miglation and Securiti 215 came to be viewed by viewed them as illegitimate. Such governments 'near enemy' some of the more radical Islamic fundamentalistsas the fhat had to be ovelthrown and replacedwith truly Islamic governance (Gerges,2005). Thus, by the 1980s,the growth of Islamic fundamentalismcame to of St'rian affect the transatlanticarea in a va ety of ways A massacre Many fundamentalists. of Syrian brutal rcplession army cadetsled to the l$aeli invasion The refugees in Germany of the survivors endedup as of Lebanonin 1982prorpted Imnian intelventionin the conflict and the

andS(utiry 215 MigratiLn

canre lo be rie\\cd b) licwed them as illegitimate. Such governnrents as the near eneln!' fun,:lalnentalisls Idamic morc riLdicttl ol the sone truly lslamic gorctnance wilh irDtl replrced overthro\\'n hr.l to be thai (Ccrges.2005). Thus, hl thc 1980\. thc gro$ th of Ishmic lunda'nentrlism cirrrc io ol Syfiln A nlassncre allect the transrtlantic rrea in a vafiet] of war_s. l\4an,v lirndanrentalists of Syfi.ln bnrlal rePfession lnn! cidets led 1othe Ts|aeli in\'asiott Thc in Ccrm.rny rs rcIugees ofthe survivors endcd up in lhc conflicttrndlhe pron4xeLl hanianintefvcntion o[ Lcbrnonnl 19S2 Lud Ffench lrcops Anlcficln P.Lrt) ol God. thc crcation ol llczbollLLhForce in l98l the N'lLrltinrtronLll ns of to lhc Beirul ifen Llcploved P.rrt to hale bccr glievous thought bomb attncks i suicide losses slrilifcd bclr'cen $'ar Al-ghLuislrn Thc in bv Herbollllh or its illlics. ncl.l)ctfatc{l Atghanis Mujahadeen ils Al.shrn rllies irnd the ihc'sovier LlnionLrnd Muslrn)!'oluntccfs. thc Sovict\.belall lo ttrnijt|on-Al.1rhrn \rho li)ught ilrcr' This lrlilfkcdthc gcn\onrc oi \!h(nn ctme lronl the tritllsilthnti. A1 Qtt(ll. $'hichOliverRov hls hhcllcd rsis ol $4ut woul(llaterbccornc (lto]. l(X)l) A LIS lcd toLrli Wcstcfrrnr(n'.nrcnl irs .r trt(kJl iD.Lntly Lrnd nidc(llh' trrrnc.l PlkislLrrr lnLtSrutli r\r:rbill. inriLrdir)g ll(nr('l slrLtcs. lhc (lcltll ol Lh. So!itl Llnionin Ai.!htrnislirrr.lht Iinl{,\\'ing lvhrlrLlrrdccn. \\orrld hclf crcirlclhc T li irgcrrcl I>rkislrnilnlu Scrvirfs irrl.lligcrrc(j rclir!.cs in lirlislln' lnr()rgsl thc,\1.lhrrni h.n!ily rtc|uitctl blr. uhich hitrl\ci1]jdc(nrtrol litlibrrl llv l()9ar. lhc solditrs. ol rclugLt rrsc nI)olhcf 01Al-qhlnrstllrr olor rn(^1 'I'hc ol lhc World Iirtic ( cr'l'r In |cft.lrirtor\ 01 lhe l99l bornbing to (hc USA lrr rclfu\|rrr. lh' wcrc mrinly A b i|rrrriglants N,lLrlrhnlrirn llltl.lshr)LrlilhlvcgrlvrrlrizctlgrcltcralarrttanLlstn)nscfeoLrrrlrrmenstr lcrfofrsrn ()l l(]ilefirl in thc USA irr!csligrLling cornrDission\ r\ srerfssi()rr wrrrlrrlgs bLll the necdecl. rrc|c $,rfn.d thirl rdilitiorrllcourltc|nrcasur'cs -lcrfdis( (nr Allircks ujr(m ( nrissii)n Cbm \\iffc hfsely nol hecd.rl NiLtion.ll (he llfrl LIS rn nc\t nrillenniuln. 100+).On lhe elc of rhe Llnitirl.Sratcs. Algellllr Nn of Ahl)lcd Resslln\. lhc rcrvotl\llcss cusl(nrsrqentdctccteLl Croup menbcf livirg irl C rnrd.l, rvhophnlrcdl() rrltlck Ar|ned lsL.lmic Lri US ofiiciirlslcrrcd iL rrrti Los Angclcsairpoll. By 1001.a nunrbcr stfophicrttrck by Al-Qiidir upon i larget or tllfgels iD lhc IISA. blll trilc!t 2008). il (Shenorr. 10pfevcnt F(rllowrngthe LIS led inlasim ol l raq ir 20()1.lr! ndrcd\. il ootthousand\. 10light the USA i n 1r q rnd In r)' of Elrrofc n Mudims hive volunleefed h.Lvc rcceived Thousuds ofEufopeanN4uslims hrve dicd of becnc.rptured. nihLtrrytrririig in f.l ps in the Middle ErlslandNorlh Africa (MENA) 1008) The lcrr'orrst .rDdhave \ubscquentl)rctluned to Eul1)pe(Scheuer, pliLnned afiacksthwa[ed altrcks in Nhdrid and Lortdonxnd thc nunrerous lhousrndsof det.riDed who h.1vc policc and \ccurity agencics. by Eur-(rpcall grounds for concerr pro\'idc ample 2001. since Mu\lillrs rlldica] su\peclcd rts rnd ninds for lhe be 1\lruggle Thcre is in tsurope. N{usli1ns ebout jn thirt e!idcnce suggesls prcponderrnce of Wesl. but the the ol Muslims

216 TheAge of Migration Al-Qaida-style radicalism holds little appealfor the vast maiority of Muslimsin thetransatlantic a.eaThe profiles populations alrdhistories of Islarnic in Norlh America and Europe arequitediveryentMuslims living in NorlhAnrerica aregenerally prosperous more andwelleducatedthan Muslims in Europe, manyofwhorn wererecruited as unskilledlabour(CSIS2006).Howeverevenwithin Western Europc, Muslimpopulatioos typicallyarehighly heterogeneous. MuslimsofTurkishbackground, tbr example, arc very diverse. Therearc Sunnis andAlevis(o|thodox Muslimsanda non-orthodox Shiitcoffshool respectively), ff well as ethnicKurdsandTurks.Many TurksandKurds arc quitesecular in orientation. 11 is lrue that manyMuslim irnmigrants andthei r descendan tscontiont incorporation b{rriersinhousiDg, education and employment and endure prejudice and racism.However, the gist of lhc hugcbodyof socialscience rcsearch on the incorpor'ation of Muslirn immigrants and theiroffspringsuggests that mostare slowlyincorporating. muchlike previous waves of immigrLrtion in the transallantic space thnthave been viewed asproblematic or threatening in thcpast(Lucassen. 2005: also sce Chaptcn l0 rnd 11). Pcrhapsthe best analysisof largely MENA-backgrcund migrant popuLations in Europeboth priff rc and alter 9/ll hasbeenconducted in Fftrnce. One well known study, conducted by MichdleTribalar, found quite conlftrsting evidence aboutth stateof incorporation of vtrrious national-origin communilies l'romthe MENA area(Tribalat.1995). The cvidencc revealcd the widesprend use,ol Frcnchin nrigrant households and dccreusing useof Arabic and other molher()ngues. Furthermotc, the cvidence showd r deoline in traditional arrrnged mArriages, a tising intermarrirge ratewith French cidzens andsocialpractices, suchasyouth datingand cohabitation wilh Frenchcitizens, that suggested an overall paltcn ol-inrproving incorporation, if no!assimilation. Them^jorproblrn arcaswcre high unernphyment. perccived discrimin$ionand educationalproblcms. Tribalat alsofoundthatsome conmunities did no1fir the generirl p tern.Persons ofAlgcrianbackground tended to bc lcssreligious and mole secular than persons oI Moroccan background. Furthennorc, the Turkishconmunityin France exhibited a lowerprocliviryo French usagcat hone, inleracted lesswith Frenchsocielyand virtually never intennarried with Frcnch cilizensTribalat's studymade obvious thedanger of overgeDeralization with respecr to theindedibly heterogeneous populations MENA background ot France. to saynothingol therestof Europe or theWcst.B u1 herkeyinsight. thatFrancc's Muslins wereincorporating andbecoming Frerchlike earlierwaves ofimmi grants to France, l gelyagreed with the insights ol othersocialscientists. France's bp expertson radicalIslam, Cilles Kepel and Olivier Roy, doubl thatextremists will find muchsupport in immigrant-background populations in Europe, althoughKepelcriticizedBritish tolerarion of radicalMuslimsin the Londonarea(Kepcl,2002,2005;Roy,2003).Their assessments appear bomeoul by reseiLrch on publicopinionin theMiddle E.rstandNorth Africa

Migrutiot) atltl Se ti\

211

sctnt md other predominrntl) Muslim areasof the world. r'hich e\,idencc (Esposito \upportfor tel.lorism andMogahed. 2007). It is dilllcuh to chrraclerize the gisl ol the burgconing socialscicrcc literatufeconcerned \! ith incofpofrtion ol migrlLnCh.Lckgr ound (cspeciall) pfoces\es in Eurcpe.IncofpofatioD xfe compler. Muslin) populations ScholarslblloN diYcNc approrchcsand rhe evidenceapperrsnixcd and varinbietiom one countfy b the next. The attacksof 9/l I and in Madfid ttnd London halc had rhc cffcct of translorlning thc dccadcsold. indccd centurics old, queslionof lnigr.rnl ircoryor.rlior in WeslcrncouDlricsirrlo .rDilnpor t.rnL secuily issue. Dotonly in Europebul LLlso in Nol1hArncricn rnd Austfalir.ln recenL lnuch hrs lreen writlen rbout lhe susccpli ]errs likeliilood. of lnigrant Muslirn and ln iSrunt-hackgr ound bility.indeed the (Ycbf. MuiliIn nrobilization into lclrofislmovcrncnls 2005:tsrrvcr. 2006: Philips. 2006:Bcflinski. 2007).For lhc mostpirrt.suchrrticlcsrnd books pcft.rining h.rsed Lrpon social science liteftriures nppciu oltcn i|llldequ.Ltel)r ro lnlgr'irnr lncofPofirlrcn. A nrore me.rsufed Lrn.rl)sis $'ouklbegin u,ithrheacknowlcdgcnrcnl lhrl afe hishly vulnefrbleto the hrvoc $fcrkcd b] illl dcvclotc.lcolrntfies vulDcfNbilily is hcighlcncd violcnccprrrnc by thc pcrmcibilit), rrrLqrs.'lhis () ol dcvclo}'(l itrLlLis lo lniSftrti()n rLrnging Irom illcgrl nrigrrlir)rr hunrrrrtrrllir[inS. Mole hroadlypul. irs llobcrl C(x)pclhls irlucLl. thc lcy sr:curity thfcrLl to dcvclopcri courlricsin lhc lwcrrlylifst ccnlur! is lir)rnliriledof litiling\litlcsc\lcmrl lo lhc (lcvclopc(l dinndcr crnanirli0{ .ounlfics(('(x)pcr. l00l). I hr lcfy r{)n(iilir)ns cornlucive 1olhc crncf!.nec ol ler.Irnisl lhr.rLts rrc rlso lhoseconrlucivc l{) nr.rss irsylu|lr scelirrls;rrrl hunr n lftl{irki|9. In lh. Dot sr fcccnt plst. r\tfcnrc icllisl gfoups l(nkcd to nrigiilt popLrlnlioos lof nlirsssulp{n1 bu( gencfrll! did not succce(lin its l'hcrc is littlc rcrsonnot ro fxpcct lhrt pxtl!'rD to hokl illo nr(rbili/ull(n. gclcfllljoll the twent)-lirslcclltury.Thc llc\! ol tcrfo|is{orltil|riz.llirnrs iD rlLfrctingthc supporl of liin{c of thc rlliglaut hls thushf sucrcedcd popuhlioD. The Mrdrid rDd LondoD boNbings a0d migr.rnl backgfound posedbv this liinsc. But the kcy of the thfe.Ll irllcsl1o the sefiousnes\ slfategy involveskno$ ing who is rnd li) rlly succcsslil coLlnlcftefr'Lrrisnr Thc grur1bulk of rigraut and nligranl bilckprounrl who is not rhe cnenr),. populrtions shouldrot be conslrued rs the enemy.Sccn in thi\ Iighl. 01 lnigfLrntrDd migrurt-brckgroundpopulations successful inc.ofpofalion in wesrcm coul1lricsioolns as a geostratcgic inper ive in the wilf (nr

Migration,security and the Waron Terrorism

What hr! beenterned the Wrr on Tcnorislrrby drc CeorgeW Bush Adninisrmtiou involves calculated exaggeuti(rr rnd misledding After largel! ignoing rhc ttucat posedby Al Qaidain simplitication.

218 TheAge of Migrdtion its first months in oflice- the Administration then declarcd a war and 2008).In doing so, Iikenedit to WorldWar IT (Clal*e. 2004;Shenon, the thrcatposedby radicalMuslimsat exaggerated the Administration of Islamicfundamentalist a timc whenoverallsuppofifor achievement andmiinstream goals haddeclined significantly th oughpoliticalviolencc violence whileembracing hadrejected moveDrents Islamic lundarnentalisl that This is not to suggest 2005;Roy, 1994). iefornr(Gerges, incremental in 2001 against Al-Qaidaand ths Talibanin Afgh^nistan US retaliation on theconlrafr'. unwaffanted: wassonrehow a classic errorin councommitted simultaneously The Administrxlion lo terrorist by nisidcntifyingthe enemyand overrcacting terterrorism creating the tcrroristenemy, specifying It did so by incorrectly outra:es. or nothing to global threats that had little of terrcrist amalgamation an irnd contacts between well known ties although there are do with reirlity, the lrish between in lerrorism, say.firr examplc, that engage movenrenls Revolution Forces of the Columbian Arnly and the Arnred Rcpublican (FARC)in SouthAmcrica.It thencompoundcd the errorby linking the using that and an unwarranted governnrent of Iraq t() Al-Qaidaandthen pretext a to invlde Iraq destruction as weapons of ntass claimconcerning to the campaign The invasionol lraq proved counterproductive (Ricks, in Aighanistan Al-Qaidaand its allics.like the Taliban. against latersupported the Usled attackon Afghanist4n. 2007).Ncverthele$$. TalibanandAlQaida fbrcesin b.rdlydamagcd by a NATO deployment, withoulcliminatingthem (Miller,200?). By 2007.Taliban Afghanistan wercresurgent, in partduem theabilityofAlQaida ti)rces in Afghanistarr as t ol-Pakistan to uselrontierareas like the Taliban, and confcderates. Thus,by 2008,Al-Qaida to regroup, trainandrecruit. de thctosanctuary of striking the far enemy'as it still capable remained a very rcal tbreat. 2001. hadon ll Scptcmber of the attackin playedsomrole in the mounting AlQaida probably in Londonin 2005 and 2007,although Madrid in 2004 and the attacks but inspired by were ilili,rtly viewed as home_gmwn these all,Lcks French andSpanish (Bcnjamin 2005). Tnearly2008, andSimon, Al Qaida authorities thwarfeda plannedscies of attacksin WesternEurope. general in Spain. Mostofthe elections timedagainto precede apparently arived had recenlly several of whom Pakistani migrants, suspccts were most important Spain's of Waziristan in Pakistan frcm the frontierarea '... thejihadi thrcatfrom Pakistan magistatecommented, antiterrcdsm is all ir the biggest eDleqingthreatwe are facing in Europc.Pakistan they are being exported fbrjihadists, and ideological andtraininghotbed of Delbnce herc' (Scolianoet al., 200i1)-Hence,the US Secretary in AfShanistan directly of the war correctlyclaimedthat the outcome (Shanker However, his Kulish, 2008) and security affectedEuropean ',., tlis movement to fractureand destroy lbr Eurcpeals exhortation reduceits nbility to strikegloballyand in its infancy- to permanently the appeared to ignore its ideology' again whiledeflating catastrophically,

Migrdtionarul SeL rit\

219

the rise and ebb of ritdiclllIslam whichhavewitnessed sevcral decades (Roy.1994; 2005). Gerges, proved and Afghanistan in Pakis&In devek)pments While ulrloward poscd the threal inpentive to assess accuutcly it remained unscttling. Isl.lnic by most vidence is cordernned by Al Qaidaandits allies.Thejr and the vrst majority of Muslims aroundthe world. fundamentalists in ll fringe movernent includingMuslimsin thc West.They constitute likc the Islamicpoliticsthat haslittle or nothjngto do with movemenls Hamtlsor Fatah Al-Qaidaslokes Hezbollah or the P lestinian Lcbanese by Muslilns.But the thr( arc widely sh.Lred pcrceptir s of grievance prcgrcss on with Al-Qrida only impedes like H:rmas conflatiDol groups that ol .l Paiestinian strte crcation issuc. thelongoverdue :rnali important per'ceplions of Srievance. those couldassuage linked to Al Qaida can It femainshighly unlikely that movements like Pakistan, Algeriaor of tl country victory. thctakeover strategic achieve cxpcHowcver. a veterrnformerCIA rnalystwith extensive Afghanistan. that lhe USA rnd its allieswill losc hasprcdicted rience on Atghrnistan 2004,20{)8) Consolidation and Il.rq (Schcucr. the warsin Afghanistan thitt arcato attrck of Al-Q idr controlovertny givena.eawouldexPose Muslim Fundamcntalisl the US military. ilvailable tu all thc Derns by period to detbat The hilure werc crushed. in the 197(l-2000 insuflectioDs 'the Dcar parl due to US and Al8eria. in reginres in Egypt eremy. suchas () their modcnte Islanric lundamcntnlisls most $sistance,led andFrnch lhf slikes agrinst thc Al-Qaida's politicsrnd t()eschcw nnedstrugglc. by whal they were. acts ofdesperation lin eneny thusnecd10be seen rnuch suppo liorll fbr nrcbilizing with limitedpruspccts liingc molenrent starkly contusting have nlrde Again.otherirnllysts Muslimsanywhele. Islam in lhe prcgrcss of radical conccrning lhe cspecially assessnents. where radicalizcd andBangladesh, Nigcria, Thitiland SomuJia. Ctucasus. rs a new and hnveemerged forl11cr migrantworkersin the CDlf states 2008) destbilizingtactor(sccScheuer. secudty of US foreignandnational course rhccounterproductive EveD Al-Qaida's long-term improved policysiicc 2002h s l1otfundaDrenlally provideDlial for Al-Qaida almost prospects. Thc invasbnol lraq appeared rnd clsewhefe in Europe eflectuponMuslirns rnd hasbadr radicalizing politicsof Al-Qaida (Gerges, the violentandrctrograde 2005).However, (Miller.2007). should Evcn theTaliban oblivion doomit to political largely with Al-Qaida. not be confiated on the thre.rt cooperatil)n andinternational vigilance Hcnce,measurcd lbr sonre posedby Al-Qaidaaod its allieswill be required of tcrrorism pace ofbilaferal. regional time.It will rcmaina priorityin theaccelerating and secuintemational migration conceming diplomacy and multilateral lhe saliency on 9/11did havethc effectof heightening rity. Thc attacks in forignpolicy and internatjonal and securilyconcerns of miSratioD ratherthall will likely endure while belafcd, And that salicncy, relations. fite. of Al-Qaida s irrespcctive diminish

220 The Ageof Migrdrion

migrationand securio/ Conclusions: in the age of migration

with the plLst ^nd discontinuilies continuities A11epochsinvol\,e between pervasivencss perceived conneciions of and The cenlrality War prcsent from thc Cold the ela secudty demarcate migrationaDd not llgure migration did rightly or wrongly, cra in $4rich,whethef of lhc certainfeatures Ncvertheless. th;nking. ccntrallyin sccurity p?rst. ilnd Ethnic cleansing ol lhc distant currcnt epochecho dramas such age of migration, bu1 staincd the hLrnantfafficking havedeeply precedcnt. consciousness Near-global without ample aren()1 tragedies al-fronts to intolerable constilute that the phenomcna ard consensus pl|.\l. It remaiDs huDan fights difterenlilte thc cuftent era from tbe globalconsciousDess the emcrgent wbether far frorn clcar.howcver. hllnran rights and democraticvalueswill prove dulnblc concerning 2001) (Shaw. 2000t Haber .rsandPensky. of migratit aDdsccurity and apPreciation Crowingundcrstanding and s mostPowerful thatthe world includc the lalizrlion connections chaos suffcring. to mllss crnnolaffbrdto be indiffcrent wealthiest nations lcadeN ilppeared Europenn extfernism in dishnt pl&ccs. rnd political in part countcrpilfts. to gfuspthis rnorercadilythtn theirAmerican thnl thc to thc MENA. which means s pr'oxinrily becausc of Europc afl'cctEulr)pe L)fconllictsthereoltcn inrn)ediulely hunrilnconscquences in turn. divergenccs. arrivrls. Such Erropen-Anrcicirn thr rghrclugcc thc cohesi(D ol thc key securityiNtitution ol lhc postCold thre teDed (NATO)(Kup Treuty Orgarization theNo h A(lrntic Warcra,namely 2005). I998r Lindbelg. chrn.

Guideto further reading

aboutmigralion of scholarship outpour'ir1g TherehasbcenI fernarkablc Weincr (1993), worts included 2002. Kcy earlier security since and (1998)' (2001). (1993), Poku and Grahau nd Ucarer Lyolr wacveret al. (2001) Notable recenl (2000) and Russell andWeiner GrahanandPoku (2005), Freednan (200,1, 2006), Alexsecv Adamson include contibDtioos (20{)6), (2005). Tirman(2004)andGuild Lucassen (200.+), Kleinschmidt (2005). aDd vanSelm Benjamin andSirron(2005), seeCSIS(2006), on Muslins ir Europe, (2002,2004). (2002), (2004), Kepel Haddad Cesari(2004),Dederian (2003.200'1) (2006), (2005).Roy andKlausen Leiken Laurence andVtissc populations see of tlansnitlional (2005). security implications On complex (2003), (2003). Silverstein Ogelman Argun (2003).Ostegaard-Nielsen (2006). (2004)llndRosenberg

ChapterI O

and Minorities Migrants in the LabourForce

Peopie nigratc for nrany reasons.Despite recenl govcrnnent Policies li)cusingon econonlicmiSration.most miglalion to OECD countics is nol Thc larges!enlry catcgorylor nlirny spccificall) lin economicpurposes. comc to seekreluge countficsis I nily rcunion.h addilion.largcDurnbers while olhcrs move to enhancelhcir cduc.tli(nr' fronr war and persccution. caseol mob;lity in the age of lnigrationis also lerding The increrscd 1(l mofe movemcrl for narriage. lctilcnlcnt or sinlply in scafch ()1new li)rexplicilly cconolnic proportim ofnrigranls do Inove BLrt lLIrgc lilestylcs. rersons: in scafch ol highcr incontes, hetler cmployrnent chanccs or has Lrn prolbssion l iLdvInccmcnt. Moreo!er.rll intcrn ti(nlll lni!lfatio,] consequenccs cituscs itDd andperccptionsol econunic cconornicdinrcnsion. Lrnd rcccivin hothmigrant-sc,rding in publicpolicy-naking wcighhe.LVily irrrd invcslnrcnts Sendirg counlrieskx)k t() fcrnilt.rnees. ing counlries. $hilc lbf ccononric by migftntsirstesources transler lechDology 3()wlh, iD nccti g with thc folc ol nrierfanls cornries fc conccfncd rccciving ndskills. dem nd lor LLrbour 'I'his and nlin(nilicsill on th0 positi(n ol lnigralrls ch.tptcr tbeuses of nliSrlltion lbr ol lhc costsand benelils Assessnrents thc labourlin-ce. (such hish of low-skillcd gloups es nigl nts lhelnsclvcs. soci.ll \jarious locrl workers.enploycrs and weltafe recipicrfs) are highly conlroversirl. and have bccome incleasingly politieiTed. Thc chaptef will Pro!ide but can only covcr'a small plrt of lhc to suchdebatcs, an intfoduclion conceDlratc or the situltion ol lower sk;lled lnigranh We conplex issucs. Highly skillednigratioi nccd economies. and their desccdantsin rdv in the sectionon hrain it wils coveled is not discus\edin dctail. because dririr or brair circulltion in Chapter3. we exploretheseissucslirst by looking at thcfactors thaLdrivc delnrnd for migrrDl labour in advrnced economies.and how lnigmnts nrect this demnd. The nexl scction presenlsinfomation on the work situationol' igrants, prying attcntionto both ibreign born workers thcnselves and lheir descendrnls:lhc second generation. Then we look briefiy at the disputc anong ecoiomists about whethcr immigration is good or b.rd' elamines the dynanics of A fufiher secti{rl1 fbr the recciving econ(nny. litbour market changc,and ljnks theseto lhe hew political ccononly' ol globalizalion and the social tnnsfbrnation of socielies in both Norlh and South.

22.1

222 TheAge of Migration

economies LabourdemandIn advanced

ftom poor to rich countiesmeefs It is otien s.ridthat labourmigration havetoo ,ilutualneecl\(seeCEC, 2005b;GCfM,2005). Poorcountries for their weakeconomies to employ, manyyounglabourmarketentrants have surplus workers. Richcountries, by contrasl. sothey'need'to export numbers of youngpeopleentering their labourmarkctsand decliniDg ofjobs. so they 'need'to importlrbour. cannot fill the growingnumbers In kr rcalizethal suchneeds arc sociallyconstructed. But it is important the historical andeconomic factors thatstimulale Chapter 3 we discussed with corresponding enligmtion from the South.Her we are concerned processes in theNorth. The 'need' for low-skilled labour in northem countrics is socially in certainsectorx. by thc poorwages, conditions nndsocialstatus construcled 'imm plays igration animportant rolein imprcvA European studyshowed that by nfltivesl efliciency. because some.iobs are.rvoided inglabou market jobs.hw-paidhouschold job!. low servjce dirty.difficultanddangeous jobs in seclors with in the informal sector of the economy, skillediobs fmning, roLd repairs and constuctjoD, sli)ng seasonal fluctuation, e.g. (Miinzet al.,2007i7) tourism-related services. hotel. restaulant andother local wofkers Tf the conditions and status of suchjobs wereimproved, while marginal emphyers mightgoout more willing to lakc them migbthe certain types of work would bccome The result rnight be that of business. economies in the South. Such and be relocated in lower-wage unviable, common since the 1970s in or'outsourcing has in fact been bflllhoing' prcduction has nroved where muoh of lhe been the manufactuing sector. economies. Agriculturcalso seerrsan obviorschoicc to new industrial productivity on theNAFTA is low Duringdebates for outsourcing. since that ir MexicanPrcsident Salinassuggesled TreaLy in $e early 1990s, produced Mexico 1() buy tomafocs in wouldbe betterfor US consumers than tdratoes producedby Mexicansin California (seeChaPter8). and local farm worke$ would However, bolh local farm employels and theyhavehad the political be hu by Doving pbductionoffshore, the pcnistence of the EU's this happening. This explains cloutto prevenl both of whicharc Policyand US farm subsidies, CommonAgricultural andhighlydamaging k) disadvantageous to consumers costlyto taxpaye$, agricDlturc in poorcountdes. therefore be analysing labour, we should Rather thana re?dfbr migrant a denuntl, which is put forward by powedul economicand political policies havercsponded to in receiving countries Government interesN. systems for recruitment and management eitherby creating this demand regularizing) legal foreignlabour,by lacitly permitting(andrometimes irregular employmcntof migrallts, or, often,by allowing a mix of regular migrlDtemployment. andirregular

Migruflts.o1iMi orities in the Labour Forte

223

Recognilion fblmigrantlabourinpostindustrial of lhedemand economies represents a shift in approach in recenlyean. As described in Chflprer 5. foreignlabourcmployment in Europe slagnated in or declined affer 1973 a period ol recession irndrestructuring. ManyEuropean countries adopted 'zeroimmigr.rtion policies, but wereunable to prevent familyrcunion and permanent seltlement. TheUSAch^nged its immigrrtionrulesin 1965. but did notexpect a signilicant increase in ent csfromnontradilional sources. However. the early 1990ssaw an upsurge of migBtion to developed countries, drivenby botheconomic andpoliticalfactors. The re ctionof policy-Drkers wasto tighten up national immigration to incrcase intefnational rcstfictions.rnd cooperation on bordercontrol. An (especially important reason for thisrcstdctiveness in Europe) wllsthetear thrttempotury migrants mjghtagajn turnillto newethnic minorities. There wii! dllo iinolherre$on. ln view ol increased demand lbr highly skilled jobs. governments pelxrnneland offshoring ot low-skilled believed that low skilledmigrant workcFwouldnotbeneeded in thefuture. Restrictive hbour nrigl tbn policies wereDraintained through the 1990s. Moreover. countrie!that had beenmaior sources Soutbefn European of migrant worke* in thc pastnowbccarnc importanl inrmigralir)n are:LsIn fcccn!yeaN therehas beena gradualshift in official vicws.An (2001). inrpoftant nrilestone wts the Siissnulh which Contntisrio,r Rr?r)r./ argued thrl Geflnuny hadk)ngsince become an ilnmjgration countfyand would nccdlo lelyon labour migration k) 6ll bothskilled andlers-skilled years in the luture. In Britain. alter nearly 30 without any serk)us .iobs econonric analysis ol-migratiul. theHoDre Ofiicepublished a reporl th.rt highlighted thepolentiul benelits ol labour nrigration et al.. 2001). {Glover Whdtledto fhese changesJ A nlajot?unotni( laLt r. wasthc rcalization that developcd count es could not export all low-skilled work to low-wagecountries.The rnanulircture of cars.computers and clolhingcouldbe shiftedto China, but Bruzil or Malaysia, the consnucti()n industry. hotelsand restaurants andhospitals hadto be where theircustomers lived. A mqot denotsfttphi. tbattotalfe ility rates Irclor wastherealization projections had fallcn sharply. Eurostat showthat thc population of thc EU25asa wholeis likely ro f'allby 1.5per centirorn457million iD 21X)4 to,{50n llion by 2050. However. thedecline is lbrecast to bemuchgrealer (9.6per cent). per cent)andthe A10 states, in Gennany Ituly (1J.9 which joined rheEU in 2004(11-7 per ccnr). Morc serious still is thedcclincin (15-64): wolkingagepopulation in 2005,67 percentof thepopulalion ol the EU25 wereof workingage,compared wilh 16per cenraged65 and popularion over. By 2050, a workingage of57 percentwiil have to support 65 andover(CEC,2005a: Annexe Tables I and2).As the 30 percentaged (CEC,2005a: European Commission argued Section 1.2): In the shortto mid-term,labourinrmigrationclln .. . positivelycontribute to tacklingthe effectsof this demogfiphicevolution and will prove

221 Th( Ag? oIMi!tutit

crucial to sntisfyi g cunent and future labour narkct nccds and thus ensureeconomicsustainability and grox,th. However.migration is likel] to rke only a snall co tribudon- sincc the .Lgeing would be exrrelnely imnigration levelsneededio fully counteract hrge. Moreo\,er.the demographicbcncfit of ilDmigration is a short ternl one.becruscimnigrant tertility behaviourtendsto trke on the prttems ol run. the hostsociet)in the krDg An ilnportant.!o.'rdl.&./(, defiveslrom the economicand denro-eraphic shifts. The propofti(nrof childfen rged 0-14 in the EU25 population is per cent in 2005 to I 3.4 pef cent in 2050 (CEC. pro]cctcdto f;Lllfrom 16..1 people.they !\ill expeci 2{){)5a. Annexe'lhblc 2). lf thcrc arc fewcr youmg bcttcr cducatioDal oppoftunities,rnd lew ol lhem wiil accepll^r-skilled jobs. Europcrn labour mrltet experts now lirnrcaslthat rranuil iobs in and rgriculturenr ! decline.but theris likely to bc a lranulacturing grrwlh in unnict delnandlof lorv skillcd scrviccworkcrs in househokl and careiobs(MLinz et rl.. 2(X)7: 9).

meets labourdemand How migration

Milfant lrbolrr marlc a cruciLrl contfihutior] t() the posl-wlr hoom iD ]'his r)lc in hbouf lbfcc dyn.rmics {,Lrs clucstl()rrfd advrnccrl eeonomies. 'l'hc ir) thc 1970s nd l9il0s. hul slf(mglyfclsscflcd liolrl thc 1990s. $('rkcfs incrclscdin OECD coLlntfics irvorirgc nunrhefol li)rcign'horn (rhc advlrccd industrirleountrics ol Iun)pc. Norrh ADlcfitja. OccNnir. .hprn rnd Kofc ) by 20 perecntlrun l{)l)l)11) 2005.B} l(X)5.lircign-bolr $,(nkcf\m de up nrbslrntirlshrlc ofthc llrbcnrf ibrce:25 in Austfrli rncl Switzcrlaud. l0 pcf eent iD C n da nd a()und 15 pef.enl in thc LISA. New Zerlancl.Austria anclCcr'mlry. Thc hgurc fbr othcr Weste r luropcall countrieswirs afound ll per.enl. The lnigrirnt shrrc wis lowcf oDl) in Japan(0.3 pef cent).Kofer (0.8 pef cenl).rndsolncCcnlruland Ersrcrr Europca collntfies (OECD, 2007: frll. gmwlh in OECD econonics. From 1995to 1005 thcrc wrs sustrined leadingto stnmgdem nd for hbour. ln thc USA. 16ntilllon new jobs rvere ol $'hich ocarly9 lrlillion (55pef cent)wefe lilled by lbreign-born creiLted. persons.Migrants nade up between one-lhird lnd llro lhirds of nerv employeesin mosl Westeln aod SouthernEufofean countfies. Due to dcnographic ct(ns the nunber' of nationals availabletbr employment rctually declined ir Celm.rny..rnd similar dccliiresare tbrecasllor othef all nakirs fic fuure contributionof migf.rnt\{,orkers Europeancountries. thc more importrD! (OECD. 2007:66). New innnigranls otien bring skill\ q,ith then: the old slcrcotype of the unskilled migrunt colnjl]g in to take thc least qualilied positions is no longer valicl (Col]ins. 2006; Portes and Rumb t. 2006: 67 68). ln Belgium. Luxe'nbourg- Sweden and Denmalt, over 40 per cent ol the to 2005 had tcrtiary education. employcdmigrantswho ufived liom 199-5

Migra t:t dnrl Minorities in the Labour Force

225

ln France thefigurewas35percentandin theNetherlands 30percent. In manycases, qualification prcfiles migmntworkers hadhigher thanlocalbor[ workers. Only in Southern European countries did bw-skil]edlabour (OECD, predominate migration 2007:67-68). But evenin Western Europe migrants wereimpo antto en,ployers for low-skilledjobs. Forexamplc, a study oI UK employen foundthatmigrants werean importance source of less-qualilied labourin agriculturc; hotels and catering; administmtion, business and management; and Jinance. In somecascs.cmpioyemprcferredthem b loc:rls because they werc 'morc rcliablc.motivated and commit(ed', and 'moreprepared to work longer 'work andflexible hours'and harder'thandomestic worke$(Illstitute for Employment Studies et a1., 2006:iv).

Migrantsin the labourmarket

There arc many ways of dcscribingand assessing lnbour mx.ket perloflnance, Here weconcenlrate onsecloral andoccupational distribution. Nremployment andselt-employment.

generation Themigrant
'Sectoral distribution' refersto the induslries in which Inismntswork. r,\f Frequenrjnh. for migrrnr menin the 1970! wcre minurl sorLin tir. ir\. on buitdingsites,or in low-skillcdscrvices suchas garbage colleclioll (especially andstrect clcaninS. Womcn werealso10be li)undin factories lextiles andclothing, engineering andtircdprocessing) andinsefliccssuch ascleaning andhcalth. Today migrants canbefoundrightacrcss theecon- zlseclor cnny, However, they remainoverrepresented in manufactuing descrted by nany nntionals. In ltaly,Cermany, Finland andAustrio. atleast onc in five foreign-born workers is in manulacturing; in Japan the ligure is 54 percenl.Migranlwor'ker s arealsooverrepresented in construction in nrany However, in thepostindustrial counlries. OECDeconomies. services jobspredominate. andmost migrant workers arcto bc foundin thissector. Herethe tbreign-born are overeprcsented in hotelsand restaurants, and thchealthcare andsocialservices sectol(OECD,2001:12J3). 'Occupational distribution' retbrsto thejobs peopledo. Forcignborn jobs: morc fhan 50 per centof persons are overrepresented ilr cleaning jobs areheldby migrants such in Switzerland, andmorcthan30 per cent in Austria,Germany, Sweden, Italy,Greece andthe USA. They are also overrepresented in iobsaswaiters orcooks, anddomestic carcIs. These ale typicallyjobs with poorpay andconditions. aDdlittle security. However. pe$ons arc alsoovefieprcsented foreign boan in somese ice occupations (in Switzefland requiring high-skilllevels, suchas teachers andIrelalld), docto$ and nurses(iD the UK) and computerexpefls (USA). Overall, migrantemployment in the tertiary sectorseems to be 'dualistic'with

226 TheABe of Migrutiul (OECD. concentration at low and high-skilllevelsand a gap in between :11). 2001:13 Inthee lyst ges ofnigration, most nigrants succeed in gellingjobs. The picturetodry is rmre nixed, as Trble and are farely unenrployed. (apart l0.l shows. In Southern Europe liom Italy).unemployment rates tbr rre only slighllyhigherthdnfor the nltive-born. BLrl in the fbreigD-born Wcstcrn Europe migmntworkers have borne thebruntofrestructuring and ard hirve rrtuch highe.unenrpkrynenl irtes thankrcalw{}rkers. recessi(ms. is difterent ag.rin in theUSArDdAustftrlir: legrl ilnmigmnts Thesituation well integrated iDlothe labourmarket,rnd unenrpbynrent havebecome ratcs for the foreign-bofn ard nativesafe very simihf (OECD.2007: 7l-72). Bul it is importantto rcmcmbcr ihat thcscligurcsarc only fbr legallyrcgistcrcd workers. UndocLxnented migrants are in a muchnrore (see prccarious situation below). TablcIL0I UnenryloJnent rates offoreign-born undnutire-born populations in seleded OECD count es(2005)
Untnt o\n1ut rul! 2005. p.t L\r1l

N.tti! hont

lot(i9,1 ht)nt

Nativ ho

l.bft,iU,-har

Bclriunr Rcpublic Czcch l)cnnrark lrinlrnd

'7.5 5.0 8.3 9.2 10.2 t5.l 1.1 1.5 9.2 '1.5 '1.5 :1.3 17.0 12.0 1.9 3.7 3.8 5.0

Hurgary helrnd Itrly Luxemboufg Ncrhcrlands Norway Porlugal Slovak Rcpuhlic Spain Sweden Swltzerland

20.3 16.5 t2.1 2t).2 16.5 l6.l 15.9 7.1 1,1.6 7.5 9.5 8.5 9.7 28.6 ll.5 t4.l 9.1 1.1 5.2 5.2

6.3 6.2 4.0 8.0

u.l
10.6 5.9 7.0 6.2 1.0 1.6 1.) 15.1 '7.l) '7.9 2.1 1.7 1.1 6.3

lt.l 1:1.E 10..1 1.2 t66 13.3 17.5

6.1 1.2 I1.9 12.5 8.5 21.0 9.5 15.6 7.1 1.4 5.0 5.1

Canada United States

s,r,1/

52

OLCD12007) AnnerTrhleI Al l

Migrants dnd Minorities i lhe l^about Force

22'l

andhighcr Ovcrall, migrants still tendto have loweroccupational stalus rules than nonrnignnt worke$. Yet tle labourmafket unemployment positions of migant worte$ are lnuch more variedthan Ihcy were20 quitebig givenin the tablenr.ryobscurc or 30 yearsago.The averages specilic diflerences between high and low skilled groups.or between and occupations. New migrantsoflen come with higherqualifications gainaccess to belterjobs thanthe;rpredecessors. Oldcl migrantworkers, by conhast. often seemto havegot stuckin the rr.rnualrnanufacturing andreces seclors for whichthcy wcreo ginallyrecruited. Restructufing fiom sionshaveoften lcd to uncmploymcnt or displacement the hbour groups. frrrceirrr such Onc indication of this is the fact that migrants pa{icipation rutes thrn nativcs in manycountries havelowerlabourfi)rce (OECD. 2007: Anncx rablc LAl.2). pat However, thc OECDmaterial is too general to revealthecornplex gender xn{ileg{l status. Wc will tcrnsof diffbrenliation based on ethnicity, (for the US situation look at the UK i$ just oneexanlple seePortes and RLrmbaut. 2006:chryter4). In the UK, ethnicinequalilyhasbccomca An officittlstudy bused on the2001 long-tcrm fcature of thelaboufmarket. showed lhat Bangladcshi womenhad the highest unemployDrent Census BLLngladeshi nrenhad ratcat 24 percent- sjx timesthatof whitewomen. rale,liNr timesthalol whitemen.Indianmen a 20percentunenployment hrd only slightlyhigherunernployment rates thnntheirwhitc andwomen - bothmenand woDren counterpas. All othcrethnicminoritygroups had unenrpk)yment ralestwo to thrcc lincs highcrthan whitcs.YouDer people under 25 years werelar norc likcly to bc out ofwork. Thc latc lbr youngBantladeshi with 12pcf ccnt of mcn was40 pfi ccn!,comparDd youngwhitenren. Otberminorily youngnrcnhdduncmploymcnt ulcs of 25-31per cent.The picture lbf youngminofity woDren wassimilar.with higherthantbr whites(ONS. 2002). unenpk)ymenl lirlesconsiderably general picture The in the UK in 2001wasof a labourtbrce stratiliedby icity andgender ard withahighdcgrcc ofyouthuncmploymcntethn Cenerally. people or l sh backgroDnd tended to have employnent ot'Indian. Chircse, asorsolnelilnes beller lhantheaverage forwhileBilish(see situations asgood groups By conlrasl. other alsoDustmann andFrbbri,2005). were woNeof}. with a dcsccnding hierarchy of black Afiicans. black Caribbeans, P.kistanis. - Bangladeshis (ONS. 2004). and at the verybollorn Cender dislinclions ethnicityscemto varyryoungwoncn of blackAftican andblackCaribbean groups. perform better in botheducatirm andempbyrentthanmenofthese (see fbrPakistanis whiletheopposite appears to bethecase andBangladeshis alsoSchierup ct al.,2006r i20 130).

generation Thesecond
MosIlabourmigrants Io OECD countries up to the 19?0s wereworke$ As a rcsul1 o[ subsequenl sedenentprocesses, anew with low skjll levels-

228 TheAge of Migration persons loreign-born) has s(ond ge erdtion(native-born withbothparents pzruonr In mosl OECD conntrics with d tl.iUftuion background emeryed. (foreign-born pe$ons plusthesecond generalion) makeup a largepropor young (45percentof peris in Australia lion of adults thehighest share sonsaged20 29), followed by Switzerlandand Canada(30 35 pef cent), France and tle UK alld thenSweden, USA,the Netherlands, Germany, (OECD, (20-30percent) 2007: 79). generation havegainedlheir education Sincemembe$of the second both with in the hostcountry, it is valuable to compare theif experience migranfs of the same agegroupandwith yod,lgpeoplewhodo not hdw (native-born pnren19. a nigrdtion backgrcuntl childrenof native-born in irnmigration countries duing theearlysettlement Studies ol schooliDg periodpredicted that childrenof immigrants might inherittheir parents' (Castles positions in lacl et al.,1984: chapter6). Husthis low socioeconomic (censuses, usingnational statistics labour lorcesurveys happenedl Studies (such studies as OECD'S Programme etc.)and international comparative - PISA)nowmukeit possib]e give 1() fi)r Inlernalional StudeltAssessment provided answer. Forthe USAdatahave been by theCurrent a provisional Longitudinal Survey Population Surveyand the Childrenof Immigrants (see 2006: chapter 8). Portes andRumbaul, generation the research shows that the second has better In general, They outcomes thanthe migrantparentgenefirtion. average educational youngmigrants of thesame agegroup(20-29). alsodo bctlff thantoday's generatfun lag behindthoscof However. the outcomes of the second youngpcoplcwithouta migratbnbackground. This may bc native-bonl partlyexplnined andsocioeconomic levels ol-thcir by thc low educational generations, parcnts. across The sinoe suchlactors tendto be transmitted perlbrmance science. assessed ol ls-year-dds in mathematics, PISAstudy The st$dy showedthal, rcading and oross-curricular competencies. generation studcnts background. second evenafter irllowingfor parcntal particularly This applied to fbrmer rcnainedat a subslantial disadvantage. and guestworker-recruiting likc Cermany, Belgium. Switzerland countries, education disadvxntage wasfbundto be insigAustria. Second-generalirD (OECD. Frunce, Austmliaand Canada nificanlin the cases of Sweden, market it clearthattheoriginalmodeof l^boDr 2007:79-80).This makes generations also Portes and incorporation canhave effects thatcross Gee Rumbaut. 2006;92-101). gender substantial differences. In The OECD rcsearch also revealed (except young studied the USA),second-generafion all OECD counrries at school. Thisis particularly didbetler thantheirmale counterparts women interesting in vicw of the tact that youngimmigrantwomenoften have 2007:8l). Schooling ir thanyoung immigrant men(OECD, lesseducali{D animpofiant emancipabry effectfor second hostcountries see s to have generation womengeneration question for the second In the longrun, the mostimportant jobs get in the host country. The OECD decent is whetherthey can

Migtunts utltl Minarities in rhe Labour Ftrte

229

found that young secondgenerationmembershad a hiSher employment prob bility thanimmigrants in the saDre agegfNp. but still sufiered significant disadvantage comparedwith young people without a migration greatest background. Worryingly, tie disadvantage seemed at thelop end of the qualincation scale. indicating the persistence ol r 'glassceililrg' fbr minorities. Native-born children of immignntsfiom Aliican countdes seemed 1()havethe grcalesl labourmarketdifficullies: members of the generation second in Europe wereup to twiceas likely to be unemployed asyoungpcople without a migration background. Possiblc cxplanations for Ihis includcd lackof access to informalnctworks thathclpin job fincling: lackofknowledge of thelabour markct: anddiscrimination on lhebasis of (OECD. 2007:lJl-ti5). originor cl.rss

Mjgrantentrepreneurs
Upl(J thc 1970s. nigrants(especiall, in Europe were seen aswage-workers. and rnrely becarne sclf-cmpbycd or cntrcpreneurs. ln somc countrics (such as Gerrnany. Swilzerlnd and Austfit) their work permitsinilially prohibited sell--employment. The siluation wasdifferent in the USA,Aus' truliallnd the UK andFrance. wheremigrants began to run sma]lshops andcaf6s earlyon.Sinccthe 1980s, migrant selt-cmploymenr hasbccomc pefThe OECD notesthrt fbrcign-born 1al morc conmon everywhere. sonsmadcup 12pcr ceulof thc sclf-cmploycd in the UK, 13pcr ccDriD Belgiun.France aDdCcrmany. and 14pcr ceDliD Swcdcn in 2005.Sclipositiur Inany enrployment does nol nocessaily meanan irnproved sociirl nrigfants choose it t|^s r lall-back solution, because theyilre unenrployed. (OECD, or fird Ihcir upward mobilityin paidemployment 200?: blocked ?4-?5 a US study iDtheearlyI990s toundlhatsel f:enrpk)yed ).Nonetheless. (Portes persons hrvehigherinconesthnnemployees and do. on nvel.nge. Rumbaut,2006:81). Typical mietantowned businesses are ethnic restaurants,mom fi1d pop' food storcsand convenience storcs(WaldinBer et al., 1990). ImDriguntowncdbusincsscs ftequentlyemployfamily members frcm (l9ltiJ)traced theoriginsot thc the countryof origiD.Lightand Bonacich Koreanbusiness communly in Los AnSeles to the KoreanWar.which lcd to extensive transnational tiesandeveltually migration betweeD KoleiL Ness(2005: 58-95)hasshown how Korcan andthe USA.Morrecently, business, at entrepreneur\ cameto dominrtethe New York greeDgrccery then repltuiDg them with Mexicanworkers first employing co-ethnics, Koreans when the Mexicans at lower wages- and then re-employing (see payandconditions rlso Waldinger. 1996)demanded better Immigmnt enrcpreneulship has been assessed divergently. Some scholarsstressthe economicdynumismof immigranl entrcpreneuN with their positive effects uponeconomic Srowthand qualityof life for (Fix 1994: stresses consume$ and Passel, 53).A morecriticalviewpoint

230 TheAge ol Migration longhoursof work, by illtense competition, thc humansulGringentailed (Collins aliens md exploitation of liimily labourandof illegallyernpkryed ,125 ()1 lglili: 436).The growth small Light and Bonacich. et al., 1995; policiesof economic linked to neoliberal in Europe is strongly business to st^rtbusinesscs andto empl(ry whichhavcmadeit easier deregulation, boththe casu l basis. In manysuchbusinesses, wolte$ on a short-term. aremigmnts of rembenofcthnicminorities. employers andtheworkcrs mostlikely to beself: showed thatthegrcups ln theUK, anofficialstudy (23pcl cent) (18pcl cent), andChinese employed in 2001werePrkisl,rnis andFabbri. alsoDustmann compared with l2 percentofwhile British(see cycle of low_ despcration to escape.r 2005). SelfemploymeDt oflenrcllected LocalArca The2000 2001annual paidinsecurejobs andufiemp]oymeDl. in employment was showed Ihatoncin six PakistiLnis Lftour ForccSurvey with 1 tler'cenl of whiteBritjshnen. compared ir crb driverof chauffeur, comparcd eilhercooks or waiters, menwere Forty percentof Bangladeshi with I per ceDtol while Britishmen.Tenper cenlof blackAfricanand of compared wilh 3 percent in empk)yrncnt wcrcnLr$es, whitelrishwomen white Irish. and other hrditns. Chinese. Brilish women. By conttusl white employment of I 7-20per hadrates of prot'essbnnl non British whitegroups (ONS, pcf fbr while Brilish 2004r). with ll cent ccnt,comprred segmentatbn, palternof ethnicand gender The datashowa complex doing quite well while othc$ arc with sonreethnic minority gr'oups llnd inrpoverishtd. There is no clear statllsdistinction disndvantagcd - the tornlercalr include and the sellcmployed between thc cmployed workers. while thc latier high-status mrnagerss well as hw-paidscrvice professionals operato|s. t() crb divcls and fbod_stall nngc frdn nredical paft of the new politicaleconomy slnrll business is an important EthDic (scebelowand alsoLight and countdes of the labourlorcc in devek)ped andLichter. 2003). Rcitz.1998; Wnldinger cold. 1999;

How does immigration affect host

economies and localworkers?

by the economy nraydamage arguethat immigration Sore economists the of payments, clusinginflationand reducing worsening the balance It is alsochimed that migranls for ploductivityimprovenents. incentive workers by comptingfbr dleir jobs lower skilled level may harm suchas has been takenup ;n headlines wagcs dowD. This and bidding 'EastEuropemigranlsbelp to takejoblessto six-year high' in Britain's in TUC, 2007i L0) Ddil] M4ll (17August2006,quoted masscirculation labolrr miSration: his report on surnmariscd A Bilish cconomjst ifirmigration consequences oflarge-scalc thattheeconomic It concllrdes of more that the interesls arc mostly minor, ncgativeor transienf,

i oritie' in th? Lnh"ur L r,, l,|ierattt, o d li.4

211

population vulnemble sections of the domestic may well be damaged, nreunlikelyto bearconparison with its andthatanyeconomic benelits growth. subsmltial impacton population Suchlindings arein line with thosefrom otherdeveloped countries.(Rowthom.200,+) By contrast, aBritishHomeOflicestudy tbundth:rtin theory'... Digration growthandthe welfare of bothnatives and is likely to enhunce economic (Clovclet aI.,2001: vii).Accordillg migrants' to anearlystudy ofposc]945 Eufopean expansion. thc cntiy of migrant\rorke$ prcvents bottlenecks, pl-(rvides pressures. skills and rcduccs inflationary Thesefactorsrlbw economic expansion. whichbencfits local workers too. In the continued stLLgnalion mighl ensue, leadinS to abscncc of a migrantlaboursupply, 1967). Similarly.a rcvicw ol the lower incones Lbrall (Kindleberger, impacts of immigration fiom the 1970s to literature oll n]lcroeconomic 'in concluding foundthatstudics converge thatimorjgrathe ea y 1990s (he lnarket nd does notdeprcss tioncauses no crowding-out on thelabour income o{ nrlionals'(OECD.199.1: 164). groups inrnrigr'irtion rTl{y have diffcringeffccts for different of However, population: most while unskilled workers lhe host employers maybenefit (2005:125)af6rm that unskilled may lose.Hatton nd Williamson affectedby intcrnational migntion workcNin the USA wereadversely pfior lo Wo d War I. In lhcir vicw.whatDanicls(2004)retbNto rs the ()1' Door.theenaclment restrictive luwsandpolicics rlosingof thc Colden to theUSAafter1918. retlected r politicrl will thrt curuilcdimnligration (Hatton workcrs andWillianrson,2005: l7'/,222).1\\ to p()fect uDskillcd historical iindingsrelevant todryI I n I997a reportby whrt extenlrfe such aDd a Nationul Reselrrch Council(NRC)panelof lcadingUS economistr impactof immiSmothersocialscicntists tbundthat.while the uggr'egate gains nct cconomic tion on theUS econo)ry wasquitesnall, if 'produccs ,+). (Snith andEdmonsbn. rcsidcnts' 1997: Bul theypointed ti)r domestic ouf that: rs a whole gains.however. theremay be Even when the ecoDorry groups of USrcsidcntsAlong loscrs aswell asgainefs aDn)ng differenl ol prodrlclivc themselves, the gainers arethe owners wilh immigrants of immiglants tlut factors that arc complementary wiLhthe laboDr higher-skilled workers, and perhaps ownersof capitill is domestic, produccd whose incomcs will dse.Thosewho buy goodsandservices mry be the less-skilled immigrant labourwill also benelit. The losers by andwhose wages will domestic workcn whocompete with immigrunts fall. (SmithandEdmonston. 199?; 5) car ed out by the NRC panelrevealed that Thc econonetricstudies 'immigretionhas had a relativelysmall adverse impacton the wages o[ competing nativegroups'(SmithaDd and employment opportunities argue thatnegadve effects Edmonston, l9g7i7). But some US economists

232 TheAgeof Migration on the receivingeconomyand the wagesof competingworken are much morese ous.HattonandWilliamson cstimated theeffects of immigration to the USA uponearnings between 1979and i995 undertwo scenarios, onein whichcapital wasassumed to be fixedanda second in whichcapital volumechanged as a result of vaious factors.In the first, immigration rcduced the earnings of skillednative-born workers by 2.5 per centand unskilledby 4.6 per cent.However, in the second scenario, the earnings of skilledworkers increased marginallywhile the eardngsof unskilled worken againdecreased by 4.6 per cent-(HattonandWilliamson, 2005: 304-306,317 318). Borjasclaimsthat therehasbeena pattemof dccliningskills in post1965 irnmigrant cohorts. As entries from Western Europe werereplaced by those from AsiAandLatinAmeiica,thedifferences in socioeconomic andeducationa I standards between theregion s were reflected in declining (Borjas, skills and rising povertyof post-l965 immigrants 1990;1999). However, suchfindings arecontested in Portes andRumbaut's analysis of (2006:67-76)More recently. qualiiications migrants' educational Borjas Ioundthatbelween I 980and2000immigration didnotaffbct average wages ol the workfbrce, but led to a 5-10 per centdecrease in unskilledwages (Borjrs, 2006). Borjas also found that the workers most negatively affectedby immigrationwere minorities,especiallyblack low-wage workers(seealsoBorjas.200l).By contrast, US economist Cardfound that immigrationhad no ncgative impacton Americanworkers(Card, 2005). Australiar economisls have also been studying immigration for grcwth in Australia manyyears,as it hasbeenthe rnotorof economic (Wooden,1994;Foster,1996).An analysis sincethe 194{)s by Foster concludedl that immigntion impactson both demandand supply sidesof the jobs as well as iill themi thcy pay laxes Dconomy. lmmigrants create as wcll as makedernands of government; and theybring fundslrom overseas and conlribute to higherexporfsas well as to imports.... But beyond their merepresence, the rcsearch evidence shows that the demandand supply,side effects in factbalance eachotherso closcly thatno morethanmarginal impacts canbedetected for anyofthe key economic indicators To ... . theextent thatanyofthc usual measDres of economic healthhavebeensigdficantlyaffected, the evidence is that immiBration hasbecngenerally benedcial for theAustralian economy pmspccts andfor theemployment ard incomes ofAustfalian residents. (Castles et al.,1998: 73) A BritishHomeOllice study ioundthat 'there is little evidence thatnative worke$ are harmed by migration. There is considerable supportlbr the view thalrnigrants create newbusinesses andjobsandflIl labourmarket gaps,improving productivity andrcducinginflationary pressures' (Glover

Migrunts dnd Minorities in the Labour Fort?

233

seexlso Dustmann and Clitz.2005). Rcccntly. thc Trades et a1.,2001; UnionCongress commissioned a study, whichfbundthat The overalleconomic impactof immigralkrn is limited but positive. rnorein taxes thrn theyrcceive in benelils, Migrantworkers contribute pmbably ard migration lcads to highff lcvslsof cmploymcnt andwages tbr nativeworkers. Migrationmay possibly be linked to an increase in wrge inequality in this counfy. but the cvidcncc is not conclusive. ... The only irdequate rcsponse 1()the smallnumber of specific cascs whefe p()blerrs do ariseis to denand equal rights for nativc and (TUC.2007) migrartworkers. litsof migration. Clcarly, economists rcmain divi<led overthecosls nndbene lo be confirmed by the eigerncss However. the positivefindingsseenr to encourage economic migration. Althoughthc of many govenmenls emphsis is on atlracting bighly skilledmigrants. thereis alsogrowing fbf thebwer skilled a demand metin Europc through a mix of demand from Poland. RomaniA and mobiUty withintheEuropean Union(especirlly s!ntcs). tcmpolarylabourrccruitment measufes, aDd othet new nrember tacitncceptance of undocunlented migntion.In the USA,undocumenled migrantlabour. rnigration sccms to bc the mainsource ol-k)w-skilled

and the dynamics Thnew polltlcaleconomy of labourforcechange

( nd presented sofhr in thischapter indicates thecontinuiner Thediscussion growing) It importance ofmigrantlahourfor advrnced economies. indeed spccialtypcsof labourdemand. also shows that migrantworkeNn1ect But whatanaly ard oftcncxperience economic irndsoci.rl disadvNnlage. dynanics sesof oLlicial labourrnarket datafril to revealis the complex is thc oi labourlorccchange. In Chapter 3 we argued thal gbbalizalion in the work for twcntylilst centLuy migration. Changes crucialcontexr of workers in advanced economies can only situation and socirl posilion of invesl through analysis ofthe globalrestrucluring be fully understood economic and nen1,prcductioland trade, andthe way this haschanged in migranlsending. transit and receivjng couDlries. socialcondilions studyprovides an overview of thc phases in poslwarpolitical A recent pr4,te (Schierup in et 41.,2006: 240:46). A of expansior cconomy frrt was marked by mass econonies fron 1945 to about 1973 coreindustrial production wheremanualworke$ wereconcentrated in largefactories, Tradeunionswercableto in their thousands, lacilitatingstrongunions. political while socialdemocratic negotiate betterwrgesand conditions, provisions protect to workcrsand paties couldintroduce welfarcstate theytended As employmenl of mignnt workers increased, theirfamilies.

234 TheAge of Migration f:rctories albeitusuallyin the lowerpositions to get work in unionized ol high wages andsfong within these andenioyed manyof the beneilts provisions. welfare of Western Europe andNo h Americawefe As longas the economies competition, this apprcach was expanding and t-aced little international growing recession, successful, but it ran into difficultiesin the 1970s: in profit larginslcd to competition ftom Asianeconomies anda decline based on a new intcrnational divisionof labour Laboura secordpftd.r? production was movedto low-wagc economies, while migmnt intensive of lbr the Norlh wasstopped. This led to the closure labourrecruihnent waspushed frctories' withthei r sfongunions. Restructuring many'rustbelt (Thatcher governments in the UK folwardby the new-right of the 1980s thewayfor a rollback of workerrights. andRcagalin the USA),opening andthe 'smallstafe'led to majorsocialchanges, Economic deregulLLtion of thc 'workingpoor' in the USA - millionsof suchas the ernergence peoplc wbowere earned 1oo Iittleto climboutofpoverty in eDploynentbut p ynents-Zero immigration poliaDdwereno longer entitled to welfare iDrnrigrAnls were one aspect o[ this shift in Europe. although existing cies unemployment andsocialexciusion. remaincd. oltenexperiencing globalization the very success of neoliberal led to 0 new However, the re-creation of swcahhops and otherfbnns tl1iftlphctse by the 1990s: tion in workin lhe advanced economies. Socialtransfbrnr of exploitalive conducive 1()emigration of both the Southcrcatcd economic conditfuns el aI..2006: highlyskillednnclunskilled workers to the North (Schierup with the new demand fbr migranl work243-244). This corresporded (Portesand Runrbaut, e$ outlinedtrbove. The 'contcxts of reception' werequitedifferentfrom thoseof their 2006:92-93)fbr new migrants littlc predecersors and l970sra laissez-faire state thit offered in the 1960s prolection which weakunions andfragmented labour markcts to workers; practices; employment andthe exis(ence opened the doorfor xpbitaLive in thejob ol'elhniccommunities with varyingcapacity l-ohelpnewcomcrs of the1960s and 11 isimportant notto glorifytbepast: themigrant workers andlegalsituations, andvulnemblc 1970s werealw ys in weakcconomic to exploitation. However. the iabour force dynamicsof postindustrial that on a prcliferation of employment relationships econonies are based gender, race and leading to workefl on the basis of ethnicity. ditJerenliale and highly disadvanlageous forms of work tbr migrants complex andofien minoitics.

forms: subcontracting, tempotary Newemployment work and casualization

practices hasbeenthe driveto of neolibeml employment A key element protecfion the of labourlaw irndcollective tum wageworkers,who enjoyed

in theLdbourForc Mignnts and Minorities

235

'contracto$', jnto independent ot who haveno guamntee agrcemenfs. andbearall the risks work,havelo buy their own toolsand equipment. et al.,2006:ch.pter9) The sickness or lackofjobs (Schierup of accident, as occupations conlractors hasaffected prcssurc independent to become designcrs andarchi truckddvels,graphic asbuildingtndesmen, diverse theNew Y{}rk'black-car fr'{nn IheUSA coDcerns tects. A strikingcxample andtou ststo andlrom thc airports Oncc who takeexecutives drivers', (on luxury vehicles prid cmployees, theynow haveto buy the expensive of work Thercsult costs. with no guaranlec credit) andbearall opcrating arc South Mostof thc drjvers workinghours. is bw incomeandextrcme 2001,not of ll Scptember Asians. They werehard'hitrfler thc cvents many driversinto only by thc shafpdownturnin work. which plunged and disastrous debt.but alsoby dsinghostilityon the prrt of customers (Ness. 130-180). 2005: authorities wayof cnhancing basjsis nother on a temporary Ernploying miglants wages andcondilions. for better rcducing demands controland employer ternpofttry likely lo be empl(ryedin are more TheOECDlbundthatlnigrants (exccpt Austria countries jobs lhan natives immigrLrtbn in all European telnporary have per cent of the tirreign-born In Spain 56 andSwilzerland). Polafld nd jobscompared with lcssthan30percentofhcals. ln Porlugal. (OECD. per of foreigners cent affecls30 employmcnt Finland.temporary llexjblelAbouf as a subordinatc. 2007:75J6). The old ideAol migrants js lbrce clearlynotdeud. has lcd to the removalol legal conlftrlsoD defegulation Econonric by laborf nr fkcl inspections of work-site and the reduction cnrpbymenl thttt is. empk)yncnt: in casual This allowed1lbig expansion authorities. young of migraDls. hiring by the hour or lbr specificlasks,especially caterirg'and arelypicaltbr cleaning, peoplc andworrcn.Casualizedjobs texfileandgarment butalsofbr thcconstruclion, occupations, olhcrservice but dircctly in ploduction, Many big lirnN no kDger engage industries. high arket with a of the labour in sectors to smaller llons it subcontract Through ol'working conditions rcgulation ofinfofmdity andscant degrce Thc of flcxibility. I naximum they strive tbr subcontractoN to ouisourcing 'ethnicentreprcneurship be nccds to ol of thc rise celebration frequent trcnds, of such seen in thecontext

Migrantwomenworkers
on gendcrand In Chrpler 2 we summarizedsontetheorcficaldiscussions wo cnfrom argued thalmigmnt l9ll,[. Morokvasic migmfion. As early as industriai democraciesl in Wcstern periphcml zoneslivirtg reprcsenl a ready made labour supply which is, at oncc, the most vulnerable,the most llexible and, al lellst in the beginning' the least demanding work forcc. They havc been incorporatedinto sexually

236 1le Agt,t \,liBra]n

segrcgated labour narkets al the lo$'est st|atu1nin high techDolos), industdes or at the 'cherpest seckrfs in those indusuies which air llbour intensiveand employ the cheapcsl laboul to relnainconrpetitive. (N{orckvrsic. 198:1: 886) The disaclvaDtaged positioll of lnigrunt 1lomenpersislslodai,: the OECD found thtt'inllnigrant wolnenare tcnerllly the group with lhe lcastfaloufrble outconesin thc laboufmatker .... both in rbsoluteterns andrclirtivcto children of nxtivesol the samegendcr'(OECD. 1007:81 E2).Eventiln,rle nlcmbersof thc majority population lend to bc disrdvantageLl comprr.cd wlth men. bcciuse ofr |inge of fhctorswhich include:empkryersassump_ tions thrt thcy rr not primary brcrdwinncrs:the expcctitioir that rvomin arc temporaly wofkers \\,ho will lcrve to gct rnarriedi womens ncccl lin. part lrme$ork dLte t(rflrmll\,c(rrmitncnts:skjll dcliritiors$,hichtavr)ul masculiDe occupations. socialnctwo&s: ind gendcr hlsed .qctrdcFspecillc (co|tpnfe discrirrinLrti()n Schfovcr el rl.. 1007).Migrrnt woutenlacc rll lhcsclLLct\ k)o.bur in rddiriona|c disadv:rntaged lry slcfcotypcs or lhc chrfrLctcristici ol spccilic elhnic.rndfacialgl'()Lrps. rnd otren lso by welk Mirfrnt wontc nfcthusclisadvintLrled bv two intcdockin! sclso, ntcch_ rursnrs. Mi!f0Dt ntcn.of coursc, rfc al\()alficlcd hy thc scc(nr(l scl. itnd rtlnyhit\'c lolvrrwrscsandoccuplti(n l stitlus thiu rrrtljority grl)up womcn (ll1^!nc un(lMisrrL. 1003:-189).'lhc key issuc ro cxrnrire js how Ilclors ol ircn(lcf rnd cthIriril)' intel1rcr iu specilic w(n.k situlili(rns. OnL, lppr-ooch r s l o k x J k r l l h el i ) r n n l i ( J on 1c l h n i c n i c h c s( { ' t i c n uscd i r rs l u d y i n g c trcpfc cufshrp) rnd thL'L'xtcrt to which gcndcfpl.rys ll prrl in thisl I uselirl rc\'icw ol liteirt rc is pr1)vidcd by Schrovef ct .rt.c007). Arothtf way is k) !-\xlnrne thc iDlcrseclionalil\, oflhc ltclu.s,rs B()wnc.ud Misrl (200J) do fl) lhcif c\rnlillntion of lilcc itndge|dcrin lhc US lilblrur llrtfket. (i)Dll.Lr) to neolibcrLll theoril.sol lhc l.ihour llurkel. which rEue lh.lt \'L1r'illti(ns in cmployrncDr stltus iLre dUc lo diffcring levels oI hlrlran . pital (Br)wne and Misfa. 100.1: 506). nr:rnystuclic\ shor! lhe rolpor-txDce ol rilcc. gerdL'r. cltss and sexualorienrittion in:rllocating posrrions. Thc specific (and u\uatly dis.rdvalrraged) posirion of rnigl'ani \\'omen is cluriill to ccl.t in sectors suchas lhe grrmcnl industr). A US study reverled that wolncn of colour tLredillcrcnrially sitLtared in local IiLbolrr nlrfket\ co1l]piucd \rith White $'olneDand co-ethnic ncn. so that cconomic rcstruclufing affects (BrowneandMisn. eachgroupuniqLrely' 100-li,+91). The stud\ reviewed cvidence ol incfeasing wrge incqu.Lliry betweenWhiles, Black rnd l-atinos. inswcll irs betwccr hieh and low. k l l e de r o u o . , B f , \ n . r n J \ 4 i . r . t l | { r { . t . r b , A . r -r.rt},r,-t t- roprJrl hbour mrrket statisticslbund !hat: there is a clemarcation betweenEU rld third-counu)*nationalsalong nalionrl, ethnic andgenderlines and lcgal status. The ntajodiy ol third countr! nalioDds are emploved in vulnerable.low-skilled. low paid

Migrants and Minorities in the l^.tbourForce 231

jobs in mediumandlow segmets...Thclearesharpdiffercncesinpay betweenmen and women. which can be explainedin paft by women's in low pay sectors,such as cleaning disproporlionalcrepresentation or parftimc natlue ol many fcmale lvork, the casual and domestic jobs and thejr concentratiorin the infinmal sector (Ayfes aDdBarber,

2006:30) of women andchildren vulnerability alsopointed to thespecial This study word. care work and domestic whichcan Ied to bonded to trafficking, prcstilulion to lt is estiin swcatshops. but is mainlylinked employment pcrsons traflicked into the arc 120,000 and 170,000 matedthat belween in scx work. EU eachyearand that7-580 per centof themare involved todayl to havebecome an ethnicnichein Europe sexwork seerns Indeed to be u thought of theroughly0.5 million sex-workers up to 80 pcr ceDt (Ayres nndBarber, 2006:30). migrants is r c tegoryof domeslic workers oi migrantwomen The employment in recent labourthat hasexp ndedrcmarkably gendered and racialized (Anderson,2(X)0: induslrialeconomies yearsin virtually all advanced norlnsthat detine of Sende,ed Herewe find the interseclion Cox, 2000). nirturaltasks fbrwonen,withmcialstercotypes nDd houscwortas childcarc minorities asservants. ofethnic by ethnicmino tics, work hasbeenperformcd Hist)ricnlly,dome$tic construct an idea01rrnd citizcnship-$tlttus and ethnicily,nation^lity. 'others'. pay wofking better or who do nol dcserve wofkers as doDrcslic tbr amplc room ure inlbnral. leaving Work conditions condilions. prcferences to enter decisions personrl ond biascs to use eDrployen of their doncstic employees. about biring. pay and the tratmcnt (Browne andMisra.2003t502) et al a nichclbr migruntwomcn(Schrover work can become Domestic ol a it doesoffcr a chance b|d the conditions. 200?:536 537);however perceived migraDt job, oftencorrbincd by thata' with live-inconditions by a hiffarchyol' wolt is marked Domestic women's lamiliesassheltercd. andof grcups of employment, wort lasks,of fbnnalandinformalnmdes workenareprelenccl Filipinadomestic Forinstance, with variedslaluscs. and English,bu1rejccted in someplaccsdue to lheir bcttereducation their fighls lhey are seenas 1ooactivein defending in othe$ because the formal through andreprcduced are oilen Scnerated Suchhierarchies formed But theyarc also increasingly practices agcncies. of rccruihnenl in a Srowing networks ernbedded practices ot'agencics andsocial through from Africa, immjgrution fed by undocumented economy underground Eurcpeandtheformer as wcll asffom Eastem Asia,andL;rtinAmerica, ancl Dtivell,2002). Union(Jordan Soviet Domesticwo1k by migr.ult women can be thc result of increascd collaremploymenlforma.jority-group opportunitiesofprofessionalorwhile

238

TheAge of MigftLti.rn

women: hiring foreign maids can free women in Italy, the USA or Singapore fiom housework and childcarc(Huanget al.,2005). Such transnational carchier'archies go a stage sometimcs further, whenrnigrant domestic workers hirc a maidin thc ho e countryto look aflertheirown children. This lnaymean higherliving standards andbetter education, buI at a highemotiomlcost. The groMh of the informai economy - trends One of the nrostdramalic rDd perhaps surprising of the lrut 20 yeam hasben tie growthof infbrmal economies in advanced counlries. ln thepast. inforrnrlemployment praclices were associflted with less devef opedcountries in theSouth, where lackoI regular employment in industty andthepubl ic sector people forced 1() scGtch a living thrcugh pettyFoducti()nand trading. NcoliberalisDr and economic deregulatioD haveled to a burgeoning of informclwo.k in formcdyhighlyregulatcd iabour markets. - subconlmotiDg, All the trcnds alrcady mentioned temponrywork,cilsu- cirnbesumncdLlp alization. andgendered andracialized worksjtuations thfi)ugh lhe conccpt oI infoonrlization, delined by Ness as:'rcferring 1C) a redistribulion ofworktromrcgulirted sectors of theeconomy to newunreguIaled sect()s (Ness,2005: ofthe !ndcryround or inlbfmalccononry' 22). Ahhoughinlbrnr0lemploymcnt can allectnatives ns well as lnigmnts. i eeiulnf nrigration has beencruoirl to ils growth.This is palticularly obvk s in the USA,wrlh its officiallyestimaled irregulalpopulation of 12 nillion (Passel. 2006).Most of themlre Mexicanand otherCentral jobs - ahhough AmericnD and Caribbean nigrilDtsin low-skillcd thc lax regulirkn y reginein thcUSAnteans thatirregular lnigrants arcoftcnin legal cmployment relationsbips. In Europe esdrnatcs populatioD of the irregular arclcssprecise. ranging fiom 5 to 7.5million(Ayrcs andBarber. 2006i29; Diivell.2005:Tablc2-1). politicians Sorne Eufopean arguethat irregular immig ation is thecause of infbnnalizarion. burotherobservers believe that thecausality is theoLher wayround:econonic deregulation llndempbyer pnctices have created inlbrmal sectorjobs, fbrmingapull lirctor tbr irregular (Reyneri, rnigrirnts 2003). This applies most obviously in Sourhen Europe, butinfo ral workis widespread, forinstance in British agricullure. cleaning andcatering, bDtalsoin the cases of faffic wardens and security workbothservices devolved by pDblic rulhorities to subconlracrors. The reeulated Ccrmrn labourmarket haslongbeenseen asthc anlithycr frends esisof theinfomal or 'bldck'economies ol Southern Eurooe. bwardsthe grcwthof smrll enterprises, dercgularion, casualization. and contracting out haveopened up the spacc for inlor al employmcnt herc too,asoneEU-comrnissioned study found: In Germany infbrrnal work is not limitedto undocumented foreigue$. but is i sodone inueasingly by foreigners with legalstatus, orby young

Migftlt1tsdnd Mi orities inthe Labour Force 239

rdults of Tu*ish origins... The trendis linkedto a general increase rn S(huarzarbeit work'] ... In some cases in it is GennaDy ['black perceived as necessiLry to work in the infbrmalsectorto supplemeni income from low public assistancc, and,alsoIo eamnoney for work andnot to be a rccipicntof public assistirnceln othercases working withouta permitis a resultof a precarious legalstatus, a pcrmitto stay whichdoes Dotincllrde lln rcctuedrightb a workpermit. Theinfbrmal persons areoftentheonlyjobswhichlow skilleduncmploycd canlind. (Wilpcfi andLaacher, 19991 53)

Migrants andMinoritizsin th?LuhourI'orce 239 adultsof Tukish origins... The trendis linkedto a general increasc ln Sthwarzarbeit in Germany it is l'black work'] ... In somccascs perceived as necessary to work in Ihe informa]secbr to supplement income from low publicassistance, and,allo to ea|nmoneyfor work and not to be a rccipienlof publicrssistance. In othercascs working wilhoula petmjtis a resultof a precarious legalshtus,a pemit to stay whichdoes not include m rccrued rightto a workpcrmit.Theinlonnal rre ollentheonly.jobs persons whichlow skilledunernployed caniind. (WilpertandLaacher1999r 53) Intbrmalworkis a crucialpartofthe newglobalpoliticalcconomy, otlen vital for thc survivrlofcertainindustries in advanccd economies. As Ness poinlsoul: Nowthereliablejobs in theestablished ltbour0rarket have been rephced jobs with substaDdard by low wnge conditions commonly ioundunderThus,iDfbrmalization docsnotrepresent industril decline but Sroundhorizontal restructuring. oftcndoneto maintain andincrease flcxibility and compctilivoncss in regbnal.n bnal and intcrnational markets'. (Ness.2005: 23)

Labour market segmentation

Taken togethef, thc various lbrrnsof labour lbroerestructuring dcscfibcd in this section add up to a process ol /(boar rna et se|netrtutiur.Tl\is ()1-getting.jobs mcans thatpcoplc's chances dependnotonly on theirhuman capital(i.e.theireducrtion and skills)but alsoon gender, race, ethnicity and lcgal status. Somelimes. the legullyvulnerable status of rna y lbreignworkefs tbsters resentrncnt againsl on part Lhem the ofnativeworkers. whotirarthattheirwages andconditions will beunderminedln addition. migranlwo,kersmay bek)ngto racialor cthnic ninorilies, stigmatized through ideologies of racism andexpcricnccs of colonialisln. Such factors Dray reinfbrced be by resentmcnt of foreign workers for socialandcultuml (forinstancc, reasons hosfilityto lslam). Labourmalket segrrentation is notnew.InWcstern Europe in the 1960s. thediscrimination inherent in theelnployment andresidcntial rcsdclil'rs ol guestworker poUcies funnelled immigrants inlo specilic econonicsec (Castles tors and occupafions and Kosack,1973). Collins regardcd rhe 'impactof postwarimmigration on l}le growthandfiagmentation of tbc 'ore of themoslsirlientaspects Australian workingclass'as of theAustral (Collins,lSSl: 87).A 19119 irn immigration experience' US Department of Laborreportfoundrhal: 'Newcomels arrive in the Unitcd States ... with distinct legalstatuses. ln turn,tlis pmliferulion oflegalstatuses may bccomc a new source of socialaDdeconomic (US Depar! stratilication' nrent of Labor,1989: l8).

240 TheAge of Migration Howevcr,thc characterof labour market segmentation is changingin complexways,linked to a new globalsocialgeography. In the l9lios, Sassen(1988)showedhow lorcign investment and displacement of jobs abroad manufacturing had fbstered new miglatory streams to the USA. Linkagesbetweenglobal cities and distanthinterlands created paradoxes wherein enormous wealth professional andhighlyremulerated employment uneasily coexisted with growingunskiliedseNiceindustry employment andThird-Wo dlike ernployment colditions in underground industries. Thecasualization of labourandgrowingillegalalienemploymentwercharacteristic ofglobalcities. Considcrable illegalemployme:tt of migrantsoften coincided with high unemploymenl of citizens nd iegally resident aliens.The latter were likely to belongto minorities and had often beenvictimsol job losses in industries that had shifted manufacturing operations abroad. Twcnty ycars on, Ness examinedthe translbrmation of the social geography ol NiJw YorkCity (Ness.2005: chapter 2).ln theearlytwentith century, imrnigrant labourliom Southern and Eastetn Europchad becn clucialto theemergence ofthe gaflnent, pinting, meatpacking, conslruction and transportation industries. lndustrywas concentraled in 'ethnic neighbourhoods' andimmigrants cameto fbrm the backbone of lhe city s stronglabourmovement. In the late twentieth century, thcsctraditional jobs beingmovedto industrics werercstructured. with mostproduction 'sunbelt' nonunionized states or offshore to lheCaribbean. LalinAmerica personal andAsia.Manynewjobs werecreated in retailing. services, and (see business services alsoWaldinger, 1996). Theneweconomy is heavily stralilied on thebasis of elhnicity: On the whole, native-bomwhites have gravitated to high-payiDg jobs, AfricanAmericans professional seNice and native-bom Latinos jobs thatrcly on publicseclorfunding... . Immigrants haveoccupied jobs created tendto lill mary ol the low-wage in the new scctors of jobs in the service the econoDryLow-eDd seclorpay low wagesand providelew,il any,bnefits. pivate transportaThse newjobsinclude tion.hoteiandrstaurant. delivery, sccurity, buildingnainrenance and (Ness,2005i otherlow wageservices. l7) The newjobs are no longerconcentraled in etbnicneighbourhoods and the enterprises are oftenvery smali.makingunionorganization difficull Ness's studydocsexplore examp]es of migrantmilitancy). The [alfhough policies: new labourmarketis shaped by governmcnt In effect,therearetwo nationalinrmigrationpolicies:the otlicial policy of rcsftictingi[xnigration passed to salisfyanti-i]nrnigrant poiitical constituencies and the actualpolicy of allowing a steadyflow of inrmiglants to satisfy rhedemdnds of corporate constituencies in searcb labour. Thiscreates of cheap thebestof bothworldsfor employers. On

Mignnts dndMinoritiesinthe labour Force 241 the onehand,low-wage inrmigrant labouris always available. On the other,immigrant workers' iilegal statusincreases employen' levclage (Ness,2005: in all aspects ofthe employment relationship. 15) The2000Census foundthatimmigranls rnade up 2.9million (36percent) of New YoIk City's 8 miilion people, but no lessthan4? per cenlof the city's workforce.Moreover,immigrants madeup 62 per cent of the low(earDing wage workfbrce between US5.l5andUslj7.l0an hour. Thenew ethnic workforceis highly divelse,with newcome$from everycontinent. TheItalianandRussian womcn, garments who sewed on the LowerEast Side,have beenreplaccd by worneD from China and Latin America, who work in new swea(shops in Chinabwnand Suffet Park.The worst jobs aredoneby undocumented migrants from the Dominicun Republic. Mexico ald FrenchWestAfiica. who compete for precarious andexploitutive postsas supermarket workers, deliverydriversAndkitchenworkers (Ness.2005). Parallels to the changes in New York City can be lbundeverywhere. Each case hasspecific characteristics. dueto economic. social andpolitical conditions in $ending llnd receiving arcas. aswell asthc characteristics of patterns crrpk)ycrs andworkers. Bul onecanalsoseerecurring thatshow theconnections between specific experiences andghbal shifts. Take. fbr instunce, the Bedinconstruction industry. Following Cennan reunilication in 1990and the moveof the government to Berlin.the city experienced an unprecedented buildingboom.Yet.by 1996, 25 per cenl pcrsons in Berlinwerebuildingworkers. of uncmploycd Some empbyers took on worke$ frcm Poland,who came throughtemporarylabour schemcs. Anotheroptionwas to subcontract work o Portuguese firms. who could bring their own workers(at lower wages) thaough EU frcc provisions. movement In addition, manyworkeN carne asdailycommuters liom the fixnrerEas!German hinterland of Brandeoburg. This compelition had adversc effectson unionized buildingworkers. manyof whom wcle long-term foreignresidents of Berlin.In the old Germanmodelof long{erm enployment, the linn and the tradeunion had beensitcsof inlerelhnic communicalion and integration. Racism against migmnts had benlesspronounced at work thanin othersocialareas. The decline of this model and its replacement with contract workersthus had negative ellbctson socialintegration andintergroDp relalions. This wasno doubt one facto behindthe iDcrase in racismand racistviolence following (Hunger German reunilication andThriinhardt, 2001). The garmentindustryprovidesmany nationalexamples oI el}nic (Rath,2002). enhepreneurship andhierarchies based on race andgender ln Bfitain.ethnicandgendeFbased divisions allowed therevivalof clothing productionafter it seemed doomedto extinction through outsourcingto (see low-wage Phizacklea, econornies 1990). Fromthe 1970s, managcment, design,and marketingof ciothing becameheavily concentmted in a lew (Mitter,1986). big andhighlycapitalized Britishretailclothing companies

212 ThcAge4 Migration Domesticclothingproduction declinedsteeply. During the 1960sand 1970s theimmigrantworkforce in thegarment ir ustryhadmainlybeen iirst-generalion nale inmigraDts: Pakistanis, Indians, Bangladeshis and others. M:rnyofthese workers losttheiriobs, andthenbecame contractors to the big clothinghouses, settingup smallformallyindcpcndcnt swcat shops based oncheap ethnic minorityor immigrant farnilylabour- mainly provided by women. Wages aDd workingconditions werevcry poor,whilc the rateof accidents and work injuriesw^s high.The industry's state of intbnnalitysuited boththe economic interesls of thebig retailem andthe maleethnic middlemen contaclorswhocontrclled theirfbmale worktbfce (Mitter, l9U6; through bondsof family andethniccommrnityallegiance Schierup et .r1.. 2006:235-237). (2006:238-2.10) Schierup also showshow the rcstructuring of the indLtstry in Spirinhusbeelrmarkedby a profbund corlstruction dua]ism. On lhe onc hand.a smallnumber of high-tech big iirms became cenlres of linancial anrllegalexpertise. design, know-how. andproject conception production and moDitofing. On the othef h nd. all Dranual work and lssociated employment costsilnd socialsecuritywere subcontracted to smallfirms. whicbhad to bcarthc risk of markelfluctuations. This led to .r polarized markedby requrlification lnd tirvourablejob iob setting, llddeD {nd wrgesin thedominrntiinns,ilnddequtLlification, low payond insecurity in thesrnnll Rnn$. These linns mirinly non-EU small employed imnrigrants from EtNtcrnEuropc and Africn. Often subcontracting took place with the lastlink consisting thurgh r k)ngchain. of smalllinns enrploying owncd rnainlyby origrants, other migrants on a temporary workingcnvironbasiswithoDtany fo(malcontract, often io haza(dous nents.The l\'irgmentrlion waslurlherexaceLbated by the prolileralion ol' takc 'selfempbynient', in whichmanual workers werelbrcedIo become 'independeDt' subcontrlrctors. bearing all risksof unerrrploynrent. acoidenl (Veiga. or illness therrselves 1999). Conclusions Economic migrrtionis vital tbr advanced econonies. Migrantworkers highly skilledandlessskilled- provide atlditional Lohour ^r a.time boLh of shotagcs rcsulting fiom cconomicand demographic shifis. Thcy also prc'/lde specLrl l\pesoJldrorrb fjll gaps thatnative wortem afeunavailable or unwillingto fill. Miglationthusmakesif possible to maintainlabour maRet llcxibility. encoumging investrnenl andeconomicgrowth. During the posf 1945 boom, migrant workers were steeredinto 'guestworkers' subordinatc had strictly limited labour market iobs: rightr. while colonialmigranlswereoften subject to laboDr markctdis crimination.Inaddition, manyrnigrants lacked education andvocational entered the labolrrmarketat low levels.A key training,nnd therefore qucstion fesidence in developed waswhether long-term countries could

in thel.ubaurFarce 243 Migfttnts ctnd Minoritie.\

lead to upward mobility. Even lnore crucial was the question whether the inilial disadvantiedposilion would be carried over lo the nigrants' thc secondgeneration. descendants. labour markct data show that rnigranls' work situation hrs Recent morc diverse.partly as a feslrltofthe shift to scrvice based becomcrnuch economies.But somc migrants h ve tendedto get stuck in nltnutactur ftrtes- oflen twice the ing jobs with poor frospects.High unemployment averagefof n tives ancl low aclivity rtles reveal that migrrDt workers position.Mrny nigrant workersnow hiLve oflcn stilt havea dis.rdvantaged jobs. sonreof lhcm in high-skilled positions(like doctors,nurses service but ovcrwhelmirgly in such reas as cleaning, c.rterinS. and teachers), domesticwork and care. As tif the sccond generation,thc picture is even more mixcd. with imporlant variations by ethnic group and host country- On the whole, childrcn ofmigrants havcdonebetterthtn theirparcnts.but havegenerally been less succcssfulin both educationrnd the labour markct than young Moreover, even thosc young people withoul a migration bLLckground. mcmbcrswho hxve done wcll in educationsomelimcs sccond-generation jobs. Explanations fbr the 'glassccil ing include flil 1(lgct corumensu.ale bul also discriminitbn on lhc basis lack oflocal knowlcdgcand Detworks. andclass. ot nce, ethnicily () this ralhcr ncgative l bour n trrkctexpcrience Onercrction of migl.||nls However il is not clerf th t their own businesses. has been $ esrablish migfant or ethnic e'rlfcprc_ a silu lionr some lhis alwlys rcpreseDls bcttef olhcn cslitblish businesscs gain incomcs rnd stutus. but higher ncursdo poor long houfs, can only keep through in mafginal sectors.aDd Soing (including thc labour ofolher Inilinnts aDdexpk)iling wofkingcoDdiiions tlrnrily nenrbefs). Mjgrant labour cleufly plays ilrl importdnt role iD rich countries,but li)r thc cconomyas a whole. cannotagreeon Ihc consequences ecoDomists Most studiesiDdicatcbenetitsin terrns of ccononic growlh and aveldBe per capita income.bu( some economistsargue that competiDggroupsof local wolkers (especiallythc less skilled) nay bc dis.dvantaged.This ofelnphyel.s but the continuedeagcrncss debalecannotbe elsily resolvcd. to hife migrantworkersand the willingncssofgovefnrreniscilhcrto setuP or to turn a bljnd eye to irrcgular enlfy indicatcsthat legll cnlry schernes powerful grcupsscc labour tnigratiorlas cconomicallycrucial. The key ilnding ol this chaptcris that. ovef the lasi 30 yea$. economic rcstructuring in rich courrtrieshas bccn linked lo a new ioternati(n l division of labour, in which llligl.ant workers phy i portant but varied has reshapedthe roles. The shift to neoliberal economic management conditions under which migrant workers afe employed.Duegulati(D of the cconomy has gone band-in-handwith the decline o[ radc unions and the erosion of welfare state protection. Fom1alcmployllrentwithin largc scale enterpriscshas in many casesbeen rcplacedby a variety of that diffuentiate and separatcworkers. Tempomry wort arrangements

214 TheAgeoJM&a!i,'n and causal employment,chains of subcontracting, informalization and new formsof labourmarketsegmentadon affectbothnativeandmigrant \ orker,. Houc\ er.rr i\ di\advanlateJ tnd \ ulnerabie gruupr of uorl,irs. migrant women, irregular wo.kers, ethnicandracialrninorities whoend up in the most precarious positions. Depivalion of humanand worker rights tbr groupsthat lack legal statusand market power seemsto be an integral aspect ofall advanced economies today.

Guideto further reading

In thischaptetwe canlookonly at a limitedrange ofstudies on thelabour marketexpc enceof miglantsand the ecolomiceffects of migration. lt wouldbe important to look at otherindicators, (andhow like wagelevels theychange ove.time),income levels. poverty, etnployment mtesAndpar(icipation rates. Readers are recommended to usethe furtherrexding and () fi)llowup thesources we citefot.more on these issues, TheAge of Migratiotllrrrrc wwwtge-of-migration.corr includes an additiontltexton theeducalional andoccupational success of the ,second generation' (10.1). in Germany aswellasa summary ol thedebate bet$,een economists Ceorge Borjas andDavidCardonwhether labour immigration (10.2). is badfbr US workers It alsoincludes an analysi$ of labourmarket segment4tion in the French car and buildingindustries in rhe 1970s and (10.3). 1980s Halton and Williamson'slwo books (19911: 2005) prcvide useful ,\cr\ iew{ot rheeconolni..{ ui labourmrgrrtion. FordeveloprJ countrie5 in gencral seethe OECD'I anrn)al lnternatio al MigrationOutlook(e.8. OECD,2007). (2001); FortheUSA see: Borjas (2004); Daniels Portes and (2006); Rumbaut (1997). andSmithandEdmonston For earlyanalyses of Europcan labourmigration (1984);Castles see: (1973); Bdhning andKosack (1967). Castles et al. (1984); andKindleberger MorerecenrEuropean work includes: Dustmann alrdGlirz (2005); Diivell (2005); Cloveret al. (2001)l Miinzet al. (2007); (1992). andStraubhaarand Zimmermann ForAustralia seer Castlcs e141.(1998); Collins(1991.2006); LeverrTracy and Quinlan (1988); (1994); andWooden andlbr Canada Reitz(1998). On the politicaleconomy of mignnt labour, Piore(1979); and Sassen (l98lJ; (2000) 1991) arestill useful, whileStalker provides a briefoverview Oldcrstudies on ethnicenftcpreneurs include: Collinset al. (1995)t Lighr (1988); and Bonacich Waldirgerer al. (1990). For morerecenr work see Kloostennan and Rath (2003);Light and Cold (1999);Rarh (2002); (1996); Waldinger andWaldinger andLichrer(2003). cenderandmigranr Iabourar examined (2000);Browneand Misra (2003); in: Anderson Pessar and Mahler (2003); (1990.1998); Phizacklea and Schrover et al. (2007)-On irregulru migrationand the informal secrorsee:Diivell (2005); (2005); (2003). Ness andReyneri