Bomhard Nostratic Etymological Index PDF

N OSTRATIC E TYMOLOGICAL I NDEX
A LLAN R. B OMHARD
REVISED, CORRECTED, AND EXPANDED (SEPTEMBER 2013)
CHARLESTON, SC, USA
Nostratic Etymological Index

By Allan R. Bomhard
CHARLESTON, SC, USA 2013
B, A R. (1943 ) Nostratic Etymological Index / by Allan R. Bomhard (1) Nostratic Hypothesis; (2) Comparative Linguistics; (3) Proto-Indo-European.
REVISED, CORRECTED, AND EXPANDED (AS OF SEPTEMBER 2013)
Copyright 2013 by Allan R. Bomhard. All rights reserved.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword ............. i Proto-Nostratic *b .......... 1 Proto-Nostratic *p (> Proto-Afrasian *p) ...... 11 Proto-Nostratic *p (> Proto-Afrasian *f) ... 17 Proto-Nostratic *p .. 19 Proto-Nostratic *d ....... 21 Proto-Nostratic *t ... 27 Proto-Nostratic *t ... 33 Proto-Nostratic *d . 37 Proto-Nostratic *t . 39 Proto-Nostratic *t . 41 Proto-Nostratic *s .. 43 Proto-Nostratic * .... 45 Proto-Nostratic *c .. 47 Proto-Nostratic *c ... 49 Proto-Nostratic *s .... 51 Proto-Nostratic * .... 53 Proto-Nostratic * .. 55 Proto-Nostratic * ...... 57 Proto-Nostratic * .... 59 Proto-Nostratic *g ... 61 Proto-Nostratic *k .......... 67 Proto-Nostratic *k ... 73 Proto-Nostratic *g . 79 Proto-Nostratic *k .... 81 Proto-Nostratic *k .... 85 Proto-Nostratic * ... 89 Proto-Nostratic *q .......... 91 Proto-Nostratic *q .......... 93 Proto-Nostratic * .. 95 Proto-Nostratic *q .... 97 Proto-Nostratic * . 99 Proto-Nostratic * 101 Proto-Nostratic * .. 103 Proto-Nostratic *h .. 111 Proto-Nostratic * .. 113 Proto-Nostratic * .. 119 Proto-Nostratic *x .. 123 Proto-Nostraitc *x .... 125 Proto-Nostratic * .. 127 Proto-Nostratic *y .. 129 Proto-Nostratic *w ......... 131 Proto-Nostratic *m ......... 137
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.
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NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX
43. 44. 45. 46. 47.
Proto-Nostratic *n .. 147 Proto-Nostratic *n .... 151 Proto-Nostratic *l ... 153 Proto-Nostratic *r ...... 157 English-Nostratic Index ..... 159
FOREWORD This Nostratic Etymological Index contains all of the Proto-Nostratic roots and their derived verbal and nominal forms cited in the second volume of the forthcoming second revised, corrected, and expanded edition of my book Reconstructing ProtoNostratic: Comparative Phonology, Morphology, and Vocabulary (Leiden and Boston, MA: E. J. Brill [2008]). This Index does not include either the supporting data from the daughter languages or the references. Those data and references can be found in volume 2 of the first edition of that book as well as in Chapter 3 of my book The Nostratic Hypothesis in 2011: Trends and Issues (Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man [2011]). In comparing the lexical material from the various Nostratic daughter languages, I have tried to be very careful about the issue of semantic plausibility. Where there is either a one-to-one or an extremely close semantic correspondence, there is, of course, no problem. Unfortunately, things are not always this straightforward. Quite often, there is not a one-to-one semantic correspondence in such cases, we must be able to derive the proposed cognates from the postulated ancestor form by widely-attested semantic shifts and not by mere speculation. Therefore, in attempting to determine whether or not particular lexical items from the various language families under consideration might be related, I have made extensive use of Carl Darling Bucks A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages as a control for the semantic development of the proposed lexical parallels, and references to the appropriate sections of this work are given at the end of each proposed Nostratic etymology. It may be noted that, in examining the lexicons of Kartvelian, Afrasian, Uralic-Yukaghir, ElamoDravidian, Altaic, and Eskimo-Aleut, semantic shifts similar to those described by Buck for the Indo-European languages are found over and over again in these other language families as well. I cannot emphasize strongly enough that, in order to gain a complete understanding of how I arrived at my proposals, Bucks dictionary must be consulted. However, in a number of instances, where I felt it was warranted due to the wide semantic differences found among the forms cited from the daughter languages, I have given brief explanations within the etymologies themselves. As valuable as Bucks dictionary is, however, it is not without its shortcomings. In the first place, as noted by Buck himself, the dictionary is not complete due to the nature of the material involved, Buck and his assistants had to be selective in choosing what to include. Next, the research upon which the dictionary is based is now well over half a century old (it was published in 1949). Therefore, Bucks dictionary must be supplemented by more recent scholarship. Unfortunately, however, this work is spread throughout so many journal articles, dissertations, and books that it is virtually impossible to consult all of it, especially when one is dealing with multiple language families. It is not enough, moreover, simply to compare dictionary forms. Rather, when working with the lexical data from the various Nostratic daughter languages, one must strive to ascertain the underlying semantics, that is to say, the fundamental meaning or meanings from which the full set of semantic nuances are derived,
ii
based upon actual usage, wherever this is possible, and one must be cognizant of the interrelationship between social, cultural, and conceptual factors on the one hand and semantic structures on the other. It goes without saying that this is neither a simple nor an easy undertaking. The approach that I have followed thus leads to the establishment of what may be called families of words in the tradition of the great Indo-European comparative dictionaries such as Pokorny and Walde. The starting point is always the reconstructed Nostratic forms. The material cited from the individual Nostratic daughter languages is then to be judged primarily by whether or not it can be convincingly derived from the antecedent Nostratic forms either directly or through widely-attested semantic shifts. The difficulties involved in dealing with semantic change in unattested languages have been clearly articulated by Winter: The difficulties encountered by the etymologist reaching out toward unattested and hence textless languages are deep-rooted and virtually insurmountable. When one reads an intelligently written, richly documented book such as Blank 1997, one cannot help being impressed with the fact that it is relatively easy to describe and classify semantic changes such as metonymy and metaphor that occurred in the course of the history of an individual language or a group of closely related languages, but that there is a near total absence of what one might call determinacy and hence predictability as to the kind and direction of the changes that can be shown to have taken place and therefore can be expected to occur again under comparable circumstances. The applicability of a form may remain unchanged, it may be extended to cover additional meaning configurations, it may be narrowed, it may be eliminated altogether; new denotations added may concern closely related items, as in the case of metonymy, or seemingly very different ones, as when metaphors are used. As long as one limits oneself to a retrospective analysis of data from historically well-attested languages, the lack of regularity will not affect the descriptive adequacy of ones findings; if, however, one turns to the study of prehistoric stages of a language or a group of languages, one is left with hardly any welldefined criteria by which to evaluate ones hypotheses (and those of others). The only criterion that seems to be operationally usable derives from the assumption made above: if both phonetic and semantic change occurred in relatively small steps, feature by feature, component by component, then the likelihood that a hypothesis might be correct can be said to be supported in a more than subjective way. This does not eliminate the difficulty that observable change can occur in all possible directions and that to complicate matters even further, in the course of a historical development, the direction may change at any time. If that is the case, it follows that in the absence of observable data that is, under conditions normal for reconstructional linguists no objectifiable criteria can be called upon by the etymologist, and his proposals will always reflect his personal preferences. Another important point that needs to be reiterated concerns how I segment the reconstructed forms I am dealing with. Comparison of the various Nostratic
FOREWORD
iii
daughter languages indicates that the rules governing the structural patterning of roots and stems is Proto-Nostratic were most likely as follows: 1. 2. 3. There were no initial vowels in Proto-Nostratic. Therefore, every root began with a consonant. There were no initial consonant clusters either. Consequently, every root began with one and only one consonant. Medial clusters were permitted, however. Two basic root types existed: (A) *CV and (B) *CVC, where C = any nonsyllabic, and V = any vowel. Permissible root forms coincided exactly with these two syllable types. A stem could either be identical with a root or it could consist of a root plus a single derivational morpheme added as a suffix to the root: *CVC+C-. Any consonant could serve as a suffix. Note: In nominal stems, this derivational suffix was added directly to the root: *CVC+C-. In verbal stems, it was added to the root plus formative vowel: *CVC+V+C-. A stem could thus assume any one of the following shapes: (A) *CV-, (B) *CVC-, (C) *CVC+C-, or (D) (reduplicated) *CVC-CVC-. As in Proto-Altaic, the undifferentiated stems were real forms in themselves and could be used without additional suffixes or grammatical endings. However, when so used, a vowel had to be added to the stem: (A) *CV- > *CV (no change), (B) *CVC- > *CVC+V, (C) *CVC+C- > *CVC+C+V, or (D) (reduplicated) *CVC-CVC- > *CVC-CVC+V. Following Afrasian terminology, this vowel may be called a terminal vowel (TV). Not only did terminal vowels exist in Proto-Afrasian, they are also found in Dravidian, where they are called enunciative vowels, and in Elamite, where they are called thematic vowels. In Proto-Dravidian, the enunciative vowel was only required in stems ending in obstruents, which could not occur in final position.
4.
5.
The original root structure patterning was maintained longer in Afrasian, Dravidian, and Altaic than in the other branches, while the patterning found in Proto-IndoEuropean and Proto-Kartvelian has been modified by developments specific to each of these branches. The root structure constraints found in Proto-Indo-European were an innovation. In Proto-Uralic, the rule requiring that all words end in a vowel was an innovation and arose from the incorporation of the so-called terminal vowel into the stem. It should be mentioned here that reduplication was a widespread phenomenon. On the basis of the evidence of Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Kartvelian, ProtoAfrasian, Proto-Dravidian, and Proto-Altaic, it may be assumed that there were three fundamental stem types: (A) verbal stems, (B) nominal and adjectival stems, and (C) pronominal and indeclinable stems. Some stems were exclusively nominal. In the majority of cases, however, both verbal stems and nominal stems could be built from the same root. In Proto-Nostratic, only pronominal and indeclinable stems could end in a vowel. Verbal and nominal stems, on the other hand, had to end in a consonant, though, as noted above, when the undifferentiated stems were used as real words in themselves, a terminal vowel had to be added to the stem.
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The terminal vowels were morphologically significant (as were the formative vowels). Etymological (where they exist) and non-etymological dictionaries for individual languages have also been heavily consulted, as have journal articles and papers beyond count a complete list can be found in the references at the end of volume 1 of my 2008 book. The second edition of this book has a greatly expanded list of references. Proto-Nostratic verbs are cited in their root/stem form, nouns in the status indeterminatus form (that is, *-a). Adjectives did not exist as an independent grammatical category in ProtoNostratic. Intransitive verbs could function as adjectives. Also, adjectives were differentiated from nouns mainly by syntactical means a noun placed before another noun functioned as an attribute to the latter. In the Nostratic vocabulary that follows, the attributive meaning is indicated by adj.
ALLAN R. BOMHARD Charleston, SC, USA Completed June 2013
CHAPTER 1
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *b
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic p-wb-b-
ProtoNostratic b-b1.
ProtoAfrasian b-b-
ProtoDravid. p-pp-/-vv-
ProtoKartvel. b-b-
ProtoIE b -b-
ProtoEskimo p-v-
Proto-Nostratic root *ba- (~ *b-): (vb.) *ba- to pour; (n.) *ba-a torrent, outpour Proto-Nostratic root *ba- (~ *b-): (vb.) *ba- to tie, to bind; to attach, to fasten; (n.) *ba-a tie, bond, bandage, fastening Proto-Nostratic (n.) *baba father (nursery word) Proto-Nostratic (n.) *baaba child, babe (nursery word) Proto-Nostratic root *bad- (~ *bd-): (vb.) *bad- to split, to cleave, to separate, to divide; (n.) *bad-a split, crack, breach, opening Proto-Nostratic root *bad- (~ *bd-): (vb.) *bad- to waste, to dissipate, to squander; (n.) *bad-a dissipation, waste, wasteland, desolated area Proto-Nostratic root *bad- (~ *bd-): (vb.) *bad- to occur, to happen, to experience, to endure; to cause to endure, to make to suffer, to oppress; (n.) *bad-a experience, happening, trouble, distress, suffering, oppression Derivative: (n.) *bad-a need, want, lack, deprivation Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bad-a need, want, lack, deprivation (> hunger): Derivative of: (vb.) *bad- to occur, to happen, to experience, to endure; to cause to endure, to make to suffer, to oppress; (n.) *bad-a experience, happening, trouble, distress, suffering, oppression
2.
3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Proto-Nostratic root *bad- (~ *bd-): (vb.) *bad- to fall down, to lie down; to decay, to weaken; to perish; (n.) *bad-a lying down, fall, sleep, ruin
10. Proto-Nostratic root *bad- (~ *bd-): (vb.) *bad- to bring into being, to bring forth; to bring into action, to initiate, to instigate, to activate, to originate; (n.) *bad-a creation, initiation, origination 11. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bag-a goat, sheep 12. Proto-Nostratic root *bag- (~ *bg-): (vb.) *bag- to tie or bind together; (n.) *bag-a collection of things bound together: bunch, bundle, pack 13. Proto-Nostratic root *bah- (~ *bh-): (vb.) *bah- to shine; (n.) *bah-a brilliance, brightness, splendor, beauty; light; (adj.) shining, bright, radiant 14. Proto-Nostratic root *ba- (~ *b-): (vb.) *ba- to make noise; (n.) *ba-a noise, sound; voice 15. Proto-Nostratic root *ba- (~ *b-): (vb.) *ba- to cut, to cut off, to strike; (n.) *ba-a cut, strike, blow 16. Proto-Nostratic root *bak- (~ *bk-): (vb.) *bak- to declare, to utter, to announce, to assert, to proclaim; (n.) *bak-a declaration, utterance, announcement, assertion, proclamation 17. Proto-Nostratic root *bak- (~ *bk-): (vb.) *bak- to cleave, to split, to break open; (n.) *bak-a crack, split, break 18. Proto-Nostratic root *bal- (~ *bl-): (vb.) *bal- to be or become dark, obscure, blind; (n.) *bal-a darkness, obscurity, blindness; (adj.) dark, obscure, blind 19. Proto-Nostratic root *bal- (~ *bl-): (vb.) *bal- to well up, to surge, to overflow, to pour over; (n.) *bal-a outpour, downpour, surge, flow
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *b
20. Proto-Nostratic root *bal- (~ *bl-): (vb.) *bal- to bite, to eat; (n.) *bal-a bite, morsel 21. Proto-Nostratic root *bal- (~ *bl-): (vb.) *bal- to shine, to be bright; (n.) *bal-a glitter, gleam, brightness 22. Proto-Nostratic root *ban- (~ *bn-): (vb.) *ban- to pour, to sprinkle, to drip; (n.) *ban-a a drop (of water, rain, dew, etc.) 23. Proto-Nostratic root *ban- (~ *bn-): (vb.) *ban- to separate, to open, to spread; (n.) *ban-a separation, opening, stretch, spread, scattering 24. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *ban- (~ *bn-): (vb.) *ban- to cut, to strike; (n.) *ban-a cut, wound 25. Proto-Nostratic root *ban- (~ *bn-): Extended form: (vb.) *ban-V-d- to tie, bind, fasten, or twist (together); (n.) *ban-d-a tie, bond Note: Only the extended form is attested in the daughter languages. 26. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) *bar- to swell, to puff up, to expand; (n.) *bar-a swelling, bulge, increase Derivatives: (vb.) *bar- to bristle (up), to stand on end; (n.) *bar-a bristle, point, spike (vb.) bar- to blow; (n.) * bar-a wind (vb.) *bar- to be thick, bushy, shaggy; to be coarse, rough, harsh (n.) *bar-a roughness, coarseness, harshness; thickness, shagginess; (adj.) rough, harsh, coarse; thick, shaggy, bushy 27. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) *bar- to bristle (up), to stand on end; (n.) *bar-a bristle, point, spike Derivative of: (vb.) *bar- to swell, to puff up, to expand; (n.) *bar-a swelling, bulge, increase
28. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) bar- to blow; (n.) * bar-a wind Derivative of: (vb.) *bar- to swell, to puff up, to expand; (n.) *bar-a swelling, bulge, increase 29. Proto-Nostratic *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) *bar- to be thick, bushy, shaggy; to be coarse, rough, harsh; (n.) *bar-a roughness, coarseness, harshness; thickness, shagginess; (adj.) rough, harsh, coarse; thick, shaggy, bushy Derivative of: (vb.) *bar- to swell, to puff up, to expand; (n.) *bar-a swelling, bulge, increase 30. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) *bar- to bear children, to give birth; (n.) *bar-a child 31. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) *bar- to take or seize hold of, to grasp; (n.) *bar-a hold, grasp, seizure 32. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bar-a seed, grain 33. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) *bar- to shine, to be bright, to sparkle, to flash; (n.) *bar-a light, brightness; lightning 34. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) *bar- to be kind, charitable, beneficent; to do good; (n.) *bar-a goodness, kindness; (adj.) good, kind, beneficent 35. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) *bar- to split (with a tool or weapon); to cut into, to carve; to scrape; (n.) *bar-a carving, engraving, cuttings, chip 36. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) *bar- to make a sound, to utter a noise; (n.) *bar-a sound, noise 37. Proto-Nostratic *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) *bar- to walk, to go (away); (n.) *bar-a walking, going (away), leaving, departing
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *b
38. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *br-): (vb.) *bar- to be or become barren, desolate, useless, unfruitful; (n.) *bar-a open, fallow, or barren land; (adj.) barren, desolate, useless, unfruitful 39. Proto-Nostratic root *baw- (~ *bw-): (vb.) *baw- to be or become aware of or acquainted with, to observe, to notice; (n.) *baw-a awareness, knowledge 40. Proto-Nostratic root *bay- (~ *by-): (vb.) *bay- to apportion, to divide into shares, to distribute, to allot, to share; (n.) *bay-a portion, share 41. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bay-a honey, bee 42. Proto-Nostratic root *ba- (~ *b-): (vb.) *ba- to be abundant, to be numerous, to be much, to be many; (n.) *ba-a abundance; (adj.) abundant, much, many 43. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ber-a swamp 44. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *b[e]r-a knee 45. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bey-a spirit, soul, self 46. Proto-Nostratic relational marker *bi in addition to, with, together with 47. Proto-Nostratic root *bin- (~ *ben-): (vb.) *bin- to tie (together), to fasten, to twist together, to bind (together); (n.) *bin-a tie, bond 48. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bin-a, *ban-a younger relative: (m.) younger brother, younger son; (f.) younger sister, younger daughter 49. Proto-Nostratic root *bir- (~ *ber-): (vb.) *bir- to swell, to rise, to grow; (n.) *bir-a largeness, greatness, height, tallness; (adj.) big, large, great, tall Extended form: (vb.) *bir-V-g- to be high; (n.) *bir-g-a height, high place; (adj.) high, tall, lofty Note: The unextended form is found in Dravidian.
50. Proto-Nostratic root *bir- (~ *ber-): (vb.) *bir- to sing, to play (a musical instrument); (n.) *bir-a singing, playing (a musical instrument), musical instrument 51. Proto-Nostratic root *bir- (~ *ber-): (vb.) *bir- to cut, rip, pull, break, or tear off; to pull; (n.) *bir-a the act of cutting, ripping, pulling, breaking, or tearing off 52. Proto-Nostratic *bir- (~ *ber-): (vb.) *bir- to enjoy, to savor; (n.) *bir-a fruit Extended form: (n.) *bir-q-a plum 53. Proto-Nostratic root *bit- (~ *bet-): (vb.) *bit- to press between the fingers, to squeeze, to crush; (n.) *bit-a squeeze, pinch, pressure 54. Proto-Nostratic root *bi- (~ *be-): (vb.) *bi- to break, to split, to prick (tr.); to split apart, to break open, to burst forth (intr.); (n.) *bi-a break, slit, hole, piece broken off 55. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bor-a a dark color; (adj.) dark, dark-colored 56. Proto-Nostratic root *bud- (~ *bud-): (vb.) *bud- to set fire to something, to kindle; (n.) *bud-a blaze, light, fire 57. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bud-a lowest part or region (of anything) 58. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bud-a stick 59. Proto-Nostratic root *bug- (~ *bog-): (vb.) *bug- to blister, to swell; (n.) *bug-a boil, blister, pustule 60. Proto-Nostratic root *bug- (~ *bog-): Extended form: (vb.) *bug-V-r- to make a sound, to make a noise; (n.) *bug-r-a sound, noise Note: Only the extended form is attested in the daughter languages.
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *b
61. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *buk-a (~ *bok-a) male of small, hoofed animals: hegoat, buck 62. Proto-Nostratic root *bul- (~ *bol-): (vb.) *bul- to swell, to expand, to spread out, to overflow; to puff up, to inflate; (n.) *bul-a large quantity or amount; expansion, spread, inflation; puff, blow Derivatives: (n.) *bul-a (~ *bol-a) penis, testicle(s) (vb.) *bul-V-- to ripen, to blossom, to bloom, to sprout, to mature; (n.) *bul--a increase, growth, ripening, maturity, prosperity, blossoming Reduplicated: (vb.) *bul-bul- to swell, to bubble up; (n.) *bul-bul-a puff, bubble, swelling 63. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bul-a (~ *bol-a) penis, testicle(s): Derivative of: (vb.) *bul- to swell, to expand, to spread out, to overflow; to puff up, to inflate; (n.) *bul-a large quantity or amount; expansion, spread, inflation; puff, blow 64. Proto-Nostratic root *bul- (~ *bol-): Extended form: (vb.) *bul-V-- to ripen, to blossom, to bloom, to sprout, to mature; (n.) *bul--a increase, growth, ripening, maturity, prosperity, blossoming Derivative of: (vb.) *bul- to swell, to expand, to spread out, to overflow; to puff up, to inflate; (n.) *bul-a large quantity or amount; expansion, spread, inflation; puff, blow 65. Proto-Nostratic root (reduplicated) *bul-bul- (~ *bol-bol-) (> *bum-bul- [~ *bom-bol-]): (vb.) *bul-bul- (> *bum-bul-) to swell, to bubble up; (n.) *bul-bul-a (> *bum-bul-a) puff, bubble, swelling Derivative of: (vb.) *bul- to swell, to expand, to spread out, to overflow; to puff up, to inflate; (n.) *bul-a large quantity or amount; expansion, spread, inflation; puff, blow 66. Proto-Nostratic root *bul- (~ *bol-): (vb.) *bul- to mix, to mix up, to confuse; (n.) *bul-a mixture, confusion, turbidity, blur Derivative: (n.) *bul-a that which is dark, dark colored; that which has mixed colors, that which is spotted
67. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bul-a that which is dark, dark-colored; that which has mixed colors, that which is spotted Derivative of: (vb.) *bul- to mix, to mix up, to confuse; (n.) *bul-a mixture, confusion, turbidity, blur 68. Proto-Nostratic root *bul- (~ *bol-): (vb.) *bul- to crush, to grind, to weaken, to wear down; to become worn out, weak, tired, old; (n.) *bul-a that which is worn out, weak, tired: weakness, decline, decay, wear, etc.; (adj.) worn out, weak, tired, old 69. Proto-Nostratic root *bun- (~ *bon-): (vb.) *bun- to puff up, to inflate, to expand, to swell; (n.) *bun-a rounded protuberance, swelling, lump, hump, growth Extended form: (vb.) *bun-V-g- to swell, to increase, to expand; (n.) *bun-g-a swelling; (adj.) swollen, fat, thick Derivative: (vb.) *bun- to flow, to overflow; (n.) *bun-a flow, flood 70. Proto-Nostratic root *bun- (~ *bon-): (vb.) *bun- to flow, to overflow; (n.) *bun-a flow, flood Derivative of: (vb.) *bun- to puff up, to inflate, to expand, to swell; (n.) *bun-a rounded protuberance, swelling, lump, hump, growth 71. Proto-Nostratic root *bur- (~ *bor-): (vb.) *bur- to twist, to turn; (n.) *bur-a twist, turn Derivatives: (vb.) *bur- to fight, to wrangle (over), to quarrel, to wrestle; (n.) *bur-a fight, dispute, quarrel, battle, struggle (vb.) *bur- to bore, to pierce; (n.) *bur-a gimlet, borer, auger 72. Proto-Nostratic root *bur- (~ *bor-): (vb.) *bur- to fight, to wrangle (over), to quarrel, to wrestle; (n.) *bur-a fight, dispute, quarrel, battle, struggle Derivative of: (vb.) *bur- to twist, to turn; (n.) *bur-a twist, turn
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *b
73. Proto-Nostratic root *bur- (~ *bor-): (vb.) *bur- to bore, to pierce; (n.) *bur-a gimlet, borer, auger Derivative of: (vb.) *bur- to twist, to turn; (n.) *bur-a twist, turn 74. Proto-Nostratic root *bur- (~ *bor-): (vb.) *bur- to blow, to blow about, to whirl, to rage; (n.) *bur-a storm, whirl, rage 75. Proto-Nostratic root *bur- (~ *bor-): (vb.) *bur- to bite, to eat; (n.) *bur-a food 76. Proto-Nostratic root *bur- (~ *bor-): (vb.) *bur- to cover, to wrap up; (n.) *bur-a cover, covering 77. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bur-a (fine, soft) feathers, fur, wool, (body) hair 78. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bur-a eyelash, eyebrow 79. Proto-Nostratic root *buw- (~ *bow-): (vb.) *buw- to go, to come, to proceed, to spend time; (n.) *buw-a going, coming, staying; abode, dwelling, residence 80. Proto-Nostratic root *buw- (~ *bow-): (vb.) *buw- to become, to arise, to come into being, to grow; (n.) *buw-a growth, fullness, prosperity; blossom, bloom
CHAPTER 2
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *p (> PROTO-AFRASIAN *p)

Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic p-pp -p-
ProtoNostratic p -p-
ProtoAfrasian p-p-
ProtoDravid. p-pp-/-v-
ProtoKartvel. p-p-
ProtoIE p -p-
ProtoEskimo p-p(p)-
81. Proto-Nostratic root *pa- (~ *p-): (vb.) *pa- to split or break open, to split or break apart; (n.) *pa-a crack, split, opening, break 82. Proto-Nostratic root *pa- (~ *p-): (vb.) *pa- to cover up; (n.) *pa-a skin, hide, covering 83. Proto-Nostratic root *pa- (~ *p-): (vb.) *pa- to eat; (n.) *pa-a food, nourishment 84. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pak-a scab, dried mucus 85. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pal-a (metathesized variant *lap-a in Uralic, Altaic, and part of Afrasian) spleen 86. Proto-Nostratic root *pal- (~ *pl-): (vb.) *pal- to split, to cleave; (n.) *pal-a split, crack Derivative: (n.) *pal-a stone 87. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pal-a stone Derivative of: (vb.) *pal- to split, to cleave (in the sense to chip or break stone[s]); (n.) *pal-a split, crack 88. Proto-Nostratic root *pal- (~ *pl-): (vb.) *pal- to spread, to extend; (n.) *pal-a that which is wide, flat, level, broad, open: expanse, open space or surface; (adj.) wide, flat, level, broad, open Derivative: (n.) *pal- flat of the hand, palm
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89. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pal- flat of the hand, palm Derivative of: (vb.) *pal- to spread, to extend; (n.) *pal-a that which is wide, flat, level, broad, open: expanse, open space or surface; (adj.) wide, flat, level, broad, open 90. Proto-Nostratic root *pal- (~ *pl-): (vb.) *pal- to fill; (n.) *pal-a fullness; (adj.) much, many 91. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pal-a settlement, settled place 92. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pal-a thumb, big toe 93. Proto-Nostratic root *pal- (~ *pl-): (vb.) *pal- to cover, to hide, to conceal; (n.) *pal-a covering 94. Proto-Nostratic root *pal- (~ *pl-): (vb.) *pal- to burn, to be warm; to smart, to be painful; (n.) *pal-a burn, burning sensation, pain 95. Proto-Nostratic root *pa- (~ *p-): (vb.) *pa- to take in hand, to take hold of, to handle; (n.) *pa-a hand, handle Extended form (Indo-European and Uralic): (vb.) *pa-V-k- to take in hand, to take hold of, to handle; (n.) *pa-k-a hand, handle 96. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pa-a front part, head, forehead, face 97. Proto-Nostratic root *par- (~ *pr-): (vb.) *par- to be fond of, to care for, to feel affection for; to be pleased, happy, satisfied, or delighted with; (n.) *par-a love, affection; delight, joy: 98. Proto-Nostratic root *par- (~ *pr-): (vb.) *par- to separate, to divide, to break (apart); (n.) *par-a part, portion, share 99. Proto-Nostratic root *par- (~ *pr-): (vb.) *par- to spread, to scatter; (n.) *par-a breadth, width, extension, space; (adj.) broad, extended, spread out, scattered
13
100. Proto-Nostratic root *par- (~ *pr-): (vb.) *par- to press forward, to precede, to hasten in advance, to overtake, to surpass, to outstrip; (n.) *par-a leader, master, lord, hero; (adj.) chief, foremost, first 101. Proto-Nostratic root *par- (~ *pr-): (vb.) *par- to move swiftly, to hasten, to be in a hurry, to be greatly agitated; to flutter, to fly, to flee; (n.) *par-a flying, flight, fleeing Note also: (vb.) *pir- to move swiftly, to hasten, to be in a hurry, to be greatly agitated; to flutter, to fly, to flee; (n.) *pir-a flying, flight, fleeing 102. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *par-a calf, heifer Note also: (n.) *pur-a calf, heifer 103. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *par-a, (?) *pur-a house 104. Proto-Nostratic root *par- (~ *pr-): (vb.) *par- to go or pass; to go or pass over or across; to go forth or out; (n.) *par-a going, passage, journey, crossing 105. Proto-Nostratic root *par- (~ *pr-): (vb.) *par- to cover; (n.) *par-a covering 106. Proto-Nostratic root *par- (~ *pr-): (vb.) *par- to ripen, to mature, to grow old, (hair) to turn gray; (n.) *par-a ripeness, maturity; (adj.) ripe, mature, gray 107. Proto-Nostratic root *pas- (~ *ps-): (vb.) *pas- to breathe out, to blow; to fart; (n.) *pas-a a fart 108. Proto-Nostratic root *pas- (~ *ps-): (vb.) *pas- to split, to cleave, to break, to shatter; (n.) *pas-a split, break; part, share, portion 109. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pas-a sperm, semen; male genitals, penis; descendant, offspring
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110. Proto-Nostratic root *pat- (~ *pt-): (vb.) *pat- to flutter, to quiver, to tremble, to palpitate, to move rapidly; (n.) *pat-a haste, hurry 111. Proto-Nostratic root *pat- (~ *pt-): (vb.) *pat- to hasten, to move quickly; (n.) *pat-a foot 112. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pat-a chaff, husk, (unripe or blighted) grain 113. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *pek-: (vb.) *pek- to warm, to heat (> to cook, to bake); (n.) *pek-a warmth, heat; (adj.) warm, hot (> cooked, baked) 114. Proto-Nostratic root *pel-: (vb.) *pel- to tremble, to shake; to be frightened, fearful, afraid; (n.) *pel-a fright, fear 115. Proto-Nostratic root *pid- (~ *ped-): (vb.) *pid- to seize, to hold, to clutch, to capture, to cling to; (n.) *pid-a hold, grasp 116. Proto-Nostratic root *pin- (~ *pen-): (vb.) *pin- to watch (over), to protect, to nourish, to nurture; (n.) *pin-a protection, care; feeding, nourishing, nourishment 117. Proto-Nostratic root *pir- (~ *per-): (vb.) *pir- to bring forth, to bear fruit; (n.) *pir-a birth, issue, offspring, descendant, fruit 118. Proto-Nostratic root *pir- (~ *per-): (vb.) *pir- to move swiftly, to hasten, to be in a hurry, to be greatly agitated; to flutter, to fly, to flee; (n.) *pir-a flying, flight, fleeing Note also: (vb.) *par- to move swiftly, to hasten, to be in a hurry, to be greatly agitated; to flutter, to fly, to flee; (n.) *par-a flying, flight, fleeing 119. Proto-Nostratic root *pir- (~ *per-): (vb.) *pir- to twist, to turn; (n.) *pir-a twist, twining, turn; twine, string, rope, cord
15
120. Proto-Nostratic root *pir- (~ *per-): (vb.) *pir- to tremble, to shake; to be afraid, to fear; (n.) *pir-a trembling, fear 121. Proto-Nostratic root *pit- (~ *pet-): (vb.) *pit- to spread, to open; to burst open; to be open; (n.) *pit-a opening, open space; (adj.) open, spacious; wide, broad 122. Proto-Nostratic root *pit- (~ *pet-): (vb.) *pit- to give birth to; (n.) *pit-a genitals (male or female); birth, origin 123. Proto-Nostratic root *pu- (~ *po-): (vb.) *pu- to swell, to fatten; (n.) *pu-a swelling, fullness, fat(ness) 124. Proto-Nostratic root *pul- (~ *pol-) stem indicating downward motion: (vb.) *pul- to fall, to fall down, to collapse, to ruin, etc.; (n.) *pul-a fall, collapse, ruin; (n.) fallen, ruined, weakened; low, base, vile, mean 125. Proto-Nostratic root *pul- (~ *pol-): (vb.) *pul- to swell; (n.) *pul-a a swelling (on the skin): blister, abscess, pimple, etc. Derivative: (n.) *pul-a that which is fat, swollen, etc. (> tallow, grease, fat, oil, blubber, etc. in the daughter languages) 126. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pul-a that which is fat, swollen, etc. (> tallow, grease, fat, oil, blubber, etc. in the daughter languages) Derivative of: (vb.) *pul- to swell; (n.) *pul-a a swelling (on the skin): blister, abscess, pimple, etc. 127. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pur-a calf, heifer Note also: (n.) *par-a calf, heifer 128. Proto-Nostratic root *pu- (~ *po-): (vb.) *pu- to breathe out, to sigh; to blow, to puff (up), to inflate; (n.) *pu-a puff, breath, snort; bulge
CHAPTER 3
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *p (> PROTO-AFRASIAN *f)

Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic p-pp -p-
ProtoNostratic p -p-
ProtoAfrasian f-f-
ProtoKartvel. p-p-
ProtoIE p -p-
ProtoEskimo p-p(p)-
129. Proto-Nostratic root *pa- (~ *p-): (vb.) *pa- to warm, to heat, to burn; (n.) *pa-a fire, flame, spark Extended form: (vb.) *pa-V-w- to warm, to heat, to burn; (n.) *pa-w-a fire, flame, spark 130. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pal-a skin, hide 131. Proto-Nostratic root *pid- (~ *ped-): (vb.) *pid- to tear, to pluck, to pull; to tear off, to pluck off, to pull off; to tear out, to pluck out, to pull out; (n.) *pid-a the act of pulling, tearing, plucking 132. Proto-Nostratic root *pil- (~ *pel-): (vb.) *pil- to split, to cleave; (n.) *pil-a split, crack 133. Proto-Nostratic root *pin- (~ *pen-): (vb.) *pin- to break; (n.) *pin-a break 134. Proto-Nostratic root *pir- (~ *per-): (vb.) *pir- to ask, to request, to entreat, to beseech, to pray; (n.) *pir-a request, entreaty, prayer 135. Proto-Nostratic root *put- (~ *pot-): (vb.) *put- to vomit; (n.) *put-a vomit 136. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *put-a hole, opening
18
137. Proto-Nostratic root *puw- (~ *pow-): (vb.) *puw- to puff, to blow, to exhale; to puff up, to inflate; (n.) *puw-a a puff, the act of blowing, breath
CHAPTER 4
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *p
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic p-pp-p-
ProtoNostratic p-p-
ProtoAfrasian p-p-
ProtoKartvel. p-p-
ProtoIE p-p-
ProtoEskimo p-p-/ -pp-
138. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pap-a old man, old woman 139. Proto-Nostratic root *pul- (~ *pol-): (vb.) *pul- to swell; (n.) *pul-a swelling, hump, lump, bulge; (adj.) swollen, round, bulbous 140. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pul-a mist, fog, haze; smoke, steam; cloud 141. Proto-Nostratic root *put- (~ *pot-): (vb.) *put- to cut, tear, break, or pull off or apart; (n.) *put-a cut-off, pulled-off, torn-off, or broken-off piece or part
CHAPTER 5
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *d
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic t-td-d-
ProtoNostratic d-d-
ProtoAfrasian d-d-
ProtoDravid. t-()-
ProtoKartvel. d-d-
ProtoIE d -d-
ProtoEskimo t--
142. Proto-Nostratic relational marker *da- (~ *d-) along with, together with, in addition to 143. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *da- mother, sister; (reduplicated) (n.) *da-da- mother, sister (nursery words) 144. Proto-Nostratic root *dab- (~ *db-): (vb.) *dab- to make fast, to join together, to fit together, to fasten (together); (n.) *dab-a joining, fitting, fastening 145. Proto-Nostratic root *dag- (~ *dg-): (vb.) dag- to put, to place, to put in place; to be put in place, to be stable, to be firmly established; (n.) *dag-a place 146. Proto-Nostratic root *da- (~ *d-): (vb.) *da- to glitter, to shine, to burn; (n.) *da-a day 147. Proto-Nostratic root *dal- (~ *dl-): (vb.) *dal- to cut, to prick, to pierce, to gash, to notch, to gouge, to wound; (n.) *dal-a gash, notch, strike, split 148. Proto-Nostratic root *dal- (~ *dl-): (vb.) *dal- to stir up, to disturb, to roil (water), to agitate; to be disturbed, confused, agitated, troubled; (n.) *dal-a disturbance, agitation Note also: (vb.) *dul- to disturb, to perplex, to bewilder, to confuse, to ruffle, to upset, to baffle, to stir up trouble, to agitate; to be disturbed, perplexed, bewildered, confused, ruffled, upset, baffled, troubled, agitated (> to drive someone crazy, mad, insane; to be crazy, mad, insane; to be dumb, stupid); (n.) *dul-a confusion, disturbance, trouble, agitation, perplexity (> madness, craziness, insanity; stupidity)
22
149. Proto-Nostratic root *dal- (~ *dl-): (vb.) *dal- to oppress, to harass, to weaken, to tire; (n.) *dal-a tiredness, weakness, exhaustion, weariness; (adj.) oppressed, tired, weary, weak, exhausted 150. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *daq-a male of certain animals: billy-goat, ram 151. Proto-Nostratic root *dar- (~ *dr-): (vb.) *dar- to bend, to twist, to turn; to twist, wrap, or join together; (n.) *dar-a bend, turn, curve; that which bends, turns, winds, or twists: winding course or way; (adj.) bent, curved, crooked; wrapped, twisted, turned, or joined together 152. Proto-Nostratic root *dar- (~ *dr-): (vb.) *dar- to pound, to break; to harm, to injure, to torment; (n.) *dar-a harm, injury; (adj.) harmful, malevolent (> bad in Kartvelian and, within Indo-European, in Celtic) 153. Proto-Nostratic root *dar- (~ *dr-): (vb.) *dar- to be or become dark; (n.) *dar-a dark spot, darkness; (adj.) dark, black 154. Proto-Nostratic root *dar- (~ *dr-): (vb.) *dar- to swell, to enlarge; (n.) *dar-a swelling, inflammation, blister, blotch, blemish; outgrowth, tumor 155. Proto-Nostratic root (?) *daw- (~ *dw-): (vb.) *daw- to sound, to resound, to make a noise; (n.) *daw-a sound, noise 156. Proto-Nostratic root *daw- (~ *dw-): (vb.) *daw- to put, to place, to set; to set up, to establish; to do, to make; (n.) *daw-a work, labor; deed, act 157. Proto-Nostratic root *daw- (~ *dw-): (vb.) *daw- to become deathly sick, to be ill; to die; (n.) *daw-a (deadly) disease, sickness; death 158. Proto-Nostratic root *day- (~ *dy-): (vb.) *day- to throw, to cast, to put, to place; (n.) *day-a act, deed
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *d
23
159. Proto-Nostratic root *day- (~ *dy-): (vb.) *day- to look at, to consider, to examine; (n.) *day-a judgment, examination, consideration 160. Proto-Nostratic root *day- (~ *dy-): (vb.) *day- to take, to bring, to convey; (n.) *day-a leader, guide 161. Proto-Nostratic root *did- (~ *ded-): (vb.) *did- to swell, to rise; (n.) *did-a prominence, protuberance; (adj.) swollen, raised 162. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dig-a fish 163. Proto-Nostratic root *di- (~ *de-): (vb.) *di- to be confused, puzzled, perplexed; (n.) *di-a confusion, perplexity 164. Proto-Nostratic root *dil- (~ *del-): (vb.) *dil- to shine, to be or become bright; (n.) *dil-a daylight, morning 165. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dim-a raised or elevated place; (adj.) raised, elevated 166. Proto-Nostratic root *diq- (~ *deq-): (vb.) *diq- to crush, to pound or tamp (earth), to mold or knead (clay); (n.) *diq-a earth, clay, mud 167. Proto-Nostratic root *diy- (~ *dey-): (vb.) *diy- to suck, to suckle; (n.) *diy-a breast, teat, nipple 168. Proto-Nostratic root *dow-, *doy-: (vb.) *dow-, *doy- to slacken, to slow down; to grow weary, weak, faint; (n.) *dow-a, *doy-a slackness, slowness, laxity, weariness, fatigue; (adj.) slow, slack, lax, weary 169. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dub-a back, hind part 170. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dud-a tip, point 171. Proto-Nostratic root *dul- (~ *dol-): (vb.) *dul- to burn, to be bright, to warm, to heat up; (n.) *dul-a heat, warmth, fire
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172. Proto-Nostratic root *dul- (~ *dol-): (vb.) *dul- to disturb, to perplex, to bewilder, to confuse, to ruffle, to upset, to baffle, to stir up trouble, to agitate; to be disturbed, perplexed, bewildered, confused, ruffled, upset, baffled, troubled, agitated (> to drive someone crazy, mad, insane; to be crazy, mad, insane; to be dumb, stupid); (n.) *dul-a confusion, disturbance, trouble, agitation, perplexity (> madness, craziness, insanity; stupidity) Note also: (vb.) *dal- to stir up, to disturb, to roil (water), to agitate; to be disturbed, confused, agitated, troubled; (n.) *dal-a disturbance, agitation 173. Proto-Nostratic root *dul- (~ *dol-): (vb.) *dul- to dangle, to hang, to swing back and forth; (n.) *dul- hanging, swinging; shaking, agitation, disturbance 174. Proto-Nostratic root *dum- (~ *dom-): (vb.) *dum- to cut (off), to sever; (n.) *dum-a cut, severance; piece cut off, bit, fragment 175. Proto-Nostratic root *dum- (~ *dom-): (vb.) *dum- to be silent; (n.) *dum-a silence 176. Proto-Nostratic root *dum- (~ *dom-): (vb.) *dum- to cover over, to obscure; to cloud over; to become dark, to make dark, to darken; (n.) *dum-a darkness, cloud, fog; (adj.) dark, cloudy Derivative: (n.) (*dum-k-a >) *dun-k-a darkness, cloud; (adj.) dark, cloudy 177. Proto-Nostratic (n.) (*dum-k-a >) *dun-k-a darkness, cloud; (adj.) dark, cloudy: Derivative of: (vb.) *dum- to cover over, to obscure; to cloud over; to become dark, to make dark, to darken; (n.) *dum-a darkness, cloud, fog; (adj.) dark, cloudy 178. Proto-Nostratic root *dun- (~ *don-): (vb.) *dun- to run, to flow (out), to leak; (n.) *dun-a flow, spill, leak 179. Proto-Nostratic root *dun- (~ *don-): (vb.) *dun- to cut off, to cleave, to split; (n.) *dun-a part, share; piece cut off, bit, fragment
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *d
25
180. Proto-Nostratic root *dur- (~ *dor-): (vb.) *dur- to bore, to drill, to make a hole; (n.) *dur-a hole, opening 181. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dur-a goat, sheep, ram (perhaps originally horned animal) 182. Proto-Nostratic root *duw- (~ *dow-): (vb.) *duw- to blow about, to fly about, to scatter; to be blown, strewn, or scattered about; (n.) *duw-a anything blown, sprinkled, scattered, or strewn about: smoke, steam, vapor; rain, shower, drizzle, raindrops; dust; (adj.) blown about, sprinkled, scattered, strewn
CHAPTER 6
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *t
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic t-t(t)t-t-
ProtoNostratic t-t-
ProtoAfrasian t-t-
ProtoDravid. t-t(t)-
ProtoKartvel. t-t-
ProtoIE t-t-
ProtoEskimo t-t(t)-
183. Proto-Nostratic demonstrative stems: Proximate: *ta- (~ *t-) this; Intermediate: *ti- (~ *te-) that; Distant: *tu- (~ *to-) that yonder 184. Proto-Nostratic root *ta- (~ *t-): (vb.) *ta- to reduce, to diminish, to wear away, to lessen; to waste away, to grow thin; (n.) *ta-a wear, decay, dissipation, maceration 185. Proto-Nostratic root *tak- (~ *tk-): (vb.) *tak- to twist, to bend; to fasten, twist, bend, join, or hook together; to be twisted, bent; (n.) *tak-a hook, peg 186. Proto-Nostratic root *tak- (~ *tk-): (vb.) *tak- to touch, to push, to strike; (n.) *tak-a touch, stroke 187. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *tal-a head, top, end 188. Proto-Nostratic root *tal- (~ *tl-): (vb.) *tal- (primary meaning) to stretch, to spread, to extend, (secondary meaning) to endure, to suffer, to bear; (n.) *tal-a stretch, spread, thinness, breadth; pain, suffering, endurance; (adj.) stretched, spread out, extended (> broad, wide, thin, flat, etc.) 189. Proto-Nostratic root *tal- (~ *tl-): (vb.) *tal- to press, to thrust, to force, to push; (n.) *tal-a pressure, thrust, force, push
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190. Proto-Nostratic root *tan- (~ *tn-): (vb.) *tan- to extend, to spread, to stretch; to endure, to be long-lasting; (n.) *tan-a extension, width, length, breadth; (adj.) stretched, extended, wide, broad, long-lasting Derivative: (vb.) *tan- to be or become worn out, tired, old; (n.) *tan-a exhaustion, weariness, fatigue; (adj.) worn out, tired, old 191. Proto-Nostratic root *tan- (~ *tn-): (vb.) *tan- to grow weary, exhausted, tired, old; (n.) *tan-a exhaustion, weariness, fatigue, old age; (adj.) tired, weary, exhausted, old Derivative of: (vb.) *tan- to extend, to spread, to stretch; to endure, to be long-lasting; (n.) *tan-a extension, width, length, breadth; (adj.) stretched, extended, wide, broad, long-lasting 192. Proto-Nostratic root *tap- (~ *tp-): (vb.) *tap- to strike, to knock, to hit, to beat, to pound; to trample; (n.) *tap-a stroke, slap, blow, hit Note also: (vb.) *tap- to strike, to beat, to pound; (n.) *tap-a stroke, blow 193. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to draw, to drag, to pull; (n.) *tar-a drag, pull; something dragged or pulled along Possible derivative: (vb.) *tar- to spread, to spread out or about, to expand, to extend; to stretch, to stretch out; to scatter, to strew; (n.) *tar-a stretch, spread, expanse; (adj.) stretched, tight, taut; spread, scattered, dispersed 194. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to spread, to spread out or about, to expand, to extend; to stretch, to stretch out; to scatter, to strew; (n.) *tar-a stretch, spread, expanse; (adj.) stretched, tight, taut; spread, scattered, dispersed Perhaps derived from: (vb.) *tar- to draw, to drag, to pull, in the sense to stretch by pulling; (n.) *tar-a drag, pull; something dragged or pulled along
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *t
29
195. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to tear, to break, to split, to pierce; (n.) *tar-a cut, tear, split, incision; wound, injury; spear 196. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to rub, to wear down; (n.) *tar-a wear; (adj.) worn out, rubbed, abraded Possible Derivatives: (vb.) *tar- to wither, to wane, to dry up; (n.) *tar-a dryness; (adj.) withered, dry, dried up, arid (vb.) *tar- to scratch, to scrape, to plane; (n.) *tar-a scratching, scraping, raking; rake, comb 197. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to wither, to wane, to dry up; (n.) *tar-a dryness; (adj.) withered, dry, dried up, arid Perhaps derived from: (vb.) *tar- to rub, to wear down; (n.) *tar-a wear; (adj.) worn out, rubbed, abraded 198. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to scratch, to scrape, to plane; (n.) *tar-a scratching, scraping, raking; rake, comb Perhaps derived from: (vb.) *tar- to rub, to wear down; (n.) *tar-a wear; (adj.) worn out, rubbed, abraded 199. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to drink; (n.) *tar-a a drink; the act of drinking; (adj.) drunk, tipsy, intoxicated 200. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to tremble, to shake; (n.) *tar-a trembling, shaking (from fear, fright) 201. Proto-Nostratic root *taw- (~ *tw-): (vb.) *taw- to swell; (n.) *taw-a swelling, protuberance, bulge, lump, hump; (adj.) swollen, full, fat 202. Proto-Nostratic *tek-: (vb.) *tek- to take (away), to grasp, to seize, to remove; (n.) *tek-a the act of taking, grasping, seizing, removing
30
203. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *tep-: (vb.) *tep- to warm, to burn; (n.) *tep-a heat, warmth Note also: (vb.) *tab- to be or become warm; to make warm, to heat up; to cook; (n.) *tab-a heat, warmth; (adj.) hot, warm; cooked, baked 204. Proto-Nostratic second person pronoun stem: *ti- (~ *te-) you; (oblique form) *ta- (~ *t-) 205. Proto-Nostratic root *tik- (~ *tek-): (vb.) *tik- to form, to fashion, to make, to create; (n.) *tik-a tool used to form, fashion, make, or create something: axe, adze, chisel, etc.; the act of forming, fashioning, making, or creating something: action, deed, etc. 206. Proto-Nostratic root *tik- (~ *tek-): (vb.) *tik- to press or squeeze together; (n.) *tik-a pressure, solidity, hardness, massiveness, firmness; (adj.) compact, thick, massive, solid, firm 207. Proto-Nostratic root *tir- (~ *ter-): (vb.) *tir- to have enough or more than enough, to have all needs fulfilled, to be satisfied, to have plenty; (n.) *tir-a abundance, fullness; (adj.) enough, abundant, full Extended form: (vb.) *tir-V-p- to have enough, to have all needs fulfilled, to be satisfied, to have plenty; (n.) *tir-p-a abundance, excess, surplus, plenty 208. Proto-Nostratic root *tir- (~ *ter-): Extended form: (vb.) *tir-V-p- to have enough, to have all needs fulfilled, to be satisfied, to have plenty; (n.) *tir-p-a abundance, excess, surplus, plenty Derivative of: (vb.) *tir- to have enough or more than enough, to have all needs fulfilled, to be satisfied, to have plenty; (n.) *tir-a abundance, fullness; (adj.) enough, abundant, full 209. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *tor-a dust, soil, earth
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *t
31
210. Proto-Nostratic root *tow-: (vb.) *tow- to snow; (n.) *tow-a snow-storm; snow, (hoar)frost 211. Proto-Nostratic root *tuk- (~ *tok-): (vb.) *tuk- to burn, to blaze; (n.) *tuk-a ash(es), soot 212. Proto-Nostratic root *tul- (~ *tol-): (vb.) *tul- to lift, to raise; to pile up, to stack (in a heap); (n.) *tul-a hill, mound; stack, heap 213. Proto-Nostratic root *tum- (~ *tom-): (vb.) *tum- to cover over, to hide; to become dark; (n.) *tum-a darkness; (adj.) dark 214. Proto-Nostratic root *tup-: (vb.) *tup- to spit; (n.) *tup-a spittle, saliva 215. Proto-Nostratic root *tur- (~ *tor-): (vb.) *tur- to cram, to push in, to stuff, to thrust in, to press in; (n.) *tur-a pressure, force, thrust
CHAPTER 7
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *t
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic t-tt-t-
ProtoNostratic t-t-
ProtoAfrasian t-t-
ProtoDravid. t-t(t)-
ProtoKartvel. t-t-
ProtoIE t-t-
ProtoEskimo t-t-
216. Proto-Nostratic root *tab- (~ *tb-): (vb.) *tab- to be or become warm; to make warm, to heat up; to cook; (n.) *tab-a heat, warmth; (adj.) hot, warm; cooked, baked Note also: (vb.) *tep- to warm, to burn; (n.) *tep-a heat, warmth 217. Proto-Nostratic root *tad- (*td-): (vb.) *tad- to hinder, to stop, to obstruct; (n.) *tad-a hindrance, obstacle, impediment, obstruction 218. Proto-Nostratic root *ta- (~ *t-): (vb.) *ta- to break, to split; to crush, to grind, to pound; (n.) *ta-a break, split, division; anything ground or pulverized 219. Proto-Nostratic root *tak- (~ *tk-): (vb.) *tak- to be fit, appropriate, suitable, proper; (n.) *tak-a fitness, appropriateness, suitability, propriety; (adj.) fit, appropriate, suitable, proper 220. Proto-Nostratic root *tal- (~ *tl-): (vb.) *tal- to lick; (n.) *tal-a licking 221. Proto-Nostratic root *tal- (~ *tl-): (vb.) *tal- to plunge, sink, dive, dip, or fall into; to immerse; (n.) *tal-a immersion; depth 222. Proto-Nostratic root *tal- (~ *tl-): (vb.) *tal- to stretch out, to extend; (n.) *tal-a length; height; (adj.) long, tall; high
34
223. Proto-Nostratic root *tal-: (vb.) *tal- to drip, to fall in drops, to sprinkle, to wet, to moisten; (n.) *tal-a dew, (rain) drop, drizzle 224. Proto-Nostratic root *tan- (~ *tn-): (vb.) *tan- to fill, to stuff, to pack or load tightly together; (n.) *tan-a closeness, thickness, density; load, burden; (adj.) tightly packed or pressed together; close, thick, dense 225. Proto-Nostratic root *tan- (~ *tn-): (vb.) *tan- to tie, to bind, to plait, to weave; (n.) *tan-a anything woven or plaited 226. Proto-Nostratic root *tap- (~ *tp-): (vb.) *tap- to strike, to beat, to pound; (n.) *tap-a stroke, blow Note also: (vb.) *tap- to strike, to knock, to hit, to beat, to pound; to trample; (n.) *tap-a stroke, slap, blow, hit 227. Proto-Nostratic root *taq- (~ *tq-): (vb.) *taq- to cover, to protect; (n.) *taq-a covering 228. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to tear, to rend, to cut, to sever; (n.) *tar-a rip, tear, cut, slice Extended form: (vb.) *tar-V-p- to tear, to rend, to pluck; (n.) *tar-p-a tearing, rending, plucking 229. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): Extended form: (vb.) *tar-V-p- to tear, to rend, to pluck; (n.) *tar-p-a tearing, rending, plucking Derivative of: (vb.) *tar- to tear, to rend, to cut, to sever; (n.) *tar-a rip, tear, cut, slice 230. Proto-Nostratic root *taw- (~ *tw-): (vb.) *taw- to go, to leave, to go away; to let go; (n.) *taw-a distance, remoteness; (adj.) far away, remote, at a distance
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *t
35
231. Proto-Nostratic root *taw- (~ *tw-): (vb.) *taw- to hit, to strike; (n.) *taw-a stroke, blow, injury, harm, damage 232. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *tay-a (elder) male in-law, (elder) male relative 233. Proto-Nostratic root *tay- (~ *ty-) or *tiy- (~ *tey-): (vb.) *tay- or *tiy- to shine, to gleam, to be bright, to glitter, to glow; to burn brightly; (n.) *tay-a or *tiy-a light, brightness, heat 234. Proto-Nostratic root *te-: (vb.) *te- to say, to speak; (n.) *te-a sound, speech 235. Proto-Nostratic root *tel-: (vb.) *tel- to ask for, to request, to beg, to beseech; (n.) *tel-a request, wish, desire 236. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *tid-a elevated ground, hill, mountain: 237. Proto-Nostratic root *til- (~ *tel-): (vb.) *til- to say, to tell; to recount, to list, to enumerate; (n.) *til-a talk, speech, discourse, tale Derivative: (n.) *til-a tongue, language 238. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *til-a tongue, language: Derivative of: (vb.) *til- to say, to tell; to recount, to list, to enumerate; (n.) *til-a talk, speech, discourse, tale 239. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *tox-: (vb.) *tox- to give, to bring; (n.) *tox-a giving, gift, present 240. Proto-Nostratic root *tu- (~ *to-): (vb.) *tu- to separate, divide, or split into two parts; to cut in half; (n.) *tu-a separation or division into two; two halves (used as the base for the numeral two in Indo-European and Altaic)
36
241. Proto-Nostratic root *tuk- (~ *tok-): (vb.) *tuk- to knock, to beat, to strike, to pound, to trample; (n.) *tuk-a knock, thump, blow, stroke 242. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *tul-a wedge, peg 243. Proto-Nostratic root *tum- (~ *tom-): (vb.) *tum- to quiet, to calm, to pacify, to tame; (n.) *tum-a quietness, calmness, peace, tranquility; (adj.) quiet, calm, tame, peaceful 244. Proto-Nostratic root *tuq- (~ *toq-): (vb.) *tuq- to be dark, cloudy, dusty, dirty, sooty, smoky; (n.) *tuq-a darkness, (dark) cloud, dust, dirt, soot, smoke
CHAPTER 8
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *d
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic t-t--/ -d-
ProtoNostratic d-d-
ProtoAfrasian d-d-
ProtoDravid. c-c(c)-/ -y-
ProtoKartvel. g-g-
ProtoIE d -d-
ProtoEskimo c-c-
245. Proto-Nostratic root *dab- (~ *db-): (vb.) *dab- to beat, to hit, to strike, to harm, to injure; (n.) *dab-a stroke, blow, harm, injury; slaughter, killing 246. Proto-Nostratic root *dak- (~ *dk-): (vb.) *dak- to blaze, to be bright; (n.) *dak-a (burning) embers, fire, flame 247. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dan-w-a a kind of tree or bush 248. Proto-Nostratic root *dar- (~ *dr-): (vb.) *dar- to hold firmly; (n.) *dar-a firm grip; hand, arm 249. Proto-Nostratic root *daw- (~ *dw-): (vb.) *daw- to run, to flow; (n.) *daw-a stream, current, flow; (adj.) running, flowing 250. Proto-Nostratic indefinite pronoun stem *di- (~ *de-) this one, that one 251. Proto-Nostratic root *di- (~ *de-): (vb.) *di- to reach, to arrive at, to come to; to surpass, to exceed; (n.) *di-a arrival, attainment, ripening 252. Proto-Nostratic root *dip- (~ *dep-): (vb.) *dip- to stink, to give off a strong odor; (n.) *dip-a pungent smell, stench
CHAPTER 9
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *t
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic t-t--
ProtoNostratic t-t-
ProtoAfrasian t-t-
ProtoKartvel. k-k-
ProtoIE t-t-
ProtoEskimo c-c(c)-
253. Proto-Nostratic deictic stem *ta- that over there, that yonder (not very far) 254. Proto-Nostratic root *tal- (~ *tl-): (vb.) *tal- to strike with a sharp instrument; (n.) *tal-a strike, blow; sharp instrument Derivative: (n.) *tal-m-a breach, opening, gap; crack, fissure, rift; hole 255. Proto-Nostratic root *tal- (~ *tl-): Extended form: (n.) *tal-m-a breach, opening, gap; crack, fissure, rift; hole Derivative of: (vb.) *tal- to strike with a sharp instrument; (n.) *tal-a strike, blow; sharp instrument 256. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to advance to or toward an end or a goal; to attain or achieve an end or a goal, to reach, to come to, to arrive at; (n.) *tar-a advance, arrival, goal, attainment, end, aim; approach 257. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *tin-a the other or opposite side; (adj.) different, other 258. Proto-Nostratic root *tiq- (~ *teq-): (vb.) *tiq- to swell; (n.) *tiq-a swelling, growth 259. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *tom-a wild bovine 260. Proto-Nostratic root *tum- (~ *tom-): (vb.) *tum- to strike, to beat, to pound, to knock; to tire out, to weary; to be or become weak or weary, to fade, to waste away; (n.) *tum-a fatigue, weariness, dullness, stupor
CHAPTER 10
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *t
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic t-tt--
ProtoNostratic t-t-
ProtoAfrasian t-t-
ProtoKartvel. k-k-
ProtoIE t-t-
ProtoEskimo c-c-
261. Proto-Nostratic root *tad- (~ *td-): (vb.) *tad- to strike, to beat, to pound, to hammer; (n.) *tad-a hammer 262. Proto-Nostratic root *tak- (~ *tk-): (vb.) *tak- to cut into small pieces, to chop, to chip; (n.) *tak-a chip, small piece 263. Proto-Nostratic root *tal- (~ *tl-) and/or *til- (~ *tel-): (vb.) *tal- and/or *til- to overshadow, to cover over, to make dark; (n.) *tal-a and/or *til-a shade, shadow; covering; darkness 264. Proto-Nostratic root *tam- (~ *tm-): (vb.) *tam- to be sour, bitter; (n.) *tam-a that which is sour, bitter, rotten, or spoiled 265. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to be or become stuck, joined, or bound together; to be firmly or strongly attached; (n.) *tar-a firmness, solidity, strength; (adj.) firm, solid, strong, steadfast Derivative: (vb.) *tar- to be rough, coarse, rigid, stiff, hard; (n.) *tar-a that which is rough, coarse, rigid, stiff, hard; (adj.) rough, coarse, rigid, stiff, hard 266. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to be rough, coarse, rigid, stiff, hard; (n.) *tar-a that which is rough, coarse, rigid, stiff, hard; (adj.) rough, coarse, rigid, stiff, hard Derivative of: (vb.) *tar- to be or become stuck, joined, or bound together; to be firmly or strongly attached; (n.) *tar-a firmness, solidity, strength; (adj.) firm, solid, strong, steadfast
42
267. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-): (vb.) *tar- to cut, to split; (n.) *tar-a cut, split, rip, tear; damage; (adj.) cut, split, ripped, torn 268. Proto-Nostratic root *tar- (~ *tr-) (onomatopoeic): (vb.) *tar- to make a noise; (n.) *tar-a (rustling or rumbling) noise 269. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *taw-a bad thing, evil, wickedness; (adj.) bad, evil 270. Proto-Nostratic root *ti- (~ *te-): (vb.) *ti- to think, to consider; (n.) *ti-a thought, consideration, idea 271. Proto-Nostratic root *tip- (~ *tep-): (vb.) *tip- to pinch, to nip; (n.) *tip-a fingernail, claw 272. Proto-Nostratic root *tor-: (vb.) *tor- to run, to flow; (n.) *tor-a running, flowing; (adj.) speedy, swift
CHAPTER 11
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *s
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic s-ss-s-
ProtoNostratic s -s-
ProtoAfrasian s -s-
ProtoKartvel. k-k-
ProtoIE s-s-
ProtoEskimo s-s-
273. Proto-Nostratic root *sam- (~ *sm-): (vb.) *sam- to be hot, sunny; (n.) *sam-a summer 274. Proto-Nostratic root *saw- (~ *sw-): (vb.) *saw- to be dry, arid, withered; (n.) *saw-a dryness, dry place; (adj.) dry, arid, withered 275. Proto-Nostratic root *saw- (~ *sw-) or *sew-: (vb.) *saw- to give birth, to bring forth, to be born; (n.) *saw-a son, child 276. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *saw-a wild boar 277. Proto-Nostratic root *sax- (~ *sx-): (vb.) *sax- to be or become hot, warm; to heat up, to make hot, to warm, to burn; (n.) *sax-a warmth, heat; sun 278. Proto-Nostratic root *sen-: (vb.) *sen- to change, to deteriorate, to grow old; (n.) *sen-a old age; old person; (adj.) aged, old 279. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *sil-a fat, lard 280. Proto-Nostratic root *sil- (~ *sel-): (vb.) *sil- to take (away), to seize, to snatch; (n.) *sil-a removal, robbery, plunder
44
281. Proto-Nostratic root *sir- (~ *ser-): (vb.) *sir- to twist, turn, tie, or bind together; (n.) *sir-a band, cord, any cord-like object: sinew, tendon, nerve, vein Perhaps related to: (n.) *sir-a root (of tree or plant) 282. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *sir-a root (of tree or plant) Perhaps related to: (vb.) *sir- to twist, turn, tie, or bind together; (n.) *sir-a band, cord, any cord-like object: sinew, tendon, nerve, vein 283. Proto-Nostratic root *sol-: (vb.) *sol- to be safe, well, sound; (n.) *sol-a safety; health, welfare; (adj.) safe, well, sound 284. Proto-Nostratic root *sor-: (vb.) *sor- to surge, gush, flow, spring, or spread forth; (n.) *sor-a surge, gush, flow 285. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *sub-a end, edge; top, front part 286. Proto-Nostratic root *sur- (~ *sor-): (vb.) *sur- to frighten; to be or become frightened, to fear; (n.) *sur-a fear 287. Proto-Nostratic root *suw- (~ *sow-): (vb.) *suw- to be proper, fitting, suitable, appropriate, good, well, fine, beautiful; (n.) *suw-a propriety, suitability, appropriateness; (adj.) proper, fitting, suitable, appropriate Semantics as in Geez / Ethiopic annaya [] to be beautiful, to be good, to seem good, to be well, to be fine, to be excellent, to be fitting, to be appropriate and its derivatives.
CHAPTER 12
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic ---/ -d-
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian --
ProtoDravid. c-c(c)-
ProtoKartvel. --
ProtoIE d -d-
ProtoEskimo c-c-
288. Proto-Nostratic root *ag- (~ *g-): (vb.) *ag- to push, to shove, to drive; (n.) *ag-a push, shove, force Related to: (vb.) *ag- to stuff, press, or squeeze tight; (n.) *ag-a plug; (adj.) pressing, squeezing, cramming 289. Proto-Nostratic root *ag- (~ *g-): (vb.) *ag- to stuff, press, or squeeze tight; (n.) *ag-a plug; (adj.) pressing, squeezing, cramming Related to: (vb.) *ag- to push, to shove, to drive; (n.) *ag-a push, shove, force 290. Proto-Nostratic root *ag- (~ *g-): (vb.) *ag- to whet, to sharpen; (n.) *ag-a edge, side 291. Proto-Nostratic root *ak- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ak- to make fun of, to deride, to mock; to make sport, to play about, to joke; (n.) *ak-a mockery, ridicule, sport 292. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-) or *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- or *ar- to run, flow, leak, or spill out; to spring forth, to issue (from); to flow or gush forth; (n.) *ar-a or *ar-a drizzle, rain, downpour; current, stream, torrent 293. Proto-Nostratic root *er- or *er-: (vb.) *er- or *er- to pierce, to jab, to stab, to thrust or shove into; (n.) *er-a or *er-a spear, javelin, weapon
46
294. Proto-Nostratic root *il- (~ *el-) or *il- (~ *el-): (vb.) *il- or *il- to flow, to flow forth; (n.) *il-a or *il-a drip, drop, raindrop; (adj.) flowing, trickling, dropping, sprinkling Probably identical to: (vb.) *il- or *il- to glide, to slide; (n.) *il-a or *il-a the act of slipping, sliding, gliding; (adj.) smooth, slippery 295. Proto-Nostratic root *il- (~ *el-) or *il- (~ *el-): (vb.) *il- or *il- to glide, to slide; (n.) *il-a or *il-a the act of slipping, sliding, gliding; (adj.) smooth, slippery Probably identical to: (vb.) *il- or *il- to flow, to flow forth; (n.) *il-a or *il-a drip, drop, raindrop; (adj.) flowing, trickling, dropping, sprinkling 296. Proto-Nostratic root *im- (~ *em-) or *im- (~ *em-): (vb.) *im- or *im- to blow, to play (a wind instrument); (n.) *im-a or *im-a blowing, playing (a wind instrument) 297. Proto-Nostratic root *um- (~ *om-) or *um- (~ *om-): (vb.) *um- or *um- to take, to seize; (n.) *um-a or *um-a the act of taking or seizing; (adj.) taking, seizing 298. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *u-a nipple, breast
CHAPTER 13
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *c
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic ---
ProtoNostratic c-c-
ProtoAfrasian c-c-
ProtoKartvel. c-c-
ProtoIE t-t-
ProtoEskimo c-c(c)-
299. Proto-Nostratic root *cag- (~ *cg-): (vb.) *cag- to prick, to pierce; (n.) *cag-a prick, sting, rupture 300. Proto-Nostratic root *ca- (~ *c-): (vb.) *ca- to crush, to pound, to grind, to beat, to bruise, to destroy; (n.) *ca-a the act of crushing, beating, thrashing, pounding, grinding; (adj.) crushing, beating, thrashing, pounding, grinding 301. Proto-Nostratic root *cal- (~ *cl-): (vb.) *cal- to cut, to split, to cleave, to break off or apart; (n.) *cal-a cut, crack, split; stroke, blow Derivative: (n.) *cal-a part, piece, chip, fragment 302. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *cal-a part, piece, chip, fragment: Derivative of: (vb.) *cal- to cut, to split, to cleave, to break off or apart; (n.) *cal-a cut, crack, split; stroke, blow 303. Proto-Nostratic root *cuk- (~ *cok-): (vb.) *cuk- to close, to shut, to cover; (n.) *cuk-a closure, cover, stoppage
CHAPTER 14
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *c
ProtoNostratic c-c-
ProtoAfrasian c-c-
ProtoKartvel. c-c-
ProtoIE t-t-
ProtoEskimo c-c-
304. Proto-Nostratic root *cal- (~ *cl-) or *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *cal- or *al- to stretch out, to extend, to exceed; to be wealthy, to prosper, to do well; (n.) *cal-a or *al-a wealth, prosperity, abundance 305. Proto-Nostratic root *car- (~ *cr-) stem indicating downward motion: (vb.) *car- to slip or slide down, to fall down, to roll down, to lean or bend down, to throw down; (n.) *car-a the act of slipping, sliding, falling, or rolling down; (particle) *car- down 306. Proto-Nostratic root *car- (~ *cr-) or *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *car- or *ar- to be or become visible, clear, evident; to reveal, to make known, to make clear, to clarify; (n.) *car-a or *ar-a visibility, clarity; (adj.) visible, clear, evident 307. Proto-Nostratic root *caw- (~ *cw-): (vb.) *caw- to be or become dry, withered, emaciated, lean; (n.) *caw-a that which is withered, dry, lean, blighted; (adj.) dry, withered, lean, blighted Extended form: (vb.) *caw-V-l- to be or become dry, withered, emaciated, lean; (adj.) *caw-l-a that which is withered, dry, lean, blighted; (adj.) dry, withered, lean, blighted 308. Proto-Nostratic root *cil- (~ *cel-): (vb.) *cil- to strip off, to peel off, to pick, to pluck; (n.) *cil-a peeling, picking, plucking 309. Proto-Nostratic root *cir- (~ *cer-): (vb.) *cir- to squeak, to chirp, to cheep, to peep; (n.) *cir-a a kind of bird
50
310. Proto-Nostratic root *cur- (~ *cor-): (vb.) *cur- to twist, to turn, to revolve; to press, tie, or bind together; to wrap up; to surround, to encircle, to enclose; (n.) *cur-a that which is tied, twisted, wrapped, or bound together: coil, wrapping, binding, loop, etc.; that which surrounds, encircles, or encloses: enclosure, wall, surroundings, circle
CHAPTER 15
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *s
ProtoNostratic s-s-
ProtoAfrasian s-s-
ProtoKartvel. s-s-
ProtoIE s-s-
ProtoEskimo
311. Proto-Nostratic root *sa- (~ *s-): Extended form: (vb.) *sa-V-y- to sift; (n.) *sa-y-a sieve 312. Proto-Nostratic root *sad- (~ *sd-): (vb.) *sad- to hear, to listen, to judge; (n.) *sad-a hearing, judgment, condemnation, punishment 313. Proto-Nostratic root *sag- (~ *sg-) or *ag- (~ *g-): (vb.) *sag- or *ag- to reach, to arrive at, to attain, to achieve, to get, to obtain; (n.) *sag-a or *ag-a acquisition, attainment, victory 314. Proto-Nostratic root *sa- (~ *s-) or *a- (~ *-): (vb.) *sa- or *a- to examine, to consider, to try to find out, to try to understand, to think about; (n.) *sa-a or *a-a thought, idea, understanding, inquiry, examination, consideration, investigation 315. Proto-Nostratic root *sak- (~ *sk-): (vb.) *sak- to cut, to split; (n.) *sak-a any sharp instrument used for cutting: knife, sword, dagger, axe, etc. 316. Proto-Nostratic root *sak- (~ *sk-): (vb.) *sak- to tie, to bind, to fasten; (n.) *sak-a fastening, loop 317. Proto-Nostratic root *sal- (~ *sl-): (vb.) *sal- to go up, to lift up, to raise up; (n.) *sal-a ascent; height; (adj.) elevated, high, raised
52
318. Proto-Nostratic root *sam- (~ *sm-): (vb.) *sam- to resemble, to be like; (n.) *sam-a form, shape, appearance, likeness; (adj.) similar, alike, same 319. Proto-Nostratic root *san- (~ *sn-) or *an- (~ *n-), *sin- (~ *sen-) or *in- (~ *en-), *sun- (~ *son-) or *un- (~ *on-): (vb.) *san- or *an-, *sin- or *in-, *sun- or *un- to sense, to perceive; (n.) *san-a or *an-a, *sin-a or *in-a, *sun-a or *un-a (a) that which senses or perceives: mind, nose; (b) that which is sensed or perceived: perception, sense, feeling 320. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *s[e]n-a or *[e]n-a (the root vowel is uncertain but is probably *e) sinew, tendon 321. Proto-Nostratic second person pronoun stem *si- (~ *se-) you 322. Proto-Nostratic 3rd person pronoun stem *si- (~ *se-) he, she, it; him, her; they, them; 3rd person possessive suffix *-si (~ *-se) his, her, its; their 323. Proto-Nostratic root *sig- (~ *seg-): (vb.) *sig- to flow forth, to rain; (n.) *sig-a flowing, raining, storm 324. Proto-Nostratic root *si- (~ *se-): (vb.) *si- to scatter, to strew, to cast or throw, to sprinkle (with water); (n.) *si-a the act of scattering, strewing, casting, or throwing about; (adj.) scattered, strewn, cast, or thrown about
CHAPTER 16
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic ---/ -d-
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian --
ProtoKarvel. --
ProtoIE d -d-
ProtoEskimo c-c-
325. Proto-Nostratic root *a- (~ *-): (vb.) *a- to die, to fade, to wither; (n.) *a-a death 326. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ag-a a small tree, a bush or shrub 327. Proto-Nostratic root *a- (~ *-): (vb.) *a- to call (out), to cry (out); (n.) *a-a call, cry; name 328. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to fasten, to tie; (n.) *al-a string, strap, cord 329. Proto-Nostratic root *aw- (~ *w-): (vb.) *aw- to wear out, to be used up, to cease to function; (n.) *aw-a cessation, end, extinction; (adj.) worn out, used up, wasted, decrepit, old 330. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *em-a anything that is sour, bitter, pungent, sharp; (adj.) sour, bitter, pungent, sharp
CHAPTER 17
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian c-c-
ProtoKartvel. --
ProtoIE t-t-
ProtoEskimo c-c(c)-
331. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to leave, to leave behind, to abandon, to get rid of, to empty; to set free, to release, to let go; (n.) *al-a freedom, leisure, emptiness; (adj.) empty, abandoned, released, freed (from), at leisure Semantics as in Sanskrit ric- and its derivatives: ric- to empty, to evacuate, to leave, to give up, to resign; to release, to set free; to leave behind; to separate, to remove from, ricyte to be emptied, to be deprived of or freed from, rikt- emptied, empty, void. 332. Proto-Nostratic root *an- (~ *n-): (vb.) *an- to bring forth, to produce, to grow, to be born; (n.) *an-a that which is brought forth, produced, grown: fruit; bringing forth: birth 333. Proto-Nostratic root *e-: (vb.) *e- to press, to squeeze, to crush; (n.) *e-a the act of pressing, squeezing, crushing; that which is pressed, squeezed, crushed: crumb(s) 334. Proto-Nostratic root *ok-: (vb.) *ok- to bend, to twist, to turn, to wind; (n.) *ok-a the act of bending, twisting, turning, winding
CHAPTER 18
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian c-c-
ProtoKartvel. --
ProtoIE t-t-
ProtoEskimo c-c-
335. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *am-a reed, grass 336. Proto-Nostratic root *ik- (~ *ek-): (vb.) *ik- to be small; (n.) *ik-a small things; (adj.) small 337. Proto-Nostratic root *ir- (~ *er-): (vb.) *ir- to cut, to cut off, to cut through; to cut into, to scratch, to scrape; (n.) *ir-a that which is cut, cut off, cut into: slice, board, plank, scratch; that which cuts: knife, axe, adze
CHAPTER 19
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian s-s-
ProtoKartvel. --
ProtoIE s-s-
ProtoEskimo
338. Proto-Nostratic demonstrative pronoun stem *a- (~ *-) this, that 339. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- to split, to rip apart, to tear asunder; (n.) *ar-a that which splits: knife 340. Proto-Nostratic root *aw- (~ *w-): (vb.) *aw- to drink, to swallow; (n.) *aw-a drink, juice 341. Proto-Nostratic root *aw- (~ *w-): (vb.) *aw- to sigh, to pant, to gasp, to breathe deeply; (n.) *aw-a breath, sigh Related to: (vb.) *aw- to sleep, to rest; (n.) *aw-a sleep, slumber, rest 342. Proto-Nostratic root *aw- (~ *w-): (vb.) *aw- to sleep, to rest; (n.) *aw-a sleep, slumber, rest Related to: (vb.) *aw- to sigh, to pant, to gasp, to breathe deeply; (n.) *aw-a breath, sigh 343. Proto-Nostratic root *i- (~ *e-): (vb.) *i- to separate into (equal) parts, to divide; (n.) *i-a part, portion, separation, division, section 344. Proto-Nostratic root *iw- (~ *ew-): (vb.) *iw- to swell; (n.) *iw-a swelling; (adj.) swollen, puffed up
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345. Proto-Nostratic root *uw- (~ *ow-): (vb.) *uw- to be wet, moist; to make wet, to soak; (n.) *uw-a liquid, moisture; (adj.) moist, wet, soaked Extended form: (vb.) *uw-V-l- to be wet, moist; to make wet, to soak; (n.) *uw-l-a liquid, moisture; (adj.) moist, wet, soaked
CHAPTER 20 PROTO-NOSTRATIC *g
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic k-xg-g-
ProtoNostratic g-g-
ProtoAfrasian g-g-
ProtoDravid. k-k-
ProtoKartvel. g-g-
ProtoIE g -g-
ProtoEskimo k- q--
346. Proto-Nostratic root *ga- (~ *g-): (vb.) *ga- to go, to leave, to depart; to leave behind, to abandon, to forsake; (n.) *ga-a abandonment, lack, want, need, deprivation, loss, deficit; (adj.) abandoned, forsaken, left behind; wanting, lacking, deprived of 347. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gab-a front, front part Probably identical to: (n.) *gab-a peak, tip, top 348. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gab-a peak, tip, top Probably identical to: (n.) *gab-a front, front part Note also: (n.) *gub-a highest point, summit, top 349. Proto-Nostratic root *gab- (~ *gb-): (vb.) *gab- to grasp, to seize; (n.) *gab-a hand, arm 350. Proto-Nostratic root *gad- (~ *gd-): (vb.) *gad- to be or become big, great, mighty; (n.) *gad-a bigness, greatness, might; (adj.) big, great, mighty 351. Proto-Nostratic root *gad- (~ *gd-): (vb.) *gad- to cut, to split, to strike (with an instrument); (n.) *gad-a that which cuts: (pick)axe, saw; that which is cut, split: cut, split, piece, fragment, bit 352. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gad-a kid, young goat
62
353. Proto-Nostratic root *gal- (~ *gl-): (vb.) *gal- to cut, break, tear, or pluck off; to separate; (n.) *gal-a cut, break, tear, separation Derivative: (vb.) *gal- to dig, scoop, or hollow out (> to plow); (n.) *gal-a the act of digging, scooping, or hollowing out 354. Proto-Nostratic root *gal- (~ *gl-): (vb.) *gal- to dig, scoop, or hollow out (> to plow); (n.) *gal-a the act of digging, scooping, or hollowing out Derivative of: (vb.) *gal- to cut, break, tear, or pluck off; to separate; (n.) *gal-a cut, break, tear, separation 355. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gal-a pot, vessel 356. Proto-Nostratic root *gal- (~ *gl-): (vb.) *gal- to be or become visible, clear, obvious, evident; to regard, to look at, to peer at; (n.) *gal-a visibility, clarity, understanding; (adj.) clear, plain, evident 357. Proto-Nostatic *gal- (~ *gl-): (vb.) *gal- to cry out, to shout, to clamor; to be noisy, boisterous; (n.) *gal-a clamor, uproar, tumult, disturbance, turmoil, noise 358. Proto-Nostratic root *gal- (~ *gl-): (vb.) *gal- to ache, to be in pain, to be ill, to suffer; (n.) *gal-a ache, pain, disease, illness 359. Proto-Nostatic (n.) *gal-a blemish, fault, scar, sore on the skin 360. Proto-Nostratic root *gal- (~ *gl-): (vb.) *gal- to be strong, powerful; to be able; (n.) *gal-a strength, power, ability 361. Proto-Nostratic root *gam- (~ *gm-): (vb.) gam- to bend, to be bent; (n.) gam-a a bent or curved object: hook; wrist, ankle; etc. 362. Proto-Nostratic root *gam- (~ *gm-): (vb.) *gam- to fill (up); (n.) *gam-a plenty, surplus, abundance
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *g
63
363. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ga-a (with different extensions in the various daughter languages: *ga-s- and/or *ga-s-, *ga-t-, etc. and sporadic loss of ) a waterfowl, an aquatic bird: goose, duck, etc. 364. Proto-Nostratic root *ga- (~ *g-): (vb.) *ga- to bend: to bend forward; to bend back; to bend to the side; (n.) *ga-a side, corner, flank, edge 365. Proto-Nostratic root *gar- (~ *gr-): (vb.) *gar- to seize, to grasp, to take hold of; (n.) *gar-a hand 366. Proto-Nostratic root *gar- (~ *gr-): (vb.) *gar- to cut, to split; (n.) *gar-a cut, injury; that which cuts: (pick)axe; (adj.) cut, separated, shortened 367. Proto-Nostratic root *gar- (~ *gr-): (vb.) *gar- to scratch, to scrape; (n.) *gar-a that which scratches, scrapes: spade, rake Derivative: (n.) *gar-b-a itch, scab, sore 368. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gar-b-a itch, scab, sore: Derivative of: (vb.) *gar- to scratch, to scrape; (n.) *gar-a that which scratches, scrapes: spade, rake 369. Proto-Nostratic root *gar- (~ *gr-): (vb.) *gar- to swell, to increase, to grow; (n.) *gar-a swelling, increase, growth; great quantity, abundance, excess Identical to: (vb.) *gar- to stick out, to stand out, to jut out, to project, to protrude; to be or become erect, rigid, stiff; (n.) *gar- tip, point, peak 370. Proto-Nostratic root *gar- (~ *gr-): (vb.) *gar- to stick out, to stand out, to jut out, to project, to protrude; to be or become erect, rigid, stiff; (n.) *gar- tip, point, peak Identical to: (vb.) *gar- to swell, to increase, to grow; (n.) *gar-a swelling, increase, growth; great quantity, abundance, excess
64
371. Proto-Nostratic root *gas- (~ *gs-): (vb.) *gas- to touch, to feel, to handle; (n.) *gas-a hand 372. Proto-Nostratic root *gat- (~ *gt-): (vb.) *gat- to take (with the hand), to grasp; (n.) *gat-a hand 373. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gen-a jaw, cheek 374. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *g[e]n-d-a virility, strength; a male (human or animal) 375. Proto-Nostratic pronominal base of unclear deictic function *gi- (~ *ge-) 376. Proto-Nostratic root *gib- (~ *geb-): (vb.) *gib- to bestow upon, to give; (n.) *gib-a gift 377. Proto-Nostratic root *gid- (~ *ged-) or *id- (~ *ed-): (vb.) *gid- or *id- to force, drive, or press together; to join; to unite; to gather (together); to collect; (n.) *gid-a or *id-a force, compulsion; collection, heap; union; (adj.) pressed close together, near, united 378. Proto-Nostratic root *gil- (~ *gel-): (vb.) *gil- to glide, to slip, to slide; (n.) *gil-a gliding, sliding; (adj.) smooth, slippery 379. Proto-Nostratic root *gil- (~ *gel-): (vb.) *gil- to freeze; (n.) *gil-a ice 380. Proto-Nostratic root *gin- (~ *gen-) or *in- (~ *en-): (vb.) *gin- or *in- to be young, small, weak; (n.) *gin-a or *in-a youth, young one; (adj.) young, small, weak 381. Proto-Nostratic root *gin- (~ *gen-): (vb.) *gin- to grind, to pound, to break or crush into pieces; (n.) *gin-a the act of grinding, pounding, crushing 382. Proto-Nostratic root *gir- (~ *ger-): (vb.) *gir- to gird, to enclose; (n.) *gir-a enclosure, fence, wall
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *g
65
383. Proto-Nostratic root *gir- (~ *ger-): (vb.) *gir- to be or become old; (n.) *gir-a old age, old person; (adj.) old 384. Proto-Nostratic root *gir- (~ *ger-) or *ir- (~ *er-): (vb.) *gir- or *ir- to move, to move swiftly, to hasten, to hurry; to run, to flow; to go, to walk; (n.) *gir-a or *ir-a movement, flow, flux, step, course 385. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gol-a edge, corner, valley 386. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gub-a highest point, summit, top Note also: (n.) *gab-a peak, tip, top 387. Proto-Nostratic root *gub- (~ *gob-: (vb.) *gub- to cook, to roast, to burn; (n.) *gub-a the act of cooking; that which is used for cooking: pot, pan; stove, furnace 388. Proto-Nostratic root *gud- (~ *god-): (vb.) *gud- to throw, to toss, to shake; (n.) *gud-a that which is thrown or tossed off or aside: rubbish, refuse, castout things 389. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gul-a (~ *gol-a) enclosed space 390. Proto-Nostratic root *gun- (~ *gon-): (vb.) *gun- to perceive, to notice; (n.) *gun-a notice, memory, mind, perception, remembrance, recollection 391. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *gup- (~ *gop-): (vb.) *gup- to extinguish; to be extinguished, to die out, to perish; (n.) *gup-a loss, destruction 392. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) (?) *gur- (~ *gor-): (n.) *gur-a gut, cord 393. Proto-Nostratic root *gur- (onomatopoeic): (vb.) *gur- to rumble, to roar, to growl, to gurgle; (n.) *gur-a rumbling, roaring, gurgling, growling noise or sound
66
394. Proto-Nostratic root *gus- (~ *gos-): (vb.) *gus- to go outside of or forth from; to make to go outside or forth from, to drive away, to chase away; (n.) *gus-a outsider, stranger 395. Proto-Nostratic root *guw- (~ *gow-): (vb.) *guw- to observe, to notice, to watch, to pay attention to, to heed, to be or become aware of; (n.) *guw-a observation, heed, awareness, attention, notice 396. Proto-Nostratic root *guw- (~ *gow-): (vb.) *guw- to hunt wild animals; (n.) *guw-a wild animal, wild beast, game; (adj.) wild, untamed Extended form: (vb.) *guw-V-r- to hunt wild animals; (n.) *guw-r-a wild animal, wild beast, game; (adj.) wild, untamed Notes: 1. The unextended stem is preserved in Egyptian. 2. The Afrasian (Cushitic and Chadic) and Indo-European forms are deverbatives: *guw-V-r-.
CHAPTER 21
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic k-k(k)k -k-
ProtoNostratic k -k-
ProtoAfrasian k-k-
ProtoDravid. k-k(k)-
ProtoKartvel. k-k-
ProtoIE k -k-
ProtoEskimo k- q-k(k)-q(q)-
397. Proto-Nostratic 1st person pronoun stem (stative) *ka398. Proto-Nostratic demonstrative pronoun stem: Proximate: *ka- (~ *k-) this; Intermediate: *ki- (~ *ke-) that; Distant: *ku- (~ *ko-) that yonder 399. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kab-a he-goat, male sheep, buck, ram 400. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kab-a foot, hoof 401. Proto-Nostratic root *kad- (~ *kd-): (vb.) *kad- to cover, to wrap, to clothe; (n.) *kad-a covering, shield, protection Perhaps identical to: (vb.) *kad- to tie, to bind; (n.) *kad-a tie, band, fastening 402. Proto-Nostratic root *kad- (~ *kd-): (vb.) *kad- to tie, to bind; (n.) *kad-a tie, band, fastening Perhaps identical to: (vb.) *kad- to cover, to wrap, to clothe; (n.) *kad-a covering, shield, protection 403. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kal-a female in-law Note also: (n.) *kel-a female in-law 404. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to make a noise, to sound; to call out, to shout; (n.) *kal-a noise, sound
68
405. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to guard, to hold (back), to watch; (n.) *kal-a protection, care, support; restraint, detention, custody, hold 406. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to point out, to make clear, to make known, to disclose, to explain; (n.) *kal-a study, learning; investigation, explanation, clarification 407. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kal-a reed, stalk, stem, blade of grass, haulm 408. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to rob, to steal, to hide; (n.) *kal-a theft 409. Proto-Nostratic root *kam- (~ *km-) or *qam- (~ *qm-): (vb.) *kam- or *qam- to seize, to grasp, to grip, to clutch; (n.) *kam-a or *qam-a grip, hold, hand(ful); bond, fetter 410. Proto-Nostratic root *kam- (~ *km-): (vb.) *kam- to work, to labor, to toil; to do, to make; (n.) *kam-a work, labor, toil 411. Proto-Nostratic root *kam- (~ *km-): (vb.) *kam- to gather together, to collect; (adv.) together, along with; (n.) *kam-a collection, assemblage, gathering 412. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kan-a stem, stalk, stick 413. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kan-a ~ *kin-a ~ *kun-a bee, honey 414. Proto-Nostratic root *ka- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ka- to make a noise, to sound; (n.) *ka-a noise, (ringing or tinkling) sound 415. Proto-Nostratic root *kap-: (vb.) *kap- to take, seize, or grasp with the hand; to press or squeeze with the hand; (n.) *kap-a hand 416. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kap-a bowl, cup, jar, container; skull
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k
69
417. Proto-Nostratic root *kap- (~ *kp-): (vb.) *kap- to buy; to pay back; (n.) *kap-a recompense, tribute, pay-back 418. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to cut, to cut into, to cut off; (n.) *kar-a cut, incision Derivative: (n.) *kar-a skin, hide; bark, rind 419. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kar-a skin, hide; bark, rind: Derivative of: (vb.) *kar- to cut, to cut into, to cut off; (n.) *kar-a cut, incision 420. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to twist, turn, spin, or wind around; (n.) *kar-a ring, circle, curve; (adj.) round, curved, twisted Possible derivative: (n.) *kar-a edge, side, bank 421. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kar-a edge, side, bank Perhaps a derivative of: (vb.) *kar- to twist, turn, spin, or wind around; (n.) *kar-a ring, circle, curve; (adj.) round, curved, twisted 422. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kar-a hardness, strength, firmness, fortitude; (adj.) hard, strong, firm Identical to: (n.) *kar-a roughness, coarseness; (adj.) rough, coarse 423. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kar-a roughness, coarseness; (adj.) rough, coarse Identical to: (n.) *kar-a hardness, strength, firmness, fortitude; (adj.) hard, strong, firm Derivative: (n.) *kar-a bitterness, pungency, harshness; (adj.) bitter, pungent, harsh, sharp, caustic, hot (of taste), acrid 424. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kar-a bitterness, pungency, harshness; (adj.) bitter, pungent, harsh, sharp, caustic, hot (of taste), acrid Derivative of: (n.) *kar-a roughness, coarseness; (adj.) rough, coarse 425. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kar-a blackness, darkness; (adj.) black, dark
70
426. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kar-a heart, core, essence 427. Proto-Nostratic root *kas- (~ *ks-): (vb.) *kas- to cut or break off, to divide, to separate; (n.) *kas-a cut, separation, division, break; cutting, clipping, fragment, piece, bit 428. Proto-Nostratic root *kat- (~ *kt-): (vb.) *kat- to plait, to weave, to twist; (n.) *kat-a that which is plaited, woven, twisted: mat, net, knot Derivative: (n.) *kat-a rag, cloth 429. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kat-a rag, cloth: Derivative of: (vb.) *kat- to plait, to weave, to twist; (n.) *kat-a that which is plaited, woven, twisted: mat, net, knot 430. Proto-Nostratic root *kat-: (vb.) *kat- to fall down, to set down, to drop down; (n.) *kat-a lower part, lower place, lower thing; (adj.) lower, inferior; (particle) *kat- down 431. Proto-Nostratic root *kat-: (vb.) *kat- to make a harsh, shrill screech or sound: to cackle, to caw, to screech, to cry, to yelp; (n.) *kat-a cackling, cawing, screeching, crying, yelping; (adj.) harsh, shrill, sharp, piercing (of sounds) 432. Proto-Nostratic root *kaw- (~ *kw-): (vb.) *kaw- to swell, to expand, to inflate, to grow, to increase; (n.) *kaw-a accumulation, inflation, expansion, growth; heap, pile; height 433. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kay-a solitude, loneliness, separateness; (adj.) alone Extended form (Afrasian and Indo-European): (n.) *kay-w-a solitude, loneliness, separateness; (adj.) alone 434. Proto-Nostratic root *kay- (~ *ky-): (vb.) *kay- to put, to place, to set, to lay; to be placed, to lie; (n.) *kay-a resting place, abode, dwelling; cot, bed 435. Proto-Nostratic root *kay- (~ *ky-): (vb.) *kay- to be or become warm or hot; to make warm, to heat; (n.) *kay-a heat
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k
71
436. Proto-Nostratic root *kay-: (vb.) *kay- to scoop out; (n.) *kay-a spoon, ladle Extended form: (vb.) *kay-V-w- to dig; (n.) *kay-w-a cave, pit, hollow 437. Proto-Nostratic root *kil- (~ *kel-): (vb.) *kil- to make a sound or a noise; to say, to speak, to talk; (n.) *kil-a sound, noise; tongue, speech, language 438. Proto-Nostratic root *kil- (~ *kel-): (vb.) *kil- to rise, to ascend, to lift up; (n.) *kil-a hill, height; (adj.) raised, high 439. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kir-a uppermost part (of anything): horn, head, skull, crown of head; tip, top, summit, peak 440. Proto-Nostratic root *kir- (~ *ker-): (vb.) *kir- to freeze, to be cold; (n.) *kir-a frost, cold 441. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kiw-a stone 442. Proto-Nostratic root *kol-: (vb.) *kol- to tie, bind, fasten, fit, combine, or join two things together; to couple, to pair; (n.) *kol-a any combination of two things: couple, pair 443. Proto-Nostratic roots *kon-k-, *kok-: (vb.) *kon-V-k-, *kok- to be bent, curved, crooked; (n.) *kon-k-a, *kok-a hook, clasp; (adj.) bent, curved, crooked 444. Proto-Nostratic root *kul- (~ *kol-): (vb.) *kul- to hear, to listen; (n.) *kul-a renown, fame; ear Possible derivative: (vb.) *kul- to tell; (n.) *kul-a story, tale
72
445. Proto-Nostratic root *kul- (~ *kol-): (vb.) *kul- to tell; (n.) *kul-a story, tale Perhaps a derivative of: (vb.) *kul- to hear, to listen; (n.) *kul-a renown, fame; ear Assuming semantic development as in Greek to tell of, to make famous, to celebrate; or Pi (causative) svti (also supti) to cause to hear, to tell, to declare, to announce (suti to hear); or Romany (Palestinian) snar to inform all ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *kl-ew-/*kl-ow-/*kl-u- to hear. 446. Proto-Nostratic root *kum-: (vb.) *kum- to heap up, to pile up, to accumulate; (n.) *kum-a large amount, accumulation, heap; crowd, multitude 447. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kum-a man, male; penis 448. Proto-Nostratic root *kum- (~ *kom-): (vb.) *kum- to char, to blacken; to burn, to smolder; to be or become hot; (n.) *kum-a (hot or smoldering) ashes, embers, charcoal; heat, warmth; (adj.) warm, hot; glowing, smoldering; black 449. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kur-a blood 450. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kuwan-a or *kun-a originally a generic term meaning young (especially of animals); later specialized as young dog, puppy (as in Kannaa and Kolami cited below) and then simply dog Note: This term may be an early borrowing.
CHAPTER 22
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic k-kk-k-
ProtoNostratic k-k-
ProtoAfrasian k-k-
ProtoKartvel. k-k-
ProtoIE k-k-
ProtoEskimo k- q-k- -q-
451. Proto-Nostratic root *kab- (~ *kb-): (vb.) *kab- to seize, to take hold of; to seize with the teeth, to bite; (n.) *kab-a seizure, grasp, grip, hold; bite 452. Proto-Nostratic root *kac- (~ *kc-): (vb.) *kac- to labor, to strain; to become fatigued, exhausted, wearied (from straining, laboring); (n.) *kac-a trouble, difficulty, pain, strain 453. Proto-Nostratic root *ka- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ka- to put, join, fasten, wrap, fold, or tie together; (n.) *ka-a tie, band, knot, fastening, wrapping 454. Proto-Nostratic root *kad- (~ *kd-): (vb.) *kad- to tie, to fasten; to build, to construct; (n.) *kad-a tie, band, fastening 455. Proto-Nostratic root *kak- (onomatopoeic): (vb.) *kak- to cackle, to chatter; (n.) *kak-a crackling sound Derivative: (n.) *kak-a (onomatopoeic bird name) partridge 456. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kak-a (onomatopoeic bird name) partridge Derivative of: (vb.) *kak- to cackle, to chatter; (n.) *kak-a crackling sound 457. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to feed, to nourish; (n.) *kal-a nourishment, sustenance, nutriment 458. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kal-a stone, rock
74
459. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to take away, to remove, to deprive of; to decrease, to diminish, to reduce; to be or become reduced or diminished; (n.) *kal-a littleness, small quantity, scarcity; few things; lack, want, poverty, deficiency, insufficiency; (adj.) little, scanty, sparse, meager, insufficient, lacking, short of, wanting, needy 460. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to burn, to warm, to cook, to roast; (n.) *kal-a cooking, roasting, baking; glowing embers 461. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to move, to tremble, to shake, to agitate, to stir, to mix; (n.) *kal-a agitation, trembling, perturbation, distress, confusion, uneasiness, disturbance 462. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to come into being, to be born; (n.) *kal-a existence, presence, appearance, birth 463. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to separate, to remove, to strip off or away: to pluck, tear, or pull off or out; (n.) *kal-a separation, removal, stripping off or away, etc. Derivative: (n.) *kal-a bald spot; (adj.) bald, bare 464. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *kal-a bald spot; (adj.) bald, bare Derivative of: (vb.) *kal- to separate, to remove, to strip off or away: to pluck, tear, or pull off or out; (n.) *kal-a separation, removal, stripping off or away, etc. 465. Proto-Nostratic root *kan- (~ *kn-): (vb.) *kan- to get, to acquire, to create, to produce, to beget; (n.) *kan-a birth, offspring, child, young, produce; (adj.) born, begotten, produced 466. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kan-a jaw, cheek 467. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kan-a thickness, density, fatness, abundance; (adj.) thick, dense, fat, abundant, much
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k
75
468. Proto-Nostratic root *kan- (~ *kn-): (vb.) *kan- to pound, to beat, to strike; (n.) *kan-a knock, strike, cuff, thump; mallet, club, cudgel, truncheon 469. Proto-Nostratic root *ka- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ka- to bend, twist, turn, or tie together; (n.) *ka-a wreath, rope, cord, fiber, tie, band, string Derivative: (n.) *ka-a knot, knob, joint 470. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ka-a knot, knob, joint Derivative of: (vb.) *ka- to bend, twist, turn, or tie together; (n.) *ka-a wreath, rope, cord, fiber, tie, band, string 471. Proto-Nostratic root *kan- (~ *kn-): (vb.) *kan- to observe, to perceive; (n.) *kan-a the act of observing, perceiving; that which observes, perceives: eye; perception, observation, recognition, comprehension 472. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kap-a and/or *kep-a jaw, jawbone Note: The Altaic cognates seem to point to Proto-Nostratic *kep-a, while the Indo-European cognates can be derived from either *kap-a or *kep-a. 473. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kap-a nape of the neck, back of the head 474. Proto-Nostratic root *kap- (~ *kp-): (vb.) *kap- to cover; to shut, to close; (n.) *kap-a covering 475. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to shout, to screech, to call (out to), to cry (out); (n.) *kar-a call, cry, invocation, proclamation; roar, lamentation 476. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kar-a blackness, darkness, obscurity; dark cloud, rainy weather; dirt, grime; (adj.) dark, dark-colored; dirty, soiled 477. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to twist, to turn, to bend, to wind; to tie (together), to bind; (n.) *kar-a that which is tied or bound together: bunch, bundle; (adj.) bent, curved, crooked; tied, bound Possible derivative: (n.) *kar-a protuberance, lump, hump, breast
76
478. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kar-a protuberance, lump, hump, breast Possibly derived from (in the sense curved shape, swelling): (vb.) *kar- to twist, to turn, to bend, to wind; to tie (together), to bind; (n.) *kar-a that which is tied or bound together: bunch, bundle; (adj.) bent, curved, crooked; tied, bound 479. Proto-Nostratic root *kat- (~ *kt-): (vb.) *kat- to add, join, bring, come, gather, or mix together; (n.) *kat-a blend, mixture, conglomeration, gathering 480. Proto-Nostratic root *kaw- (~ *kw-): (vb.) *kaw- to bend, twist, curve, or turn round; to rotate; (n.) *kaw-a any round object; (adj.) bent, curved, round 481. Proto-Nostratic root *kaw- (~ *kw-): (vb.) *kaw- to take, to seize, to grasp, to hold; (n.) *kaw-a hand 482. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *kel-a female in-law: husbands sister, sister-in-law; daughter-in-law Note also: (n.) *kal-a female in-law 483. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ken-a knot, joint 484. Proto-Nostratic root *kep-: (vb.) *kep- to cut, chop, split, or break into small pieces; to munch, to chew; (n.) *kep-a the act of cutting, chopping, splitting, or breaking into small pieces, the act of mincing; chewing (the cud), rumination 485. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *ker-: (vb.) *ker- to decay, to wear out, to wither, to waste away, to become old; (n.) *ker-a old age, old person; (adj.) decayed, worn out, withered, wasted, old 486. Proto-Nostratic root *ker-: (vb.) *ker- to gather, to collect; to take a handful, to pick, to pluck; (n.) *ker-a collection, gathering, handful
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k
77
487. Proto-Nostratic root *kir- (~ *ker-) or *kur- (~ *kor-): (vb.) *kir- or *kur- to cut, to cut into, to incise, to engrave, to notch; to cut off, to sever, to nip off, to clip; to cut in two, to split; (n.) *kir-a or *kur-a cut, slit, notch; chip, piece cut off 488. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *kom-a hand, fist Perhaps related to: (vb.) *kum- to seize, to grasp, to press together; (n.) *kum-a heap, mass, lump, clump; pressure, compression 489. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kor-a or *kar-a crane 490. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kos-a bone 491. Proto-Nostratic root *kud- (~ *kod-): (vb.) *kud- to strike; (n.) *kud-a stroke, blow, knock, cuff, thump 492. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kud-a (~ *kod-a) vessel, pot 493. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ku-n-a (~ *ko-n-a) gnat, mosquito 494. Proto-Nostratic root *kul- (~ *kol-): (vb.) *kul- to lift, to raise, to pick up; to rise, to ascend; to make high, to elevate; (n.) *kul-a highest point 495. Proto-Nostratic root *kul- (~ *kol-): (vb.) *kul- to be or become cold; to freeze; (n.) *kul-a cold, coldness, chill, frost 496. Proto-Nostratic root *kum- (~ *kom-): (vb.) *kum- to sigh, to weep, to lament, to moan, to groan; (n.) *kum-a sigh, mourning, lamentation, moan, groan, roar, grumble 497. Proto-Nostratic root *kum- (~ *kom-): (vb.) *kum- to seize, to grasp, to press together; (n.) *kum-a heap, mass, lump, clump; pressure, compression Perhaps related to: (n.) *kom-a hand, fist
78
498. Proto-Nostratic root *kum- (~ *kom-): (vb.) *kum- to bend, to curve; to bend the head or body, to bow or stoop down; (n.) *kum-a bend, curve; the act of bending, bowing, stooping Identical to: (n.) *kum-a a bent or curved object: hollow, cavity; knob, lump, hump; etc. 499. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kum-a a bent or curved object: hollow, cavity; knob, lump, hump; etc.: Identical to: (vb.) *kum- to bend, to curve; to bend the head or body, to bow or stoop down; (n.) *kum-a bend, curve; the act of bending, bowing, stooping 500. Proto-Nostratic root *kun- (~ *kon-): (vb.) *kun- to bend; to bend or fold together; to tie or bind together; (n.) *kun-a that which is bent, folded, crooked, curved, hooked: bend, fold, curve, curvature, angle, wrinkle 501. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ku-a buttocks, rump, anus 502. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kut-a shortness, smallness; (adj.) short, small
CHAPTER 23
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *g
ProtoNostratic g-g-
ProtoAfrasian g-g-
ProtoDravid. k-k-
ProtoKartvel. gw/u-gw/u-
ProtoIE g-g-
ProtoEskimo k- q--
503. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gal-a snake 504. Proto-Nostratic root *gan- (~ *gn-): (vb.) *gan- to hit, to strike, to slay, to kill, to wound, to harm, to injure; (n.) *gan-a strike, harm, injury 505. Proto-Nostratic root *gan- (~ *gn-): (vb.) *gan- to swell, to abound; (n.) *gan-a swelling, abundance, large quantity, prosperity 506. Proto-Nostratic root *gar- (~ *gr-): (vb.) *gar- to turn, to twist, to wind, to wrap, to roll; (n.) *gar-a any round or circular object; (adj.) rolling, round, bent, twisted, turned 507. Proto-Nostratic root *gir- (~ *ger-): (vb.) *gir- to be or become hot, to warm; (n.) *gir-a heat, fire
CHAPTER 24
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k
ProtoNostratic k-k-
ProtoAfrasian k-k-
ProtoKartvel. kw/u-kw/u-
ProtoIE k-k-
508. Proto-Nostratic post-positional intensifying and conjoining particle *ka- (~ *k-) 509. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to go, to walk, to move about; (n.) *kal-a walking, walk, wandering, roaming Probably identical to: (vb.) *kal- to revolve, to go around, to roll; (n.) *kal-a circle, circuit 510. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to revolve, to go around, to roll; (n.) *kal-a circle, circuit Probably identical to: (vb.) *kal- to go, to walk, to move about; (n.) *kal-a walking, walk, wandering, roaming Derivative: (n.) *kal-a that which turns, rolls, revolves, or goes round and round (> wheel in the daughter languages) 511. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kal-a that which turns, rolls, revolves, or goes round and round (> wheel in the daughter languages) Derivative of: (vb.) *kal- to revolve, to go around, to roll; (n.) *kal-a circle, circuit 512. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to end, to come to an end; to bring to an end, to complete, to finish; (n.) *kal-a end, finish, completion, fulfillment 513. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (adv.) (?) *kal- far off, far away, distant
82
514. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kal-a a large fish 515. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to cut; (n.) *kar-a piece cut off; knife Derivatives: (vb.) *kar- to cut a groove, to hollow out, to dig; (n.) *kar-a cut, hole, hollow, digging, excavation, pit, groove, trench (vb.) *kar- to cut short, to reduce, to decrease, to diminish, to lessen; (n.) *kar-a shortness; (adj.) short 516. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to cut a groove, to hollow out, to dig; (n.) *kar-a cut, hole, hollow, digging, excavation, pit, groove, trench Derivative of: (vb.) *kar- to cut; (n.) *kar-a piece cut off; knife 517. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to cut short, to reduce, to decrease, to diminish, to lessen; (n.) *kar-a shortness; (adj.) short Derivative of: (vb.) *kar- to cut; (n.) *kar-a piece cut off; knife 518. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kar-a vessel, pot 519. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to procure; (n.) *kar-a payment, procurement 520. Proto-Nostratic root *kat- (~ *kt-): (vb.) *kat- to move rapidly, to shake; (n.) *kat-a rapid movement, shaking 521. Proto-Nostratic (particle) *kay- when, as, though, also Possibly derived from: Relative pronoun stem *ki-; interrogative pronoun stem *ka522. Proto-Nostratic root *kay- (~ *ky-): (vb.) *kay- to repay in kind, to return an equal measure; (n.) *kay-a payment, repayment
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k
83
523. Proto-Nostratic root *key-: (vb.) *key- to do, to make, to create; to form, to fashion; (n.) *key-a act, deed, creation 524. Proto-Nostratic relative pronoun stem *ki- (~ *ke-); interrogative pronoun stem *ka- (~ *k-) 525. Proto-Nostratic root *kir- (~ *ker-): (vb.) *kir- to twist or twine together, to tie together, to bind, to fasten; (n.) *kir-a twist, tie, bundle, rope; the act of twisting or twining together: work, craft, act, action 526. Proto-Nostratic (n.) (?) *kur-a body, belly 527. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kur-a worm, grub, maggot, insect
CHAPTER 25
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k
ProtoNostratic k-k-
ProtoAfrasian k-k-
ProtoKartvel. kw/u-kw/u-
ProtoIE k-k-
528. Proto-Nostratic root *kad- (~ *kd-): (vb.) *kad- to strike, to beat, to smash, to pound; (n.) *kad-a knock, stroke, thrust Note also: (vb.) *ked- to destroy, to damage, to ruin; to decay, to rot, to spoil; (n.) *ked-a death, destruction, damage, ruin, decay 529. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kad-a hind part, end, tail 530. Proto-Nostratic root *ka- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ka- to hit, to strike, to beat, to pound; to push or press in; (n.) *ka-a club, cudgel; (adj.) hit, beaten, pounded, pushed or pressed together, crammed, filled 531. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to go: to go away from, to go after or behind; (n.) *kal-a track, way 532. Proto-Nostratic root *kal- (~ *kl-): (vb.) *kal- to gush forth, to overflow; to flow, to leak, to ooze, to drip, to trickle; (n.) *kal-a gush, flow, drip, trickle; river, stream, spring 533. Proto-Nostratic root *kam- (~ *km-): (vb.) *kam- to burn slowly, to smolder; to be hot, to be red-hot, to be glowing; to smoke; (n.) *kam-a embers, ashes; heat; smoke 534. Proto-Nostratic root *kan- (~ *kn-): (vb.) *kan- to suckle, to nurse; to suck; (n.) *kan-a udder, bosom, breast Derivative: (n.) *kan-a woman, wife
86
535. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *kan-a woman, wife Derivative of: (vb.) *kan- to suckle, to nurse; to suck; (n.) *kan-a udder, bosom, breast Semantic development as in Latin fmina female, woman from the same root as in fl to suck, hence, one who gives suck. 536. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to be cold; (n.) *kar-a cold, coldness 537. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to rest, to stay, to remain; (n.) *kar-a stillness, quietude, repose, rest, resting place; (adj.) still, quiet, at rest 538. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to crush, to grind; (n.) *kar-a grinding pestle, grinding stone; stone, rock 539. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kar-b-a the inside, the middle, interior, inward part 540. Proto-Nostratic root *kar- (~ *kr-): (vb.) *kar- to thunder, to rumble; (n.) *kar-a rain, storm, stormy weather, thunderstorm 541. Proto-Nostratic root *kas- (~ *ks-): (vb.) *kas- to strike fire, to put out (fire); (n.) *kas-a spark, fire 542. Proto-Nostratic root *kas- (~ *ks-) (onomatopoeic): (vb.) *kas- to sigh, to moan, to groan; to whisper, to murmur, to mumble; (n.) *kas-a sigh, moan, groan, whisper, murmur, mumble 543. Proto-Nostratic root *kat- (~ *kt-): (vb.) *kat- to burn, to smolder, to smoke; (n.) *kat-a burning, heat, smoke 544. Proto-Nostratic root *kat- (~ *kt-): (vb.) *kat- to cut; (n.) *kat-a knife, cutting instrument; (adj.) sharp
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k
87
545. Proto-Nostratic root *ked-: (vb.) *ked- to destroy, to damage, to ruin; to decay, to rot, to spoil; (n.) *ked-a death, destruction, damage, ruin, decay Note also: (vb.) *kad- to strike, to beat, to smash, to pound; (n.) *kad-a knock, stroke, thrust 546. Proto-Nostratic root *kiy- (~ *key-): (vb.) *kiy- to be putrid, purulent; (n.) *kiy-a pus 547. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kow-a bullock, ox, cow 548. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *koy-a outer covering: skin, hide, leather; bark (of a tree), shell, crust 549. Proto-Nostratic root *kur- (~ *kor-): (vb.) *kur- to be heavy, weighty, solid, bulky; (n.) *kur-a heaviness, weight, solidity, thickness; (adj.) heavy, weighty, solid, bulky
CHAPTER 26
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian - (?) -- (?)
ProtoDravid. k-k-
ProtoKartvel. --
ProtoIE g -g-
ProtoEskimo k- q--
550. Proto-Nostratic root *ad- (~ *d-): (vb.) *ad- to make a loud sound or loud noise; (n.) *ad-a loud noise, clap of thunder, loud clatter, loud rumble Reduplicated (Semitic and Dravidian): (vb.) *ad-ad- to make a loud sound or loud noise; (n.) *ad-ad-a loud noise, clap of thunder, loud clatter, loud rumble 551. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to come, to go; (n.) *al-a the act of coming or going; trip, voyage 552. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to flow; (n.) *al-a ravine, gully, watercourse, river 553. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to stir up, to agitate, to disturb; to be stirred up, agitated, disturbed; (n.) *al-a agitation, disturbance, perturbation; quarrel, fight, battle 554. Proto-Nostratic root *am- (~ *m-): (vb.) *am- to gather together, to bring together, to put together, to join together, to come together, to do together; (n.) *am-a gathering, collection, crowd, multitude, throng 555. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- to mutter, to groan, to grumble, to howl, to roar; (n.) *ar-a groan, howl, murmur, roar, cry Reduplicated (Semitic and Kartvelian): (vb.) *ar-ar- to mutter, to groan, to grumble, to howl, to roar; (n.) *ar-ar-a groan, howl, murmur, roar, cry
90
556. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- to crush, to grate, to grind; to melt, to dissolve; (n.) *ar-a the act of crushing, grating, grinding; (adj.) crushed, grated, ground, dissolved, melted, softened 557. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- to dig, to dig up, to dig out; (n.) *ar-a that which is used to dig: spade; that which is dug (out): furrow, ditch, gutter, canal 558. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ar-a stick, staff, rod, pole, stalk, stem 559. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ar-a wildfowl, wild goose Reduplicated: (n.) *ar-ar-a wildfowl, wild goose 560. Proto-Nostratic root *at- (~ *t-): (vb.) *at- to bite; (n.) *at-a bite; (adj.) biting, sharp, bitter Derivative: (n.) *at-a jaw, chin 561. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *at-a jaw, chin Derivative of: (vb.) *at- to bite; (n.) *at-a bite; (adj.) biting, sharp, bitter 562. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *il- (~ *el-): (vb.) *il- to shine, to glisten; (n.) *il-a brilliance, shine; (adj.) shining, glistening, gleaming, brilliant 563. Proto-Nostratic root *it- (~ *et-): (vb.) *it- to tickle; (n.) *it-a armpit 564. Proto-Nostratic root *ub- (~ *ob-): (vb.) *ub- to bend, to twist; (n.) *ub-a that which is twisted, bent, curved: hunch, wattle
CHAPTER 27
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *q
ProtoNostratic q -q-
ProtoAfrasian q- (?) -q- (?)
ProtoKartvel. q-q-
ProtoIE k -k-
565. Proto-Nostratic root *qad- (~ *qd-): (vb.) *qad- to move, to put in motion, to be in motion; (n.) *qad-a way, path, direction, passage; movement, motion; hard work, diligence 566. Proto-Nostratic root *qal- (~ *ql-): (vb.) *qal- to strike, to split, to cut, to wound, to injure; (n.) *qal-a stroke, blow, wound, cut, slash, damage, injury 567. Proto-Nostratic root *qam- (~ *qm-): (vb.) *qam- to cover, to conceal; (n.) *qam-a covering 568. Proto-Nostratic root *qar- (~ *qr-): (vb.) *qar- to make a rasping sound, to be hoarse; to creak, to croak; (n.) *qar-a neck, throat 569. Proto-Nostratic root *qat- (~ *qt-): (vb.) *qat- to beat, to strike, to fight; (n.) *qat-a anger, fury, wrath, spite; fight, battle, quarrel; killing, slaughter
CHAPTER 28
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *q
ProtoNostratic q-q-
ProtoKartvel. q-q-
ProtoIE k-k-
570. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *qab-a jaw 571. Proto-Nostratic root *qal- (~ *ql-) or *qel-: (vb.) *qal- or *qel- to glitter, to sparkle, to shine, to be or become bright; to make bright; (n.) *qal-a or *qel-a any bright, shining object: star 572. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *qal-a sexual organs, genitals, private parts (male or female) 573. Proto-Nostratic root *qam- (~ *qm-): (vb.) *qam- to crush, to grind; to chew, to bite, to eat; (n.) *qam-a bite; tooth 574. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *qan-a field, land, (open) country 575. Proto-Nostratic root *qar- (~ *qr-): (vb.) *qar- to rot, to stink; (n.) *qar-a rotten, stinking, putrid thing; (adj.) rotten, stinking, putrid 576. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *qaw-a head, forehead, brow 577. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *qel-a neck, throat 578. Proto-Nostratic root *qin- (~ *qen-): (vb.) *qin- to freeze, to be or become cold; (n.) *qin-a cold, frost
CHAPTER 29 PROTO-NOSTRATIC * Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic k-xg-g-
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian g-g-
ProtoDravid. k-k-
ProtoKartvel. w/u-w/u-
ProtoIE g-g-
ProtoEskimo k- q--
579. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to curve, to bend, to roll; to be round; (n.) *al-a round object: circle, globe, sphere, ball, etc. Derivative: (n.) *al-a head, skull 580. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *al-a head, skull Derivative of: (vb.) *al- to curve, to bend, to roll; to be round; (n.) *al-a round object: circle, globe, sphere, ball, etc.
CHAPTER 30
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *q
ProtoNostratic q-q-
ProtoKartvel. qw/u-qw/u-
ProtoIE k-k-
581. Proto-Nostratic root *qad- (~ *qd-): (vb.) *qad- to abide, to dwell; to relax, to rest, to be or become calm; (n.) *qad-a dwelling, abode, house 582. Proto-Nostratic root *qal- (~ *ql-): (vb.) *qal- to call (out), to cry (out), to shout; (n.) *qal-a call, cry, outcry, sound, noise, hubbub, uproar 583. Proto-Nostratic root *qal- (~ *ql-): (vb.) *qal- to strike, to hit, to cut, to hurt, to wound, to slay, to kill; (n.) *qal-a killing, murder, manslaughter, destruction, death Probably identical to: (vb.) *qal- to throw, to hurl; (n.) *qal-a sling, club; throwing, hurling 584. Proto-Nostratic root *qal- (~ *ql-): (vb.) *qal- to throw, to hurl; (n.) *qal-a sling, club; throwing, hurling Probably identical to: (vb.) *qal- to strike, to hit, to cut, to hurt, to wound, to slay, to kill; (n.) *qal-a killing, murder, manslaughter, destruction, death 585. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *qar-a edge, point, tip, peak 586. Proto-Nostratic root *qar- (~ *qr-) or *qur- (~ *qor-): (vb.) *qar- or *qur- to call out, to cry out; (n.) *qar-a or *qur-a call, cry, shout 587. Proto-Nostratic root *qar- (~ *qr-) or *qur- (~ *qor-): (vb.) *qar- or *qur- to hear; (n.) *qar-a or *qur-a ear
98
588. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *qat- (~ *qt-): (vb.) *qat- to say, to speak, to call; (n.) *qat-a call, invocation, invitation, summons 589. Proto-Nostratic root *qur- (~ *qor-): (vb.) *qur- to swallow; (n.) *qur-a neck, throat
CHAPTER 31
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic s -- (?) -
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian --
ProtoDravid. c-k-
ProtoKartvel. x-x-
ProtoIE k -k-
ProtoEskimo V-V-
590. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *a-a (young) sheep or goat 591. Proto-Nostratic root *ak- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ak- to prick, to pierce, to stab; (n.) *ak-a stab, thrust, jab; thorn, spike, prong, barb 592. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to cut, split, or break open; (n.) *al-a slit, crack 593. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- to cause harm, to injure, to cause strife; (n.) *ar-a injury, harm, strife 594. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- to cut, to cut into; (n.) *ar-a cut, slit, slice, slash; that which cuts: saw, knife, axe Extended form: (vb.) *ar-V-t- to make incisions, to cut into; (n.) *ar-t-a scratch, incision 595. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): Extended form: (vb.) *ar-V-t- to make incisions, to cut into; (n.) *ar-t-a scratch, incision Derivative of: (vb.) *ar- to cut, to cut into; (n.) *ar-a cut, slit, slice, slash; that which cuts: saw, knife, axe 596. Proto-Nostratic root *ay- (~ *y-): (vb.) *ay- to grow old, to turn gray (hair); (n.) *ay-a old age, gray hair
100
597. Proto-Nostratic root *er-: (vb.) *er- to burn, to roast; (n.) *er-a ash(es), charcoal, burnt wood; firewood; (adj.) burned, heated, roasted, charred, parched 598. Proto-Nostratic root *i- (~ *e-): Extended form: (vb.) *i-V-r- to comb; (n) *i-r-a hair: Note: The original meaning of the stem *i- (~ *e-) may have been to scratch, to scrape (> to comb > hair); this stem may be preserved in Cushitic: Proto-Cushitic *Vaf-/*Vif- or *laf-/*lif- to claw, to scratch (cf. Ehret 1995:429, no. 891). For derivation of the word for hair from a stem with the meaning to scratch, to scrape, cf. Old Church Slavic kosa hair, Serbo-Croatian ksa hair, wool, etc., o-grade of the root found in Common Slavic *esati to scratch, to comb > Russian est [] to scratch, to comb. 599. Proto-Nostratic root *il- (~ *el-) or (?) *ir- (~ *er-): (vb.) *il- or (?) *ir- to see; (n.) *il-a or (?) *ir-a eye 600. Proto-Nostratic root *ir- (~ *er-): (vb.) *ir- to be highly esteemed, eminent, illustrious, glorious; (n.) *ir-a high rank, chief, chieftain, ruler 601. Proto-Nostratic root *un- (~ *on-): Extended form: (vb.) *un-V-k- to hook up, to hang up, to suspend (tr.); to dangle, to hang (intr.); (n.) *un-k-a peg, hook 602. Proto-Nostratic root *ut- (~ *ot-): (vb.) *ut- to cut, to split; (n.) *ut-a cut, split
CHAPTER 32
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic - -
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian --
ProtoDravid. t-()-
ProtoKartvel. k-k-
ProtoIE k-k-
ProtoEskimo
603. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- to bite, to gnaw; (n.) *ar-a bite Extended form (in Semitic and Indo-European): (vb.) *ar-V-s- to bite, to gnaw; (n.) *ar-s-a tooth; morsel bitten, food, nourishment 604. Proto-Nostratic root *il- (~ *el-): (vb.) *il- to be bent, curved, round; (n.) *il-a bent, curved, round thing or object; (adj.) bent, curved, round 605. Proto-Nostratic root *im- (~ *em-): (vb.) *im- to join, bind, press, or unite together; (n.) *im-a bond, tie, union, connection; (adj.) joined, bound, pressed, or united together; tied, harnessed, glued, etc. 606. Proto-Nostratic root *uk- (~ *ok-): (vb.) *uk- to push, to shove, to thrust (in), to press (in); (n.) *uk-a push, shove, thrust
CHAPTER 33
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian --
ProtoDravid. --
ProtoKartvel. --
ProtoIE --
ProtoEskimo --
607. Proto-Nostratic 1st singular personal pronoun stem *a- (~ *-), *i- (~ *e-) I, me No doubt originally the same as the deictic particles *a-, *i- listed below. Note: The Chukchi forms support the view that we are dealing with what was originally a deictic particle here inasmuch as the same patterning is found in both the first and second person predicative pronoun stems. Moreover, it is the proximate deictic form *i- (~ *e-) that is represented in ChukchiKamchatkan as opposed to the distant form *a- (~ *-) found in Afrasian (the Proto-Indo-European forms *e+k-, *e+g-, and *e+k- are phonologically ambiguous). This seems to indicate that independent developments were involved in each branch, using the same basic elements. 608. Proto-Nostratic demonstrative stems (originally deictic particles): Proximate: *i- (~ *e-) this; Intermediate: *u- (~ *o-) that; Distant: *a- (~ *-) that yonder, that over there Note: These stems often combined with other deictic particles: *a/i/u+na-, *a/i/u+a-,*a/i/u+ma-,*a/i/u+ta-, *a/i/u+ka-, *a/i/u+ya-, etc. 609. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ab-a strength, power; (adj.) strong, mighty 610. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ab(b)a ~ *ap(p)a father, forefather (nursery word) 611. Proto-Nostratic root *ad- (~ *d-): (vb.) *ad- to be strong, mighty, powerful, exalted; (n.) *ad-a lord, master; (adj.) strong, mighty, powerful, exalted 612. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ad-a thorn; (adj.) pointed, sharp, prickly 613. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *a-a cow
104
614. Proto-Nostratic root *a- (~ *-): (vb.) *a- to be young, youthful, tender, fresh; (n.) *a-a a youth, young man, younger brother; (adj.) young, tender 615. Proto-Nostratic root *ak- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ak- to eat; (n.) *ak-a food, meal; fodder, feed, morsel 616. Proto-Nostratic root *ak- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ak- to be evil, wicked, bad; to hurt, to harm; (n.) *ak-a evil, wickedness, harm 617. Proto-Nostratic root *ak- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ak- to dig; (n.) *ak-a that which is dug: digging, ditch, trench, hole; that which is used to dig: carving tool, chisel, cutter, gouge 618. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *akka older female relative (nursery word) Note also: (n.) *akka older male relative 619. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *akka older male relative (nursery word) Note also: (n.) *akka older female relative 620. Proto-Nostratic root *ak- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ak- to be hot, to burn; to warm oneself; (n.) *ak-a heat, fire 621. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to purify, to cleanse (> to sift, to clean grain in the daughter languages); (n.) *al-a the act of washing, cleaning; that which is washed, cleaned Semantics as in Sanskrit pun ti to make clean, clear, pure, or bright; to cleanse, to purify, to purge, to clarify; (with sktum) to cleanse from chaff, to winnow; to sift, to discriminate, to discern, (passive) pyte to be cleaned, washed, or purified; related to Old High German fowen to sift, to clean grain and Latin prus clean, pure. 622. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-) (perhaps also *el-, *ul-): (vb.) *al- to be not so-and-so or such-and-such; (n.) *al-a nothing
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
105
Originally a negative verb stem meaning to be not so-and-so or such-andsuch later used in some branches as a negative particle. 623. Proto-Nostratic root *am- (~ *m-): (vb.) *am- to seize, to grasp, to take, to touch, to hold (closely or tightly); (n.) *am-a grasp, hold, hand(ful); (adj.) seized, grasped, touched, held, obtained 624. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *am-a time, moment, point of time; (particle) now 625. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *am(m)a mother (nursery word) Note also: (n.) *ema older female relative; mother; (older) woman 626. Proto-Nostratic root *an- (~ *n-): (vb.) *an- to load up and go, to send off; (n.) *an-a load, burden 627. Proto-Nostratic root *an- (~ *n-): (vb.) *an- to be quiet, still, at peace, at rest; (n.) *an-a tranquility, peace, rest; (adj.) quiet, still, peaceful, restful 628. Proto-Nostratic root *an- (~ *n-): (vb.) *an- to draw near to, to approach, to come (close to); (n.) *an-a nearness, proximity Derivative: (particle) *an-to, towards, over, for, against, upon, on 629. Proto-Nostratic (particle) *an-to, towards, over, for, against, upon, on Derivative of: (vb.) *an- to draw near to, to approach, to come (close to); (n.) *an-a nearness, proximity 630. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ana mother, aunt (nursery word) Note also: (n.) *ena mother, elder sister 631. Proto-Nostratic root *a- (~ *-): (vb.) *a- to divide, to separate; (n.) *a-a separation, difference; (adj.) separate, different 632. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *a()a (older) female relative (nursery word) 633. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *a()a (older) male relative
106
634. Proto-Nostratic root *ap- (~ *p-): (vb.) *ap- to be more, over, above, extra; (n.) *ap-a that which is more, over, above, extra; (adj.) many, more, extra, additional, numerous, teeming (particle) *ap- also, moreover, besides Note: The CVC- patterning shows that this stem could not originally have been a particle, though this is how it is preserved in the daughter languages. Though the original meaning is unknown, we may speculate that it may have been something like (vb.) to be more, over, above, extra; (n.) that which is more, over, above, extra; (adj.) many, more, extra, additional, numerous, teeming. 635. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- to cut (off, apart), to sever, to separate, to part asunder; (n.) *ar-a half, side, part; (adj.) severed, separated, parted, disjoined 636. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ar-a male, man, husband 637. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ar-a associated or related person or thing; associate, companion, friend; kinsman, relative; (adj.) associated, related 638. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-) (used as the base for the designation of various horned animals): (n.) *ar-a ram, goat, mountain-goat, chamois, ibex, gazelle, etc. 639. Proto-Nostratic root *as- (~ *s-): (vb.) *as- to gather, to collect; (n.) *as-a the act of gathering, collecting 640. Proto-Nostratic root *as- (~ *s-): (vb.) *as- to put, to place, to set; to sit, to be seated; (n.) *as-a place, seat; (adj.) put, placed, set, established 641. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *atta older male relative, father (nursery word) 642. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ata older relative (male or female) (nursery word) 643. Proto-Nostratic coordinating conjunction *aw-, *wa- (~ *w-) or 644. Proto-Nostratic root *ay- (~ *y-) (interrogative verb stem): (vb.) *ay- to do what?, to act in what manner? Derivative: Interrogative-relative pronoun stem *ay-, *ya- (relative) who, which, what; (interrogative) who?, which?, what?
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
107
645. Proto-Nostratic interrogative-relative pronoun stem *ay-, *ya- (relative) who, which, what; (interrogative) who?, which?, what?: Derivative of: (vb.) *ay- to do what?, to act in what manner? 646. Proto-Nostratic root *ay- (~ *y-): (vb.) *ay- to go, to proceed; (n.) *ay-a journey Note also: (vb.) *iy- to come, to go; (n.) *iy-a approach, arrival; path, way 647. Proto-Nostratic *#ay-a brain: 648. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ay(y)a mother, female relative (nursery word) 649. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ay(y)a father, male relative (nursery word) 650. Proto-Nostratic negative particle *e no, not 651. Proto-Nostratic root *eb-: (vb.) *eb- to become weak, exhausted, wasted, debilitated, wiped out; to yield, to succumb; to go mad, to become insane, to lose ones mind; to lose ones way; (n.) *eb-a weakness, exhaustion; madness, silliness, foolishness; (adj.) weakened, exhausted, debilitated, wiped out; mad, foolish, silly, halfwitted 652. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *ek-: (vb.) *ek- to move quickly, to rage; to be furious, raging, violent, spirited, fiery, wild; (n.) *ek-a rapid or violent movement, fury, rage 653. Proto-Nostratic root *ek-: (vb.) *ek- to diminish, to decrease, to reduce; to be insufficient, lacking, wanting; to be small, weak, lowly, ignoble, common, ordinary, plain, simple; (n.) *ek-a diminishment, reduction, decrease, loss; deficiency, want, need, lack 654. Proto-Nostratic root *el-: (vb.) *el- to shine, to radiate, to glitter, to glisten; (n.) *el-a luster, splendor, light
108
655. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *ema older female relative; mother; (older) woman (nursery word) Note also: (n.) *am(m)a mother 656. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ena mother, elder sister (nursery word) Note also: (n.) *ana mother, aunt 657. Proto-Nostratic root *ep-: (vb.) *ep- to burn, to be hot; to cook, to boil, to bake; (n.) *ep-a the act of cooking, baking; oven 658. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *er-a earth, ground 659. Proto-Nostratic root *ib- (~ *eb-): (vb.) *ib- to well up, to overflow, to spill over; to pour out or over; (n.) *ib-a spill, overflow, flood, deluge 660. Proto-Nostratic root *il- (~ *el-): (vb.) *il- to live, to be alive; to be, to exist; (n.) *il-a dwelling, habitation, house; (adj.) living, alive, existing 661. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *il-a (~ *el-a) deer 662. Proto-Nostratic root *il- (~ *el-): (vb.) *il- to see, to know; (n.) *il-a eye 663. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *in-a (~ *en-a) place, location (> in, within, into in the daughter languages) 664. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ina or *ia younger relative (male or female) (nursery word) 665. Proto-Nostratic root *it- (~ *et-): (vb.) *it- to chew, to bite, to eat, to consume; (n.) *it-a the act of eating; that which is eaten: food, nourishment 666. Proto-Nostratic root *iy- (~ *ey-): (vb.) *iy- to come, to go; (n.) *iy-a approach, arrival; path, way Note also: (vb.) *ay- to go, to proceed; (n.) *ay-a journey
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
109
667. Proto-Nostratic 1st person personal pronoun stem *iya: (a) by me; (b) agent marker of the 1st singular of verbs; (c) postnominal possessive pronoun: my 668. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *om-a rounded prominence at the end of a bone forming a ball and socket joint with the hollow part of another bone, condyle (of the lower jaw, the shoulder, the elbow, the hip, etc.) Note: Semantic shifts took place in Semitic, Indo-European, and, in part, Altaic; the original meaning was preserved in Egyptian and Turkic. 669. Proto-Nostratic root *or-: (vb.) *or- to move rapidly, quickly, hastily; to set in motion; (n.) *or-a any rapid motion: running, flowing, pouring, etc.; (adj.) rapid, quick, hasty 670. Proto-Nostratic root *or-: (vb.) *or- to rise (up); (n.) *or-a rising movement or motion Extended form: (vb.) *or-V-g- to climb on, to mount, to copulate (with); (n.) *or-g-a mounting, copulation 671. Proto-Nostratic root *or-: Extended form: (vb.) *or-V-g- to climb on, to mount, to copulate (with); (n.) *or-g-a mounting, copulation Derivative of: (vb.) *or- to rise (up); (n.) *or-a rising movement or motion 672. Proto-Nostratic root *ot-: (vb.) *ot- to move to or toward; to move away from; to move out of the way, to step aside; (n.) *ot-a movement to or toward; movement away from; step, track 673. Proto-Nostratic root *ow-: Extended form: (vb.) *ow-V-- to hatch eggs; (n.)*ow--a egg Dolgopolsky has proposed a very attractive etymology here. However, it must be noted that Arabic " eggwhite, albumen is isolated within Semitic. Moreover, even though the Proto-Indo-European form is traditionally reconstructed as *u i om egg, no single reconstruction can account for all of the forms found in the Indo-European daughter languages. Accordingly, there
110
are difficulties with this etymology. If this is a valid etymology, it would imply that the Proto-Indo-European form is to be reconstructed as *ou i om egg, with short vowel in the first syllable and a laryngeal (* [= *]) between *u and *i (the long vowel found in the first syllable of the forms attested in several of the Indo-European daughter languages would then be due to compensatory lengthening following the loss of this laryngeal). There may have been a nonapophonic *o (original, or inherited, *o) in the first syllable, in which case the Proto-Nostratic form would have been *ow--. Reconstructing a medial laryngeal (* [= *]) would also account for the Germanic developments. *ow-yo-m (traditional *ou i om) egg cannot, as is often assumed, be a derivative of the common Proto-Indo-European word for bird, which requires an initial a-coloring laryngeal (preserved in Armenian): *Aw-i-s [*Aw-i-s], *Aw-y-s > Armenian hav bird, hen, chicken; Latin avis a bird; Umbrian (acc.) avif bird; Sanskrit (nom. sg.) v-, (Rigveda) v- a bird; etc. 674. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ul-a the bottom or lowest part of anything; the sole of the foot; soil, earth, ground, land Semantics as in Latin slum the bottom or lowest part of anything; the sole of the foot; soil, earth, ground, land (cf. Buck 1949:1.212). 675. Proto-Nostratic deictic stem indicating distance farthest away from the speaker *ul- (~ *ol-) that over there, that yonder 676. Proto-Nostratic root *um- (~ *om-): (vb.) *um- to bear, to give birth; (n.) *um-a offspring, descendant 677. Proto-Nostratic root *up- (onomatopoeic): (vb.) *up- to blow; (n.) *up-a puff of air, breath 678. Proto-Nostratic root *ut- (~ *ot-): (vb.) *ut- to stretch, to lengthen; (n.) *ut-a wide-open space, outdoor area, exterior; length, distance; (adj.) wide, broad, long
CHAPTER 34
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *h
ProtoNostratic h-h-
ProtoAfrasian h-h-
ProtoDravid. --
ProtoKartvel. --
ProtoIE h-h-
ProtoEskimo --
679. Proto-Nostratic root *hag- (~ *hg-): (vb.) *hag- to burn, to be on fire, to be aflame, to be ablaze, to shine brightly; (n.) *hag-a midday heat, heat of sun, sunlight 680. Proto-Nostratic root *hak- (~ *hk-): (vb.) *hak- to be sluggish, slow; to do or approach something gradually, slowly, step by step; (adv.) slowly, gradually; (n.) *hak-a slowness, gradualness, sluggishness 681. Proto-Nostratic root *hak- (~ *hk-): (vb.) *hak- to press, squeeze, pack, or cram together; to confine, to oppress; (n.) *hak-a oppression, affliction, pain 682. Proto-Nostratic root *hal- (~ *hl-): (vb.) *hal- to light up, to beam forth, to shine, to brighten up, to radiate; (n.) *hal-a clearness, brightness, radiance, purity; (adj.) clear, pure, bright, shining, radiant 683. Proto-Nostratic root *hal- (~ *hl-): (adv.) *hal- else, otherwise; (n.) *hal-a other side; (adj.) other 684. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ham-a blackness; black object; (adj.) black 685. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ham-a water 686. Proto-Nostratic root *ham- (~ *hm-): (vb.) *ham- to take into the mouth, to eat; (n.) *ham-a mouth 687. Proto-Nostratic root *ha- (~ *h-): (vb.) *ha- to split apart, to open (tr.); to gape, to open the mouth, to yawn; (n.) *ha-a opening: yawn, gape, mouth; hole; crack, crevice
112
688. Proto-Nostratic root *hap- (~ *hp-): (vb.) *hap- to turn, to turn away, to turn back; (n.) *hap-a the act of turning away, turning back, overturning; (adj.) turned away from, turned back, overturned 689. Proto-Nostratic root *haw- (~ *hw-): (vb.) *haw- to long for, to desire; (n.) *haw-a desire 690. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *hay-a a kind of cereal or grain 691. Proto-Nostratic exclamation of surprise, astonishment, grief, or misfortune *hay 692. Proto-Nostratic root *her- and/or *hor-: (vb.) *her- and/or *hor- to escape, to flee, to run away; (n.) *her-a and/or *hor-a escape, flight; (adj.) escaped, liberated, freed
CHAPTER 35
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
ProtoNostratic - -
ProtoAfrasian --
ProtoDravid. --
ProtoKartvel. x-x-
ProtoIE --
ProtoEskimo --
693. Proto-Nostratic root *ac- (~ *c-): (vb.) *ac- to pick, to pluck; (n.) *ac-a the act of picking, plucking; (adj.) picked, plucked 694. Proto-Nostratic root *ag- (~ *g-): (vb.) *ag- to be pressed or weighed down; to be oppressed; to be vexed, distressed, disheartened, afflicted, troubled; (n.) *ag-a trouble, affliction, oppression, distress, grief, sadness 695. Proto-Nostratic root *ag- (~ *g-): (vb.) *ag- to cover over, to hide, to conceal, to obscure, to overshadow; (n.) *ag-a mist, darkness, cloudy weather; (adj.) misty, dark, cloudy 696. Proto-Nostratic root *ak- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ak- to be mentally sharp, keen; (n.) *ak-a wisdom, sound judgment, understanding 697. Proto-Nostratic root *ak- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ak- to spread, to widen, to extend; (n.) *ak-a expanse, wide-open space, earth, field 698. Proto-Nostratic root *ak- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ak- to direct, to guide, to command; (n.) *ak-a direction, guidance, command, decree; leader, chief, chieftain, ruler, headman 699. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to lay waste, to destroy, to kill, to slaughter; (n.) *al-a destruction, violence, killing, slaughter Note also: (vb.) *xal- to wear down, to wear out, to weaken; to be worn out, worn down, weakened; (n.) *xal-a weakness, exhaustion, fatigue, weariness; (adj.) weak, worn out, tired, exhausted, weary
114
700. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to wash, to rinse, to clean; (n.) *al-a the act of washing, cleaning; (adj.) washed, clean(ed) 701. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to lower; (n.) *al-a that which is beneath or under; lower part, underpart; (adj.) lower 702. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to grow, to be strong; (n.) *al-a health, strength, power; (adj.) healthy, strong, powerful; grown, great, large 703. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *al-a hole, hollow, cavity 704. Proto-Nostratic root *am- (~ *m-): (vb.) *am- to be sharp, sour, bitter, acid; (n.) *am-a any sharp-tasting, sour, bitter, or acid foodstuff; (adj.) sharp, sour, bitter, acid 705. Proto-Nostratic root *am- (~ *m-): (vb.) *am- to become still, quiet, tranquil; to rest, to settle down, to remain, to abide; (n.) *am-a abode, resting place; stillness, tranquility; (adj.) seated, settled 706. Proto-Nostratic root *an- (~ *n-): (vb.) *an- to show favor; to be gracious, affectionate, tender; (n.) *an-a affection, tenderness, favor, graciousness 707. Proto-Nostratic root *an- (~ *n-): (vb.) *an- to bend, to curve, to twist; (n.) *an-a bend, curve, twist 708. Proto-Nostratic root *an- (~ *n-): Extended form: (vb.) *an-V-g- to tie tightly, to constrict, to make narrow; to choke, to strangle; (n.) *an-g-a throat; (adj.) narrow, constricted 709. Proto-Nostratic root *a- (~ *-): (vb.) *a- to dive into water (bird); (n.) *a-a an aquatic bird
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
115
710. Proto-Nostratic root *ap- (~ *p-): (vb.) *ap- to take, gather, or collect (with the hands or arms); (n.) *ap-a that which has been gathered or collected: plenty, fullness, abundance, wealth, possessions, property; embrace, armful, handful 711. Proto-Nostratic root *ap- (~ *p-): (vb.) *ap- to move quickly, to run, to flow; (n.) *ap-a (flowing or running) water, river, stream, current 712. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- to prepare, to make ready, to put together; (n.) *ar-a way, manner, method 713. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ar-a arm, hand 714. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- to be superior, to be higher in status or rank, to be above or over; (n.) *ar-a nobleman, master, chief, superior; (adj.) free-born, noble 715. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ar- to scratch, to scrape (> to plow in the daughter languages); (n.) *ar-a scraping, scratching 716. Proto-Nostratic *ar-: (1) particle introducing an alternative: or, (2) conjoining particle: with, and, (3) inferential particle: then, therefore Note: The CVC- patterning shows that this stem could not originally have been a particle, though this is how it is preserved in the daughter languages. The original meaning is unknown. 717. Proto-Nostratic root *as- (~ *s-): (vb.) *as- to burn, to be hot; (n.) *as-a cinder, ember, ashes; heat 718. Proto-Nostratic root *as- (~ *s-) (used to designate various tree names): (n.) *as-a a tree and its fruit 719. Proto-Nostratic root *at- (~ *t-): (vb.) *at- to shake, to tremble; to be shaken, startled, frightened, terrified, afraid; (n.) *at-a trembling, shaking Note also: (vb.) *ut- to shake, to shiver, to tremble; (n.) *ut-a trembling, shaking; (adj.) shaking, shivering, trembling
116
720. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *aw-a a relative on the mothers side 721. Proto-Nostratic root *aw- (~ *w-): (vb.) *aw- to surge up, to overflow, to rain; (n.) *aw-a torrential rain, torrent, deluge Probably related to: (vb.) *aw- to swell, to increase; (n.) *aw-a swelling, increase, growth; great number or amount 722. Proto-Nostratic root *aw- (~ *w-): (vb.) *aw- to swell, to increase; (n.) *aw-a swelling, increase, growth; great number or amount Probably related to: (vb.) *aw- to surge up, to overflow, to rain; (n.) *aw-a torrential rain, torrent, deluge 723. Proto-Nostratic root *aw- (~ *w-): (vb.) *aw- to weave, to braid, to plait, to twist, to turn; (n.) *aw-a the act of weaving, braiding, plaiting 724. Proto-Nostratic root *ay- (~ *y-): (vb.) *ay- to live, to be alive; (n.) *ay-a life, age Extended form: (vb.) *ay-V-w- to live, to be alive; (n.) *ay-w-a life, age 725. Proto-Nostratic root *ay- (~ *y-): Extended form: (vb.) *ay-V-t- to swell, to be fat; (n.) *ay-t-a a swelling, fat; (adj.) fat, swollen 726. Proto-Nostratic root *a- (~ *-): (vb.) *a- to cut into, to carve, to notch; (n.) *a-a that which is cut: incision, notch, nick; that which cuts: saw, chisel, axe, hatchet 727. Proto-Nostratic root *in- (~ *en-): Extended form: (vb.) *in-V-k- to reach, to come to, to arrive at, to gain; to offer, to present; (n.) *in-k-a gain, mastery, experience; offering, present
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
117
728. Proto-Nostratic root *iw- (~ *ew-), *iy- (~ *ey-): (vb.) *iw-, *iy- to lack, to stand in need, to be in want; (n.) *iw-a, *iy-a need, want, lack, deficiency 729. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *ok-a sharp point 730. Proto-Nostratic root *ok-: (vb.) *ok- to scrape, to scratch; (n.) *ok-a scraping, scratching 731. Proto-Nostratic root *on-: (vb.) *on- to swell, to grow, to rise; (n.) *on-a height, elevation, swelling 732. Proto-Nostratic root *ul- (~ *ol-): (vb.) *ul- to destroy, to lay waste, to cause to perish; (n.) *ul-a ruin, destruction; end, death 733. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ur-a (and/or *er-a ?) hawk-like bird: falcon, hawk, eagle, kite 734. Proto-Nostratic root *ur- (~ *or-): (vb.) *ur- to pound, to grind, to crush, to waste away or wear down by rubbing; (n.) *ur-a pestle, mortar 735. Proto-Nostratic root *ut- (~ *ot-): (vb.) *ut- to shake, to shiver, to tremble; (n.) *ut-a trembling, shaking; (adj.) shaking, shivering, trembling Note also: (vb.) *at- to shake, to tremble; to be shaken, startled, frightened, terrified, afraid; (n.) *at-a trembling, shaking
CHAPTER 36
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian --
ProtoDravid. --
ProtoKartvel. --
ProtoIE --
ProtoEskimo --
736. Proto-Nostratic root *ag- (~ *g-): (vb.) *ag- to bud, to sprout, to grow; (n.) *ag-a outgrowth, bud, sprout, protuberance 737. Proto-Nostratic root *ak- (~ *k-): (vb.) *ak- to beat, to strike, to break; (n.) *ak-a the act of beating, striking, breaking 738. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to be high, tall, elevated, exalted; to rise high; to ascend; (n.) *al-a highest point: peak, summit, mountain; (particle) *al- on, upon, on top of, over, above, beyond 739. Proto-Nostratic root *al- (~ *l-): (vb.) *al- to make a fire, to light a fire, to ignite, to kindle, to burn; (n.) *al-a fire, torch 740. Proto-Nostratic root *am- (~ *m-): (vb.) *am- to sink, to dip, to plunge; (n.) *am-a deep place, valley; (adj.) sunken, deep 741. Proto-Nostratic root *am- (~ *m-): (vb.) *am- to lift, to raise, to make high; (n.) *am-a highest point, tip, top Extended form (Semitic and Indo-European): (vb.) *am-V-d- to lift, to raise, to make high; (n.) am-d-a highest point, tip, top 742. Proto-Nostratic root *am- (~ *m-): (vb.) *am- to shoot, to hurl, to throw; (n.) *am-a arrow
120
743. Proto-Nostratic root *an- (~ *n-): (vb.) *an- to breathe, to respire, to live; (n.) *an-a life, breath 744. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *a-a upper part; (particle) *a- up, above 745. Proto-Nostratic root *ap- (~ *p-): (vb.) *ap- to grasp, to seize, to take hold of, to take by force; (n.) *ap-a grasp, hold, seizure 746. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ar-a back, rear; hindquarters, behind 747. Proto-Nostratic root *ar- (~ *r-): Extended form: (vb.) *ar-V-g- to climb on, to mount; to rise, to ascend; to lift up, to raise; (n.) *ar-g-a climbing, mounting 748. Proto-Nostratic root *at- (~ *t-): (vb.) *at- to move, to proceed, to advance (in years); (n.) *at-a maturity, old age; advance; (adj.) mature, old; advanced 749. Proto-Nostratic root *en-: (vb.) *en- to see, to notice, to pay attention; (n.) *en-a sight, view, attention 750. Proto-Nostratic root *e-: (vb.) *e- to think, to consider; (n.) *e-a thought, idea, notion, concept, intention, deliberation 751. Proto-Nostratic root *ey-: (vb.) *ey- to know, to recognize; (n.) *ey-a sight, recognition; (adj.) known, seen, recognized 752. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ig-a young of an animal, calf 753. Proto-Nostratic root *im- (~ *em-): (vb.) *im- to suck, to swallow; (n.) *im-a the act of sucking, swallowing; breast, nipple, teat 754. Proto-Nostratic root *or-: (vb.) *or- to turn or twist round; (n.) *or-a turning, twisting; binding, tying; sewing, weaving 755. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ub-a bosom, breast
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
121
756. Proto-Nostratic root *un- (~ *on-): (vb.) *un- to eat, to drink, to swallow; to feed (on), to suck (milk from a breast); (n.) *un-a food, meal 757. Proto-Nostratic root *ur- (~ *or-): (vb.) *ur- to be firm, hard, strong; (n.) *ur-a firmness, hardness, strength; (adj.) firm, hard, strong 758. Proto-Nostratic root *ut- (~ *ot-): (vb.) *ut- to smell; (n.) *ut-a smell, odor, fragrance 759. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *uw-a (~ *ow-a) herd of small animals, sheep and goats
CHAPTER 37
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *x
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic -x--
ProtoNostratic x-x-
ProtoAfrasian x-x-
ProtoDravid. --
ProtoKartvel. x-x-
ProtoIE - -
ProtoEskimo --
760. Proto-Nostratic root *xal- (~ *xl-): (vb.) *xal- to wear down, to wear out, to weaken; to be worn out, worn down, weakened; (n.) *xal-a weakness, exhaustion, fatigue, weariness; (adj.) weak, worn out, tired, exhausted, weary Note also: (vb.) *al- to lay waste, to destroy, to kill, to slaughter; (n.) *al-a destruction, violence, killing, slaughter 761. Proto-Nostratic root *xal- (~ *xl-): (vb.) *xal- to divide, to allot, to apportion, to enumerate, to count; (n.) *xal-a division, allotment, portion, share; measurement, calculation, number 762. Proto-Nostratic root *xa- (~ *x-): (vb.) *xa- to lift, to raise; to rise, to go upward, to ascend; (n.) *xa-a that which is most prominent, foremost, visible, or noticeable; (particle) *xa- on top of, over, above Extended form: (n.) *xa-t-a the most prominent or foremost (person or thing), front, front part 763. Proto-Nostratic root *xa- (~ *x-): Extended form: (n.) *xa-t-a the most prominent or foremost (person or thing), front, front part Derivative of: (vb.) *xa- to lift, to raise; to rise, to go upward, to ascend; (n.) *xa-a that which is most prominent, foremost, visible, or noticeable; (particle) *xa- on top of, over, above 764. Proto-Nostratic root *xat- (~ *xt-): (vb.) *xat- to cut into, to hollow out, to engrave, to prick, to pierce; (n.) *xat-a slice, carving, engraving, engraved line, incision
124
765. Proto-Nostratic root *xol-: (vb.) *xol- to be separated or apart from, by oneself, alone; to set apart; (n.) *xol-a solitude, seclusion, loneliness; (adj.) alone, lonely
CHAPTER 38
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *x
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic w-x-
ProtoNostratic x-x-
ProtoAfrasian x-x-
ProtoDravid. v-/-v-
ProtoKartvel. xw/u-xw/u-
ProtoIE --
ProtoEskimo v-v-
766. Proto-Nostratic root *xal- (~ *xl-): (vb.) *xal- to pull (off, out), to tear (off, out); (n.) *xal-a the act of pulling or tearing (off, out) 767. Proto-Nostratic root *xat- (~ *xt-): (vb.) *xat- to scratch, to scrape; (n.) *xat-a the act of scratching, scraping 768. Proto-Nostratic root *xat- (~ *xt-): (vb.) *xat- to chatter, to speak; (n.) *xat-a chatter, talk 769. Proto-Nostratic root *xel-: (vb.) *xel- to gulp down; (n.) *xel-a neck, throat 770. Proto-Nostratic root *xir- (~ *xer-): (vb.) *xir- to make a loud noise, to make a shrill sound; (n.) *xir-a loud noise
CHAPTER 39
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *
ProtoNostratic --
ProtoAfrasian --
ProtoDravid. --
ProtoKartvel. --
ProtoIE --
ProtoEskimo --
771. Proto-Nostratic root *am- (~ *m-): (vb.) *am- to be or become dark; to cover, to hide; (n.) *am-a darkness; sunset, evening 772. Proto-Nostratic root *il- (~ *el-): (vb.) *il- to bear, to give birth, to beget (of humans); (n.) *il-a child, youth, young person; (adj.) young, immature
CHAPTER 40
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *y
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic y-y-y-
ProtoNostratic y-y-
ProtoAfrasian y-y-
ProtoDravid. y-/-y-
ProtoKartvel. y-/-
ProtoIE y-y-
ProtoEskimo y-y-
773. Proto-Nostratic root *ya- (~ *y-): (vb.) *ya- to tie, to bind, to gird; (n.) *ya-a binding, bond, bandage; belt, girdle 774. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *yam-a water, sea 775. Proto-Nostratic root *yan- (~ *yn-): (vb.) *yan- to say, to speak; (n.) *yan-a saying, word, expression 776. Proto-Nostratic root *yaw- (~ *yw-): (vb.) *yaw- to produce young; (n.) *yaw-a youth, young person, child; (adj.) young 777. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *yiw-a (~ *yew-a) grain 778. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *yor-a set of two, group of two; a pair of (> two)
CHAPTER 41
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *w
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic w-w-
ProtoNostratic w-w-
ProtoAfrasian w-w-
ProtoDravid. v-/-v-
ProtoKartvel. w-w-
ProtoIE w-w-
ProtoEskimo v-v-
779. Proto-Nostratic 1st person personal pronoun stem *wa- (~ *w-) I, me; we us 780. Proto-Nostratic sentence particle *wa- (~ *w-) and, also, but; like, as 781. Proto-Nostratic root *wa- (~ *w-): (vb.) *wa- to call, to cry out, to shout; (n.) *wa-a cry, howl, clamor, shout, noise 782. Proto-Nostratic root *wad- (~ *wd-): (vb.) *wad- to take, to lead, to carry, to bring; (n.) *wad-a the act of taking, leading, carrying, bringing 783. Proto-Nostratic root *wa- (~ *w-): (vb.) *wa- to strike, to stab, to wound; (n.) *wa-a wound, scar; knife, sword, blade, spear(head) 784. Proto-Nostratic root *wak- (~ *wk-): (vb.) *wak- to rouse, to stir up, to excite; (n.) *wak-a energy, vigor, strength, power, might 785. Proto-Nostratic root *wal- (~ *wl-): (vb.) *wal- to be or become strong; (n.) *wal-a strength, power 786. Proto-Nostratic root *wal- (~ *wl-): (vb.) *wal- to pull (out); (n.) *wal-a pulling, dragging 787. Proto-Nostratic root *wal- (~ *wl-): (vb.) *wal- to cry out, to call out, to shout; (n.) *wal-a sound, noise, cry, wail, lamentation, howl, hubbub
132
788. Proto-Nostratic root *wal- (~ *wl-): (vb.) *wal- to go, to go away, to depart; (n.) *wal-a departure, flight, escape 789. Proto-Nostratic root *wal- (~ *wl-): (vb.) *wal- to flow, to wet, to moisten; (n.) *wal-a flow, trickle; wetness, moisture, dampness; (adj.) wet, damp 790. Proto-Nostratic root *wal- (~ *wl-): (vb.) *wal- to set fire to, to burn, to heat up, to warm; (n.) *wal-a heat, warmth, boiling 791. Proto-Nostratic root *wal- (~ *wl-): (vb.) *wal- to crush, to grind, to wear out; to rub, to press; to be worn out, weak; to fade, to wither, to waste away; (n.) *wal-a distress, pain, difficulty; weakness, hunger, starvation 792. Proto-Nostratic root *wal- (~ *wl-): (vb.) *wal- to turn, to roll, to revolve; (n.) *wal-a circle, circumference; turn, rotation; (adj.) round 793. Proto-Nostratic root *wal- (~ *wl-): (vb.) *wal- to blaze, to shine, to be bright; (n.) *wal-a whiteness, glitter, luster, brightness, light; (adj.) shining, bright, white 794. Proto-Nostratic root *wam- (~ *wm-): (vb.) *wam- to eject, to spit out, to spit up; (n.) *wam-a spittle, vomit 795. Proto-Nostratic root *wan- (~ *wn-): (vb.) *wan- to stay, to remain; (n.) *wan-a abode, dwelling 796. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wan-a share, portion, period (of time) 797. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wan-a first, first-born, eldest 798. Proto-Nostratic root *wan- (~ *wn-): (vb.) *wan- to bend; (n.) *wan-a bend, curve; (adj.) crooked, bent, curved 799. Proto-Nostratic root *wa- (~ *w-): (vb.) *wa- to strike, to stab, to wound, to cut; (n.) *wa-a cut, slash, gash, wound; harm, injury; dagger, knife
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *w
133
800. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *war-a man, male, male animal 801. Proto-Nostratic root *war- (~ *wr-): (vb.) *war- to look, to watch out for, to observe, to care for; (n.) *war-a watch, vigil, guardianship, care; watchman, guard, keeper, warder 802. Proto-Nostratic root *war- (~ *wr-): (vb.) *war- to comb; (n.) *war-a comb 803. Proto-Nostratic root *war- (~ *wr-): (vb.) *war- to stretch, to extend, to expand; (n.) *war-a width, breadth, length; (adj.) wide, broad Probably identical to: (vb.) *war- to raise, to elevate, to grow, to increase; (n.) *war-a uppermost, highest, or topmost part 804. Proto-Nostratic root *war- (~ *wr-): (vb.) *war- to raise, to elevate, to grow, to increase; (n.) *war-a uppermost, highest, or topmost part Probably identical to: (vb.) *war- to stretch, to extend, to expand; (n.) *war-a width, breadth, length; (adj.) wide, broad 805. Proto-Nostratic root *war- (~ *wr-): (vb.) *war- to burn, to blaze; (n.) *war-a blaze, flame, heat, warmth 806. Proto-Nostratic root *war- (~ *wr-) and/or *wir- (~ *wer-): (vb.) *war- and/or *wir- to say, to speak, to tell, to point out, to make known; (n.) *war-a and/or *wir-a news, report, gossip, speech 807. Proto-Nostratic root *was- (~ *ws-): (vb.) *was- to be or become worn out, tired, weary, fatigued, exhausted; (n.) *was-a weariness, fatigue, exhaustion Identical to: (vb.) *was- to crush, to grind, to pound, to wear out; to wither, to fade, to rot away, to waste away, to dry up, to decay; (n.) *was-a the act of crushing, grinding, pounding; wasting away, decay, decomposition
134
808. Proto-Nostratic root *was- (~ *ws-): (vb.) *was- to crush, to grind, to pound, to wear out; to wither, to fade, to rot away, to waste away, to dry up, to decay; (n.) *was-a the act of crushing, grinding, pounding; wasting away, decay, decomposition Identical to: (vb.) *was- to be or become worn out, tired, weary, fatigued, exhausted; (n.) *was-a weariness, fatigue, exhaustion 809. Proto-Nostratic root *wa- (~ *w-): (vb.) *wa- to add (to), to augment, to increase, to heap up; (n.) *wa-a augmentation, increase, addition, increment; (adj.) increased, augmented, heaped up, filled, full 810. Proto-Nostratic root *wat- (~ *wt-): (vb.) *wat- to pass (of time); to grow old, to age; (n.) *wat-a year, age; (adj.) old 811. Proto-Nostratic root *wat- (~ *wt-): (vb.) *wat- to say, to speak, to be talkative; (n.) *wat-a sound, cry, chatter, babble, report 812. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wat-a the belly, stomach, bowels; womb; the interior or inside of anything 813. Proto-Nostratic exclamation *way woe! 814. Proto-Nostratic root *wa- (~ *w-): (vb.) *wa- to flow; (n.) *wa-a running water 815. Proto-Nostratic root *wed-: (vb.) *wed- to strike (with a weapon); (n.) *wed-a death, ruin, murder; strike, cut, wound, scar; weapon, axe 816. Proto-Nostratic root *wel-: (vb.) *wel- to slay, to fight; (n.) *wel-a conquest, victory, defeat, slaughter, massacre; fight, battle, attack 817. Proto-Nostratic root *wel-: (vb.) *wel- to be open, to be vacant; (n.) *wel-a open space, open land, field, meadow
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *w
135
818. Proto-Nostratic root *wel-: (vb.) *wel- to well up, to surge, to flow forth, to flood; (n.) *wel-a deluge, flood, inundation; surge, wave 819. Proto-Nostratic root *wet-: (vb.) *wet- to wet, to moisten; (n.) *wet-a water 820. Proto-Nostratic root *wig- (~ *weg-): (vb.) *wig- to carry, to convey; (n.) *wig-a burden, load; conveyance, cart, vehicle 821. Proto-Nostratic root *wil- (~ *wel-): (vb.) *wil- to become bright, to manifest, to appear, to come into view; (n.) *wil-a appearance, manifestation; light, brightness, radiance, splendor; (adj.) bright, manifest, clear 822. Proto-Nostratic root *win- (~ *wen-) or *wi- (~ *we-): (vb.) *win- or *wi- to strive for, to wish for, to desire; (n.) *win-a or *wi-a wish, desire 823. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wir-a poplar 824. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *wos-: (vb.) *wos- to trade, to deal; (n.) *wos-a trade, commerce 825. Proto-Nostratic root *wot-: (vb.) *wot- to take hold of, to seize, to grasp, to collect, to take away; (n.) *wot-a the act of taking, seizing, grasping 826. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *woy-: (vb.) *woy- to make an effort, to act with energy; (n.) *woy-a strength, power 827. Proto-Nostratic root (vb.) *woy-: Extended form: (vb.) *woy-V-k- to arrange or put in order; (n.) *woy-k-a arrangement, order; straightness, correctness, rectitude; (adj.) straight, right, correct, true 828. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wun-d-a (~ *won-d-a) (young, fine, or soft) hair 829. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wur-a (~ *wor-a) squirrel
136
830. Proto-Nostratic root *wur- (~ *wor-): (vb.) *wur- to scratch, to incise, to dig up; (n.) *wur-a pit, ditch 831. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *wuy- (~ *woy-) or *Huy- (~ *Hoy-): (vb.) *wuy- or *Huy- to swim; (n.) *wuy-a or *Huy-a swim, swimming
CHAPTER 42
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *m
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic m-mm-m-
ProtoNostratic m-m-
ProtoAfrasian m-m-
ProtoDravid. m-m-
ProtoKartvel. m-m-
ProtoIE m-m-
ProtoEskimo m-m-
832. Proto-Nostratic indefinite pronoun stem *ma- (~ *m-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu(~ *mo-) one, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody; other, another: Note: This may originally have been a demonstrative stem (as suggested by Illi-Svity), with three degrees of distance: Proximate: *ma- (~ *m-) this; Intermediate: *mi- (~ *me-) that; Distant: *mu- (~ *mo-) that yonder As in the stems: Proximate: *ka- (~ *k-) this; Intermediate: *ki- (~ *ke-) that; Distant: *ku- (~ *ko-) that yonder *ta- (~ *t-) this; *ti- (~ *te-) that; *tu- (~ *to-) that yonder
833. Proto-Nostratic (nursery word) (n.) *ma(a) mother, mommy, (reduplicated) *mam(m)a, *mema mother; (mothers) breast, milk; used as a verb, the meaning was probably to suckle, to nurse; to suck (the breast) 834. Proto-Nostratic negative/prohibitive particle *ma()- (~ *m()-) no, not 835. Proto-Nostratic root *ma- (~ *m-): (vb.) *ma- to increase (in number), to be abundant, to be many; (n.) *ma-a large quantity, plenty, abundance; (adj.) great, big, large, many, abundant 836. Proto-Nostratic root *mad- (~ *md-): (vb.) *mad- to stretch, to expand, to lengthen, to draw out, to measure out; (n.) *mad-a measure, measurement, amount; extent, limit Note also: (vb.) *mat- to stretch, to expand, to lengthen, to draw out, to measure out; (n.) *mat-a measure, measurement, amount; extent, limit 837. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mad-w-a honey, mead
138
838. Proto-Nostratic root *mag- (~ *mg-): (vb.) *mag- to be of great influence, importance, or power; to be eminent, exalted, highly esteemed, glorious, illustrious; (n.) *mag-a strength, power, might; glory, splendor, magnificence, grandeur, nobility, honor, distinction, excellence; (adj.) strong, powerful, eminent, exalted, highly esteemed, glorious, illustrious 839. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *mag-a earth, land 840. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mag-a young person, child; (adj.) young 841. Proto-Nostratic root *ma- (~ *m-): (vb.) *ma- to increase, to swell, to exceed, to surpass, to be great; (n.) *ma-a bigness, greatness, fullness, excellence; (adj.) big, great, full 842. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mak-a neck 843. Proto-Nostratic root *mak- (~ *mk-): (vb.) *mak- to deceive, to trick, to cheat; to be deceived, troubled, confused, perplexed; (n.) *mak-a deception, trickery, confusion 844. Proto-Nostratic root *mak- (~ *mk-): (vb.) *mak- to be great, strong, mighty, powerful; (n.) *mak-a strength, power; (adj.) great, strong, powerful; much, many Note also: (vb.) *mik- to exceed, to surpass, to be in excess, to grow, to increase, to swell, to expand; (n.) *mik-a growth, excess, increase, abundance, fullness; (adj.) large, big, great, much 845. Proto-Nostratic root *mak- (~ *mk-): (vb.) *mak- to be happy, cheerful; to be pleasant, agreeable; (n.) *mak-a happiness, joy, pleasure 846. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mal-a hill, mountain 847. Proto-Nostratic root *mal- (~ *ml-): (vb.) *mal- to fill, to be or become full, to increase; (n.) *mal-a fullness, abundance; (adj.) full, filled, abundant, numerous, many
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *m
139
848. Proto-Nostratic root *mal- (~ *ml-): (vb.) *mal- to be favorably disposed towards, to care about, to be devoted to, to like; (n.) *mal-a goodness, pleasantness; (adj.) good, pleasant, pleasing 849. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mal-a honey 850. Proto-Nostratic root *mal- (~ *ml-): (vb.) *mal- to draw (out), to squeeze (out), to suck (out); to give suck, to suckle, to nurse; (n.) *mal-a milk; breast 851. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *mal- (~ *ml-): (vb.) *mal- to rub, to wipe, to stroke; (n.) *mal-a the act of rubbing, wiping, stroking 852. Proto-Nostratic (adj.) *mal-a other, next, second 853. Proto-Nostratic root *mal- (~ *ml-): (vb.) *mal- to bend, to twist, to turn; (n.) *mal-a bend, turn Derivative: (vb.) *mal- to be confused, perplexed, disturbed, bewildered, mistaken; (n.) *mal-a confusion, perplexity, bewilderment 854. Proto-Nostratic root *mal- (~ *ml-): (vb.) *mal- to be confused, perplexed, disturbed, bewildered, mistaken; (n.) *mal-a confusion, perplexity, bewilderment Derivative of: (vb.) *mal- to bend, to twist, to turn; (n.) *mal-a bend, turn 855. Proto-Nostratic root *man- (~ *mn-): (vb.) *man- to suckle, to nurse (a child), to breastfeed; (n.) *man-a suckling, young (of humans and animals); breast 856. Proto-Nostratic root *man- (~ *mn-): (vb.) *man- to count, to reckon (> to consider, to think > to recount > to say, to speak); (n.) *man-a counting, reckoning Note: There may be more than one Proto-Nostratic root involved here: (1) *man- to count, to reckon and (2) *man- to say, to speak.
140
857. Proto-Nostratic root *man- (~ *mn-): (vb.) *man- to stay, to remain, to abide, to dwell; to be firm, steadfast, established, enduring; (n.) *man-a dwelling, house, home 858. Proto-Nostratic root *man- (~ *mn-): (vb.) *man- to protect, to watch over, to stand guard over, to care for, to take care of, to tend; (n.) *man-a protection, care, guardianship; watchman, herdsman, guardian, protector 859. Proto-Nostratic root *man- (~ *mn-): (vb.) *man- to swell, to expand, to grow, to increase; (n.) *man-a multitude, crowd, herd, flock Related to (extended form): (vb.) *man-V-g- to swell, to expand, to grow, to increase; (n.) *man-g-a great number, large amount; abundance; multitude, crowd; (adj.) many, numerous, copious, abundant; swollen, big, fat, strong 860. Proto-Nostratic root *man- (~ *mn-): Extended form: (vb.) *man-V-g- to swell, to expand, to grow, to increase; (n.) *man-g-a great number, large amount; abundance; multitude, crowd; (adj.) many, numerous, copious, abundant; swollen, big, fat, strong Related to: (vb.) *man- to swell, to expand, to grow, to increase; (n.) *man-a multitude, crowd, herd, flock 861. Proto-Nostratic root *man- (~ *mn-): (vb.) *man- to lust after, to desire passionately, to copulate with, to have sexual intercourse, to beget; (n.) *man-a ardent desire, passion, lust Derivative: (n.) *man-a progenitor, begetter, man, male; penis 862. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *man-a progenitor, begetter, man, male; penis Derivative of: (vb.) *man- to lust after, to desire passionately, to copulate with, to have sexual intercourse, to beget; (n.) *man-a ardent desire, passion, lust 863. Proto-Nostratic root *man- (~ *mn-): (vb.) *man- to hold, to take; (n.) *man-a hand, paw
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *m
141
864. Proto-Nostratic root *maq- (~ *mq-): (vb.) *maq- to twist, to turn; to overturn, to turn upside down, to turn round; (n.) *maq-a twist, turn; overturning 865. Proto-Nostratic root *mar- (~ *mr-): (vb.) *mar- to strive against, to oppose, to fight with or against; to argue, to quarrel, to contend, to dispute, to disagree; (n.) *mar-a quarrel, argument, dispute, fight 866. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mar-a (young) man, male (human or animal) 867. Proto-Nostratic root *mar- (~ *mr-): (vb.) *mar- to turn: to overturn, to turn round, to turn over, etc.; to twist, to whirl, to roll; to bend; (n.) *mar-a the act of turning, turning over, turning round, etc.; rope, coil, string, cord Derivative: (vb.) *mar- to go (round), to walk, to run; to go after, to run or chase after (> to seek, to pursue); (n.) *mar-a walk, walking, passage; road, track, way Note also: (vb.) *mur- to turn, to twist, to bend; (n.) *mur-a bend, curve 868. Proto-Nostratic root *mar- (~ *mr-): (vb.) *mar- to go (round), to walk, to run; to go after, to run or chase after (> to seek, to pursue); (n.) *mar-a walk, walking, passage; road, track, way Derivative of: (vb.) *mar- to turn: to overturn, to turn round, to turn over, etc.; to twist, to whirl, to roll; to bend; (n.) *mar-a the act of turning, turning over, turning round, etc.; rope, coil, string, cord 869. Proto-Nostratic root *mar- (~ *mr-): (vb.) *mar- to smear, to anoint, to rub (with grease, oil, fat, ointment); (n.) *mar-a grease, oil, fat, ointment, unguent 870. Proto-Nostratic root *mar- (~ *mr-): (vb.) *mar- to soil, to stain; (n.) *mar-a spot, stain, dirt; (adj.) dark, dirty, soiled 871. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *mar-a marsh, swamp
142
872. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mar-a tree, wood 873. Proto-Nostratic root *mar- (~ *mr-): (vb.) *mar- to be weakened, to wither away, to decay; to be or become sick, to fall ill; to die (from a fatal disease), to perish; (n.) *mar-a sickness, illness, fatal disease, malady, ailment; death 874. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mat-a or *met-a middle; (particle) *mat- or *metin the middle of, with, among 875. Proto-Nostratic root *mat- (~ *mt-): (vb.) *mat- to stretch, to expand, to lengthen, to draw out, to measure out; (n.) *mat-a measure, measurement, amount; extent, limit Note also: (vb.) *mad- to stretch, to expand, to lengthen, to draw out, to measure out; (n.) *mad-a measure, measurement, amount; extent, limit 876. Proto-Nostratic root *mat- (~ *mt-): (vb.) *mat- to be or become wet, moist; (n.) *mat-a moisture, wetness; dew, rain; (adj.) wet, moist 877. Proto-Nostratic root *maw- (~ *mw-): (vb.) *maw- to be wet; (n.) *maw-a water, liquid, fluid 878. Proto-Nostratic root *mel-: (vb.) *mel- to rub (> to rub into, to crush, to grind down; to rub smooth, to polish, to wipe; to wear out, to soften; to become worn out, weak, tired, weary); (n.) *mel-a smoothness, softness; weakness; (adj.) smooth, soft, tender, weak, worn out, tired, weary Note also: (vb.) *mol- to rub (> to rub into, to crush, to grind down; to rub smooth, to polish, to wipe; to wear out, to soften; to become worn out, weak, tired, weary); (n.) *mol-a crumb, piece, morsel; mortar; (adj.) crushed, ground, worn out or down 879. Proto-Nostratic interrogative pronoun stem *mi- (~ *me-) who?, which?, what?, relative pronoun stem *ma- (~ *m-) who, which, what 880. Proto-Nostratic first person singular *mi (~ *me) I, me, first person plural (inclusive) *ma (~ *m) we, us
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *m
143
Note: in Afrasian and Dravidian, first person singular *mi and first person plural (inclusive) *ma have been mostly lost. 881. Proto-Nostratic root *mi- (~ *me-): (vb.) *mi- to cut; (n.) *mi-a cutting instrument: knife (later also sickle, scythe) 882. Proto-Nostratic root *mig- (~ *meg-): (vb.) *mig- to give; (n.) *mig-a gift 883. Proto-Nostratic root *mi- (~ *me-): (vb.) *mi- to measure, to mark off; (n.) *mi-a measure, measurement 884. Proto-Nostratic root *mik- (~ *mek-): (vb.) *mik- to exceed, to surpass, to be in excess, to grow, to increase, to swell, to expand; (n.) *mik-a growth, excess, increase, abundance, fullness; (adj.) large, big, great, much Note also: (vb.) *mak- to be great, strong, mighty, powerful; (n.) *mak-a strength, power; (adj.) great, strong, powerful; much, many 885. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *min-a (a kind of) fish 886. Proto-Nostratic root *mir- (~ *mer-): (vb.) *mir- to stab, to pierce, to wound, to cause pain; (n.) *mir-a wound, pain 887. Proto-Nostratic root *mol-: (vb.) *mol- to rub (> to rub into, to crush, to grind down; to rub smooth, to polish, to wipe; to wear out, to soften; to become worn out, weak, tired, weary); (n.) *mol-a crumb, piece, morsel; mortar; (adj.) crushed, ground, worn out or down Note also: (vb.) *mel- to rub (> to rub into, to crush, to grind down; to rub smooth, to polish, to wipe; to wear out, to soften; to become worn out, weak, tired, weary); (n.) *mel-a smoothness, softness; weakness; (adj.) smooth, soft, tender, weak, worn out, tired, weary 888. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mor-a any body of water: sea, lake, flood, stream, pool, cistern, reservoir, basin, canal, channel
144
889. Proto-Nostratic *muk- (~ *mok-): (vb.) *muk- to strain, to make great efforts; (n.) *muk-a straining (as a woman in labor or as when defecating), effort; fatigue, suffering 890. Proto-Nostratic root *mun- (~ *mon-): (vb.) *mun- to protrude, to stand out; to jut out; to be first, foremost, in front of; (n.) *mun-a topmost or most prominent part, highest or farthest point 891. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mun-a egg, testicle Extended form (Dravidian and Slavic): (n.) *mun-d-a (~ *mon-d-a) egg, testicle 892. Proto-Nostratic root *mu- (~ *mo-): (vb.) *mu- to torment, to torture, to afflict; to cause pain, trouble, distress, suffering, difficulty; to suffer; to be in pain, trouble, distress, suffering, difficulty; (n.) *mu-a suffering, pain, malady, difficulty, distress, affliction, calamity, misery 893. Proto-Nostratic root *mur- (~ *mor-): (vb.) *mur- to crush, to break, to destroy; (n.) *mur-a break, breach, rupture, fracture; (adj.) crushed, broken, destroyed, ruptured, mutilated; weakened 894. Proto-Nostratic root *mur- (~ *mor-): (vb.) *mur- to turn, to twist, to bend; (n.) *mur-a bend, curve Note also: (vb.) *mar- to turn: to overturn, to turn round, to turn over, etc.; to twist, to whirl, to roll; to bend; (n.) *mar-a the act of turning, turning over, turning round, etc.; rope, coil, string, cord 895. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *mur-a mulberry, blackberry 896. Proto-Nostratic root *mur- (~ *mor-): (vb.) *mur- to make noise, to make sound, to murmur; (n.) *mur-a noise, sound, murmur Reduplicated: (vb.) *mur-mur- to make noise, to make sound, to murmur; (n.) *mur-mur-a noise, sound, murmur
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *m
145
897. Proto-Nostratic root *mus- (~ *mos-): (vb.) *mus- to immerse, dip, or plunge in water, to bathe; (n.) *mus-a immersion, dip, plunge, bath Extended form (Indo-European and Uralic): (vb.) *mus-V-k- to immerse, dip, or plunge in water, to bathe; (n.) *mus-k-a immersion, dip, plunge, bath 898. Proto-Nostratic root *muy- (~ *moy-): (vb.) *muy- to return, to give back; (n.) *muy-a that which is returned or given back: return, recompense, requital, repayment, etc.
CHAPTER 43
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *n
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic n-nn-n-
ProtoNostratic n-n-
ProtoAfrasian n-n-
ProtoDravid. n-n-/-n-
ProtoKartvel. n-n-
ProtoIE n-n-
ProtoEskimo n-n-
899. Proto-Nostratic first person singular personal pronoun *na (~ *n) I, me Note: On the basis of Dravidian (and possibly Altaic), the original form of this stem may have been *a (~ *), but this is not certain. Sumerian [Emegir] .e [= /a-/] I supports such a reconstruction as well. g 900. Proto-Nostratic first person plural exclusive personal pronoun *na (~ *n) we, us 901. Proto-Nostratic deictic particle *na (~ *n), *ni (~ *ne) this, that 902. Proto-Nostratic interrogative-relative particle *na- (~ *n-) 903. Proto-Nostratic negative/prohibitive particle *na (~ *n), *ni (~ *ne), *nu (~ *no) no, not 904. Proto-Nostratic root *na- (~ *n-): (vb.) *na- to come, to go, to journey, to travel; (n.) *na-a journey 905. Proto-Nostratic root *nab- (~ *nb-): (vb.) *nab- to burst forth, to gush forth; (n.) *nab-a a bursting or gushing forth Derivative: (n.) *nab-a heavy rain, storm cloud, cloudy sky 906. Proto-Nostratic (n.) (Eurasiatic only) *nab-a heavy rain, storm cloud, cloudy sky Derivative of: (vb.) *nab- to burst forth, to gush forth; (n.) *nab-a a bursting or gushing forth
148
907. Proto-Nostratic root *nad- (~ *nd-): (vb.) *nad- to press, to crush, to mash; (n.) *nad-a anything crushed or mashed 908. Proto-Nostratic root *nad- (~ *nd-): (vb.) *nad- to vex, to disturb, to annoy, to irritate, to agitate; to be annoying, irritating, malicious, rude, bad, mean, base; (n.) *nad-a vexation, disturbance, annoyance, irritation, trouble; (adj.) annoying, irritating, malicious, rude, bad, mean, base 909. Proto-Nostratic root *nag- (~ *ng-): (vb.) *nag- to strike, to split, to pierce, to stab; (n.) *nag-a stroke, blow, wound 910. Proto-Nostratic root *na- (~ *n-): (vb.) *na- to tremble, to shake; to fear, to be afraid; (n.) *na-a fear 911. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *nak-a (animal) skin, pelt, hide 912. Proto-Nostratic root *nak- (~ *nk-): (vb.) *nak- to lie down, to go to sleep, to go to bed; (n.) *nak-a bedtime, evening, nighttime 913. Proto-Nostratic root *nap- (~ *np-), *nip- (~ *nep-), *nup- (~ *nop-): (vb.) *nap-, *nip-, *nup- to breathe, to blow; (n.) *nap-a, *nip-a, *nup-a breath, life 914. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *nat-a woman, female relative 915. Proto-Nostratic root *nat- (~ *nt-): (vb.) *nat- to moisten, to wet; (n.) *nat-a wetness, dampness, moistness; (adj.) wet, damp, moist 916. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ner-a the highest, foremost, or most prominent person or thing 917. Proto-Nostratic root *net-: (vb.) *net- to turn, to twist together, to tie, to bind, to weave, to entwine; (n.) *net-a anything twisted together, woven, entwined: mat, net, web, etc.; weaving, entwining, braiding 918. Proto-Nostratic second person personal pronoun stem *ni (~ *ne) and/or *na (~ *n) you
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *n
149
919. Proto-Nostratic root *nik- (~ *nek-): (vb.) *nik- to strike, to hit; (n.) *nik-a injury, harm, damage, wound, murder, destruction; suffering, pain 920. Proto-Nostratic root *ni- (~ *ne-): (vb.) *ni- to lift (up), to raise; to carry, to take; to rise, to arise; (n.) *ni-a the act of lifting, raising, carrying 921. Proto-Nostratic (particle) *nu now, at present, currently 922. Proto-Nostratic root *nus- (~ *nos-): (vb.) *nus- to be small, minute, soft, weak, delicate; (n.) *nus-a smallness, insufficiency, decrease, diminishment; (adj.) small, minute, soft, weak, delicate Derivatives: (n.) *nus-a woman, female; any female connected by marriage: wife, bride, sister-in-law, daughter-in-law (vb.) *nus- to be weakened, debilitated, sick; to ache, to suffer, to be in pain; (n.) *nus-a weakness, sickness, disease, malady, ache, pain, affliction 923. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *nus-a woman, female; any female connected by marriage: wife, bride, sister-in-law, daughter-in-law Derivative of: (vb.) *nus- to be small, minute, soft, weak, delicate; (n.) *nus-a smallness, insufficiency, decrease, diminishment; (adj.) small, minute, soft, weak, delicate Semantic development as in Naiki kora daughter-in-law, bride and Telugu kalu daughter-in-law, both from the same stem found in Tamil kur a young, tender, Kannaa koa tenderness, tender age, youth, Tuu kor weak, small, etc. 924. Proto-Nostratic root *nus- (~ *nos-): (vb.) *nus- to be weakened, debilitated, sick; to ache, to suffer, to be in pain; (n.) *nus-a weakness, sickness, disease, malady, ache, pain, affliction Derivative of: (vb.) *nus- to be small, minute, soft, weak, delicate; (n.) *nus-a smallness, insufficiency, decrease, diminishment; (adj.) small, minute, soft, weak, delicate
CHAPTER 44
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *n
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic n -nn -n-
ProtoNostratic n -n-
ProtoAfrasian n-n-
ProtoDravid. - -
ProtoKartvel.
ProtoIE n-n-
ProtoEskimo
925. Proto-Nostratic root *na- (~ *n-): Extended form: (vb.) *na-V-r- to appear, to arise, to sprout, to come into being; to grow (up), to mature; (n.) *na-r-a shoot, sprout, seedling Derivative: (n.) *na-r-a young man, boy, youth 926. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *na-r-a young man, boy, youth Derivative of: (vb.) *na-V-r- to appear, to arise, to sprout, to come into being; to grow (up), to mature; (n.) *na-r-a shoot, sprout, seedling 927. Proto-Nostratic root *nam- (~ *nm-): (vb.) *nam- to press, to squeeze; (n.) *nam-a pressing, squeezing 928. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *nap-a offspring, descendant, young one 929. Proto-Nostratic root *nuk- (~ *nok-): (vb.) *nuk- to shake, to tremble; (n.) *nuk-a shaking, trembling
CHAPTER 45
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *l
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic l-ll-l-l-
ProtoNostratic l-l-
ProtoAfrasian l-l-
ProtoDravid. l-l-
ProtoKartvel. l-l-
ProtoIE l-l-
ProtoEskimo
930. Proto-Nostratic root *lab- (~ *lb-): (vb.) *lab- to take hold of, to grasp; (n.) *lab-a taking, grasping Possible derivative: (vb.) *lab- to eat greedily, to lap (up), to suck milk; (n.) *lab-a eating, sucking 931. Proto-Nostratic root *lab- (~ *lb-): (vb.) *lab- to eat greedily, to lap (up), to suck milk; (n.) *lab-a eating, sucking Possibly related to or derived from: (vb.) *lab- to take hold of, to grasp; (n.) *lab-a taking, grasping Assuming semantic development from to grasp with the teeth > to eat greedily as in Proto-Tungus *laba-da- to eat greedily. 932. Proto-Nostratic root *lag- (~ *lg-): (vb.) *lag- to put, place, lay, or set down; (n.) *lag-a the act of putting, placing, laying, or setting down 933. Proto-Nostratic root *lah- (~ *lh-): (vb.) *lah- to shine, to blaze, to burn; (n.) *lah-a shining, blazing, burning 934. Proto-Nostratic root *la- (~ *l-): (vb.) *la- to make flow, to pour, to moisten, to wet; (n.) *la-a flowing, pouring; moistness, wetness 935. Proto-Nostratic root *la- (~ *l-): (vb.) *la- to strike, to fight; (n.) *la-a fight, battle, slaughter
154
936. Proto-Nostratic root *lak- (onomatopoetic): (vb.) *lak- to lick, to lap up; (n.) *lak-a licking 937. Proto-Nostratic *lak- (~ *lk-): (vb.) *lak- to go on foot, to travel on foot; (n.) *lak-a leg, foot 938. Proto-Nostratic root *lak- (~ *lk-): (vb.) *lak- to gather, to collect; (n.) *lak-a collection; (adj.) gathered, collected, picked, chosen 939. Proto-Nostratic root *lak- (~ *lk-), *lik- (~ *lek-), *luk- (~ *lok-) (onomatopoetic): (vb.) *lak-, *lik-, *luk- to lick; (n.) *lak-a, *lik-a, *luk-a licking 940. Proto-Nostratic root *lam- (~ *lm-): (vb.) *lam- to bend down, to stoop down, to sink down, to lie down, to duck down; to be or become bent down, curved down; to be low; (n.) *lam-a lowland, low-lying ground, any piece of land; (adj.) low Extended form: (vb.) *lam-V-d- to bend down, to stoop down, to sink down, to lie down, to duck down; to be or become bent down, curved down; to be low; (n.) *lam-d-a lowland, low-lying ground, any piece of land; (adj.) low 941. Proto-Nostratic root *las- (~ *ls-), *lis- (~ *les-), *lus- (~ *los-) (?) (onomatopoetic): (vb.) *las-, *lis-, *lus- to lick, to lap (up); (n.) *las-a, *lis-a, *lus-a tongue; lip 942. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *lat-a skin 943. Proto-Nostratic root *law- (~ *lw-): (vb.) *law- to bend, to twist, to turn; (n.) *law- bend, twist, turn 944. Proto-Nostratic root *law- (~ *lw-): (vb.) *law- to shine; (n.) *law-a light, glow; (adj.) shining, gleaming, glowing, bright 945. Proto-Nostratic root *law- (~ *lw-): (vb.) *law- to separate, to divide, to part, to sever, to detach; (n.) *law-a part cut off, separation, division
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *l
155
946. Proto-Nostratic root *law- (~ *lw-): Extended form: (vb.) *law-V-- to moisten, to water; to wash, to clean; (n.) *law--a the act of bathing, washing 947. Proto-Nostratic root *lax- (~ *lx-): (vb.) *lax- to strike, to hit, to beat; (n.) *lax-a the act of striking, hitting, beating; stroke, hit, blow 948. Proto-Nostratic root *li- (~ *le-): (vb.) *li- to come into being, to arise, to grow, to become; (n.) *li-a being, becoming 949. Proto-Nostratic root *lip- (~ *lep-): (vb.) *lip- to form, to fashion, to mold; (n.) *lip-a form, mold
CHAPTER 46
PROTO-NOSTRATIC *r
Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic r-r-r--
ProtoNostratic r-r-
ProtoAfrasian r-r-
ProtoDravid.
ProtoKartvel. r-
ProtoIE r-r-
ProtoEskimo
-r-/-r-
-r-
950. Proto-Nostratic root *ra- (~ *r-): (vb.) *ra- to see, to perceive; (n.) *ra-a sight, observation, perception; (adj.) seeing, perceiving Extended form: (vb.) *ra-V-y- to see, to perceive; (n.) *ra-y-a sight, observation, perception; (adj.) seeing, perceiving 951. Proto-Nostratic root *rag- (~ *rg-): (vb.) *rag- to stir, to move, to shake; (n.) *rag-a trembling, quaking, shaking, rocking; movement; collapse (from shaking) 952. Proto-Nostratic root *rak- (~ *rk-): (vb.) *rak- to twist, to turn, to bend; to tie, to bind, to fasten; (n.) *rak-a twist, turn, bend; tie, bond, cord Derivative: (vb.) *rak- to put, join, fit, or fasten (together); to assemble, to prepare, to construct; (n.) *rak-a the act of putting, joining, fitting, or fastening (together); the act of assembling, preparing, constructing 953. Proto-Nostratic root *rak- (~ *rk-): (vb.) *rak- to put, join, fit, or fasten (together); to assemble, to prepare, to construct; (n.) *rak-a the act of putting, joining, fitting, or fastening (together); the act of assembling, preparing, constructing Derivative of: (vb.) *rak- to twist, to turn, to bend; to tie, to bind, to fasten; (n.) *rak-a twist, turn, bend; tie, bond, cord 954. Proto-Nostratic root *rak- (~ *rk-): (vb.) *rak- to stretch, to extend, to draw out; (n.) *rak-a the act of stretching, extending, drawing out; stretch, extension; (adj.) stretched, extended, drawn out
158
955. Proto-Nostratic root *rak- (~ *rk-): (vb.) *rak- to observe, to watch, to regard attentively; to supervise, to control; (n.) *rak-a observation, watchfulness, care, protection 956. Proto-Nostratic root *raq- (~ *rq-): (vb.) *raq- to move quickly, to move back and forth; (n.) *raq-a any rapid motion: shaking, trembling, jumping, dancing, etc. 957. Proto-Nostratic root *rat- (~ *rt-): (vb.) *rat- to turn, to roll; to run; (n.) *rat-a turning, rolling; running 958. Proto-Nostratic root *raw- (~ *rw-): Extended form: (vb.) *raw-V-- to be spacious, wide; (n.) *raw--a space, room; (adj.) spacious, wide 959. Proto-Nostratic root *rek-: (vb.) *rek- to sprinkle, to spray, to wet, to moisten; (n.) *rek-a sprinkling, spray, rain 960. Proto-Nostratic root *riy- (~ *rey-): (vb.) *riy- to prosper, to thrive, to flourish, to increase, to grow; (n.) *riy-a increase, growth, prosperity, wealth 961. Proto-Nostratic root *rom-: (vb.) *rom- to stop, to rest, to relax; (n.) *rom-a rest, quietude, calmness, tranquility, relaxation; (adj.) quiet, tranquil, still, gentle, silent, relaxed 962. Proto-Nostratic root *row-: (vb.) *row- to cut, tear, or break apart; (n.) *row-a cut, tear 963. Proto-Nostratic root *rum- (~ *rom-): (vb.) *rum- to grow or become dark; to darken; (n.) *rum-a darkness, night; twilight, dusk; (adj.) dark
CHAPTER 47
ENGLISH-NOSTRATIC INDEX
English Meaning abandon, to abandoned abandonment abide, to ability ablaze, to be able, to be add (to), to abode Proto-Nostratic *al*ga*al-a *ga-a *ga-a *qad*am*man*gal-a *hag*gal*wa*buw-a *kay-a *qad-a *am-a *wan-a *gan*al*a*xa*ap-a *ap*ar*tar-a *pul-a *ba-a *tir-a *tir-p-a *cal-a or *al-a *gam-a *gar-a *kan-a *gan-a *ap-a *ma-a *mal-a *man-g-a *mik-a *ba-a Number 331 346 331 346 346 581 705 857 360 679 360 809 79 434 581 705 795 505 738 744 762 634 634 714 196 125 42 207 208 304 362 369 467 505 710 835 847 860 884 42
abound, to above above, that which is above, to be abraded abscess abundance
abundant
160
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *tir-a *kan-a *ma-a *mal-a *man-g-a *ba*ma*kum*kaw-a *kum-a *gal-a *nus-a *gal*nus*sag- or *ag*tar*am-a *am*am-a *baw*kan*sag-a or *ag-a *kar-a *daw-a *day-a *key-a *kir-a *woy*tik-a *kir-a *bad*kat*wa-a *ap-a *tar-a *at-a *at*tar*at-a *tik-a *ir-a *par-a *an-a
Number 207 467 835 847 860 42 835 446 432 446 358 924 358 924 313 256 704 704 704 39 465 313 424 156 158 523 525 826 205 525 10 479 809 634 256 748 748 256 748 205 337 97 706
abundant, to be accumulate, to accumulation ache ache, to achieve, to achieve an end or a goal, to acid (= bitter; sour) acid, to be acid foodstuff, any acquainted with, to be or become acquire, to acquisition acrid act
act with energy, to action activate, to add together, to addition additional advance advance (in years), to advance to or toward an end or a goal, to advanced adze affection
161
English Meaning affectionate, to be afflict, to afflicted, to be affliction
Proto-Nostratic *an*mu*ag*hak-a *ag-a *mu-a *nus-a *hag*pel*pir*at*na*an*ay-a *ay-w-a *wat-a *wat*sen-a *dal*dul*kal*al*nad*dal*dul*dul*al*par*pir*dal-a *dul-a *dul-a *kal-a *al-a *mak*mar-a *tar-a *sam-a *il-a *il*ay*ay-V-w*bay-
Number 706 892 694 681 694 892 924 679 114 120 719 910 629 724 724 810 810 278 148 172 461 553 908 148 172 172 553 101 118 148 172 173 461 553 845 873 256 318 660 660 724 724 40
aflame, to be afraid, to be
against age age, to aged agitate, to
agitated, to be
agitated, to be greatly agitation
agreeable, to be ailment aim alike alive alive, to be allot, to
162
English Meaning allotment alone alone, to be along with also among amount and anger angle animal, wild animals, to hunt wild ankle announce, to announcement annoy, to annoyance annoying annoying, to be anoint (with greast, oil, fat, ointment), to another [indefinite pronoun stem] anus anybody [indefinite pronoun stem] anyone [indefinite pronoun stem] apart from, to be appear, to
Proto-Nostratic *xal*xal-a *kay-a *kay-w-a *xol-a *xol*da- (~ *d-) *kam*kay*ap*wa- (~ *w-) *mat- or *met*mad-a *mat-a *ar*wa- (~ *w-) *qat-a *kun-a *guw-a *guw-r-a *guw*guw-V-r*gam-a *bak*bak-a *nad*nad-a *nad-a *nad*mar*ma- (~ *m-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) *ku-a *ma- (~ *m-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) *ma- (~ *m-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) *xol*wil*na-V-r-
Number 761 761 433 433 765 765 142 411 521 634 780 874 836 875 716 780 569 500 396 396 396 396 361 16 16 908 908 908 908 869 832 501 832 832 765 821 925
163
English Meaning appearance apportion, to approach approach, to approach something slowly, to appropriate appropriate, to be appropriateness aquatic bird ardent desire argue, to argument arid arid, to be arise, to
Proto-Nostratic *sam-a *kal-a *wil-a *bay*xal*tar-a *iy-a *an*hak*tak-a *suw-a *tak*suw*tak-a *suw-a *ga-a *a-a *man-a *mar*mar-a *tar-a *saw-a *saw*buw*ni*na-V-r*li*dar-a *gab-a *ar-a *ap-a *it-a *woy-V-k*woy-k-a *di-a *tar-a *iy-a *di*tar*sag- or *ag*in-V-k*am-a *kay-
Number 318 462 821 40 761 256 666 628 680 219 287 219 287 219 287 363 709 861 865 865 197 274 274 80 920 925 948 248 349 713 710 563 827 827 251 256 666 251 256 313 727 742 521
arm armful armpit arrange in order, to arrangement arrival arrive at, to
arrow as
164
English Meaning ascend, to
Proto-Nostratic *wa- (~ *w-) *kil*kul*al*ar-V-g*xa*sal-a *tuk-a *er-a *kam-a *as-a *kum-a *pir*tel*kam-a *rak*rak-a *bak*bak-a *ar-a *ar-a *ar-a *hay *ar*taw-a *nu *kar-a *ba*tar*wel-a *sag- or *ag*tar*di-a *tar-a *sag-a or *ag-a *guw-a *en-a *guw*en*bur-a *wa*wa-a *wa-a
Number 780 438 494 738 747 762 317 211 597 533 717 448 134 235 411 953 953 16 16 637 637 637 691 635 230 921 537 2 265 816 313 256 251 256 313 395 749 395 749 73 809 809 809
ascent ash(es) ashes ashes, (hot or smoldering) ask, to ask for, to assemblage assemble, to assembling, the act of assert, to assertion associate associated associated or related person or thing astonishment, exclamation of asunder, to part at a distance at present at rest attach, to attached, to be firmly or strongly attack attain, to attain an end or a goal, to attainment attention attention, to pay auger augment, to augmentation augmented
165
English Meaning aunt aware of, to be or become awareness axe
Proto-Nostratic *ana *baw*guw*baw-a *guw-a *tik-a *sak-a *ir-a *ar-a *a-a *wed-a *baaba *wat-a *dub-a *ar-a *kap-a *taw-a *nad-a *dar-a *ak*nad*taw-a *dul*dul*ep*pek*tab-a *pek-a *kal-a *ep-a *kal-a *kal-a *al-a *sir-a *kad-a *ka-a *kad-a *ka-a *ba-a *ya-a *kar-a *ak-a *kal-a
Number 630 39 395 39 395 205 315 337 594 726 815 4 811 169 746 473 269 908 152 616 908 269 172 172 657 113 216 113 460 657 464 464 579 281 402 453 454 469 2 773 421 591 464
babe babble back (= hind part; hindquarters) back of the head bad (bad) bad, to be bad thing baffle, to baffled, to be bake, to (bake, to) baked (baked) baking baking, the act of bald bald spot ball band (= cord)
bandage bank (= shore) barb bare
166
English Meaning bark (= outside covering of trees) barren barren, to be or become barren land base (= vile) base (= vile), to be basin bath bathe, to bathing, the act of battle
Proto-Nostratic *kar-a *koy-a *bar-a *bar*bar-a *pul-a *nad-a *nad*mor-a *mus-a *mus-k-a *mus*mus-V-k*law--a *bur-a *al-a *qat-a *wel-a *la-a *il*hal*tal*um*il*bar*pir*guw-a *guw-r-a *tap*tap*tuk*dab*tum*tad*ca*kan*kad*ka*qat*ak*lax*ka-a *ca-a
Number 419 548 38 38 38 124 908 908 888 897 897 897 897 946 72 553 569 816 935 660 682 188 676 772 30 117 396 396 192 226 241 245 260 261 300 468 528 530 569 737 947 530 300
be (= exist), to beam forth, to bear (= endure), to bear (= give birth), to bear children, to bear fruit, to beast, wild beat, to
beaten beating
167
English Meaning beating, the act of beautiful, to be beauty become, to becoming (= coming into being) bed bed, to go to bedtime bee beg, to beget, to beget (of humans), to begetter begotten behind (= hindquarters) being being, to come into
Proto-Nostratic
Number 300 737 947 287 13 80 948 948 434 912 912 41 413 235 465 861 772 862 465 746 948 80 462 925 948 526 812 773 701 151 498 500 707 798 853 894 943 952 151 185 334 361 364
belly belt beneath, that which is bend
bend, to
*ca-a *ak-a *lax-a *suw*bah-a *buw*li*li-a *kay-a *nak*nak-a *bay-a *kan-a ~ *kin-a ~ *kun-a *tel*kan*man*il*man-a *kan-a *ar-a *li-a *buw*kal*na-V-r*li*kur-a *wat-a *ya-a *al-a *dar-a *kum-a *kun-a *an-a *wan-a *mal-a *mur-a *law-a *rak-a *dar*tak*ok*gam*ga-
168
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *kar*kum*kun*ub*al*an*wan*mal*mar*mur*law*rak*ga*car*lam*lam-V-d*ga*kaw*kum*kum*ga*tak*ka*kun*ok-a *kum-a *dar-a *bar-a *bar*dar-a *kon-k-a, *kok-a *kar-a *kaw-a *gar-a *il-a *wan-a *kun-a *ub-a *tak*gam*kon-V-k-, *kok*il*lam-
Number 477 498 500 564 579 707 798 853 867 894 943 952 364 305 940 940 364 480 498 498 364 185 469 500 334 498 151 34 34 151 443 477 480 506 604 798 500 564 185 361 443 604 940
bend back, to bend down, to bend forward, to bend round, to bend the body, to bend the head, to bend to the side, to bend together, to bending, the act of bends, that which beneficent beneficent, to be bent
bent, that which is bent, to be
bent down, to be or become
169
English Meaning bent object bent thing or object beseech, to besides bestow upon, to bewilder, to bewildered, to be bewilderment beyond big
Proto-Nostratic *lam-V-d*gam-a *kum-a *il-a *pir*tel*ap*gib*dul*dul*mal*mal-a *al*bir-a *gad-a *ma-a *ma-a *man-g-a *mik-a *gad*pal-a *gad-a *ma-a *daq-a *ba*tan*sak*kad*kar*kir*ya*net*rak*ban-V-d*bin*sir*cur*kun*im*kol*cur-a *or-a *ya-a
Number 940 361 499 604 134 235 634 376 172 172 854 854 738 49 350 835 841 860 884 350 92 350 841 150 2 225 316 402 477 525 773 917 952 25 47 281 310 500 605 442 310 754 773
big, to be or become big toe bigness billy-goat bind, to
bind (together), to bind together, to
bind two things together, to binding
170
English Meaning bird, a kind of birth
Proto-Nostratic *cir-a *pir-a *pit-a *an-a *kal-a *kan-a *bar*saw- or *sew*um*il*pit*dum-a *dun-a *gad-a *kas-a *bal-a *kab-a *at-a *qam-a *ar-a *bal*bur*kab*at*qam*ar*ar-V-s*it*at-a *em-a *kar-a *at-a *am-a *em-a *tam-a *tam*am-a *kar-a *dar-a *kar-a *kum-a *ham-a *mur-a
Number 309 117 122 332 462 465 30 275 676 772 122 174 179 351 427 20 451 560 573 603 20 75 451 560 573 603 603 665 560 330 424 560 704 330 264 264 704 424 153 425 448 684 895
birth, to give
birth to, to give bit (= piece; fragment)
bite
bite, to
biting bitter
bitter, anything that is bitter, that which is bitter, to turn bitter foodstuff, any bitterness black
blackberry
171
English Meaning blacken, to blackness black object blade (= knife-edge) blade of grass blaze blaze, to
Proto-Nostratic *kum*kar-a *kar-a *ham-a *ham-a *wa-a *kal-a *bud-a *war-a *tuk*dak*wal*war*lah*lah-a *dar-a *gal-a *kat-a *caw-a *caw-l-a *caw-a *caw-l-a *bal-a *bal*bal-a *bug-a *pul-a *dar-a *bug*kur-a *buw-a *bul-V-*buw-a *bul-V-*bul--a *dar-a *ba-a *tap-a *tap-a *taw-a *tuk-a *dab-a *tal-a
Number 448 425 476 684 684 783 407 56 805 211 246 793 805 933 933 154 359 479 307 307 307 307 18 18 18 59 125 154 59 449 80 64 80 64 64 154 15 192 226 231 241 245 254
blazing blemish blend blighted blighted, that which is blind blind, to be or become blindness blister blister, to blood bloom bloom, to blossom blossom, to blossoming blotch blow (= hit; stroke)
172
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *cal-a *kud-a *qal-a *nag-a *lax-a *bul-a *bar*bur*pas*pu*puw*im- or *im*up*nap-, *nip-, *nup*bur*duw*im-a or *im-a *puw-a *duw-a *duw-a *duw*pul-a *bul-a *saw-a *ir-a *kur-a *mor-a *bug-a *ep*wal-a *gal*ba-a *ban-d-a *bin-a *kam-a or *qam-a *im-a *ya-a *rak-a *kos-a *bur*dur*bur-a *kan-a
Number 301 491 566 909 947 62 28 74 107 128 137 296 677 913 74 182 296 137 182 182 182 126 66 276 337 526 888 59 657 790 357 2 25 47 409 605 773 952 490 73 180 73 465
blow (= blast of air) blow, to
blow about, to blowing blowing, the act of blown about blown about, anything blown about, to be (blubber) blur boar, wild board (= plank; panel) body body of water, any boil (= blister) boil, to boiling boisterous, to be bond
bone bore, to borer born
173
English Meaning born, to be bosom bottom of anything bound (= tied) bound together bound together, that which is bound together, to be or become bovine, wild bow down, to bowels bowing, the act of bowl boy braid, to braiding braiding, the act of brain breach breadth
Proto-Nostratic *saw- or *sew*an*kal*kan-a *ub-a *ul-a *kar-a *im-a *cur-a *kar-a *tar*tom-a *kum*wat-a *kum-a *kap-a *na-r-a *aw*net-a *aw-a *ay-a *bad-a *tal-m-a *mur-a *par-a *tal-a *tan-a *war-a *bak-a *bi-a *pa-a *pas-a *pin-a *ta-a *gal-a *kas-a *mur-a *bi*pas*pin*dar*tar*ta-
Number 275 332 462 534 755 674 477 605 310 477 265 259 498 812 498 416 926 723 917 723 647 5 255 893 99 188 190 803 17 54 81 108 133 218 353 427 893 54 108 133 152 195 218
break
break, to
174
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *ak*mur*par*pa*put*cal*row*gin*kep*bir*put*cal*gal*kas*bak*bi*pa*al*ak-a *kep-a *bir-a *diy-a *u-a *kar-a *kan-a *im-a *ub-a *mal-a *man-a *mam(m)a, *mema *man*pu-a *puw-a *aw-a *up-a *an-a *nap-a, *nip-a, *nup-a *an*nap-, *nip-, *nup*aw*pas*pu*nus-a
Number 737 893 98 81 141 301 962 381 484 51 141 301 353 427 17 54 81 592 737 484 51 167 298 478 534 753 755 850 855 833 855 128 137 341 677 743 913 743 913 341 107 128 923
break (apart), to break apart, to
break into pieces, to break into small pieces, to break off, to
break open, to
breaking, the act of breaking into small pieces, the act of breaking off, the act of breast
breast, (mothers) breastfeed, to breath
breathe, to breathe deeply, to breathe out, to bride
175
English Meaning bright
Proto-Nostratic *bah-a *hal-a *wal-a *wil-a *law-a *qal-a or *qel-a *bal*bar*dil*dul*tay- or *tiy*dak*wal*qal- or *qel*dil*wil*qal- or *qel*hal*bah-a *bal-a *bar-a *tay-a or *tiy-a *hal-a *wal-a *wil-a *bah-a *il-a *il-a *day*tox*wad*bad*pir*saw- or *sew*an*bad*bad*kal*kat*am*wad-a *an-a *bar-a
Number 13 682 793 821 944 571 21 33 164 171 233 246 793 571 164 821 571 682 13 21 33 233 682 793 821 13 562 562 160 239 782 10 117 275 332 10 10 512 479 554 782 332 27
bright, shining object, any bright, to be
bright, to be or become bright, to become bright, to make brighten up, to brightness
brilliance brilliant bring, to bring forth, to
bring into action, to bring into being, to bring to an end, to bring together, to bringing, the act of bringing forth bristle
176
English Meaning bristle (up), to (broad) broad
Proto-Nostratic *bar*tal-a *pal-a *par-a *pit-a *tan-a *ut-a *war-a *pal-a *mur-a *put-a *an-a *qaw-a *ca*bul-bul-a (> *bum-bul-a) *bul-bul- (> *bum-bul-) *buk-a (~ *bok-a) *kab-a *ag-a *ag*kad*pul-a *bar-a *pu-a *pul-a *taw-a *kur-a *kur*kow-a *bag-a *kar-a *bag-a *kar-a *kir-a *tan-a *an-a *wig-a *pal-a *pal*pa*pa-V-w*da*dul-
Number 27 188 88 99 121 190 678 803 88 893 141 332 576 300 65 65 61 399 736 736 454 139 26 128 139 201 549 549 547 12 477 12 477 525 224 626 820 94 94 129 129 146 171
broad, that which is broken broken-off piece or part brought forth, that which is brow bruise, to bubble bubble up, to buck (= male of small, hoofed animals) bud bud, to build, to bulbous bulge
bulky bulky, to be bullock bunch bundle burden burn burn, to
177
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *tep*tuk*sax*gub*kum*kal*kat*er*ak*ep*hag*as*al*wal*war*lah*tay- or *tiy*kam*er-a *kat-a *lah-a *pal-a *er-a *bi*nab*pit*nab-a *ag-a *dan-w-a *bar-a *bar*wa- (~ *w-) *ku-a *kap*iya *xol*kat*kak*kat-a *mu-a *xal-a *par-a *pur-a
Number 203 211 277 387 448 460 543 597 620 657 679 717 739 790 805 933 233 533 597 543 933 94 597 54 905 121 905 326 247 29 29 780 501 417 667 765 431 455 431 892 761 102 127
burn brightly, to burn slowly, to burned burning burning sensation burnt wood burst forth, to burst open, to bursting forth bush bush, a kind of bushy bushy, to be but buttocks buy, to by me by oneself, to be cackle, to cackling calamity calculation calf
178
English Meaning call
Proto-Nostratic *ig-a *a-a *kar-a *qal-a *qar-a or *qur-a *qat-a *qat*wa*a*qal*kar*kal*qar- or *qur*wal*tum-a *tum*qad*tum-a *rom-a *ar-a *mor-a *pid*pin-a *kal-a *war-a *man-a *rak-a *mal*par*man*war*wad*wig*ni*wad-a *ni-a *wig-a *bar*a*bar-a *xat-a *ak-a *day-
Number 752 327 475 582 586 588 588 781 327 582 475 404 586 787 243 243 581 243 961 557 888 115 116 405 801 858 955 848 97 858 801 782 820 920 782 920 820 35 726 35 764 617 158
call, to call (out), to call (out to), to call out, to calm calm, to calm, to be or become calmness canal capture, to care
care about, to care for (= like), to care for (= take care of), to carry, to carrying, the act of cart (= conveyance) carve, to carving carving tool cast (= throw; toss), to
179
English Meaning cast about cast-out things casting about, the act of caustic (= pungent) cave cavity caw, to cawing cease to function, to cereal, a kind of cessation chaff chamoix change, to channel char, to charcoal charitable, to be charred chase after, to chase away, to chatter chatter, to cheat, to cheek cheep, to cheerful, to be chew, to chewing (the cud) chief (= principal; main; leading) chief (= ruler) chieftain
Proto-Nostratic *si*si-a *gud-a *si-a *kar-a *kay-w-a *kum-a *al-a *kat*kat-a *aw*hay-a *aw-a *pat-a *ar-a *sen*mor-a *kum*kum-a *er-a *bar*er-a *mar*gus*xat-a *wat-a *kak*xat*mak*gen-a *kan-a *cir*mak*kep*qam*it*kep-a *par-a *ir-a *ak-a *ar-a *ir-a *ak-a
Number 324 324 388 324 424 436 499 703 431 431 329 690 329 112 638 278 888 448 448 597 34 597 868 394 768 811 455 768 843 373 466 309 845 484 573 665 484 100 600 698 714 600 698
180
English Meaning child
Proto-Nostratic *baaba *bar-a *saw-a or *sew-a *kan-a *il-a *yaw-a *mag-a *bar*kul-a *at-a *bar-a *tak-a *cal-a *kir-a or *kur-a *tak*cir*tik-a *ak-a *a-a *an-V-g*tak*kep*kep-a *lak-a *as-a *cur-a *kar-a *kal-a *al-a *wal-a *kal-a *gar-a *wal-a *mor-a *gal-a *wa-a *gal*ad-a *ad-ad-a *kal-a *car- or *ar*car-a or *ar-a *gal-a
Number 4 30 275 465 772 776 840 30 495 561 35 262 302 487 262 309 205 617 726 708 262 484 484 938 717 310 420 510 579 792 510 506 792 888 357 781 357 550 550 406 306 306 356
children, to bear chill chin chip
chip, to chirp, to chisel choke, to chop, to chop into small pieces, to chopping into small pieces, the act of chosen cinder circle
circuit circular object, any circumference cistern clamor clamor, to clap of thunder clarification clarify, to clarity
181
English Meaning clasp clatter, loud claw clay clean, to clean(ed) cleaned, that which is cleaning, the act of cleanse, to clear
Proto-Nostratic *kon-k-a, *kok-a *ad-a *ad-ad-a *tip-a *diq-a *al*law-V-*al-a *al-a *al-a *al-a *al*car-a or *ar-a *gal-a *hal-a *wil-a *car- or *ar*gal*car- or *ar*kal*hal-a *bad*bak*pal*pas*pil*dun*cal*or-V-g*ar-V-g*ar-g-a *pid*kir- or *kur*kas-a *tan-a *cuk*kap*tan-a *cuk-a *kat-a *kad*pul-a *dum-a
Number 443 550 550 271 166 700 946 700 621 621 700 621 306 356 682 821 306 356 306 406 682 5 17 86 108 132 179 301 671 747 747 115 487 427 224 303 474 224 303 429 401 140 176
clear, to be or become clear, to make clearness cleave, to
climb on, to climbing cling to, to clip, to clipping close close, to closeness closure cloth clothe, to cloud
182
English Meaning cloud, (dark) cloud, storm cloud over, to cloudy cloudy, to be cloudy sky cloudy weather club (= weapon) clump clutch, to coarse coarse, that which is coarse, to be coarseness coil (= loop; cord) cold (= chill; chilly)
Proto-Nostratic (*dum-k-a >) *dun-k-a *tuq-a *nab-a *dum*dum-a (*dum-k-a >) *dun-k-a *ag-a *tuq*nab-a *ag-a *kan-a *ka-a *qal-a *kum-a *pid*kam- or *qam*bar-a *tar-a *kar-a *tar-a *bar*tar*bar-a *kar-a *cur-a *mar-a *kir-a *kul-a *kar-a *qin-a *kir*kar*kul*qin*kul-a *kar-a *pul-a *rag-a *pul*gid- or *id*kam*ker*as-
Number 177 244 906 176 176 177 695 244 906 695 468 530 584 497 115 409 29 266 423 266 29 266 29 423 310 867 440 495 536 578 440 536 495 578 495 536 124 951 124 377 411 486 639
cold, to be cold, to be or become coldness collapse collapse (from shaking) collapse, to collect, to
183
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *wot*lak*ap*lak-a *ap-a *as-a *gid-a or *id-a *kam-a *ker-a *am-a *lak-a *bag-a *tar-a *war-a *i-V-r*war*kol-a *kol*buw*al*iy*na*an*buw*kal*na-V-r*li*wil*di*tar*in-V-k*kal*kat*am*buw-a *al-a *ak-a *ak*wos-a *ek*tik-a *ar-a *kal-
Number 825 938 710 938 710 639 377 411 486 554 938 12 198 802 598 802 442 442 79 551 666 904 628 80 462 925 948 821 251 256 727 512 479 554 79 551 698 698 824 653 206 637 512
collect (with the hands or arms), to collected collected, that which as been collecting, the act of collection
collection of things bound together comb comb, to combination of two things, any combine two things together, to come, to
come (close to), to come into being, to
come into view, to come to, to come to an end, to come together, to coming coming, the act of command command, to commerce common, to be compact companion complete, to
184
English Meaning completion comprehension compression compulsion conceal, to concept condemnation condyle (of the lower jaw, the shoulder, the elbow, the hip, etc.) confine, to confuse, to confused, to be
Proto-Nostratic *kal-a *kan-a *kum-a *gid-a or *id-a *pal*qam*ag*e-a *sad-a *om-a *hak*bul*dul*dal*di*dul*mak*mal*bul-a *di-a *dul-a *kal-a *mak-a *mal-a *kat-a *im-a *wel-a *day*ti*sa- or *a*e*man*day-a *ti-a *sa-a or *a-a *an-V-g*an-g-a *kad*rak*rak-a *it*kap-a
Number 512 471 497 377 93 567 695 750 312 668 681 66 172 148 163 172 843 854 66 163 172 461 843 854 479 605 816 159 270 314 750 856 159 270 314 708 708 454 953 953 665 416
confusion
conglomeration connection conquest consider, to
consideration constrict, to constricted construct, to constructing, the act of consume, to container
185
English Meaning contend, to control, to convey, to conveyance (cook, to) cook, to
Proto-Nostratic *mar*rak*day*wig*wig-a *pek*tab*gub*kal*ep*pek-a *tab-a *kal-a *gub-a *gub-a *ep-a *man-g-a *or-V-g*man*or-g-a *pir-a *sir-a *al-a *gur-a *ka-a *mar-a *rak-a *sir-a *kar-a *ga-a *gol-a *woy-k-a *woy-k-a *kay-a *xal*man*man-a *qan-a *kol-a *kol*gir-a or *ir-a *dar-a *bur-a
Number 865 955 160 820 820 113 216 387 460 657 113 216 460 387 387 657 860 671 861 671 119 281 328 392 469 867 952 281 426 364 385 827 827 434 761 856 856 574 442 442 384 151 76
(cooked) cooked cooking cooking, that which is used for cooking, the act of copious copulate (with), to copulate with, to copulation cord
cord-like object, any core corner correct correctness cot count, to counting country, (open) couple couple, to course course, winding cover
186
English Meaning cover, to
Proto-Nostratic *cuk-a *bur*pal*par*taq*cuk*kad*kap*qam*am*dum*tum*tal- and/or *til*ag*pa*bur-a *pa-a *pal-a *par-a *taq-a *tal-a and/or *til-a *kad-a *kap-a *qam-a *kow-a *a-a *bad-a *bak-a *pa-a *pal-a *pil-a *tal-m-a *cal-a *al-a *ha-a *kak-a *kir-a *tur*hak*ka-a *ag-a *kor-a or *kar-a *dul-a
Number 303 76 93 105 227 303 401 474 567 771 176 213 263 695 82 76 82 93 105 227 263 401 474 567 547 613 5 17 81 86 132 255 301 592 687 455 525 215 681 530 289 489 172
cover over, to
cover up, to covering
cow crack (= break; fracture; rift)
crackling sound craft (= work; trade) cram, to cram together, to crammed cramming crane (= large wading bird) (craziness)
187
English Meaning (crazy, to be) (crazy, to drive someone) creak, to create, to create something, tool used to creating something, the act of creation crevice croak, to crooked
Proto-Nostratic *dul*dul*qar*tik*kan*key*tik-a *tik-a *bad-a *key-a *ha-a *qar*dar-a *kon-k-a, *kok-a *kar-a *wan-a *kun-a *kon-V-k-, *kok*par-a *kum-a *am-a *man-a *man-g-a *kir-a *mol-a *e-a *bit*bul*diq*ta*ca*e*kar*ar*qam*ur*wal*was*mel*mol*mur*nad*gin-
Number 172 172 568 205 465 523 205 205 10 523 687 568 151 443 477 798 500 443 104 446 554 859 860 439 887 333 53 68 166 218 300 333 538 556 573 734 791 808 878 887 893 907 381
crooked, that which is crooked, to be crossing crowd
crown of head crumb crumb(s) crush, to
crush into pieces, to
188
English Meaning crushed crushed, anything crushed, that which is crushing crushing, the act of
Proto-Nostratic *ar-a *mol-a *mur-a *nad-a *e-a *ca-a *ca-a *e-a *gin-a *ar-a *was-a *koy-a *a-a *kar-a *ar-a *ar-ar-a *qal-a *qar-a or *qur-a *wa-a *wal-a *wat-a *kat*a*kar*qal*gal*qar- or *qur*wa*wal*kat-a *kan-a *ka-a *kan-a *kud-a *kap-a *daw-a *ar-a or *ar-a *ap-a *kun-a *dar-a *kar-a *kum-a *kun-a
Number 556 887 893 907 333 300 300 333 381 556 808 548 327 475 555 555 582 586 781 787 811 431 327 475 582 357 586 781 787 431 468 530 468 491 416 249 292 711 500 151 420 498 500
crust cry
cry, to cry (out), to cry out, to
crying cudgel cuff (= stroke; blow) cup current (= stream) curvature curve
189
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *an-a *wan-a *mur-a *kum*al*an*kaw*dar-a *kar-a *kon-k-a, *kok-a *kar-a *kaw-a *il-a *wan-a *kun-a *ub-a *kon-V-k-, *kok*il*lam*lam-V-d*gam-a *kum-a *il-a *kal-a *ba-a *ban-a *dum-a *tar-a *tar-a *cal-a *gad-a *gal-a *gar-a *kar-a *kas-a *kir-a or *kur-a *kar-a *qal-a *ar-a *ut-a *wa-a *wed-a *row-a
Number 707 798 894 498 579 707 480 151 420 443 477 480 604 798 500 564 443 604 940 940 361 499 604 405 15 24 174 195 228 301 351 353 366 418 427 487 516 566 594 602 799 815 962
curve, to curve round, to curved
curved, that which is curved, to be curved down, to be or become curved object curved thing or object custody cut
190
English Meaning cut, that which is cut, to
Proto-Nostratic *ir-a *a-a *ba*ban*dal*tar*tar*tar-a *cal*sak*ir*gad*gar*kar*kir- or *kur*kar*kat*qal*qal*ar*ut*wa*mi*kar*put*row*tu*kir- or *kur*bar*ir*kar*kir- or *kur*ar*ar-V-t*a*xat*ir-a *tak*kep*dum*gad-a *ar*ir-a
Number 337 726 15 24 147 228 267 267 301 315 337 351 366 418 487 515 544 566 583 594 602 799 881 516 141 962 240 487 35 337 418 487 594 595 726 764 337 262 484 174 351 635 337
cut a groove, to cut apart, to cut in half, to cut in two, to cut into, to
cut into, that which is cut into small pieces, to cut (off), to cut (off, apart), to cut off, that which is
191
English Meaning cut off, to
Proto-Nostratic *ba*bir*put*dun*ir*gal*kar*kas*kir- or *kur*put-a *al*kar*ir*ir-a *gad-a *gar-a *ar-a *a-a *ak-a *kas-a *kat-a *mi-a *kep-a *bir-a *bar-a *sak-a *wa-a *taw-a *tar-a *ked-a *qal-a *nik-a *ked*wal-a *nat-a *wal-a *nat-a *raq-a *dul*un-V-k*bal-a *bor-a *dar-a
Number 15 51 141 179 337 353 418 427 487 141 592 517 337 337 351 366 594 726 617 427 544 881 484 51 35 315 799 231 267 545 566 919 545 789 915 789 915 956 173 601 18 55 153
cut-off piece or part cut open, to cut short, to cut through, to cuts, that which
cutter cutting cutting instrument cutting into small pieces, the act of cutting off, the act of cuttings dagger damage
damage, to damp dampness dancing dangle, to dark
192
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *dum-a (*dum-k-a >) *dun-k-a *tum-a *kar-a *kar-a *ag-a *mar-a *rum-a *bul-a *tuq*bal*dar*am*dum*tum*rum*rum*dum*tal- and/or *til*kar-a *bor-a *kar-a *bul-a *bor-a *dar-a *dum*rum*bal-a *dar-a *dum-a (*dum-k-a >) *dun-k-a *tum-a *tuq-a *tal-a and/or *til-a *kar-a *kar-a *ag-a *am-a *rum-a *kel-a *nus-a *da-a *dil-a
Number 176 177 213 425 476 695 870 963 67 244 18 153 771 176 213 963 963 176 263 476 55 476 67 55 153 176 963 18 153 176 177 213 244 263 425 476 695 771 963 482 923 146 164
dark, that which is dark, to be dark, to be or become dark, to become dark, to grow dark, to make dark cloud dark-colored dark-colored, that which is dark color dark spot darken, to darkness
daughter-in-law day daylight
193
English Meaning (deadly) disease deal (= trade; exchange), to death
Proto-Nostratic *daw-a *wos*daw-a *a-a *ked-a *qal-a *ul-a *wed-a *mar-a *daw*eb-a *nus*eb*bul-a *ta-a *ked-a *was-a *bad*ker*ked*was*mar*ker-a *mak*mak*mak-a *bak-a *bak*bul-a *was-a *ek-a *nus-a *kal*kar*ek*ak-a *aw-a *daw-a *day-a *tik-a *key-a *am-a *am-a
Number 157 824 157 325 545 583 732 815 873 157 651 924 651 68 184 545 808 9 485 545 808 873 485 843 843 843 16 16 68 808 653 922 459 517 653 698 329 156 158 205 523 740 740
deathly sick, to become debilitated debilitated, to be debilitated, to become decay
decay, to
decayed deceive, to deceived, to be deception declaration declare, to decline decomposition decrease decrease, to decree decrepit deed
deep deep place
194
English Meaning deer defeat deficiency deficit deliberation delicate delicate, to be delight delighted with, to be deluge dense density depart, to departing departure deprivation deprive of, to deprived of depth deride, to descendant
Proto-Nostratic *il-a (~ *el-a) *wel-a *kal-a *ek-a *iw-a, *iy-a *ga-a *e-a *nus-a *nus*par-a *par*ib-a *aw-a *wel-a *tan-a *kan-a *tan-a *kan-a *ga*wal*bar-a *wal-a *bad-a *ga-a *kal*ga-a *tal-a *ak*pas-a *pir-a *um-a *nap-a *tel-a *haw-a *win-a or *wi-a *man-a *haw*win- or *wi*man*bar-a *bar*bad-a *ca-
Number 661 816 459 653 728 346 750 922 922 97 97 659 721 818 224 467 224 467 346 788 37 788 8 346 459 346 221 291 109 117 676 928 235 689 822 861 689 822 861 38 38 6 300
desire desire, ardent desire, to desire passionately, to desolate desolate, to be or become desolated area destroy, to
195
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *ked*al*ul*mur*mur-a *gup-a *ked-a *qal-a *al-a *ul-a *nik-a *law*kal-a *sen*mal*tal-a *mat-a *daw*a*mar*a-a *tin-a *a-a *kac-a *wal-a *mu-a *mu*mu*ar-a *ak-a *kay-V-w*kar*ar*ak*gal*gup*ar*ar*wur*kar-a *ak-a *gal-a *qad-a
Number 545 699 732 893 893 391 545 583 699 732 919 945 405 278 848 223 876 157 325 873 631 257 631 452 791 892 892 892 557 617 436 516 557 617 354 391 557 557 830 516 617 354 565
destoyed destruction
detach, to detention deteriorate, to devoted to, to be dew die, to die (from a fatal disease), to difference different difficulty difficulty, to be in difficulty, to cause dig, that which is used to dig, to
dig out, to dig up, to digging digging out, the act of diligence
196
English Meaning diminish, to
Proto-Nostratic *ta*kal*kar*ek*kal*ek-a *nus-a *mus-a *mus-k-a *am*mus*mus-V-k*tal*ak*qad-a *ak-a *tuq-a *kar-a *mar-a *kar-a *mar-a *tuq*mar*kal*til-a *gal-a *nus-a *daw-a *ag*ar-a *tar-a *bur-a *mar-a *mar*bad*bad-a *ta-a *ar*ar-a *taw-a *ut-a *kal*mag-a
Number 184 459 517 653 459 653 922 897 897 740 897 897 221 698 565 698 244 476 870 476 870 244 865 406 237 358 924 157 694 635 194 72 865 865 5 6 184 556 556 230 678 513 838
diminished, to be or become diminishment dip (= plunge; immersion) dip, to dip in water, to dip into, to direct, to direction dirt dirty dirty, to be disagree, to disclose, to discourse disease disease, (deadly) disheartened, to be disjoined dispersed dispute dispute, to dissipate, to dissipation dissolve, to dissolved distance distant distinction
197
English Meaning distress
Proto-Nostratic *bad-a *kal-a *ag-a *wal-a *mu-a *mu*mu*ag*bay*dal*dul*al*nad*dal-a *dul-a *dul-a *gal-a *kal-a *al-a *nad-a *dal*dul*al*mal*ar-a *ak-a *wur-a *tal*a*par*i*kas*a*xal*law*bay*tu*ta-a *i-a *kas-a *xal-a *law-a *tu-a
Number 7 461 694 791 892 892 892 694 40 148 172 553 908 148 172 173 357 461 553 908 148 172 553 854 557 617 830 221 709 98 343 427 631 761 945 40 240 218 343 427 761 945 240
distress, to be in distress, to cause distressed, to be distribute, to disturb, to
disturbance
disturbed, to be
ditch dive into, to dive into water (bird), to divide, to
divide into shares, to divide into two parts, to division
division into two
198
English Meaning do, to do something slowly, to do together, to do well, to dog down downpour drag drag, to dragged along, something dragging draw, to draw near to, to draw (out), to draw out, to drawing, the act of drawn out dried mucous dried up drill, to drink (= beverage) drink, to drinking, the act of drip drip, to drive, to drive away, to drive together, to drizzle
Proto-Nostratic *daw*kam*key*hak*am*cal- or *al*kuwan-a or *kun-a *car*kat*bal-a *ar-a or *ar-a *tar-a *tar*tar-a *wal-a *tar*an*mal*mad*mat*rak*rak-a *rak-a *pak-a *tar-a *dur*tar-a *aw-a *tar*aw*un*tar-a *il-a or *il-a *kal-a *ban*tal*kal*ag*gus*gid- or *id*duw-a *tal-a *ar-a or *ar-a
Number 156 410 523 680 554 304 450 305 430 19 292 193 193 193 786 193 628 850 836 875 954 954 954 84 197 180 199 340 199 340 756 199 294 532 22 223 532 288 394 377 182 223 292
199
English Meaning drop (of water, rain, dew, etc.) drop, (rain) drop down, to dropping drops, to fall in drunk dry dry, that which is dry, to be dry, to be or become dry place dry up, to dryness duck (= aquatic bird) duck down, to dug (out), that which is dug, that which is dullness (dumb, to be) dusk dust dusty, to be dwell, to dwelling
Proto-Nostratic *ban-a *il-a or *il-a *tal-a *kat*il-a or *il-a *tal*tar-a *tar-a *caw-a *caw-l-a *caw-a *caw-l-a *saw*caw*caw-V-l*saw-a *tar*was*tar-a *saw-a *ga-a *lam*lam-V-d*ar-a *ak-a *tum-a *dul*rum-a *duw-a *tor-a *tuq-a *tuq*qad*man*buw-a *kay-a *qad-a *il-a *wan-a *man-a *ur-a (and/or *er-a ?) *kul-a *qar-a or *qur-a
Number 22 294 223 430 294 223 199 197 307 307 307 307 274 307 307 274 197 808 197 274 363 940 940 557 617 260 172 963 182 209 244 244 581 857 79 434 581 660 795 857 733 444 587
eagle ear
200
English Meaning earth
Proto-Nostratic *diq-a *tor-a *er-a *ul-a *ak-a *mag-a *bal*bur*pa*qam*ak*it*ham*un*lab*it-a *lab-a *it-a *sub-a *ag-a *ga-a *gol-a *kar-a *qar-a *muk-a *woy*muk*ow--a *mun-a *mun-d-a *wam*ena *wan-a *kul*war*dim-a *sal-a *al*dim-a *on-a *hal*caw*caw-V-l-
Number 166 209 658 674 697 839 20 75 83 573 615 665 686 756 931 665 931 665 285 290 364 385 421 585 889 826 889 673 891 891 794 656 797 494 804 165 317 738 165 731 683 307 307
eat, to
eat greedily, to eaten, that which is eating eating, the act of edge
effort effort, to make an efforts, to make great egg eject, to elder sister eldest elevate, to elevated elevated, to be elevated place elevation else emaciated, to be or become
201
English Meaning ember embers embers, (burning) embers, glowing embrace eminent eminent, to be emptiness empty empty, to encircle, to encircles, that which enclose, to enclosed space encloses, that which enclosure end
Proto-Nostratic *as-a *kum-a *kam-a *dak-a *kal-a *ap-a *mag-a *ir*mag*al-a *al-a *al*cur*cur-a *cur*gir*gul-a (~ *gol-a) *cur-a *cur-a *gir-a *tal-a *tar-a *sub-a *aw-a *kal-a *kad-a *ul-a *kal*tal-a *bad*tal*tan*bad*man*kir- or *kur*xat*xat-a *wak-a *woy*bar-a *xat-a *bir*dar-
Number 717 448 533 246 460 710 838 600 838 331 331 331 310 310 310 382 389 310 310 382 187 256 285 329 512 529 732 512 188 7 188 190 7 857 487 764 764 784 826 35 764 52 154
end, to endurance endure, to endure, to cause to enduring, to be engrave, to engraved line energy energy, to act with engraving enjoy, to enlarge, to
202
English Meaning enough enough, to have enough, to have more than entreat, to entreaty entwine, to entwined, anything entwining enumerate, to erect, to be or become escape escape, to escaped essence establish, to established established, to be established, to be firmly esteemed, highly esteemed, to be highly evening evident evident, to be or become evil evil, to be exalted exalted, to be examination examine, to excavation
Proto-Nostratic *tir-a *tir*tir-V-p*tir*pir*pir-a *net*net-a *net-a *til*xal*gar*her-a and/or *hor-a *wal-a *her- and/or *hor*her-a and/or *hor-a *kar-a *daw*as-a *man*dag*mag-a *ir*mag*am-a *nak-a *car-a or *ar-a *gal-a *car- or *ar*gal*taw-a *ak-a *ak*ad-a *mag-a *ad*al*mag*day-a *sa-a or *a-a *day*sa- or *a*kar-a
Number 207 207 208 207 134 134 917 917 917 237 761 370 692 788 692 692 426 156 640 857 145 838 600 838 771 912 306 356 306 356 269 616 616 611 838 611 738 838 159 314 159 314 516
203
English Meaning exceed, to
Proto-Nostratic *di*cal- or *al*ma*mik*mag-a *ma-a *tir-p-a *gar-a *mik-a *mik*wak*puw*dal-a *tan-a *eb-a *xal-a *kac*was*eb*tan*dal-a *tan-a *eb-a *xal-a *was-a *il*kal-a *il-a *bar*bul*bun*bun-V-g*tar*kaw*war*mad*man*man-V-g*mat*mik*pal-a *tar-a
Number 251 304 841 884 838 841 208 369 884 884 784 137 149 191 651 760 452 807 651 191 149 191 651 760 807 660 462 660 26 62 69 69 194 432 803 836 859 860 875 884 88 194
excellence excess excess, to be in excite, to exhale, to exhausted
exhausted (from straining, laboring), to become exhausted, to be or become exhausted, to become exhausted, to grow exhaustion
exist, to existence existing expand, to
expanse
204
English Meaning expansion experience experience, to explain, to explanation expression extend, to
Proto-Nostratic *ak-a *bul-a *kaw-a *bad-a *in-k-a *bad*kal*kal-a *yan-a *pal*tal*tan*tar*tal*cal- or *al*ak*war*rak*par-a *tal-a *tan-a *rak-a *rak-a *par-a *tan-a *rak-a *mad-a *mat-a *ut-a *aw-a *gup*gup*ap-a *ap-a *ap*kan-a *il-a or (?) *ir-a *il-a *bur-a *bur-a *pa-a *tum*a-
Number 697 62 432 7 727 7 406 406 775 88 188 190 194 222 304 697 803 954 99 188 190 954 954 99 190 954 836 875 678 329 391 391 634 634 634 471 599 662 78 78 96 260 325
extended
extending, the act of extension extent exterior extinction extinguish, to extinguished, to be extra extra, that which is extra, to be eye eyebrow eyelash face fade, to
205
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *wal*was*dow-, *doy*sen*ur-a (and/or *er-a ?) *bad-a *pul-a *pul*bad*pul*car*kat*mar*tal*tal*pul-a *car-a *bar-a *kul-a *taw-a *kal*kal*pas-a *pas*mun-a *tik*key*lip*tik-a *tik-a *dab*ba*bin*sak*al*kad*kad*kir*rak*ban-V-d*dab*rak*tak-
Number 791 808 168 278 733 9 124 124 9 124 305 430 873 223 221 124 305 38 444 230 513 513 107 107 890 205 523 949 205 205 144 2 47 316 328 402 454 525 952 25 144 953 185
faint, to grow falcon fall fall, to fall down, to
fall ill, to fall in drops, to fall into, to fallen falling down, the act of fallow land fame far away far off fart fart, to farthest point fashion, to fashion something, tool used to fashioning something, the act of fast, to make fasten, to
fasten (together), to fasten together, to
206
English Meaning fasten two things together, to fastening
Proto-Nostratic *ka*kol*ba-a *dab-a *sak-a *kad-a *ka-a *kad-a *rak-a *bun-g-a *taw-a *kan-a *ay-t-a *man-g-a *pul-a *mar-a *sil-a *pul-a *ay-V-t*mar-a *baba *ab(b)a ~ *ap(p)a *atta *ay(y)a *dow-a, *doy-a *tan-a *tum-a *xal-a *was-a *muk-a *was*kac*pu-a *kan-a *pu*gal-a *an-a *an*mal*pel-a *pir-a *sur-a
Number 453 442 2 144 316 402 453 454 953 69 201 467 725 860 126 869 279 126 725 873 3 610 641 649 168 191 260 760 807 889 807 452 123 467 123 359 706 706 848 114 120 286
fastening (together), the act of fat (= large)
(fat [= grease]) fat (= grease) fat (= lard) fat, that which is fat, to be fatal disease father
fatigue
fatigued, to be or become fatigued (from straining, laboring), to become fat(ness) fatness fatten, to fault favor favor, to show favorably disposed towards, to be fear
207
English Meaning fear, to fearful, to be feathers, (fine, soft) feed feed, to feed (on), to feeding feel, to feel affection for, to feeling female female connected by marriage, any female in-law female relative female relative, (older) female relative, older fence fetter few things fiber (= string; cord) field fiery, to be fight
Proto-Nostratic *na-a *pir*sur*na*pel*bur-a *ak-a *kal*un*pin-a *gas*par*san-a or *an-a, *sin-a or *in-a, *sun-a or *un-a *nus-a *nus-a *kal-a *kel-a *ay(y)a *nat-a *a()a *akka *ema *gir-a *kam-a or *qam-a *kal-a *ka-a *qan-a *ak-a *wel-a *ek*bur-a *al-a *qat-a *wel-a *mar-a *la-a *bur*qat*wel*la*mar-
Number 910 120 286 910 114 77 615 457 756 116 371 97 319 923 923 403 482 648 914 632 618 655 382 409 459 469 574 697 817 652 72 553 569 816 865 935 72 569 816 935 865
fight, to
fight against, to
208
English Meaning fight with, to fill, to fill (up), to filled fine, to be fingernail finish (= completion) finish, to fire
Proto-Nostratic *mar*pal*tan*mal*gam*ka-a *wa-a *mal-a *suw*tip-a *kal-a *kal*bud-a *pa-a *pa-w-a *dul-a *dak-a *gir-a *kas-a *ak-a *al-a *hag*al*al*wal*er-a *tik-a *tar-a *kar-a *ur-a *ur*man*dar-a *tar*dag*tik-a *tar-a *kar-a *ur-a *par-a *wan-a *wan-a
Number 865 90 224 847 362 530 809 847 287 271 512 512 56 129 129 171 246 507 541 620 739 679 739 739 790 597 206 265 422 757 757 857 248 265 145 206 265 422 757 100 797 797
fire, to be on fire, to light a fire, to make a fire to, to set firewood firm (= solid)
firm, to be firm grip firmly attached, to be firmly established, to be firmness
first first-born first person personal
209
English Meaning pronoun stem (stative) first, to be fish fish, (a kind of) fish, large fissure fist fit (= appropriate) fit, to be fit (together), to fit together, to fit two things together, to fitness fitting (= joining) fitting (= proper) fitting, to be fitting (together), the act of flame
Proto-Nostratic *ka*mun*dig-a *min-a *kal-a *tal-m-a *kom-a *tak-a *tak*rak*dab*kol*tak-a *dab-a *suw-a *suw*rak-a *pa-a *pa-w-a *dak-a *war-a *ga-a *bar*pal-a *tal-a *pal-a *pal-a *par*pir*her- and/or *hor*par-a *pir-a *par-a *pir-a *her-a and/or *hor-a *wal-a *man-a *bun-a *ib-a *wel-a *mor-a *wel*riy-
Number 397 890 162 885 514 255 488 219 219 953 144 442 219 144 287 287 953 129 129 246 805 364 33 88 188 88 89 101 118 692 101 118 101 118 692 788 859 70 659 818 888 818 960
flank (= side) flash, to flat flat, that which is flat of hand flee, to fleeing flight
flock flood
flood, to flourish, to
210
English Meaning flow
Proto-Nostratic *bal-a *bun-a *dun-a *daw-a *sor-a *gir-a or *ir-a *kal-a *wal-a *bun*daw*tor*il- or *il*gir- or *ir*kal*al*ap*wal*wa*la*sor*ar- or *ar*il- or *il*sig*wel*dun*ar- or *ar*daw-a *tor-a *il-a or *il-a *sig-a *or-a *la-a *maw-a *par*pat*pir*gir-a or *ir-a *par*pir*duw*par-a *pir-a *ak-a
Number 19 70 178 249 284 384 532 789 70 249 272 294 384 532 552 711 789 814 934 284 292 294 323 818 178 292 249 272 294 323 669 934 877 101 110 118 384 101 118 182 101 118 615
flow, to
flow, to make to flow forth, to
flow (out), to flow out, to flowing
fluid flutter, to flux fly, to fly about, to flying fodder
211
English Meaning fog fold (= bend) fold together, to folded, that which is fond of, to be food
Proto-Nostratic *pul-a *dum-a *kun-a *ka*kun*kun-a *par*bur-a *pa-a *ar-s-a *ak-a *it-a *un-a *eb-a *eb-a *pat-a *kab-a *lak-a *an*tal-a *tur-a *ag-a *gid-a or *id-a *tal*gid- or *id*ab(b)a ~ *ap(p)a *pa-a *qaw-a *par-a *xa-t-a *xa-a *mun*ner-a *ner-a *sam-a *lip-a *tik*key*lip*tik-a *tik-a *ga*ga-a
Number 140 176 500 453 500 500 97 75 83 603 615 665 756 651 651 111 400 937 629 189 215 288 377 189 377 610 96 576 100 763 762 890 916 916 318 949 205 523 949 205 205 346 346
foolish foolishness foot for force
force, to force together, to forefather forehead foremost foremost (person or thing) foremost, that which is foremost, to be foremost person foremost thing form form, to form something, tool used to forming something, the act of forsake, to forsaken
212
English Meaning forth from, to go forth from, to make to go fortitude fowl, wild fracture fragment
Proto-Nostratic *gus*gus*kar-a *ar-a *ar-ar-a *mur-a *dum-a *dun-a *cal-a *gad-a *kas-a *ut-a *ar-a *her-a and/or *hor-a *al-a *al-a *gil*kir*kul*qin*a*ar-a *pel-a *sur*pel*at*sur*gab-a *xa-t-a *pa-a *sub-a *gab-a *xa-t-a *kir-a *kul-a *qin-a *bir-a *pir-a *an-a *pir*kal-a *taw-a *tir-a
Number 394 394 422 559 559 893 174 179 302 351 427 758 714 692 331 331 379 440 495 578 614 637 114 286 114 719 286 347 763 96 285 347 763 440 495 578 52 117 332 117 512 201 207
fragrance free-born freed freed (from) freedom freeze, to
fresh, to be friend fright frighten, to frightened, to be frightened, to be or become front front part
frost fruit fruit, to bear fulfillment full
213
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *wa-a *ma-a *mal-a *mal*buw-a *pal-a *pu-a *tir-a *ap-a *ma-a *mal-a *mik-a *bur-a *ek*gub-a *ar-a *qat-a *ek-a *in-k-a *in-V-k*guw-a *guw-r-a *tal-m-a *ha-a *ha*dal-a *wa-a *dal*aw*ker*as*lak*gid- or *id*kam*kat*am*ap*lak-a *ap-a *kam-a *kat-a *ker-a *am-a
Number 809 841 847 847 80 90 123 207 710 841 847 884 77 652 387 557 569 652 727 727 396 396 255 687 687 147 799 147 341 486 639 938 377 411 479 554 710 938 710 411 479 486 554
full, to be or become fullness
fur furious, to be furnace furrow fury gain gain, to game (= wild animals) gap gape gape, to gash gash, to gasp, to gather, to gather (together), to gather together, to gather (with the hands or arms), to gathered gathered, that which as been gathering
214
English Meaning gathering, the act of gazelle genitals (male or female) genitals, male gentle get, to get rid of, to gift gimlet gird, to girdle give, to give back, to give birth, to
Proto-Nostratic *as-a *ar-a *pit-a *qal-a *pas-a *rom-a *sag- or *ag*kan*al*tox-a *gib-a *mig-a *bur-a *gir*ya*ya-a *tox*gib*mig*muy*bar*saw- or *sew*um*il*pit*muy-a *tox-a *bal-a *tay- or *tiy*il-a *law-a *il- or *il*gil*gil-a *il-a or *il-a *il*el*il-a *bal-a *wal-a *da*tay- or *tiy*qal- or *qel-
Number 639 638 122 572 109 961 313 465 331 239 376 882 73 382 773 773 239 376 882 898 30 275 676 772 122 898 239 21 233 562 944 295 378 378 295 562 654 562 21 793 146 233 571
give birth to, to given back, that which is giving gleam gleam, to gleaming glide, to gliding gliding, the act of glisten, to glistening glitter glitter, to
215
English Meaning globe glorious glorious, to be glory glow glow, to glowing glowing, to be glowing embers glued gnat gnaw, to go, to
Proto-Nostratic *el*al-a *mag-a *ir*mag*mag-a *law-a *tay- or *tiy*kum-a *law-a *kam*kal-a *im-a *ku-n-a (~ *ko-n-a) *ar*ar-V-s*buw*par*taw*ga*gir- or *ir*kal*kal*al*ay*iy*wal*na*par*kal*mar*kal*bar*taw*kal*wal*kal*par*gus*lak*par*gus*par-
Number 654 579 838 600 838 838 944 233 448 944 533 460 605 493 603 603 79 104 230 346 384 509 531 551 646 666 788 904 104 531 868 510 37 230 531 788 531 104 394 937 104 394 104
go across, to go after (= follow), to go after (= pursue), to go around, to go (away), to go away, to go behind (= follow), to go forth, to go forth from, to go on foot, to go out, to go outside of, to go over, to
216
English Meaning go (round), to go up, to go, to let goal goat goat, (young) goat, young goes round and round, that which going going (away) going, the act of good good, to be good, to do goodness goose goose, wild gossip gouge gouge, to gracious, to be graciousness gradually (= slowly) gradually, to do or approach something gradualness grain (= seed) grain, a kind of grain, (unripe or blighted) grandeur grasp
Proto-Nostratic *mar*sal*taw*al*tar-a *bag-a *dur-a *ar-a *a-a *gad-a *kal-a *buw-a *par-a *bar-a *al-a *bar-a *mal-a *suw*bar*bar-a *mal-a *ga-a *ar-a *ar-ar-a *war-a and/or *wir-a *ak-a *dal*an*an-a *hak*hak*hak-a *bar-a *yiw-a (~ *yew-a) *hay-a *pat-a *mag-a *bar-a *pid-a *kab-a *am-a *ap-a *bar-
Number 868 317 230 331 256 11 181 638 590 352 511 79 104 37 551 34 848 287 34 34 848 363 559 559 806 617 147 706 706 680 680 680 32 777 690 112 838 31 115 451 623 745 31
grasp, to
217
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *tek*gab*gar*gat*kam- or *qam*kaw*kum*am*ap*wot*lab*kap*am-a *lab-a *tek-a *wot-a *am-a *ar*ar-a *ar-a *par-a *ay-a *par*ay*pul-a *mar-a *bir-a *gad-a *al-a *ma-a *ma-a *mak-a *mik-a *ma*mak*gad*aw-a *mag*mag*aw-a *man-g-a *mag*gar-a
Number 202 349 365 372 409 481 497 623 745 825 930 415 623 930 202 825 335 556 556 556 106 596 106 596 126 869 49 350 702 835 841 844 884 841 844 350 722 838 838 722 860 838 369
grasp with the hand, to grasped grasping grasping, the act of grass grate, to grated grating, the act of gray gray hair gray, (hair) to turn (grease) grease great
great, to be great, to be or become great amount great importance, to be of great influence, to be of great number great power, to be of great quantity
218
English Meaning greatness grief grief, exclamation of grime grind, to
Proto-Nostratic *bir-a *gad-a *ma-a *ag-a *hay *kar-a *bul*ta*ca*gin*kar*ar*qam*ur*wal*was*mel*mol*ca-a *ca-a *gin-a *ar-a *was-a *kar-a *kar-a *kam-a or *qam-a *kab-a *dar-a *kam- or *qam*kum-a *kas-a *ar-a *ar-ar-a *kum*kas*ar*ar-ar*kar-a *mol-a *ta-a *ar-a *er-a *ul-a
Number 49 350 841 694 691 476 68 218 300 381 538 556 573 734 791 808 878 887 300 300 381 556 808 538 538 409 451 248 409 496 542 555 555 496 542 555 555 516 887 218 556 658 674
grind down, to grinding grinding, the act of
grinding pestle grinding stone grip grip, firm grip, to groan
groan, to
groove ground (= pulverized) ground (= pulverized), anything ground (= land)
219
English Meaning ground (= land), elevated group of two grow, to
Proto-Nostratic *tid-a *yor-a *bir*buw*an*gar*kaw*al*on*ag*war*man*man-V-g*mik*li*riy*dow-, *doy*sen*par*tan*sen*ay*wat*ta*na-V-r*dow-, *doy*dow-, *doy*gur*gur-a *al-a *an-a *bul--a *bun-a *buw-a *tiq-a *gar-a *kaw-a *aw-a *mik-a *riy-a *kur-a *kum-a *ar-
Number 236 778 49 80 332 369 432 702 731 736 804 859 860 884 948 960 168 278 106 191 278 596 810 184 925 168 168 393 393 702 332 64 69 80 258 369 432 722 884 960 527 496 555
grow faint, to grow old, to
grow thin, to grow (up), to grow weak, to grow weary, to growl, to growling noise or sound grown grown, that which is growth
grub (= maggot; larva) grumble grumble, to
220
English Meaning guard guard, to guardian guardianship guidance guide guide, to gully gulp down, to gurgle, to gurgling noise or sound gush gush forth, to
Proto-Nostratic *ar-ar*war-a *kal*man-a *war-a *man-a *ak-a *day-a *ak*al-a *xel*gur*gur-a *sor-a *kal-a *sor*ar- or *ar*kal*nab*nab-a *gur-a *ar-a *il-a *i-r-a *bur-a *wun-d-a (~ *won-d-a) *ar-a *eb-a *tad-a *tad*pa-a *pa-k-a *dar-a *gab-a *gar-a *gas-a *gat-a *kap-a *kaw-a *kom-a *ar-a *man-a *pal-a
Number 555 801 405 858 801 858 698 160 698 552 769 393 393 284 532 284 292 532 905 905 392 557 660 598 77 828 635 651 261 261 95 95 248 349 365 371 372 415 481 488 713 863 89
gushing forth gut gutter (= ditch) habitation hair hair, (body) hair, (young, fine, or soft) half half-witted hammer hammer, to hand
hand, flat of
221
English Meaning hand(ful) handful handful, to take a handle handle, to hang, to hang up, to hanging happen, to happening happiness happy, to be harass, to hard hard, that which is hard, to be hard work hardness harm
Proto-Nostratic *kam-a or *qam-a *am-a *ker-a *ap-a *ker*pa-a *pa-k-a *pa*pa-V-k*gas*dul*un-V-k*un-V-k*dul-a *bad*bad-a *mak-a *par*mak*dal*tar-a *kar-a *ur-a *tar-a *tar*ur*qad-a *tik-a *kar-a *ur-a *dar-a *taw-a *dab-a *gan-a *ar-a *ak-a *wa-a *nik-a *dar*dab*gan*ak*ar-
Number 409 623 486 710 486 95 95 95 95 371 173 601 601 173 7 7 845 97 845 149 266 422 757 266 266 757 565 206 422 757 152 231 245 504 593 616 799 919 152 245 504 616 593
harm, to
harm, to cause
222
English Meaning harmful harnessed harsh (= coarse; rough) harsh (= pungent) harsh (of sounds) harsh, to be harsh screech, to make a harsh sound, to make a harshness (= coarseness; roughness) harshness (= pungency) haste hasten, to
Proto-Nostratic *dar-a *im-a *bar-a *kar-a *kat-a *bar*kat*kat*bar-a *kar-a *pat-a *par*pat*pir*gir- or *ir*par*or-a *ow-V-*a-a *kal-a *ur-a (and/or *er-a ?) *ur-a (and/or *er-a ?) *pul-a *si- (~ *se-) *buk-a (~ *bok-a) *pa-a *tal-a *kir-a *qaw-a *al-a *ak-a *sol-a *al-a *al-a *tul-a *gid-a or *id-a *kaw-a *kum-a *kum-a *kum*wa*wa-a *sad-
Number 152 605 29 424 431 29 431 431 29 424 110 101 111 118 384 100 669 673 726 407 733 733 140 322 61 96 187 439 576 580 698 283 702 702 212 377 432 446 497 446 809 809 312
hasten in advance, to hasty hatch eggs, to hatchet haulm hawk hawk-like bird haze (= mist) he he-goat head
headman health healthy heap
heap up, to heaped up hear, to
223
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *kul*qar- or *qur*sad-a *kar-a *pek-a *dul-a *tep-a *tab-a *tay-a or *tiy-a *sax-a *kay-a *kum-a *gir-a *kam-a *kat-a *ak-a *as-a *wal-a *war-a *hag-a *pek*pa*pa-V-w*kay*dul*tab*sax*wal*er-a *kur-a *kur-a *kur*nab-a *guw-a *guw*kab-a *par-a *pur-a *bir-a *bir-g-a *tal-a *sal-a *kaw-a
Number 444 587 312 426 113 171 203 216 233 277 435 448 507 533 543 620 717 790 805 679 113 129 129 435 171 216 277 790 597 549 549 549 906 395 395 399 102 127 49 49 222 317 432
hearing heart heat
heat of sun heat, to
heat up, to
heated heaviness heavy heavy, to be heavy rain heed heed, to he-goat heifer height
224
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *kil-a *on-a *am-a *si- (~ *se-) *-si (~ *-se) *man-a *uw-a (~ *ow-a) *man-a *par-a *pa-a *pal-a *kar-a *koy-a *nak-a *pal*tum*kal*ag*am*bir-g-a *tal-a *sal-a *kil-a *bir-V-g*al*kul*am*am-V-d*bir-g-a *ir-a *ar*ar*war-a *ner-a *gub-a *kul-a *al-a *am-a *am-d-a *mun-a *ner-a *mag-a *tul-a
Number 438 731 623 322 322 859 759 858 100 82 130 419 548 911 93 213 408 695 771 49 222 317 438 49 738 494 741 741 49 600 714 714 804 916 386 494 738 741 741 890 916 838 212
held her [oblique] her [possessive] herd herd of small animals herdsman hero hide (= animal skin)
hide, to
high
high, to be high, to make high place high rank higher in rank, to be higher in status, to be highest part highest person highest point
highest thing highly esteemed hill
225
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *tid-a *kil-a *mal-a *si- (~ *se-) *dub-a *kad-a *tad*ar-a *tad-a *-si (~ *-se) *tap-a *ka-a *lax-a *tap*taw*dab*gan*ka*qal*nik*lax*lax-a *tow-a *qar*bar-a *pid-a *kal-a *kam-a or *qam-a *kab-a *am-a *ap-a *pid*kaw*man*am*kal*dar*bi-a *put-a *dur-a *tal-m-a *kar-a *ak-a
Number 236 438 846 322 169 529 217 746 217 322 192 530 947 192 231 245 504 530 583 919 947 947 210 568 31 115 405 409 451 623 745 115 481 863 623 405 248 54 136 180 255 516 617
him hind part hinder, to hindquarters hindrance his hit hit, to
hitting, the act of (hoar)frost hoarse, to be hold
hold, to hold (closely or tightly), to hold back, to hold firmly, to hole
226
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic
Number 687 703 180 436 499 516 703 354 516 764 354 857 41 413 837 849 838 400 185 361 443 601 185 601 500 439 113 216 448 424 273 533 620 657 717 277 435 448 507 277 103 581 660
hole, to make a hollow (= cave)
hollow out, to hollowing out, the act of home honey
honor hoof hook
hook together, to hook up, to hooked, that which is horn hot hot (of taste) hot, to be
hot, to be or become
hot, to make house
*ha-a *al-a *dur*kay-w-a *kum-a *kar-a *al-a *gal*kar*xat*gal-a *man-a *bay-a *kan-a ~ *kin-a ~ *kun-a *mad-w-a *mal-a *mag-a *kab-a *tak-a *gam-a *kon-k-a, *kok-a *un-k-a *tak*un-V-k*kun-a *kir-a *pek-a *tab-a *kum-a *kar-a *sam*kam*ak*ep*as*sax*kay*kum*gir*sax*par-a, (?) *pur-a *qad-a *il-a
227
English Meaning howl
Proto-Nostratic *man-a *ar-a *ar-ar-a *wa-a *wal-a *ar*ar-ar*qal-a *wal-a *bun-a *pul-a *taw-a *kar-a *kum-a *ub-a *bad-a *wal-a *guw*guw-V-r*qal*am*qal-a *pat-a *gir- or *ir*par*pir*qal*ak*ar-a *kel-a *pat-a *a- (~ *-), *i- (~ *e-) *wa- (~ *w-) *mi (~ *me) *na (~ *n) *ar-a *gil-a *ti-a *sa-a or *a-a *e-a *al*ek*gal-
Number 857 555 555 781 787 555 555 582 787 69 139 201 478 499 564 8 791 396 396 584 742 584 110 384 101 118 583 616 636 482 112 607 779 880 899 638 379 270 314 750 739 653 358
howl, to hubbub hump
hunch (hunger) hunger hunt wild animals, to hurl, to hurling hurry hurry, to hurry, to be in a hurt, to husband husbands sister husk I
ibex ice idea ignite, to ignoble, to be ill, to be
228
English Meaning ill, to become ill, to fall illness illustrious illustrious, to be immature immerse in water, to immerse into, to immersion impediment in addition to in front of, to be in the middle of in-law, (elder) male in-law, female incise, to incision
Proto-Nostratic *daw*mar*gal-a *mar-a *mag-a *ir*mag*il-a *mus*mus-V-k*tal*tal-a *mus-a *mus-k-a *tad-a *bi *da- (~ *d-) *mun*mat- or *met*tay-a *kal-a *kel-a *kir- or *kur*wur*tar-a *kar-a *ar-t-a *a-a *xat-a *ar-V-t*bar-a *bul--a *gar-a *aw-a *wa-a *mik-a *riy-a *bun-V-g*gar*kaw*aw*war*wa-
Number 157 873 358 873 838 600 838 772 897 897 221 221 897 897 217 46 142 890 874 232 403 482 487 830 195 418 595 726 764 595 26 64 369 722 809 884 960 69 369 432 722 804 809
incisions, to make increase
increase, to
229
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *ma*mal*man*man-V-g*mik*riy*ma*wa-a *wa-a *ma- (~ *m-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) *kat-a *dar-a *bul*bun*pu*puw*kaw*bul-a *kaw-a *bad*bad-a *dar*dab*gan*qal*ar*dar-a *tar-a *taw-a *dab-a *gar-a *gan-a *qal-a *ar-a *wa-a *nik-a *sa-a or *a-a *dul*dul*eb*dul-a
Number 841 847 859 860 884 960 835 809 809 832 430 154 62 69 128 137 432 62 432 10 10 152 245 504 566 593 152 195 231 245 366 504 566 593 799 919 314 172 172 651 172
increase (in number), to increased increment indefinite pronoun stem inferior inflammation inflate, to
inflation initiate, to initiation injure, to
injury
inquiry (insane, to be) (insane, to drive someone) insane, to become (insanity)
230
English Meaning insect inside of anything inside, the instigate, to instrument, sharp insufficiency insufficient insuffient, to be intention interior interior of anything interrogative pronoun stem interrogative/relative particle intoxicated inundation investigation invitation invocation inward part irritate, to irritating irritating, to be irritation issue (= offspring) issue (from), to it itch its jab jab, to jar javelin jaw
Proto-Nostratic *kur-a *wat-a *kar-b-a *bad*tal-a *kal-a *nus-a *kal-a *ek*e-a *kar-b-a *wat-a *ka- (~ *k-) *ay-, *ya*mi- (~ *me-) *na- (~ *n-) *tar-a *wel-a *sa-a or *a-a *kal-a *qat-a *kar-a *qat-a *kar-b-a *nad*nad-a *nad*nad-a *pir-a *ar- or *ar*si- (~ *se-) *gar-b-a *-si (~ *-se) *ak-a *er- or *er*kap-a *er-a or *er-a *gen-a *kan-a *kap-a and/or *kep-a *at-a *qab-a *kap-a and/or *kep-a
Number 527 812 539 10 254 459 922 459 653 750 539 812 524 645 879 902 199 818 314 406 588 475 588 539 908 908 908 908 117 292 322 368 322 591 293 416 293 373 466 472 561 570 472
jawbone
231
English Meaning join, to join (together), to join together, to
Proto-Nostratic *gid- or *id*rak*dab*dar*tak*ka*kat*am*im*kol*dar-a *im-a *tar*dab-a *rak-a *ka-a *ken-a *ak*par-a *ay-a *na-a *na*par-a *mak-a *sad*day-a *sad-a *ak-a *aw-a *raq-a *gar*mun*ak*war-a *gad-a *gan*qal*al*dab-a *qat-a *qal-a *al-a *bar-a
Number 377 953 144 151 185 453 479 554 605 442 151 605 265 144 953 470 483 291 104 646 904 904 97 845 312 159 312 696 340 956 370 890 696 801 352 504 583 699 245 569 583 699 34
join two things together, to joined together joined together, to be or become joining joining (together), the act of joint joke, to journey journey, to joy judge, to judgment judgment, sound juice jumping jut out, to keen, to be keeper kid kill, to killing
kind (= benevolent)
232
English Meaning kind, to be kindle, to kindness kinsman kite knead (clay), to knee knife
Proto-Nostratic *bar*bud*al*bar-a *ar-a *ur-a (and/or *er-a ?) *diq*b[e]r-a *sak-a *ir-a *ar-a *kar-a *kat-a *ar-a *wa-a *wa-a *mi-a *ka-a *kum-a *tuk-a *kan-a *kud-a *kad-a *tap*tuk*tum*kat-a *ka-a *ka-a *ken-a *il*ey*baw-a *ey-a *car- or *ar*kal*war- and/or *wir*daw-a *kam-a *kam*kac*bad-a *ga-a
Number 34 56 739 34 637 733 166 44 315 337 339 515 544 594 783 799 881 470 499 241 468 491 528 192 241 260 428 453 470 483 662 751 39 751 306 406 806 156 410 410 452 8 346
knob knock
knock, to knot
know, to knowledge known known, to make labor labor, to lack
233
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *kal-a *ek-a *iw-a, *iy-a *iw-, *iy*ga-a *kal-a *ek*kay-a *mor-a *kum*kar-a *kum-a *wal-a *qan-a *ul-a *mag-a *lam-a *lam-d-a *til-a *kil-a *lab*las-, *lis-, *lus*lak*sil-a *bir-a *al-a *ma-a *mik-a *kum-a *man-g-a *kal-a *gan-a *ma-a *bul-a *bir-a *dow-a, *doy-a *dow-a, *doy-a *kay*lag*al*ul*lag-a *wad-
Number 459 653 728 728 346 459 653 436 888 496 475 496 787 574 674 839 940 940 238 437 931 941 936 279 49 702 835 884 446 860 514 505 835 62 49 168 168 434 932 699 732 932 782
lack, to lacking lacking, to be ladle lake lament, to lamentation land (= countryside) land (= earth; ground) land, any piece of language lap (up), to lap up, to lard large
large amount large fish large quantity large quantity or amount largeness lax laxity lay, to lay down, to lay waste, to laying down, the act of lead, to
234
English Meaning leader leading, the act of leak leak, to leak out, to lean (= emaciated) lean, to be or become lean down (= bend down), to lean, that which is learning leather leave, to leave behind, to leaving left behind leg leisure leasure, at length
Proto-Nostratic *par-a *day-a *ak-a *wad-a *dun-a *dun*kal*ar- or *ar*caw-a *caw-l-a *caw*caw-V-l*car*caw-a *caw-l-a *kal-a *koy-a *taw*al*ga*al*ga*bar-a *ga-a *lak-a *al-a *al-a *tan-a *tal-a *ut-a *war-a *ut*mad*mat*ta*kar*taw*al*pal-a *pal-a *her-a and/or *hor-a *tal*lak-
Number 100 160 698 782 178 178 532 292 307 307 307 307 305 307 307 406 548 230 331 346 331 346 37 346 937 331 331 190 222 678 803 678 836 875 184 517 230 331 88 88 692 220 936
lengthen, to lessen, to let go, to level level, that which is liberated lick, to
235
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *lak-, *lik-, *luk*las-, *lis-, *lus*tal-a *lak-a *lak-a, *lik-a, *luk-a *kay*bad*nak*lam*lam-V-d*ay-a *ay-w-a *an-a *nap-a, *nip-a, *nup-a *tul*kul*am*am-V-d*xa*ni*sal*kil*hal*ar-V-g*ni-a *bah-a *bar-a *bud-a *tay-a or *tiy-a *el-a *wal-a *wil-a *law-a *bar-a *wa- (~ *w-) *mal*sam*sam-a *mad-a *mat-a *las-a, *lis-a, *lus-a *uw-a *uw-l-a
Number 939 941 220 936 939 434 9 912 940 940 724 724 743 913 212 494 741 741 762 920 317 438 682 747 920 13 33 56 233 654 793 821 944 33 780 848 318 318 836 875 941 345 345
licking lie (= recline), to lie down, to
life
lift, to
lift (up), to lift up, to
lifting, the act of light (= luminosity)
lightning like (= as) like, to like, to be (= to resemble) likeness limit lip liquid
236
English Meaning list (= enumerate), to listen, to little littleness live, to
Proto-Nostratic *maw-a *til*sad*kul*kal-a *kal-a *il*ay*ay-V-w*an*il-a *tan-a *an-a *wig-a *tan*an*in-a (~ *en-a) *bir-g-a *kay-a *kay-w-a *xol-a *xol-a *tal-a *ut-a *haw*tan-a *tan*war*day*gal*cur-a *sak-a *par-a *ad-a *eb*eb*ga-a *gup-a *ek-a *ad-a *ad-ad-a *ad-a *ad-ad-a
Number 877 237 312 444 459 459 660 724 724 743 660 224 626 820 224 626 663 49 433 433 765 765 222 678 689 190 190 801 159 356 310 316 100 611 651 651 346 391 653 550 550 550 550
living load load tightly together, to load up and go, to location lofty loneliness lonely long long for, to long-lasting long-lasting, to be look, to look at, to loop lord lose ones mind, to lose ones way, to loss loud clatter loud noise
237
English Meaning loud noise, to make a loud rumble loud sound, to make a love low low, to be lower lower part lower place lower thing lower, to lowest part of anything lowest part or region (of anything) lowland lowly, to be low-lying ground lump
Proto-Nostratic *xir-a *ad*ad-ad*xir*ad-a *ad-ad-a *ad*ad-ad*par-a *pul-a *lam-a *lam-d-a *lam*lam-V-d*kat-a *al-a *kat-a *al-a *kat-a *kat-a *al*ul-a *bud-a *lam-a *lam-d-a *ek*lam-a *lam-d-a *bun-a *pul-a *taw-a *kar-a *kum-a *kum-a *man-a *man*el-a *wal-a *bad-a *ta-a *eb-a *dul*dul-
Number 770 550 550 770 550 550 550 550 97 124 940 940 940 940 430 701 430 701 430 430 701 674 57 940 940 653 940 940 69 139 201 478 497 499 861 861 654 793 9 184 651 172 172
lust lust after, to luster lying down maceration mad (mad, to be) (mad, to drive someone)
238
English Meaning mad, to go (madness) madness maggot magnificence make, to
Proto-Nostratic *eb*dul-a *eb-a *kur-a *mag-a *daw*tik*kam*key*woy*car- or *ar*kal*dab*ak*car- or *ar*kal*war- and/or *wir*tik-a *ak*tik-a *mar-a *mu-a *nus-a *kum-a *ar-a *war-a *man-a *g[e]n-d-a *mar-a *war-a *pas-a *tay-a *ay(y)a *tay-a *akka *atta *a()a *daq-a *buk-a (~ *bok-a) *kab-a *dar-a *nad-a *nad-
Number 651 172 651 527 838 156 205 410 523 826 306 406 144 291 306 406 806 205 291 205 873 892 924 447 636 800 862 374 866 800 109 232 649 232 619 641 633 150 61 399 152 908 908
make an effort, to make clear, to make fast, to make fun of, to make known, to make something, tool used to make sport, to making something, the act of malady male
male (human or animal) male animal male genitals male in-law, (elder) male relative male relative, (elder) male relative, older male relative, (older) male of certain animals male of small, hoofed animals male sheep malevolent malicious malicious, to be
239
English Meaning mallet man
Proto-Nostratic *kan-a *kum-a *ar-a *war-a *man-a *mar-a *pap-a *wil-a *wil*wil-a *ar-a *qal-a *ba-a *pal-a *ap-a *ma-a *mak-a *mal-a *man-g-a *ba*ma*mar-a *mi*nad*nad-a *kum-a *wel-a *tik-a *tik-a *par-a *ad-a *ar-a *in-k-a *kat-a *net-a *par-a *at-a *bul-V-*par*na-V-r*bul--a *par-a *at-a
Number 468 447 636 800 862 866 138 821 821 821 712 583 42 90 634 835 844 847 860 42 835 871 883 907 907 497 816 206 206 100 611 714 727 428 917 106 748 64 106 925 64 106 748
man, (young) man, old manifest manifest, to manifestation manner manslaughter many
many, to be marsh mark off, to mash, to mashed, anything mass massacre massive massiveness master mastery mat mature mature, to maturity
240
English Meaning me
Proto-Nostratic *a- (~ *-), *i- (~ *e-) *wa- (~ *w-) *mi (~ *me) *na (~ *n) *mad-w-a *wel-a *kal-a *ak-a *un-a *pul-a *nad-a *nad*mad-a *mat-a *mi-a *mi*mad*mat*xal-a *mad-a *mat-a *mi-a *ar*ar-a *gun-a *ak*ar-a *hag-a *kar-b-a *mat-a or *met-a *gad-a *wak-a *mag-a *gad-a *ab-a *ad-a *ad*mak*gad*mam(m)a, *mema *mal-a *kep-a *san-a or *an-a,
Number 607 779 880 899 837 817 459 615 756 124 908 908 836 875 883 883 836 875 761 836 875 883 556 556 390 696 712 679 539 874 350 784 838 350 609 611 611 844 350 833 850 484
mead meadow meager meal (= food; repast) mean (= nasty) mean (= nasty), to be measure measure, to measure out, to measurement
melt, to melted memory mentally sharp, to be method midday heat middle might mighty mighty, to be mighty, to be or become milk mincing, the act of mind
241
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *sin-a or *in-a, *sun-a or *un-a *gun-a *nus-a *nus*mu-a *hay *pul-a *ag-a *mal*ag-a *bul*kal*kat*bul*bul-a *bul-a *kat-a *kum-a *kas-a *kum*kas*ak*ak-a *uw-a *uw-l-a *mat-a *nat-a *mat*tal*wal*wet*nat*la*law-V-*rek*nat-a *la-a *uw-a *uw-l-a *wal-a *mat-a *lip-a
Number 319 390 922 922 892 691 140 695 854 695 66 461 479 66 67 66 479 496 542 496 542 291 291 345 345 876 915 876 223 789 819 915 934 946 959 915 934 345 345 789 876 949
minute (= small) minute (= small), to be misery misfortune, exclamation of mist mistaken, to be misty mix, to mix together, to mix up, to mixed colors, that which is mixture moan moan, to mock, to mockery moist
moist, to be moisten, to
moistness moisture
mold
242
English Meaning mold, to mold (clay), to moment mommy more more, that which is more, to be moreover morning morsel morsel bitten mortar mosquito most prominent (person or thing) most prominent, that which is most prominent part most prominent person most prominent thing mother
Proto-Nostratic *lip*diq*am-a *ma(a) *ap-a *ap-a *ap*ap*dil-a *bal-a *ak-a *mol-a *ar-s-a *ur-a *mol-a *ku-n-a (~ *ko-n-a) *xa-t-a *xa-a *mun-a *ner-a *ner-a *da *da-da*am(m)a *ana *ay(y)a *ema *ena *ma(a) *mam(m)a, *mema *qad-a *or-a *raq-a *qad*qad*tul-a *or-V-g*ar-V-g*tid-a *al-a *mal-a *ar-a *or-g-a
Number 949 166 624 833 634 634 634 634 164 20 615 887 603 734 887 493 763 762 890 916 916 143 143 625 630 648 655 656 833 833 565 669 956 565 565 212 671 747 236 738 846 638 671
motion motion, any rapid motion, to be in motion, to put into mound mount, to mountain mountain-goat mounting
243
English Meaning mourning mouth mouth, to take into the move, to
Proto-Nostratic *ar-g-a *kum-a *ham-a *ha-a *ham*gir- or *ir*kal*qad*at*rag*kal*ot*raq*or*ot*pat*ek*or*ap*raq*pat*kat*or*par*pir*gir- or *ir*ot*gir-a or *ir-a *qad-a *rag-a *kat-a *ek-a *ek-a *ot-a *ot-a *ba-a *pal-a *kan-a *mak-a *mik-a *ba*pak-a *diq-a
Number 747 496 686 687 686 384 461 565 748 951 509 672 956 669 672 111 652 669 711 956 110 520 669 101 118 384 672 384 565 951 520 652 652 672 672 42 90 467 844 884 42 84 166
move about, to move away from, to move back and forth, to move hastily, to move out of the way, to move quickly, to
move rapidly, to move swiftly, to move to or toward, to movement movement, rapid movement, violent movement away from movement to or toward much
much, to be mucous, dried mud
244
English Meaning mulberry multitude
Proto-Nostratic *mur-a *kum-a *am-a *man-a *man-g-a *kas-a *kas*kep*qal-a *wed-a *nik-a *kas-a *ar-a *ar-ar-a *mur-a *mur-mur-a *kas*mur*mur-mur*bir-a *mur-a *ar*ar-ar*iya *a-a *kap-a *an-g-a *an-V-g*gid-a or *id-a *an*an-a *qar-a *qel-a *qur-a *xel-a *mak-a *bad-a *ga-a *ek-a *iw-a, *iy-a *tir*tir-V-p*iw-, *iy-
Number 895 446 554 859 860 542 542 484 583 815 919 542 555 555 896 896 542 896 896 50 893 555 555 667 327 473 708 708 377 628 628 568 577 589 769 842 8 346 653 728 207 208 728
mumble mumble, to munch, to murder murmur
murmur, to musical instrument mutilated mutter, to my name nape of the neck narrow narrow, to make near near to, to draw nearness neck
need
needs fulfilled, to have all need, to stand in
245
English Meaning needy negative/prohibitive particle
Proto-Nostratic *kal-a *e *ma()- (~ *m()-) *na (~ *n), *ni (~ *ne), *nu (~ *no) *sir-a *kat-a *net-a *war-a and/or *wir-a *mal-a *a-a *rum-a *nak-a *tip*kir- or *kur*diy-a *u-a *im-a *e *ma()- (~ *m()-) *na (~ *n), *ni (~ *ne), *nu (~ *no) *mag-a *ar-a *ar-a *ba-a *bar-a *bug-r-a *daw-a *gal-a *kal-a *ka-a *kil-a *qal-a *wa-a *wal-a *mur-a *mur-mur-a *tar-a *ad-a *ad-ad-a *xir-a *ba-
Number 459 650 834 903 281 428 917 806 852 726 963 912 271 487 167 298 753 650 834 903 838 714 714 14 36 60 155 357 404 414 437 582 781 787 896 896 268 550 550 770 14
nerve net news next nick (= incision; notch) night nighttime nip, to nip off, to nipple no
nobility noble nobleman noise
noise, (rustling or rumbling) noise, loud noise, to make
246
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *bug-V-r*daw*tar*kal*ka*kil*mur*mur-mur*ad*ad-ad*xir*bar*gal*san-a or *an-a, *sin-a or *in-a, *sun-a or *un-a *e *ma()- (~ *m()-) *na (~ *n), *ni (~ *ne), *nu (~ *no) *dal-a *kir-a or *kur-a *a-a *dal*kir- or *kur*a*al-a *gun-a *guw-a *baw*gun*guw*en*xa-a *e-a *pin*kal*pin-a *pa-a *pin-a *kal-a *ar-s-a *it-a
Number 60 155 268 404 414 437 896 896 550 550 770 36 357 319 650 834 903 147 487 726 147 487 726 622 390 395 39 390 395 749 762 750 116 457 116 83 116 457 603 665
noise, to make a
noise, to make a loud noise, to utter a noisy, to be nose not
notch notch, to nothing notice notice, to
noticeable, that which is notion nourish, to nourishing nourishment
247
English Meaning now number numerous numerous, to be nurse, to nurse (a child), to nurture, to nutriment obscure obscure, to obscure, to be or become obscurity observation
Proto-Nostratic *am-a *nu *xal-a *ap-a *mal-a *man-g-a *ba*kan*mam-, *mem*mal*man*pin*kal-a *bal-a *dum*ag*bal*bal-a *kar-a *guw-a *kan-a *ra-a *ra-y-a *rak-a *baw*guw*kan*war*rak*kan-a *kan-a *tad-a *tad*tad-a *sag- or *ag*am-a *gal*bad*ut-a *dip*in-V-k*in-k-a *pas-a
Number 624 921 761 634 847 860 42 534 833 850 855 116 457 18 176 695 18 18 476 395 471 950 950 955 39 395 471 801 955 471 471 217 217 217 313 623 356 7 758 252 727 727 109
observe, to
observes, that which observing, the act of obstacle obstruct, to obstruction obtain, to obtained obvious, to be or become occur, to odor odor, to give off a strong offer, to offering offspring
248
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *pir-a *kan-a *um-a *nap-a *pul-a *mar-a *mar-a *bul-a *tan-a *sen-a *aw-a *gir-a *ker-a *at-a *wat-a *gir*bul*ker*par*tan*sen*ay*wat*tan-a *sen-a *gir-a *ker-a *ay-a *at-a *pap-a *sen-a *gir-a *ker-a *pap-a *a()a *a()a *akka *ema *akka *atta *ata *an*al-
Number 117 465 676 928 126 869 869 68 191 278 329 383 485 748 810 383 68 485 106 191 278 596 810 191 278 383 485 596 748 138 278 383 485 138 632 633 618 655 619 641 642 629 738
(oil) oil ointment old
old, to be or become old, to become old, to grow
old age
old man old person old woman (older) female relative (older) male relative older female relative older male relative older relative (male or female) on
249
English Meaning on fire, to be on top of one [indefinite pronoun stem] ooze, to open open, that which is open, to open, to be open, to burst open land open space open surface open the mouth, to opening
Proto-Nostratic *hag*al*xa*ma- (~ *m-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) *kal*pal-a *pit-a *pal-a *ban*pit*ha*pit*wel*pit*bar-a *wel-a *pal-a *pit-a *wel-a *pal-a *ha*bad-a *ban-a *pa-a *pit-a *put-a *dur-a *tal-m-a *ha-a *mar*tin-a *bad*dal*hak*dal-a *ag*bad-a *hak-a *ag-a *aw-, *wa- (~ *w-) *ar-
Number 679 738 762 832 532 88 121 88 23 121 687 121 817 121 38 817 88 121 817 88 687 5 23 81 121 136 180 255 687 865 257 7 149 681 149 694 7 681 694 643 716
oppose, to opposite side oppress, to oppressed oppressed, to be opression or
250
English Meaning order order, to arrange in order, to put in ordinary, to be origin originate, to origination other other [indefinite pronoun stem] other side otherwise outcry outdoor area outer covering outgrowth outpour outside of, to go outside, to make to go outsider outstrip, to oven over (= above) over (= above), that which is over (= above), to be overflow overflow, to
Proto-Nostratic *woy-k-a *woy-V-k*woy-V-k*ek*pit-a *bad*bad-a *tin-a *hal-a *mal-a *ma- (~ *m-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) *tin-a *hal-a *hal*qal-a *ut-a *koy-a *dar-a *ag-a *ba-a *bal-a *gus*gus*gus-a *par*ep-a *an*al*xa*ap-a *ap*ar*ib-a *bal*bul*bun*kal*ib*aw*tal- and/or *til*ag-
Number 827 827 827 653 122 10 10 257 683 852 832 257 683 683 582 678 548 154 736 1 19 394 394 394 100 657 629 738 762 634 634 714 659 19 62 70 532 659 721 263 695
overshadow, to
251
English Meaning overtake, to overturn, to overturned overturning ox pacify, to pack pack tightly together, to pack together, to packed tightly together pain
Proto-Nostratic *par*maq*mar*hap-a *hap-a *maq-a *kow-a *tum*bag-a *tan*hak*tan-a *pal-a *tal-a *gal-a *kac-a *hak-a *wal-a *mir-a *mu-a *nik-a *nus-a *gal*mu*nus*mir*mu*pal*kol-a *yor-a *kol*pal-a *pat*gub-a *aw*er-a *par-a *pas-a *dun-a *cal-a *i-a *ar-a *law-
Number 100 864 867 688 688 864 547 243 12 224 681 224 94 188 358 452 681 791 886 892 919 924 358 892 924 886 892 94 442 778 442 89 110 387 341 597 98 108 179 302 343 635 945
pain, to be in pain, to cause painful, to be pair pair, to palm (= flat of the hand) palpitate, to pan pant, to parched part
part, to
252
English Meaning part asunder, to part cut off parted partridge (onomatopoeic bird name) pass, to pass (of time), to pass across, to pass over, to passage passion path paw pay attention, to pay-back pay back, to payment peace peace, to be at peaceful peak (= pinnacle)
Proto-Nostratic *ar*law-a *ar-a *kak-a *par*wat*par*par*par-a *qad-a *mar-a *man-a *qad-a *iy-a *man-a *guw*en*kap-a *kap*kar-a *kay-a *tum-a *an-a *an*tum-a *an-a *gab-a *gar-a *kir-a *qar-a *al-a *cir*gal*tak-a *tul-a *un-k-a *nak-a *bul-a (~ *bol-a) *pas-a *kum-a *man-a *san- or *an-, *sin- or *in-,
Number 635 945 635 456 104 810 104 104 104 565 868 861 565 666 863 395 749 417 417 519 522 243 627 627 243 627 348 370 439 585 738 309 356 185 242 601 911 63 109 447 862
peep, to peer at, to peg pelt (= animal skin) penis
perceive, to
253
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *sun- or *un*gun*kan*ra*ra-V-y*san-a or *an-a, *sin-a or *in-a, *sun-a or *un-a *san-a or *an-a, *sin-a or *in-a, *sun-a or *un-a *kan-a *ra-a *ra-y-a *kan-a *san-a or *an-a, *sin-a or *in-a, *sun-a or *un-a *gun-a *kan-a *ra-a *ra-y-a *wan-a *bad*gup*mar*ul*dul*di*dul*mak*mal*di-a *dul-a *mal-a *kal-a *al-a *ur-a *kar-a *gad-a *gar-a *ker*ac-
Number 319 390 471 950 950 319 319 471 950 950 471 319 390 471 950 950 796 9 391 873 732 172 163 172 843 854 163 172 854 461 553 734 538 351 366 486 693
perceived, that which is perceives, that which
perceiving perceiving, the act of perception
period (of time) perish, to perish, to cause to perplex, to perplexed, to be
perplexity perturbation pestle pestle, grinding (pick)axe pick, to
254
English Meaning pick up, to picked picking, the act of piece
Proto-Nostratic *kul*ac-a *lak-a *ac-a *cal-a *gad-a *kas-a *mol-a *bi-a *dum-a *dun-a *kir-a or *kur-a *kar-a *bur*dal*tar*er- or *er*cag*ak*xat*mir*nag*kat-a *kaw-a *tul*kum*pul-a *bit-a *tip*kay-w-a *kar-a *wur-a *kal*dag-a *as-a *in-a (~ *en-a) *dag*daw*day*kay*as*lag*dag-
Number 494 693 938 693 302 351 427 887 54 174 179 487 515 73 147 195 293 299 591 764 886 909 431 432 212 446 125 53 271 436 516 830 406 145 640 663 145 156 158 434 640 932 145
piece broken off piece cut off
pierce, to
piercing (of sounds) pile pile up, to pimple pinch pinch, to pit point out, to place place, to
place down, to place, to put in
255
English Meaning placed placed, to be placing down, the act of plain (= evident) plain, to be plait, to plaited, anything plaited, that which is plaiting, the act of plane, to plank play (a musical instrument), to play (a wind instrument), to play about, to playing (a musical instrument) playing (a wind instrument) pleasant pleasant, to be pleasantness pleased, to be pleasing pleasure plenty
Proto-Nostratic *as-a *kay*lag-a *gal-a *ek*tan*kat*aw*tan-a *kat-a *aw-a *tar*ir-a *bir*im- or *im*ak*bir-a *im-a or *im-a *mal-a *mak*mal-a *par*mal-a *mak-a *tir-p-a *gam-a *ap-a *ma-a *tir*tir-V-p*pid*tar-V-p*ker*ac*pid*gal*kal*pid*kal*ac-a *tar-p-a *pid-a *ac-a
Number 640 434 932 356 653 225 428 723 225 428 723 198 337 50 296 291 50 296 848 845 848 97 848 845 208 362 710 835 207 208 131 229 486 693 131 353 463 131 463 693 229 131 693
plenty, to have pluck, to
pluck off, to pluck out, to plucked plucking plucking, the act of
256
English Meaning plug plum plunder plunge plunge, to plunge in water, to plunge into, to point (= tip)
Proto-Nostratic *ag-a *bir-q-a *sil-a *mus-a *mus-k-a *am*mus*mus-V-k*tal*bar-a *dud-a *gar-a *qar-a *am-a *war- and/or *wir*ad-a *ar-a *mel*mol*mor-a *wir-a *bay-a *par-a *pas-a *i-a *xal-a *wan-a *ap-a *ka- (~ *k-) *gal-a *gub-a *kud-a (~ *kod-a) *kar-a *dar*tap*ta*tap*tuk*tum*tad*ca*gin-
Number 289 52 280 897 897 740 897 897 221 27 170 370 585 624 806 612 558 878 887 888 823 40 98 108 343 761 796 710 508 355 387 492 518 152 192 218 226 241 260 261 300 381
point of time point out, to pointed pole polish, to pool poplar portion
possessions post-positional intensifying and conjoining particle pot (= container)
pound, to
257
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *kan*kad*ka*ur*was*diq*ka-a *ca-a *ca-a *gin-a *was-a *ba*ban*la*ib*bal*ib*or-a *la-a *kal-a *gal-a *ab-a *al-a *wak-a *wal-a *woy-a *mag-a *mak-a *ad-a *al-a *mag-a *mak-a *gal*ad*mak*pir*pir-a *par*ar*rak*rak-a *kal-a *tox-a
Number 468 528 530 734 808 166 530 300 300 381 808 1 22 934 659 19 659 669 934 459 360 609 702 784 785 826 838 844 611 702 838 844 360 611 844 134 134 100 712 953 953 462 239
pound (earth), to pounded pounding pounding, the act of pour, to pour out, to pour over, to pouring poverty power
powerful
powerful, to be pray, to prayer precede, to prepare, to preparing, the act of presence present (= gift)
258
English Meaning present, to presently press, to
Proto-Nostratic *in-k-a *in-V-k*nu *tal*ag*e*wal*nad*nam*bit*par*uk*tur*ka*tik*cur*gid- or *id*kum*im*hak*kap*e-a *gid-a or *id-a *ag*tan-a *ka-a *im-a *ag-a *nam-a *e-a *bit-a *tal-a *tik-a *tur-a *kum-a *cag-a *bi*dal*cag*ak*xat*ad-a *qal-a
Number 727 727 921 189 289 333 791 907 927 53 100 606 215 530 206 310 377 497 605 681 415 333 377 694 224 530 605 289 927 333 53 189 206 215 497 299 54 147 299 591 764 612 572
press between the fingers, to press forward, to press (in), to press in, to press together, to
press with the hand, to pressed, that which is pressed close together pressed down, to be pressed tightly together pressed together pressing pressing, the act of pressure
prick prick, to
prickly private parts (male or female)
259
English Meaning proceed, to proclaim, to proclamation procure, to procurement produce produce, to produced produced, that which is progenitor project, to prominence prominent, that which is most prong pronominal base of uncertain deictic function proper proper, to be property propriety prosper, to prosperity
Proto-Nostratic *buw*ay*at*bak*bak-a *kar-a *kar*kar-a *kan-a *an*kan*kan-a *an-a *man-a *gar*did-a *xa-a *ak-a *gi- (~ *ge-) *tak-a *suw-a *tak*suw*cal- or *al*ap-a *tak-a *suw-a *riy*bul--a *buw-a *cal-a or *al-a *gan-a *riy-a *pin*taq*man*man-a *pin-a *kad-a *kal-a *man-a *rak-a
Number 79 646 748 16 16 475 519 519 465 332 465 465 332 862 370 161 762 591 375 219 287 219 287 304 710 219 287 960 64 80 304 505 960 116 227 858 858 116 401 405 858 955
protect, to protector protection
260
English Meaning protrude, to protuberance
Proto-Nostratic *gar*mun*did-a *taw-a *kar-a *ag-a *bun-a *an-a *bul-a *bul-bul-a (> *bum-bul-a) *pu-a *puw-a *up-a *puw*bar*bul*bun*pu*puw*iw-a *tar-a *bir*pid*tar*put*bir*pid*kal*xal*wal*pid*kal*xal*tar-a *put-a *wal-a *pid-a *bir-a *xal-a *xal-a *ta-a *kar-a *em-a
Number 370 890 161 201 478 736 69 628 62 65 128 137 677 137 26 62 69 128 137 344 193 51 131 193 141 51 131 463 766 786 131 463 766 193 141 786 131 51 766 766 218 424 330
protuberance, rounded proximity puff
puff of air puff, to puff up, to
puffed up pull pull, to pull apart, to pull off, to
pull (out), to pull out, to pulled along, something pulled-off piece or part pulling pulling, the act of pulling off, the act of pulling out, the act of pulverized, anything pungency pungent
261
English Meaning pungent, anything that is pungent smell punishment puppy pure purify, to purity pursue, to purulent, to be pus push push, to
Proto-Nostratic *kar-a *em-a *dip-a *sad-a *kuwan-a or *kun-a *hal-a *al*hal-a *mar*kiy*kiy-a *tal-a *ag-a *uk-a *tak*tal*ag*uk*tur*ka*ka-a *bug-a *as-a *dag*daw*day*kay*as*lag*woy-V-k*dag*dag*qad*kas*rak*ka*am*ar*lag-a *rak-a *qar-a *kiy*qar-a
Number 424 330 252 312 450 682 621 682 868 546 546 189 288 606 186 189 288 606 215 530 530 59 640 145 156 158 434 640 932 827 145 145 565 541 953 453 554 712 932 953 575 546 575
push in, to pushed together pustule put put, to
put down, to put in order, to put in place, to put in place, to be put into motion, to put out (fire), to put (together), to put together, to putting down, the act of putting (together), the act of putrid putrid, to be putrid thing
262
English Meaning puzzled, to be quaking quarrel
Proto-Nostratic *di*rag-a *bur-a *al-a *qat-a *mar-a *bur*mar*or-a *tum-a *kar-a *an-a *rom-a *tum*an*am*tum-a *kar-a *rom-a *pat*hal-a *wil-a *bah-a *hal-a *el*hal*kat-a *bur-a *ek-a *bur*ek*ek*duw-a *ar-a or *ar-a *kar-a *mat-a *rek-a *sig*aw*il-a or *il-a *duw-a *nab-a *sig-a
Number 163 951 72 553 569 865 72 865 669 243 537 627 961 243 627 705 243 537 961 110 682 821 13 682 654 682 429 74 652 74 652 652 182 292 540 876 959 323 721 294 182 906 323
quarrel, to quick quiet
quiet, to quiet, to be quiet, to become quietness quietude quiver, to radiance radiant radiate, to rag rage rage, to raging, to be rain
rain, to raindrop raindrops rain, heavy raining
263
English Meaning rainy weather raise, to
Proto-Nostratic *kar-a *tul*kul*am*am-V-d*ar-V-g*xa*war*ni*sal*did-a *dim-a *sal-a *kil-a *dim-a *ni-a *tar-a *gar-a *tar-a *daq-a *dur-a *kab-a *ar-a *or-a *or-a *raq-a *kat-a *ek-a *qar*al-a *di*tar*sag- or *ag*in-V-k*ar*ar-a *man*man-a *kan-a *ey-a *ey*ey-a *gun-a
Number 476 212 494 741 741 747 762 804 920 317 161 165 317 438 165 920 198 367 198 150 181 399 638 669 669 956 520 652 568 552 251 256 313 727 712 746 856 856 471 751 751 751 390
raise up, to raised
raised place raising, the act of rake raking ram (= male sheep)
rapid rapid motion, any rapid movement rasping sound, to make ravine reach, to
ready, to make rear reckon, to reckoning recognition recognize, to recognized recollection
264
English Meaning recompense recount, to rectitude red-hot, to be reduce, to
Proto-Nostratic *kap-a *muy-a *til*man*woy-k-a *kam*ta*kal*kar*ek*kal*ek-a *am-a *kal-a *gud-a *gal*rak*ar-a *ar-a *ata *ina or *ia *tay-a *ay(y)a *nat-a *ay(y)a *aw-a *ki- (~ *ke-) *ay-, *ya*ma- (~ *m-) *qad*rom*rom-a *rom-a *al*al-a *kar*am*wan*man*gun-a *taw-a *taw-a *sil-a
Number 417 898 237 856 827 533 184 459 517 653 459 653 335 407 388 356 955 637 637 642 664 232 648 914 649 720 524 645 879 581 961 961 961 331 331 537 705 795 857 390 230 230 280
reduced, to be or become reduction reed refuse (= rubbish) regard, to regard attentively, to related relative (= kinsman) relative (male or female), older relative (male or female), younger relative, (elder) male relative, female relative, male relative on the mothers side relative pronoun stem relax, to relaxation relaxed release, to released remain, to
remembrance remote remoteness removal
265
English Meaning remove, to removing, the act of rend, to rending renown repay in kind, to repayment report repose request request, to requital resemble, to reservoir residence resound, to respire, to rest (= relaxation)
Proto-Nostratic *kal-a *tek*kal*kal*tek-a *tar*tar-V-p*tar-p-a *kul-a *kay*kay-a *muy-a *war-a and/or *wir-a *wat-a *kar-a *pir-a *tel-a *pir*tel*muy-a *sam*mor-a *buw-a *daw*an*aw-a *kar-a *an-a *rom-a *kar-a *aw*kar*qad*am*rom*an*an-a *kay-a *kar-a *am-a *kal-a *muy-a *kay-
Number 463 202 459 463 202 228 229 229 444 522 522 898 806 811 537 134 235 134 235 898 318 888 79 155 743 342 537 627 961 537 342 537 581 705 961 627 627 434 537 705 405 898 522
rest, at rest, to
rest, to be at restful resting place restraint return return an equal measure, to
266
English Meaning return, to returned, that which is reveal, to revolve, to revolves, that which rid of, to get ridicule rift right (= correct) rigid rigid, that which is rigid, to be rigid, to be or become rind ring (= circle) rinse, to rip rip apart, to rip off, to ripe ripen, to ripeness ripening ripped ripping off, the act of rise, to
Proto-Nostratic *muy*muy-a *car- or *ar*cur*kal*wal*kal-a *al*ak-a *tal-m-a *woy-k-a *tar-a *tar-a *tar*gar*kar-a *kar-a *al*tar-a *tar-a *ar*bir*par-a *bul-V-*par*par-a *bul--a *di-a *tar-a *bir-a *bir*did*kil*kul*on*ar-V-g*xa*ni*or*al*or-a *or-a *kal-a
Number 898 898 306 310 510 792 511 331 291 255 827 266 266 266 370 419 420 700 228 267 339 51 106 64 106 106 64 251 267 51 49 161 438 494 731 747 762 920 670 738 670 670 532
rise (up), to rise high, to rising motion rising movement river
267
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *al-a *ap-a *mar-a *kal-a *kar-a *kum-a *ar-a *ar-ar-a *gur*ar*ar-ar*gur-a *gub*kal*er*er-a *kal-a *kal*sil-a *kal-a *kar-a *rag-a *ar-a *dal*gar*kal*al*wal*mar*rat*car*gar-a *rat-a *car-a *kal-a *raw--a *pir-a *ka-a *kir-a *mar-a *sir-a *ked*qar-
Number 552 711 868 509 475 496 555 555 393 555 555 393 387 460 597 597 460 408 280 458 538 951 558 148 506 510 579 792 867 957 305 506 957 305 511 958 119 469 525 867 282 545 575
road roaming roar
roar, to roaring noise or sound roast, to roasted roasting rob, to robbery rock (= stone) rocking (= swaying; shaking) rod roil (water), to roll, to
roll down, to rolling rolling down, the act of rolls, that which room rope
root (of tree or plant) rot, to
268
English Meaning rot away, to rotate, to rotation rotten rotten thing rotten, that which is rough rough, that which is rough, to be roughness round
Proto-Nostratic *was*kaw*wal-a *qar-a *qar-a *tam-a *bar-a *tar-a *kar-a *tar-a *bar*tar*bar-a *kar-a *pul-a *kar-a *kaw-a *gar-a *il-a *wal-a *al-a *kaw-a *gar-a *il-a *al*il*bun-a *om-a *wak*tar*wal*mal*mel*mol*mel*mol*mel*mol*mar*tar-a *mal-a
Number 808 480 792 575 575 264 29 266 423 266 29 266 29 423 139 420 480 506 604 792 579 480 506 604 579 604 69 668 784 196 791 851 878 887 878 887 878 887 869 196 851
round object round object, any round thing or object round, to be rounded protuberance rounded prominence at the end of the bone forming a ball and a socket joint with the hollow of another bone rouse, to rub, to
rub into, to rub smooth, to rub (with greast, oil, fat, ointment), to rubbed rubbing, the act of
269
English Meaning rubbish rude rude, to be ruffle, to ruffled, to be ruin
Proto-Nostratic *gud-a *nad-a *nad*dul*dul*bad-a *pul-a *ked-a *ul-a *wed-a *pul*ked*pul-a *ir-a *ak-a *ad-a *ad-ad-a *gur*kar*gur-a *kep-a *ku-a *dun*daw*tor*gir- or *ir*ap*mar*rat*mar*her- and/or *hor*ar- or *ar*daw-a *tor-a *or-a *rat-a *wa-a *cag-a *mur-a *mur-a *ag-a *sol-a *sol-
Number 388 908 908 172 172 9 124 545 732 815 124 545 124 600 698 550 550 393 540 393 484 501 178 249 272 384 711 868 957 868 692 292 249 272 669 957 814 299 893 893 694 283 283
ruin, to ruined ruler rumble, loud rumble, to rumbling noise or sound rumination rump run, to
run after, to run away, to run out, to running
running water rupture ruptured sadness safe safe, to be
270
English Meaning safety saliva same satisfied, to be savor, to saw (= cutting tool) say, to
Proto-Nostratic *sol-a *tup-a *sam-a *par*tir*tir-V-p*bir*gad-a *ar-a *a-a *te*til*kil*qat*yan*war- and/or *wir*wat*man*yan-a *pak-a *gar-b-a *kal-a *gal-a *wa-a *wed-a *kal-a *par*duw*tar*si*par-a *duw-a *tar-a *si-a *duw-a *duw*ban-a *si-a *gal*kay*gal-a *bar*tar-
Number 283 214 318 97 207 208 52 351 594 726 234 237 437 588 775 806 811 856 775 84 368 459 359 783 815 459 99 182 194 324 99 182 194 324 182 182 23 324 354 436 354 35 198
saying scab scanty scar scarcity scatter, to
scattered scattered about scattered about, anything scattered about, to be scattering scattering about, the act of scoop out, to scooping out, the act of scrape, to
271
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *ir*gar*ar*ok*xat*gar-a *tar-a *ar-a *ok-a *xat-a *ir-a *ar-t-a *tar*ir*gar*ar*ok*xat*wur*gar-a *tar-a *ar-a *ok-a *xat-a *kat*kar*kat-a *yam-a *mor-a *as-a *am-a *as*xol-a *mal-a *i-a *il- or (?) *ir*il*en*ra*ra-V-y*bar-a *na-r-a *mar-
Number 337 367 715 730 767 367 198 715 730 767 337 595 198 337 367 715 730 767 830 367 198 715 730 767 431 475 431 774 888 640 705 640 765 852 343 599 662 749 950 950 32 925 868
scrapes, that which scraping scraping, the act of scratch scratch, to
scratches, that which scratching scratching, the act of screech, to screeching sea seat seated seated, to be seclusion second section see, to
seed seedling seek, to
272
English Meaning seeing seen seize, to
Proto-Nostratic *ra-a *ra-y-a *ey-a *pid*tek*sil*um- or *um*gab*gar*kam- or *qam*kab*kaw*kum*am*ap*wot*bar*kap*kab*am-a *um-a or *um-a *tek-a *um-a or *um-a *wot-a *bar-a *kab-a *ap-a *bey-a *pas-a *an*pal-a *san-a or *an-a, *sin-a or *in-a, *sun-a or *un-a *san- or *an-, *sin- or *in-, *sun- or *un*san-a or *an-a, *sin-a or *in-a, *sun-a or *un-a *san-a or *an-a, *sin-a or *in-a, *sun-a or *un-a
Number 950 950 751 115 202 280 297 349 365 409 451 481 497 623 745 825 31 415 451 623 297 202 297 825 31 451 745 45 109 626 94 319 319 319 319
seize hold of, to seize with the hand, to seize with the teeth, to seized seizing seizing, the act of seizure self semen send off, to sensation, burning sense sense, to sensed, that which is senses, that which
273
English Meaning separate (= different) separate, to
Proto-Nostratic *a-a *bad*ban*par*gal*kas*kal*a*ar*law*i*tu*gar-a *ar-a *xol*ban-a *i-a *gal-a *kas-a *kal-a *a-a *law-a *tu-a *kay-a *kay-w-a *as-a *daw*kay*as*xol*kat*lag*wal*bud*al*or*yor-a *daw*lag-a *am*am-a *pal-a *pal-a
Number 631 5 23 98 353 427 463 631 635 945 343 240 366 635 765 23 343 353 427 463 631 945 240 433 433 640 156 434 640 765 430 932 790 56 331 669 778 156 932 705 705 91 91
separate into (equal) parts, to separate into two parts, to separated separated from, to be separation
separation into two separatness set (= put; placed) set, to set apart, to be set down, to set fire to, to set fire to something, to set free, to set in motion, to set of two set up, to setting down, the act of settle down, to settled settled place settlement
274
English Meaning sever, to
Proto-Nostratic *dum*tar*kir- or *kur*ar*law*dum-a *ar-a *or-a *man*qal-a *tal-a and/or *til-a *tal-a and/or *til-a *bar-a *bar*bar-a *pel*pir*tar*gud*kal*kat*at*ut*na*nuk*rag*at*dul-a *kat-a *at-a *ut-a *nuk-a *rag-a *raq-a *tar-a *sam-a *bay-a *par-a *pas-a *dun-a *xal-a *wan-a *bay-
Number 174 228 487 635 945 174 635 754 861 572 263 263 29 29 29 114 120 200 388 461 520 719 735 910 929 951 719 173 520 719 735 929 951 956 200 318 40 98 108 179 761 796 40
severance severed sewing sexual intercourse, to have sexual organs (male or female) shade shadow shaggy shaggy, to be shagginess shake, to
shaken, to be shaking
shaking (from fear, fright) shape share
share, to
275
English Meaning sharp (= pointed; cutting) sharp (= pungent)
Proto-Nostratic *kat-a *ad-a *em-a *kar-a *at-a *am-a *em-a *am*kat-a *tal-a *sak-a *ok-a *am-a *ag*pas*si- (~ *se-) *bag-a *dur-a *a-a *uw-a (~ *ow-a) *koy-a *kad-a *il-a *bah*bal*bar*da*dil*tay- or *tiy*il*qal- or *qel*el*hal*wal*lah*law*hag*bah-a *il-a *hal-a *wal-a *lah-a *law-a
Number 544 612 330 424 560 704 330 704 431 254 315 729 704 290 108 322 11 181 590 759 548 401 562 13 21 33 146 164 233 562 571 654 682 793 933 944 679 13 562 682 793 933 944
sharp (= pungent), anything that is sharp (= pungent), to be sharp (of sounds) sharp instrument sharp instrument used for cutting, any sharp point sharp-tasting foodstuff, any sharpen, to shatter, to she sheep sheep, (young) sheep and goats shell shield shine (= luster; sparkle) shine, to
shine brightly, to shining
276
English Meaning shiver, to shivering shoot (= sprout) shoot, to short short of shortened shortness shout shout, to
Proto-Nostratic *ut*ut-a *na-r-a *am*kut-a *kar-a *kal-a *gar-a *kut-a *kar-a *qar-a or *qur-a *wa-a *gal*kal*kar*qal*wa*wal*ag-a *uk-a *ag*uk*er- or *er*duw-a *kat-a *kat*kat*xir*ag-a *cuk*kap*nus*mar*daw*daw-a *mar-a *nus-a *ag-a *ga-a *kar-a *ar-a *sa-y-a *sa-V-y-
Number 735 735 925 742 502 517 459 366 502 517 586 781 357 404 475 582 781 787 288 606 288 606 293 182 431 431 431 770 326 303 474 924 873 157 157 873 924 290 364 421 635 311 311
shove shove, to shove into, to shower shrill (of sounds) shrill screech, to make a shrill sound, to make a shrub shut, to sick, to be sick, to be or become sick, to become deathly sickness side
sieve sift, to
277
English Meaning sigh sigh, to
Proto-Nostratic *aw-a *kum-a *kas-a *pu*aw*kum*kas*en-a *ey-a *ra-a *ra-y-a *dum-a *rom-a *dum*eb-a *eb-a *sam-a *ek*sir-a *s[e]n-a or *[e]n-a *bir*bir-a *am*lam*lam-V-d*tal*da *da-da*ena *kel-a *nus-a *as*pa-a *pal-a *kar-a *koy-a *lat-a *nak-a *kap-a *kir-a *al-a *dow-a, *doy-a *dow-, *doy-
Number 341 496 542 128 341 496 542 749 751 950 950 175 961 175 651 651 318 653 281 320 50 50 740 940 940 221 143 143 656 482 923 640 82 130 419 548 942 911 416 439 580 168 168
sight
silence silent silent, to be silliness silly similar simple, to be sinew sing, to singing sink, to sink down, to sink into, to sister sister, elder sister-in-law sit, to skin
skin, (animal) skull slack slacken, to
278
English Meaning slackness slap slash slaughter
Proto-Nostratic *dow-a, *doy-a *tap-a *qal-a *ar-a *wa-a *dab-a *qat-a *al-a *wel-a *la-a *al*gan*qal*wel*bad-a *aw-a *aw*nak*tar-a *ir-a *ar-a *xat-a *il- or *il*gil*car*gil-a *il-a or *il-a *car-a *qal-a *gil*car*il-a or *il-a *gil-a *il-a or *il-a *car-a *bi-a *kir-a or *kur-a *al-a *ar-a *dow-a, *doy-a *hak*dow-, *doy*hak-
Number 168 192 566 594 799 245 569 699 816 935 699 504 583 816 9 342 342 912 228 337 594 764 295 378 305 378 295 305 584 378 305 295 378 295 305 54 487 592 594 168 680 168 680
slaughter, to slay, to sleep sleep, to sleep, to go to slice
slide, to slide down, to sliding sliding, the act of sliding down, the act of sling slip, to slip down, to slippery slipping, the act of slipping down, the act of slit
slow slow, to be slow down, to slowly
279
English Meaning slowly, to do or approach something slownesss sluggish, to be sluggishness slumber small
Proto-Nostratic *hak*dow-a, *doy-a *hak-a *hak*hak-a *aw-a *ik-a *gin-a or *in-a *kut-a *nus-a *ik*gin- or *in*ek*nus*tak-a *tak*kal-a *ik-a *kut-a *nus-a *pal*kad*mar*ut-a *dip-a *ut*pul-a *duw-a *tuq-a *kam-a *kat-a *kam*kat*tuq*kum*kam*kat*kum-a *il-a or *il-a *gil-a *mel-a *mel-a *gal-a
Number 680 168 680 680 680 342 336 380 502 922 336 380 653 922 262 262 459 336 502 922 94 528 869 758 252 758 140 182 244 533 543 533 543 244 448 533 543 448 295 378 878 878 503
small, to be
small piece small pieces, to cut into small quantity small things smallness smart, to smash, to smear (with greast, oil, fat, ointment), to smell smell, pungent smell, to smoke
smoke, to smoky, to be smolder, to smoldering smooth smoothness snake
280
English Meaning snatch, to snort snow snow, to snow-storm so-and-so, to be not soak, to soaked soft soft, to be soften, to softened softness soil (= earth) soil, to soiled (= dirty) sole of the foot solid solid, to be solidity solitude somebody [indefinite pronoun stem] someone [indefinite pronoun stem] son soot
Proto-Nostratic *sil*pu-a *tow-a *tow*tow-a *al(perhaps also *el-, *ul-) *uw*uw-V-l*uw-a *uw-l-a *mel-a *nus-a *nus*mel*mol*ar-a *mel-a *tor-a *ul-a *mar*kar-a *mar-a *ul-a *tik-a *tar-a *kur-a *kur*tik-a *tar-a *kur-a *kay-a *kay-w-a *xol-a *ma- (~ *m-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) *ma- (~ *m-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) *saw-a or *sew-a *tuk-a *tuq-a
Number 280 128 210 210 210 622 345 345 345 345 878 922 922 878 887 556 878 209 674 870 476 870 674 206 265 549 549 206 265 549 433 433 765 832 832 275 211 244
281
English Meaning sooty, to be sore sore on the skin soul sound (= noise)
Proto-Nostratic *tuq*gar-b-a *gal-a *bey-a *ba-a *bar-a *bug-r-a *daw-a *te-a *kal-a *kil-a *qal-a *wal-a *wat-a *mur-a *mur-mur-a *kak*ka-a *sol-a *sol*daw*kal*ka*bar*bug-V-r*kil*mur*mur-mur*ad*ad-ad*ak-a *em-a *am-a *em-a *tam-a *am*tam*am-a *par-a *raw--a *pit-a *raw--a *raw-V--
Number 244 368 359 45 14 36 60 155 234 404 437 582 787 811 896 896 455 414 283 283 155 404 414 36 60 437 896 896 550 550 696 330 704 330 264 704 264 704 99 958 121 958 958
sound, (crackling) sound, (ringing or tinkling) sound (= healthy) sound (= healthy), to be sound, to sound, to make a
sound, to make a loud sound judgment sour sour, anything that is sour, that which is sour, to be sour, to turn sour foodstuff, any space spacious spacious, to be
282
English Meaning spade sparse spark sparkle, to speak, to
Proto-Nostratic *gar-a *ar-a *kal-a *pa-a *pa-w-a *kas-a *bar*qal- or *qel*te*kil*qat*xat*yan*war- and/or *wir*wat*man*tar-a *er-a or *er-a *wa-a *te-a *til-a *kil-a *war-a and/or *wir-a *tor-a *buw*pas-a *al-a *bar-a *ak-a *dun-a *ib-a *ar- or *ar*ib*kar*bey-a *ek*tup*wam*wam*qat-a *tup-a *wam-a *pal-a
Number 367 557 459 129 129 541 33 571 234 437 588 768 775 806 811 856 195 293 783 234 237 437 806 272 79 109 579 27 591 178 659 292 659 420 45 652 214 794 794 569 214 794 85
spear spear(head) speech
speedy spend time, to sperm sphere spike (= barb) spill spill out, to spill over, to spin around, to spirit spirited, to be spit, to spit out, to spit up, to spite spittle spleen
283
English Meaning splendor
Proto-Nostratic *bah-a *el-a *wil-a *mag-a *bad-a *bak-a *pa-a *pal-a *pas-a *pil-a *dal-a *tar-a *ta-a *tar-a *cal-a *gad-a *ut-a *gad-a *bad*bak*bi*pal*pas*pil*dun*tar*ta*tar*cal*sak*ar*gad*gar*kir- or *kur*qal*ut*nag*bar*bi*pa*ha*kep*tu-
Number 13 654 821 838 5 17 81 86 108 132 147 195 218 267 301 351 602 351 5 17 54 86 108 132 179 195 218 267 301 315 339 351 366 487 566 602 909 35 54 81 687 484 240
split
split, that which is split, to
split (with a tool or weapon), to split apart, to split into small pieces, to split into two parts, to
284
English Meaning split open, to splits, that which splitting into small pieces, the act of spoil, to spoiled, that which is spoon sport sport, to make spot spotted, that which is spray spray, to spread
Proto-Nostratic *pa*al*ar-a *kep-a *ked*tam-a *kay-a *ak-a *ak*mar-a *bul-a *rek-a *rek*ban-a *bul-a *pal*tal-a *tan*tar-a *ban*par*pit*tal*tar*ak*tar*sor*par-a *tal-a *bul*tar*kal-a *sor*ar- or *ar*ban*tal*rek*si*duw-a *duw-a *il-a or *il-a *rek-a *ag-a
Number 81 592 339 484 545 264 436 291 291 870 67 959 959 23 62 88 188 190 194 23 99 121 188 194 697 194 284 99 188 62 194 532 284 292 22 223 959 324 182 182 294 959 736
spread, to
spread about, to spread forth, to spread out spread out, to spring (= stream) spring forth, to sprinkle, to sprinkle with water, to sprinkled sprinkled about, anything sprinkling sprout
285
English Meaning sprout, to squander, to squeak, to squeeze squeeze (out), to squeeze, to squeeze tight, to squeeze together, to squeeze with the hand, to squeezed, that which is squeezing squeezing, the act of squirrel stab stab, to
Proto-Nostratic *na-r-a *bul-V-*ag*na-V-r*bad*cir*bit-a *mal*bit*e*nam*ag*tik*hak*kap*e-a *ag-a *nam-a *e-a *wur-a (~ *wor-a) *ak-a *er- or *er*ak*wa*wa*mir*nag*dag*tul-a *tul*ar-a *mar-a *mar*kal-a *kan-a *ar-a *man*bar*gar*mun*qal-a or *qel-a *at*wal-a
Number 925 64 736 925 6 309 53 850 53 333 927 289 206 681 415 333 289 927 333 829 591 293 591 783 799 886 909 145 212 212 558 870 870 407 412 558 858 27 370 890 571 719 791
stable, to be stack stack (in a heap), to staff stain stain, to stalk stand guard over, to stand on end, to stand out, to star startled, to be starvation
286
English Meaning stay, to staying steadfast steadfast, to be steal, to steam stem stench step step aside, to step by step, to do or approach something stick stick out, to stiff stiff, that which is stiff, to be stiff, to be or become still (= quiet) still, to be still, to become stillness sting stink, to stinking stinking thing stir, to stir up, to stir up trouble, to stirred up, to be
Proto-Nostratic *kar*wan*man*buw-a *tar-a *man*kal*pul-a *duw-a *kal-a *kan-a *ar-a *dip-a *ot-a *ot*hak*bud-a *kan-a *ar-a *gar*tar-a *tar-a *tar*gar*kar-a *an-a *rom-a *an*am*kar-a *am-a *cag-a *dip*qar*qar-a *qar-a *kal*rag*dal*al*wak*dul*al-
Number 537 795 857 79 265 857 408 140 182 407 412 558 252 672 672 680 58 412 558 370 266 266 266 370 537 627 961 627 705 537 705 299 252 575 575 575 461 951 148 553 784 172 553
287
English Meaning stomach stone
Proto-Nostratic *wat-a *pal-a *kiw-a *kal-a *kar-a *kar-a *kum*lam*lam-V-d*kum-a *tad*rom*cuk-a *bur-a *sig-a *kar-a *nab-a *kar-a *kul-a *gub-a *woy-k-a *woy-k-a *kac-a *kac*muk*muk-a *gus-a *an-V-g*al-a *daw-a *ar-a or *ar-a *kal-a *ap-a *mor-a *tar-a *gal-a *g[e]n-d-a *kar-a *ab-a *al-a *ur-a *wak-a
Number 812 87 441 458 538 538 498 940 940 498 217 961 303 74 323 540 906 540 445 387 827 827 452 452 889 889 394 708 328 249 292 532 711 888 265 360 374 422 609 702 757 784
stone, grinding stoop down, to stooping, the act of stop, to stoppage storm storm cloud stormy weather story stove straight straightness strain strain, to straining (as a woman in labor or as when defecating) stranger strangle, to strap stream
strength
288
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *wal-a *woy-a *mag-a *mak-a *ban-a *tal-a *tar-a *rak-a *tal*tan*tar*ut*war*mad*mat*rak*tar*tal*cal- or *al*tal-a *tan-a *tar-a *rak-a *rak-a *tar*si*si-a *duw-a *si-a *duw-a *duw*ar-a *ar*ba-a *dal-a *tal-a *kan-a *gan-a *wed-a *ba*ban*tak*tap-
Number 785 826 838 844 23 188 194 954 188 190 194 678 803 836 875 954 194 222 304 188 190 194 954 954 194 324 324 182 324 182 182 593 593 15 147 254 468 504 815 15 24 186 192
stretch
stretch, to
stretch out, to stretched
stretching, the act of strew, to strewing about, the act of strewn strewn about strewn about, anything strewn about, to be strife strife, to cause strike
strike, to
289
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *tap*taw*tuk*dab*tum*tad*kan*kud*gan*kad*ka*qal*qat*qal*ak*wa*wa*nag*nik*la*lax*kas*wed*gad*tal*ak-a *lax-a *pir-a *al-a *ka-a *mar-a *kal*kal*kal-a *kal-a *mar*win- or *wi*tak-a *tap-a *tap-a *tuk-a *dab-a *cal-a
Number 226 231 241 245 260 261 468 491 504 528 530 566 569 583 737 783 799 909 919 935 947 541 815 351 254 737 947 119 328 469 867 463 463 463 463 865 822 186 192 226 241 245 301
strike fire, to strike (with a weapon), to strike (with an instrument), to strike with a sharp instrument, to striking, the act of string
strip away, to strip off, to stripping away stripping off strive against, to strive for, to stroke
290
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *kud-a *kad-a *qal-a *nag-a *lax-a *mal*mal-a *tar-a *kar-a *ab-a *ad-a *al-a *ur-a *mag-a *mak-a *man-g-a *gal*ad*al*ur*mak*wal*dip*tar*bur-a *tar*kal-a *tur*tan*ag*dul*dul-a *tum-a *eb*al(perhaps also *el-, *ul-) *un*mal*diy*kan*im*mal*lab-
Number 491 528 566 909 947 851 851 265 422 609 611 702 757 838 844 860 360 611 702 757 844 785 252 265 72 265 406 215 224 289 172 172 260 651 622 756 850 167 534 753 850 931
stroke, to stroking, the act of strong
strong, to be
strong, to be or become strong odor, to give off a strongly attached, to be struggle stuck together, to be or become study stuff, to (stupid, to be) (stupidity) stupor succumb, to such-and-such, to be not suck (milk from a breast), to suck (out), to suck, to suck, to give suck milk, to
291
English Meaning suck (the breast), to sucking sucking, the act of suckle, to
Proto-Nostratic *mam-, *mem*lab-a *im-a *diy*kan*mam-, *mem*mal*man*man-a *tal*gal*mu*nus*bad*bad-a *tal-a *muk-a *mu-a *nik-a *mu*mu*tak-a *suw-a *tak-a *suw-a *tak*suw*sam-a *gub-a *kir-a *al-a *qat-a *sax-a *am-a *hag-a *sam*am-a *ar-a *ar*rak*kal-a *bal-a *sor-a
Number 833 931 753 167 534 833 850 855 855 188 358 892 924 7 7 188 889 892 919 892 892 219 287 219 287 219 287 273 386 439 738 588 277 740 679 273 771 714 714 955 405 19 284
suckling suffer, to
suffer, to make to suffering
suffering, to be in suffering, to cause suitability suitable suitable, to be summer summit summons sun sunken sunlight sunny, to be sunset superior superior, to be supervise, to support surge
292
English Meaning surge, to surge forth, to surge up, to surpass, to
Proto-Nostratic *wel-a *bal*wel*sor*aw*par*di*ma*mik*tir-p-a *gam-a *hay *cur*cur-a *cur-a *un-V-k*kal-a *qur*im*un*im-a *ber-a *mar-a *bar*bir*bug*bul*bul-bul- (> *bum-bul-) *bun*bun-V-g*pu*pul*pul*dar*did*taw*tiq*iw*gar*kaw*gan*aw*ay-V-t-
Number 818 19 818 284 721 100 251 841 884 208 362 691 310 310 310 601 457 589 753 756 753 43 871 26 49 59 62 65 69 69 123 125 139 154 161 201 258 344 369 432 505 722 725
surplus surprise, exclamation of surround, to surroundings surrounds, that which suspend, to sustenance swallow, to swallowing, the act of swamp swell, to
293
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *on*ma*man*man-V-g*mik*bar-a *bul-bul-a (> *bum-bul-a) *bun-a *bun-g-a *pu-a *pul-a *dar-a *taw-a *tiq-a *iw-a *gar-a *gan-a *aw-a *ay-t-a *on-a *pul-a *tor-a *par*wuy-a or *Huy-a *wuy- or *Huy*wuy-a or *Huy-a *dul*dul-a *bun-g-a *pul-a *did-a *taw-a *iw-a *ay-t-a *man-g-a *pul-a *sak-a *wa-a *kad-a *tek*sil*gat*ap-
Number 731 841 859 860 884 26 65 69 69 123 139 154 201 258 344 369 505 722 725 731 125 272 101 831 831 831 173 173 69 139 161 201 344 725 860 126 315 783 529 202 280 372 710
swelling
swelling (on the skin) swift swiftly, to move swim swim, to swimming swing back and forth, to swinging swollen
swollen, that which is sword tail take (away), to take (with the hand), to take (with the hands or arms), to
294
English Meaning take, to
Proto-Nostratic *day*um- or *um*kaw*am*wad*man*ni*kal*wot*ap*man*bar*pa*pa-V-k*gar*kab*ap*wot*lab*pa*pa-V-k*kap*um-a or *um-a *lab-a *tek-a *um-a or *um-a *wad-a *wot-a *til-a *kul-a *til-a *xat-a *kil*wat*bir-a *bir-g-a *tal-a *al*bir-a *pul-a *tum-a *tum*diq-
Number 160 297 481 623 782 863 920 459 825 745 858 31 95 95 365 451 745 825 930 95 95 415 297 930 202 297 782 825 237 445 237 768 437 811 49 49 222 738 49 126 243 243 166
take away, to take by force, to take care of, to take hold of, to
take in hand, to take with the hand, to taking taking, the act of
tale talk (= speech; discourse) talk, to talkative, to be tall tall, to be tallness (tallow) tame tame, to tamp (earth), to
295
English Meaning taut tear (= split)
Proto-Nostratic *tar-a *tar-a *tar-a *tar-a *gal-a *row-a *pid*tar*tar*tar-V-p*put*row*ar*bir*pid*put*gal*kal*xal*pid*kal*xal*tar-p-a *pid-a *bir-a *xal-a *xal-a *diy-a *im-a *ap-a *til*kul*qat*war- and/or *wir*man*a-a *mel-a *a*an*an-a *sir-a *s[e]n-a or *[e]n-a *at-
Number 194 195 228 267 353 962 131 195 228 229 141 962 339 51 131 141 353 463 766 131 463 766 229 131 51 766 766 167 753 634 237 445 588 806 858 614 878 614 706 706 281 320 719
tear, to
tear apart, to tear asunder, to tear off, to
tear out, to tearing tearing, the act of tearing off, the act of tearing out, the act of teat teeming tell, to
tend, to tender tender, to be tenderness tendon terrified, to be
296
English Meaning testicle testicles that
Proto-Nostratic *mun-a *mun-d-a *bul-a (~ *bol-a) *ti- (~ *te-) *a- (~ *-) *ki- (~ *ke-) *u- (~ *o-) *mi- (~ *me-) *na (~ *n), *ni (~ *ne) *di- (~ *de-) *ta*a- (~ *-) *ul- (~ *ol-) *tu- (~ *to-) *ku- (~ *ko-) *a- (~ *-) *ul- (~ *ol-) *mu- (~ *mo-) *ta*kal-a *-si (~ *-se) *si- (~ *se-) *ar*ar*si- (~ *se-) *bar-a *bun-g-a *tik-a *tan-a *kan-a *bar*bar-a *tan-a *kan-a *kur-a *tal-a *ta*ti*e*man*sa- or *a*tal-a *ta- (~ *t-)
Number 891 891 63 183 338 398 608 832 901 250 253 608 675 183 398 608 675 832 253 408 322 322 716 716 322 29 69 206 224 467 29 29 224 467 549 188 184 270 750 856 314 188 183
that one that over there that yonder
that yonder (not very far) theft their them then therefore they thick
thick, to be thickness
(thin) thin, to grow think, to think about, to thinness this
297
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *a- (~ *-) *ka- (~ *k-) *i- (~ *e-) *ma- (~ *m-) *na (~ *n), *ni (~ *ne) *di- (~ *de-) *ak-a *ad-a *kay*ti-a *sa-a or *a-a *e-a *ca-a *ca-a *riy*qar-a *qel-a *qur-a *an-g-a *xel-a *am-a *day*si*gud*qal*am*car*qal-a *si-a *si-a *gud-a *gud-a *tal-a *tur-a *kad-a *ak-a *uk-a *tal*uk*tur*er- or *er*pal-a *tuk-a
Number 338 398 608 832 901 250 591 612 521 270 314 750 300 300 960 568 577 589 708 769 554 158 324 388 584 742 305 584 324 324 388 388 189 215 528 591 606 189 606 215 293 92 241
this one thorn though thought thrashing thrashing, the act of thrive, to throat
throng throw, to
throw down, to throwing throwing about, the act of thrown about thrown aside, that which is thrown off, that which is thrust
thrust, to thrust (in), to thrust in, to thrust into, to thumb thump
298
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *kan-a *kud-a *ad-a *ad-ad-a *kar*kar-a *it*ba-a *ban-d-a *bin-a *kad-a *ka-a *kad-a *ka-a *kir-a *im-a *rak-a *ban-V-d*ba*tan*sak*al*kad*kad*ya*net*rak*an-V-g*bin*kar*bag*sir*cur*ka*ka*kun*kir*kol*kar-a *im-a *xal-a *cur-a *kar-a
Number 468 491 550 550 540 540 563 2 25 47 402 453 454 469 525 605 952 25 2 225 316 328 402 454 773 917 952 708 47 477 11 281 310 453 469 500 525 442 477 605 760 310 477
thunder, clap of thunder, to thunderstorm tickle, to tie
tie (together), to tie, to
tie tightly, to tie together, to
tie two things together, to tied tied together, that which is
299
English Meaning tight time time, point of tip (= point)
Proto-Nostratic *tar-a *am-a *am-a *dud-a *gab-a *gar-a *kir-a *qar-a *am-a *am-d-a *tar-a *dal*tum*bul-a *dal-a *tan-a *mel-a *bul-a *was*bul*mel*mol*tan*dal-a *an*kam*bi *da- (~ *d-) *kam-a *kam*til-a *kil-a *las-a, *lis-a, *lus-a *tik-a *tik-a *qam-a *ar-s-a *tal-a *sub-a *gab-a *gub-a *kir-a *am-a
Number 194 624 624 170 348 370 439 585 741 741 199 149 260 68 149 191 878 68 807 68 878 887 191 149 629 411 46 142 410 410 238 437 941 205 205 573 603 187 285 348 386 439 741
tipsy tire, to tire out, to tired
tired, that which is tired, to be or become tired, to become tired, to grow tiredness to together together with toil toil, to tongue tool used to form something tool used to make something tooth top
300
English Meaning topmost part torch torment, to torn torn-off piece or part torrent torrential rain torture, to toss, to tossed aside, that which is tossed off, that which is touch touch, to touched towards track trade trade, to trample, to tranquil tranquil, to become tranquility
Proto-Nostratic *am-d-a *war-a *mun-a *al-a *dar*mu*tar-a *put-a *ba-a *ar-a or *ar-a *aw-a *aw-a *mu*gud*gud-a *gud-a *tak-a *tak*gas*am*am-a *an*kal-a *ot-a *mar-a *wos-a *wos*tap*tuk*rom-a *am*tum-a *an-a *am-a *rom-a *na*lak*mar-a *dan-w-a *ag-a *as-a *pat*pel-
Number 741 804 890 739 152 892 267 141 1 292 721 721 892 388 388 388 186 186 371 623 623 629 531 672 868 824 824 192 241 961 705 243 627 705 961 904 937 872 247 326 718 110 114
travel, to travel on foot, to tree tree, a kind of tree, small tree and its fruit tremble, to
301
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *pir*tar*kal*at*ut*na*nuk*pir-a *kal-a *at-a *ut-a *nuk-a *rag-a *raq-a *tar-a *kar-a *ak-a *kap-a *mak*mak-a *kal-a *wal-a *kal*il-a or *il-a *al-a *bad-a *dul-a *kac-a *ag-a *nad-a *mu*mu*dul*dal*dul*ag*mak*woy-k-a *kan-a *sa- or *a*sa- or *a*dar-a *gal-a
Number 120 200 461 719 735 910 929 120 461 719 735 929 951 956 200 516 617 417 843 843 532 789 532 294 551 7 172 452 694 908 892 892 172 148 172 694 843 827 468 314 314 154 357
trembling
trembling (from fear, fright) trench tribute trick, to trickery trickle trickle, to trickling trip trouble
trouble, to be in trouble, to cause trouble, to stir up troubled, to be
true truncheon try to find out, to try to understand, to tumor tumult
302
English Meaning turbidity turmoil turn
Proto-Nostratic *bul-a *gal-a *bur-a *pir-a *dar-a *wal-a *mal-a *maq-a *law-a *rak-a *bur*pir*dar*cur*ok*kar*gar*hap*aw*wal*mal*maq*mar*mur*net*law*rak*rat*kar*or*hap*hap*par*mar*kaw*maq*mar*sir*ka*maq*gar-a *hap-a *hap-a
Number 66 357 71 119 151 792 853 864 943 952 71 119 151 310 334 477 506 688 723 792 853 864 867 894 917 943 952 957 420 754 688 688 106 867 480 864 867 281 469 864 506 688 688
turn, to
turn around, to turn away, to turn back, to turn gray, (hair) to turn over, to turn round, to turn together, to turn upside down, to turned turned away from turned back
303
English Meaning turned together turning turning, the act of turning away, the act of turning back, the act of turning over, the act of turning round, the act of turns, that which twilight twine twine together, to twining twining together, the act of twist
Proto-Nostratic *dar-a *or-a *rat-a *ok-a *mar-a *hap-a *hap-a *mar-a *mar-a *dar-a *kal-a *rum-a *pir-a *kir*pir-a *kir-a *bur-a *pir-a *kir-a *an-a *maq-a *law-a *rak-a *bur*pir*dar*tak*cur*ok*kat*kar*gar*ub*an*aw*mal*maq*mar*mur*law*rak*kar*kaw-
Number 151 754 957 334 867 688 688 867 867 151 511 963 119 525 119 525 71 119 525 707 864 943 952 71 119 151 185 310 334 428 477 506 564 707 723 853 864 867 894 943 952 420 480
twist, to
twist around, to twist round, to
304
English Meaning twist together, to
Proto-Nostratic *or*bin*dar*tak*sir*ka*kir*net*ban-V-d*kar-a *gar-a *kat-a *ub-a *tak*dar-a *net-a *cur-a *or-a *ok-a *kir-a *dar-a *yor-a *tu-a *kol-a *or-a *kan-a *al-a *al-a *sa-a or *a-a *gal-a *ak-a *kal-a *bar-a *bar*mar-a *gid-a or *id-a *im-a *gid- or *id*im*gid-a or *id-a *im-a *guw-a *guw-r-a
Number 754 47 151 185 281 469 525 917 25 420 506 428 564 185 151 917 310 754 334 525 151 778 240 442 754 534 701 701 314 356 696 461 38 38 869 377 605 377 605 377 605 396 396
twist (together), to twisted twisted, that which is twisted, to be twisted together twisted together, anything twisted together, that which is twisting twisting, the act of twisting together, the act of twists, that which two two halves two things, any combination of tying udder under, that which is underpart understanding uneasiness unfruitful unfruitful, to be or become unguent union unite, to unite together, to united united together untamed
305
English Meaning upon up upper part uppermost part uppermost part (of anything) uproar upset, to upset, to be upward, to go us used up used up, to be useless useless, to be or become utter, to utterance vacant, to be valley vapor vehicle vein vessel (= pot) vex, to vexation vexed, to be victory view view, to come into vigil vigor vile violence violent, to be violent movement virility
Proto-Nostratic *an*al*a*a-a *war-a *kir-a *gal-a *qal-a *dul*dul*xa*wa- (~ *w-) *ma (~ *m) *na (~ *n) *aw-a *aw*bar-a *bar*bak*bak-a *wel*gol-a *am-a *duw-a *wig-a *sir-a *gal-a *kud-a (~ *kod-a) *kar-a *nad*nad-a *ag*sag-a or *ag-a *wel-a *en-a *wil*war-a *wak-a *pul-a *al-a *ek*ek-a *g[e]n-d-a
Number 629 738 744 744 804 439 357 582 172 172 762 779 880 900 329 329 38 38 16 16 817 385 740 182 820 281 355 492 517 908 908 694 313 816 749 821 801 784 124 699 652 652 374
306
English Meaning visibility visible visible, that which is visible, to be or become voice vomit vomit, to voyage wail walk walk, to
Proto-Nostratic *car-a or *ar-a *gal-a *car-a or *ar-a *xa-a *car- or *ar*gal*ba-a *put-a *wam-a *put*al-a *wal-a *kal-a *mar-a *bar*gir- or *ir*kal*mar*bar-a *kal-a *mar-a *cur-a *gir-a *kal-a *tar*bad-a *ga-a *kal-a *ek-a *iw-a, *iy-a *iw-, *iy*ga-a *kal-a *ek*war-a *pek-a *tab-a *kum-a *pa*pa-V-w*dul*tep*sax-
Number 306 356 306 762 306 356 14 135 794 135 551 787 509 868 37 384 509 868 37 509 868 310 382 509 197 8 346 459 653 728 728 346 459 653 801 113 216 448 129 129 171 203 277
walking wall wandering wane, to want
want, to be in wanting wanting, to be warder warm warm, to
307
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *kal*gir*wal*pal*pek*tab*sax*kay*tab*kay*ak*pek-a *dul-a *tep-a *tab-a *sax-a *kum-a *wal-a *war-a *al*law-V-*al-a *al-a *al-a *al-a *law--a *bad-a *bad*ta*tum*ker*wal*was*ur*aw-a *ker-a *eb*bad-a *was-a *war-a *guw*kal*rak-
Number 460 507 790 94 113 216 277 435 216 435 620 113 171 203 216 277 448 790 805 700 946 700 621 621 700 946 6 6 184 260 485 791 808 734 329 485 651 6 808 801 395 405 955
warm, to be warm, to be or become warm, to make warm oneself, to warmth
wash, to washed washed, that which is washing, the act of waste waste, to waste away, to
waste away by rubbing, to wasted wasted, to become wasteland wasting away watch watch, to
308
English Meaning watch out for, to watch (over), to watch over, to watchfulness watchman water
Proto-Nostratic *war*pin*man*rak-a *war-a *man-a *ham-a *yam-a *wet-a *maw-a *ap-a *wa-a *law-V-*al-a *ga-a *ub-a *wel-a *ar-a *kal-a *qad-a *iy-a *mar-a *dar-a *wa- (~ *w-) *ma (~ *m) *na (~ *n) *bul-a *dal-a *gin-a or *in-a *xal-a *mel-a *nus-a *bul-a *tum*gin- or *in*ek*wal*nus*bul*tum*eb*mel*mol-
Number 801 116 858 955 801 858 685 774 819 877 711 814 946 552 363 564 818 712 531 565 666 868 151 779 880 900 68 149 380 760 878 922 68 260 380 653 791 922 68 260 651 878 887
water, (flowing or running) water, running water, to watercourse waterfowl wattle wave way (= method) way (= path)
way, winding we weak
weak, that which is weak, to be
weak, to become
309
English Meaning weak, to grow weaken, to
Proto-Nostratic *dow-, *doy*bad*bul*dal*xal*pul-a *eb-a *mur-a *xal*mar*nus*bul-a *dal-a *eb-a *xal-a *wal-a *mel-a *nus-a *cal-a or *al-a *ap-a *riy-a *cal- or *al*er-a or *er-a *wed-a *bul-a *ta-a *tar-a *ta*ur*bul*tar*xal*aw*ker*xal*wal*was*mel*mol*kac*dal-a *dow-a, *doy-a
Number 168 9 68 149 760 124 651 893 760 873 924 68 149 651 760 791 878 924 304 710 960 304 293 815 68 184 196 184 734 68 196 760 329 485 760 791 808 878 887 452 149 168
weakened weakened, to be weakness
wealth wealthy, to be weapon wear (= abrasion) wear away, to wear away by rubbing, to wear down, to wear out, to
wearied (from straining, laboring), to become weariness
310
English Meaning
Proto-Nostratic *tan-a *tum-a *xal-a *was-a *dal-a *dow-a, *doy-a *tan-a *xal-a *mel-a *tum*tum*was*tum*mel*mol*dow-, *doy*tan*tan*kat*aw*net*or-a *net-a *aw-a *net-a *tul-a *kum*ag*kur-a *kur-a *kur*sol-a *sol-a *sol*suw*cal- or *al*bal*ib*wel*uw-a *uw-l-a *wal-a *mat-a
Number 191 260 760 807 149 168 191 760 878 260 260 807 260 878 887 168 191 225 428 723 917 754 917 723 917 242 496 694 549 549 549 283 283 283 287 304 19 659 818 345 345 789 876
weary
weary, to weary, to be weary, to be or become weary, to become weary, to grow weave, to
weaving weaving, the act of web wedge weep, to weighed down, to be weight weighty weighty, to be welfare well well, to be well, to do well up, to wet
311
English Meaning wet, to
Proto-Nostratic *nat-a *tal*wal*wet*nat*la*rek*uw*uw-V-l*maw*mat*uw*uw-V-l*wal-a *mat-a *nat-a *la-a *ay-, *ya*ma- (~ *m-) *ay-, *ya*mi- (~ *me-) *ay*ay*kay*ag*ay-, *ya*ma- (~ *m-) *ay-, *ya*mi- (~ *me-) *bur-a *bur*mar*kas-a *kas*wal-a *wal-a *ay-, *ya*ma- (~ *m-) *ay-, *ya*mi- (~ *me-) *ak*taw-a *ak-a
Number 915 223 789 819 915 934 959 345 345 877 876 345 345 789 876 915 934 645 879 645 879 644 644 521 290 645 879 645 879 74 74 867 542 542 793 793 645 879 645 879 616 269 616
wet, to be wet, to be or become wet, to make wetness
what [relative pronoun stem] what? [interrogative pronoun stem] what?, to do what manner?, to act in when whet, to which [relative pronoun stem] which? [interrogative pronoun stem] whirl whirl, to whisper whisper, to white whiteness who [relative pronoun stem] who? [interrogative pronoun stem] wicked, to be wickedness
312
English Meaning (wide) wide
Proto-Nostratic *tal-a *pal-a *pit-a *tan-a *ut-a *war-a *raw--a *ut-a *ak-a *pal-a *raw-V-*ak*par-a *tan-a *war-a *kan-a *nus-a *guw-a *guw-r-a *guw-a *guw-r-a *guw*guw-V-r*guw-a *guw-r-a *saw-a *tom-a *ar-a *ar-ar-a *ar-a *ar-ar-a *ek*bar-a *ok*kar*gar*kar*dar-a *ok-a *dar-a *mal*mel*mol-
Number 188 88 121 190 678 803 958 678 697 88 958 697 99 190 803 535 923 396 396 396 396 396 396 396 396 276 259 559 559 559 559 652 28 334 477 506 420 151 334 151 851 878 887
wide-open space wide, that which is wide, to be widen, to width wife wild wild animal wild animals, to hunt wild beast wild boar wild bovine wild fowl wild goose wild, to be wind (= breeze) wind, to wind around, to winding couse or way winding, the act of winds, that which wipe, to
313
English Meaning wiped out wiped out, to become wiping, the act of wisdom wish wish for, to with wither, to
Proto-Nostratic *eb-a *eb*mal-a *ak-a *tel-a *win-a or *wi-a *win- or *wi*bi *ar*mat- or *met*tar*a*ker*wal*was*mar*tar-a *saw-a *caw-a *caw-l-a *ker-a *saw*caw*caw-V-l*caw-a *caw-l-a *way *kan-a *nat-a *nus-a *ema *pap-a *wat-a *mar-a *bur-a *yan-a *daw-a *kam-a *kir-a *qad-a *kam*kur-a *mol-a
Number 651 651 851 696 235 822 822 46 716 874 197 325 485 791 808 873 197 274 307 307 485 274 307 307 307 307 813 535 914 923 655 138 812 872 77 775 156 410 525 565 410 527 887
wither away, to withered
withered, to be withered, to be or become withered, that which is woe! woman woman, (older) woman, old womb wood wool word work work, hard work, to worm worn down
314
English Meaning worn down, to be worn out
Proto-Nostratic *xal*bul-a *tar-a *aw-a *ker-a *xal-a *mel-a *mol-a *bul-a *xal*wal*bul*was*mel*mol*ban-a *tar-a *qal-a *wa-a *wa-a *wed-a *mir-a *nag-a *nik-a *dal*gan*qal*qal*wa*wa*mir*tan-a *net-a *kat-a *bur*kad*gar*dar*ka*bur*cur*dar-a *cur-a
Number 760 68 196 329 485 760 878 887 68 760 791 68 807 878 887 24 195 566 783 799 815 886 909 919 147 504 566 583 783 799 886 225 917 428 72 401 506 151 453 76 310 151 310
worn out, that which is worn out, to be worn out, to become
wound
wound, to
woven, anything woven, that which is wrangle (over), to wrap, to wrap together, to wrap up, to wrapped together wrapped together, that which is
315
English Meaning wrapping wrath wreath wrestle, to wrinkle wrist yawn yawn, to year yelp, to yelping yield, to you you [oblique] young
Proto-Nostratic
Number 310 453 569 469 72 500 361 687 687 810 431 431 651 204 321 918 204 380 465 614 772 776 840 450 855 380 614 776 450 352 866 614 926 752 380 928 772 776 840 48 614 48 48
young (especially of animals) young (of humans and animals) young, to be young, to produce young dog young goat (young) man young man young of an animal young one young person younger brother younger daughter younger relative
*cur-a *ka-a *qat-a *ka-a *bur*kun-a *gam-a *ha-a *ha*wat-a *kat*kat-a *eb*ti- (~ *te-) *si- (~ *se-) *ni (~ *ne) and/or *na (~ *n) *ta- (~ *t-) *gin-a or *in-a *kan-a *a-a *il-a *yaw-a *mag-a *kuwan-a or *kun-a *man-a *gin- or *in*a*yaw*kuwan-a or *kun-a *gad-a *mar-a *a-a *na-r-a *ig-a *gin-a or *in-a *nap-a *il-a *yaw-a *mag-a *bin-a, *ban-a *a-a *bin-a, *ban-a *bin-a, *ban-a
316
English Meaning younger relative (male or female) younger sister younger son youth
Proto-Nostratic *ina or *ia *bin-a, *ban-a *bin-a, *ban-a *gin-a or *in-a *a-a *il-a *yaw-a *na-r-a *a-
Number 664 48 48 380 614 772 776 926 614
youthful, to be

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N OSTRATIC E TYMOLOGICAL I NDEX

CHARLESTON, SC, USA

Nostratic Etymological Index

CHARLESTON, SC, USA 2013

REVISED, CORRECTED, AND EXPANDED (AS OF SEPTEMBER 2013)

Copyright 2013 by Allan R. Bomhard. All rights reserved.

NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX

43. 44. 45. 46. 47.

NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX

NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX

ALLAN R. BOMHARD Charleston, SC, USA Completed June 2013

NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX

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PROTO-NOSTRATIC *p (> PROTO-AFRASIAN *p)

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PROTO-NOSTRATIC *p (> PROTO-AFRASIAN *p)

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PROTO-NOSTRATIC *p (> PROTO-AFRASIAN *p)

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *p (> PROTO-AFRASIAN *f)

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ProtoEskimo p-p-/ -pp-

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ProtoDravid. c-c(c)-/ -y-

ProtoDravid. c-c(c)-/ -y-

ProtoDravid. c-c(c)-/ -y-

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ProtoDravid. c-c(c)-/ -y-

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ProtoEskimo k- q-k- -q-

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ProtoEskimo k- q-k- -q-

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ProtoAfrasian - (?) -- (?)

NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX

ProtoAfrasian q- (?) -q- (?)

ProtoAfrasian q- (?) -q- (?)

ProtoEskimo k- q-k- -q-

CHAPTER 29 PROTO-NOSTRATIC * Eurasiatic Proto- ProtoUralic Altaic k-xg-g-

ProtoAfrasian q- (?) -q- (?)

ProtoEskimo k- q-k- -q-

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PROTO-NOSTRATIC p (> PROTO-AFRASIAN p)

PROTO-NOSTRATIC p (> PROTO-AFRASIAN p)

PROTO-NOSTRATIC p (> PROTO-AFRASIAN p)

PROTO-NOSTRATIC p (> PROTO-AFRASIAN f)