Housing Development in Westonaria

A Design Report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment as partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree by

Housing and Facilities Group C BACCALAUREUS INGENERIAE

In

CIVIL ENGINEERING SCIENCE

At

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

STUDY LEADER: Dr Dundu 20 October 2011

OWS 4B

Housing Development in Westonaria

Design Report for Housing and Facilities
10/20/2011
Brenden Jordaan Edrie Du Toit Kelly Hall Larushkan Soobiah Mikhail Bramdaw Neil Pienar Sunette Verster 200612481 200602828 200723064 200833658 200823954 200709097 200602699

ANTI-PLAGIARISM DECLARATION

Title: Scoping Report for Housing and Facilities Development Full name: Edrie Du Toit Student number: 200602828 Course: Civil Design 4B (OWS 4B) Lecturer: Prof. Legge Due date: 20 October 2011

Plagiarism is to present someone elses ideas as my own. Where material written by other people has been used (either from a printed source or from the internet), this has been carefully acknowledged and referenced. I have used the Harvard Convention for citation and referencing. Every contribution to and quotation from the work of other people in this essay has been acknowledged through citation and reference. I know that plagiarism is wrong.

I understand what plagiarism is and am aware of the Universitys policy in this regard. I know that I would plagiarise if I do not give credit to my sources, or if I copy sentences or paragraphs from a book, article or Internet source without proper citation. I know that even if I only change the wording slightly, I still plagiarise when using someone elses words without proper citation. I declare that I have written my own sentences and paragraphs throughout my essay and I have credited all ideas I have gained from other peoples work. I declare that this assignment is my own original work. I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing it off as his or her own work.

SIGNATURE .DATE...

Abstract
The Housing and Facilities Design Group are responsible for decisions regarding the sizing and basic layout of each housing and facility structure on the Syferfontein Farm, as well as the materials to be used with structural analysis, logic and innovative thinking as a guiding tool. These structures are designed with population growth as well as possible future development in mind. Green technology has been incorporated into the design where applicable to aid in lower carbon emissions and a more environmentally friendly construction practice. Keeping in mind that it is not always economically possible to use entirely green practise, a balanced approach is needed. Given the geological surroundings of the Syferfontein Farm, good foundation design is imperative to keep the housing and facilities structurally sound for short and long term. The completed project would accommodate a population of 257 500 on a 2000 ha site, whilst accounting for a population growth rate of 0.25% per annum. It was found that the total cost for the project would be approximately R 63.8 bn. and would require a construction time of approximately 15 years.

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Acknowledgements
The Group of Housing and Facilities would like to thank the following people for their help and guidance which aided in the completion of this report: Dr M Dundu (University of Johannesburg, Civil Engineering) Dr F Okonta (University of Johannesburg, Civil Engineering) Mr P van Tonder (University of Johannesburg, Civil Engineering) Ms S Potgieter (University of Johannesburg, Librarian) Martha de Jager (CNCI, Librarian) Susan Battison (CNCI, Librarian)

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Table of Contents
ANTI-PLAGIARISM DECLARATION .................................................................................... i Abstract ......................................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ x List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... xiv 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1 2. Project Scope ......................................................................................................................... 2 3. Site Description ...................................................................................................................... 6 3.1 Climate ............................................................................................................................. 6 3.2 Geological Setting ............................................................................................................ 7 3.3 Topography ...................................................................................................................... 7 3.4 Vegetation and Fauna ...................................................................................................... 8 3.5 Water Resources .............................................................................................................. 8 3.6 Archaeological, cultural and heritage interest. .............................................................. 10 4. GREEN ALTERNATIVES ................................................................................................. 11 4.1. Passive Heating and Cooling ........................................................................................ 11 4.1.1 Passive Solar Heating ............................................................................................. 11 4.1.2 Passive cooling........................................................................................................ 13 4.2 Solar Geysers ................................................................................................................. 13 4.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 13 4.2.2 Benefits ................................................................................................................... 14 4.2.3 Types of Solar Water Heating Systems .................................................................. 15 4.2.4 Types of Collector Plates ........................................................................................ 16 4.2.5 Eskom Rebate ......................................................................................................... 17 iv

4.3 Lighting .......................................................................................................................... 17 4.3.1 LED globes ............................................................................................................. 17 4.3.2 Sunlighting .............................................................................................................. 18 4.3.3 Solar LED Garden and Landscaping Lights ........................................................... 18 4.3.4 Day/Night Sensor .................................................................................................... 19 4.3.5 Motion Sensors ....................................................................................................... 19 4.4 Insulation........................................................................................................................ 19 4.4.1 Roofs ....................................................................................................................... 19 4.4.2 Walls ....................................................................................................................... 20 4.4.3 Floors ...................................................................................................................... 20 4.4.4 Windows and sliding doors ..................................................................................... 21 4.5 Green Building Materials ............................................................................................... 21 4.6 Green roofs..................................................................................................................... 26 4.7 Rain water harvesting .................................................................................................... 28 4.7.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 28 4.7.2 Uses of harvested rain water ................................................................................... 29 4.7.2 Proposed water harvesting systems ........................................................................ 30 4.7.3 Advantages and Disadvantages............................................................................... 32 4.8 Heat Pumps .................................................................................................................... 33 5. Design Results ..................................................................................................................... 35 5.1. Spatial Design ............................................................................................................... 35 5.1.1. Housing .................................................................................................................. 35 5.1.2. Facilities ................................................................................................................. 37 5.1.3. Summary of Facilities ............................................................................................ 38 5.2. Structural Design .......................................................................................................... 71 5.2.1. Steel Truss .............................................................................................................. 71 5.2.1.a. Specifications ...................................................................................................... 71 v

5.2.1.a.i. Overall Dimensions........................................................................................... 71 5.2.1.a.ii. Loading Conditions.......................................................................................... 71 5.2.1.a.iii. Bending Moment and Axial Force.................................................................. 72 5.2.1.b. Sections ............................................................................................................... 73 5.2.1.c. Connections ......................................................................................................... 74 5.2.1.d. Base Plate ............................................................................................................ 76 5.2.2. Masonry Structure .................................................................................................. 77 5.2.2.a. Layout ................................................................................................................. 77 5.2.2.b. Analysis and Design Methodology ..................................................................... 78 5.2.2.c Design .................................................................................................................. 78 5.2.2.c.i. Roof ................................................................................................................... 78 5.2.2.c.ii. Slabs ................................................................................................................. 79 5.2.2.d. Masonry Design .................................................................................................. 82 5.2.2.e. Stairs.................................................................................................................... 84 5.2.2.f. Foundation ........................................................................................................... 85 5.2.3. Concrete Multi-Storey Structure ............................................................................ 86 5.2.3.a. Specifications ...................................................................................................... 86 5.2.3.a.i. Overall Dimensions........................................................................................... 86 5.2.3.a.ii. Roof and Floors................................................................................................ 86 5.2.3.a.iii. Stability ........................................................................................................... 86 5.2.3.a.iv. Fire Resistance ................................................................................................ 88 5.2.3.a.v. Loading Conditions .......................................................................................... 88 5.2.3.a.vi. Exposure Conditions ....................................................................................... 89 5.2.3.a.vii. Materials ........................................................................................................ 89 5.2.3.a.viii. Foundations ................................................................................................... 89 5.2.3.a.ix. Scope of design ............................................................................................... 89 5.2.3.a.x. Design Process Followed ................................................................................. 90 vi

5.2.3.b. Sizes of Members ................................................................................................ 91 5.2.3.b.i. Slab ................................................................................................................... 91 5.2.3.b.ii. Beam ................................................................................................................ 91 5.2.3.b.iii. Column (EDGE & INTERNAL) .................................................................... 91 5.2.3.c. Vertical Design Loads ......................................................................................... 92 5.2.3.d. Design Moments ................................................................................................. 95 5.2.3.d.i. Beam Moments ................................................................................................. 95 5.2.3.d.ii. Column Moments .......................................................................................... 100 5.2.3.e Lateral Loading .................................................................................................. 104 5.2.3.f. Reinforcement ................................................................................................... 105 5.2.3.f.i. Slab .................................................................................................................. 105 5.2.3.f.ii. Beam ............................................................................................................... 106 5.2.3.f.iii. Column (EDGE & INTERNAL)................................................................... 107 5.2.3.g. Foundation Design ............................................................................................ 108 5.2.3.g.i. Multi Story Basement ..................................................................................... 108 5.2.3.g.ii. Methodology .................................................................................................. 109 5.2.3.g.iii. Raft foundation ............................................................................................. 109 5.2.3.g.iv. Reinforcement for Raft foundation ............................................................... 110 5.2.3.g.v. Cantilever retaining wall ................................................................................ 111 5.2.3.g.vi. Reinforcement for Cantilever wall ............................................................... 112 5.2.3.g.vii Piles (Option) ................................................................................................ 112 5.2.3.h. Isolation Joint Sizing......................................................................................... 112 5.2.3.i. Green Design Considerations ............................................................................ 112 5.2.3.j Roof Drainage ............................................................................................................. 114 6. Costing ............................................................................................................................... 115 7. Environmental Impact Assessment .................................................................................... 117 7.1. Legal Framework ........................................................................................................ 117 vii

7.1.1. The constitution of South Africa.......................................................................... 118 7.1.2. The National Environmental Management Act ................................................... 118 7.1.3. Legal Requirements in terms of Other Acts ........................................................ 119 7.1.3.a. National Water Act (Act No. 36 of 1998) ......................................................... 119 7.1.3.b. Conservation of Agriculture Resources Act (Act No. 57of 1983).................... 119 7.1.3.c. White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management for South Africa ........................................................................................................................................ 120 7.1.3.d. National Environmental Biodiversity Act (Act No. 10 of 2004) ...................... 120 7.1.4. National Environmental Management Biodiversity Act (Act No.10 of 2004) .... 121 7.1.5. National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act (Act No.57 of 2003) ........................................................................................................................................ 121 7.1.6. National Veld and Forest Fire Act (Act No.101 of 1998) ................................... 121 7.1.7. National Heritages Resources Act (Act No.25 of 1999)...................................... 122 7.1.8. National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (Act No.39 0f 2003) .... 122 7.1.9. Sustainable Development..................................................................................... 122 7.1.10. National Building Regulations and Buildings Standards Act (Act No.103 of 1997) .............................................................................................................................. 123 7.2 Impact Assessment Methodology ................................................................................ 123 7.3. Impacts and Mitigation ............................................................................................... 125 7.3.1. Impacts during Construction Phase ..................................................................... 125 7.3.2. Impacts during Operational Phase ....................................................................... 135 7.4. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 143 8. Green Alternative Recommendations ................................................................................ 144 8.1. Housing ....................................................................................................................... 144 8.2. Community Related Facilities..................................................................................... 146 8.3. Educational Facilities .................................................................................................. 148 8.4. Public Service Facilities .............................................................................................. 150 9. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 152 viii

References .............................................................................................................................. 153

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List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Steel Frame....................................................................................................... 3 Figure 3.1: Map of Site Area ............................................................................................. 6 Figure 3.2: Contour Map of the Site ................................................................................. 7 Figure 3.3: South facing view of the property .................................................................. 8 Figure 3.4: Quarry ............................................................................................................ 9 Figure 3.5: Marsh just east of the dirt road on the property ............................................. 9 Figure 4.1: Evacuated tube collectors on a roof ............................................................. 14 Figure 4.2: Passive solar water heating system .............................................................. 15 Figure 4.3: Illustration of how Sunlighting works .......................................................... 18 Figure 4.4: Solar LED Garden and Landscaping Lights .................................................. 19 Figure 4.5: Thermguard sprayed on the ceiling ............................................................... 20 Figure 4.6: Cellulose fibre used for floor insulation ........................................................ 20 Figure 4.7: Sublayers for a green roof ............................................................................ 27 Figure 4.8: Rain water harvesting alternatives ................................................................ 30 Figure 4.9: Rainwater Harvest system ............................................................................ 31 Figure 4.10: Watree design............................................................................................. 32 Figure 4.11: Heat pump outside a house ....................................................................... 34

Figure 5.1.1: Market share of fresh produce markets in South Africa ........................... 39 Figure 5.1.2: Roof Top farming ..................................................................................... 39 Figure 5.1.3: Top view of market ................................................................................... 40 Figure 5.1.4: Newtown Precinct Public Toilets ............................................................. 40 Figure 5.1.5: Example of efficient layout for fire station ................................................ 61 x

Figure 5.1.6: 1st Floor ...................................................................................................... 64 Figure 5.1.7: 2nd Floor ..................................................................................................... 64 Figure 5.1.8: 3rd Floor ...................................................................................................... 65 Figure 5.1.9: 4th Floor ..................................................................................................... 65 Figure 5.1.10: Fifth Floor ................................................................................................. 66 Figure 5.1.11: Roof .......................................................................................................... 66 Figure 5.1.12: Green roof ................................................................................................. 67 Figure 5.1.13: One double lane separated by foot paths ................................................. 70 Figure 5.2.1: Steel truss ................................................................................................... 71 Figure 5.2.2: Loading on the truss .................................................................................... 72 Figure 5.2.3: The axial force diagram............................................................................... 72 Figure 5.2.4: The bending moment diagram .................................................................... 73 Figure 5.2.5: Front view of the eaves connection ........................................................... 74 Figure 5.2.6: Angled view of the eaves connection ........................................................ 74 Figure 5.2.7: Front view of apex connection ................................................................... 75 Figure 5.2.8: Angled view of apex connection ................................................................ 75 Figure 5.2.9: Dimensions of base plate ............................................................................. 76 Figure 5.2.10: Illustration of RDP conceptual design ...................................................... 77 Figure 5.2.11 : Layout of RDP Units ................................................................................ 77 Figure 5.2.12: Roof truss dimensions ............................................................................... 79 Figure 5.2.13: Imposed axial loads from roof truss .......................................................... 79 Figure 5.2.14: 120 mm prestressed 1st floor slab ............................................................ 80 Figure 5.2.15: Tendon Profile ......................................................................................... 80 xi

Figure 5.2.16: Floor Slab Profile ................................................................................... 81 Figure 5.2.17: 200 mm pre-stressed ground floor slab ................................................... 81 Figure 5.2.18: Typical Masonry block to be used ........................................................... 82 Figure 5.2.19: Outer block wall ........................................................................................ 82 Figure 5.2.20: Centre wall block and grouting pattern ................................................... 83 Figure 5.2.21: First floor slab minimum width ............................................................... 83 Figure 5.2.22: Stair slabs ................................................................................................. 84 Figure 5.2.23: Ground Floor Slab ................................................................................... 85 Figure 5.2.24: Two-way spanning slab and monolithically cast T beam ..................... 86 Figure 5.2.25: (a) Overall plan dimensions; (b) Half building design plan; (c) End elevation ............................................................................................................. 87 Figure 5.2.26: Design algorithm ..................................................................................... 90 Figure 5.2.27: Cross-section of beams ............................................................................ 91 Figure 5.2.28: Load cases - critical columns for axial loading ....................................... 92 Figure 5.2.29: Axial loading for internal columns .......................................................... 92 Figure 5.2.30: Axial loading for edge columns ............................................................... 93 Figure 5.2.31: Floor loading and critical frames for bending .......................................... 93 Figure 5.2.32: Point load simplification for slab to beam load distribution .................... 94 Figure 5.2.33: Load case factors for moment determination .......................................... 94 Figure 5.2.34: Load Case 1 Bending Moment Diagram (Y-direction) .......................... 96 Figure 5.2.35: Load case 2 Bending Moment Diagram (Y-direction) ............................. 96 Figure 5.2.36: Load case 3 Bending Moment Diagram (Y-direction) ............................ 97 Figure 5.2.37: Load Case 1 Bending Moment Diagram ........ ..........................................98 xii

Figure 5.2.38: Load Case 2 Bending Moment Diagram ................................................ 98 Figure 5.2.39: Load Case 3 Bending Moment Diagram ................................................. 99 Figure 5.2.40: Wind load and induced lateral floor loads .............................................. 104 Figure 5.2.41: Slab reinforcement ................................................................................. 105 Figure 5.2.42: Bending reinforcement in Y-Direction ................................................. 106 Figure 5.2.43: Bending reinforcement in X-Direction ................................................ Figure 5.2.44: Internal column reinforcement ............................................................ 106 107

Figure 5.2.45: Edge column reinforcement ................................................................. 108 Figure 5.2.46: Basement Raft ..................................................................................... Figure 5.2.47: 8m span middle strip ........................................................................... Figure 5.2.48: 8m span column strip .......................................................................... 110 110 110

Figure 5.2.49: 5m span middle strip ............................................................................. 111 Figure 5.2.50: 5m span column strip ............................................................................. 111 Figure 5.2.51: Retaining wall ......................................................................................... 111 Figure 5.2.52: Sun-lighting system for building assuming maximum channelling distance of 20m ............................................................................................................. 113 Figure 5.2.53: Low income High-rise 2ha plot ............................................................. 113 Figure 5.2.54: Water Volumes prediction for green roof sections................................ 114

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List of Tables

Table 2.1: Proposed Housing............................................................................................ 2 Table 4.2: Green roof characteristics............................................................................ Table 4.3: Advantages and disadvantages of rainwater harvesting.............................. 28 32

Table 5.1.1: Summary of Housing................................................................................... 35 Table 5.1.2: Summary of Facilities................................................................................... 37 Table 5.1.3: Religion in SA............................................................................................. 44 Table 5.1.4 : Religious institution distribution.................................................................. 44 Table 5.1.5: Summary of values..................................................................................... 45 Table 5.1.6: Number of users........................................................................................... 46 Table 5.1.7: Cars per income bracket and number of petrol stations required.................. 47 Table 5.1.8: Division of pupils within economic groups................................................. 50 Table 5.1.9: Division of areas for high income schools................................................. 51 Table 5.1.10: Division of areas for medium income schools.............................................52 Table 5.1.11: Division of areas for low income schools....................................................54 Table 5.1.12: Division of areas for RDP schools.............................................................. 56 Table 5.1.13: Number of disabled children by gender...................................................... 57 Table 5.1.14: Hospital Beds ............................................................................................ 59 Table 5.1.15: Number of floors for each clinic.............................................................. 59

Table 5.1.16: Officer to citizen ratio................................................................................. 63 Table 5.2.1: Truss sections............................................................................................... 73 Table 5.2.2: Shear and Moment capacity checks............................................................ 84 xiv

Table 5.2.3: Imposed Loads............................................................................................ 88 Table 5.2.4: Dead Loads.................................................................................................. 88 Table 5.2.5: Beam Moments for Y-direction; bending about X-axis.............................. 95 Table 5.2.6: Beam Moments for X-direction; bending about Y-axis.............................. 97 Table 5.2.7: Cantilever Reinforcement........................................................................... 112 Table 6.1: Costing for Complete Town.......................................................................... 115 Table 7.1: Impact assessment ....................................................................................... 123 Table 7.2: SP Value Definitions.................................................................................... 124 Table 7.3: Anticipated Biophysical Impacts during Construction Phase...................... 125 Table 7.4: Anticipated Socio-Economic Impacts during Construction Phase.............. 132 Table 7.5: Anticipated Biophysical Impacts during Operational Phase....................... 135 Table 7.6: Anticipated Socio-Economic Impacts during Operational Phase............... 135

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1. Introduction
The demand for land is a growing problem around the world. Most of the land that is best suited for construction has already been used. This leaves engineers with the issue of finding new innovative ways of making use of lesser suited pieces of land. Areas which were previously avoided for terms of major construction will now have to be used to accommodate the population growth. Therefore these pieces of land will have to now be used for the development of new housing projects and towns. This responsibility lies predominantly on the shoulders of civil engineers. Areas such as Syferfontein with large amounts of dolomitic soil, as well as other problem soils will be increasingly dealt with in the future. Not only does this space need to be used as effectively and efficiently as possible, but new technologies and innovative approaches are a necessity for sustainability and lasting infrastructure that can benefit the community and society as a whole. One of the most crucial challenges relevant to current Engineers, is the growing amount of greenhouse gases. Incorporating solar heating, green roofing and recyclable materials in construction are some of the newer approaches that can vastly reduce carbon footprint, as well as ensure sustainability of precious resources. The Housing and Facilities Design group of 2011, have taken on various classical as well as innovative approaches to produce designs that are balanced between being green and economically viable, while adhering to a high standard of quality.

2. Project Scope
There is a need to promote growth and development of the area west of Johannesburg as well as address the current housing shortage in the country. The University of Johannesburg Group C, of the 4th year Civil Design class, was requested by LTE consulting to assist them with the feasibility study of a proposed high density development with regard to housing and facilities. The proposed 2000 hectare site was inspected and a desktop feasibility study was carried out in accordance with the general specifications and information gathered from the visit. The site is to house approximately 257 500 people, as well be self sustaining with regard to services such as water supply and power generation. The proposed development will comprise of:

Table 2.2: Proposed Housing

Total Population Income Group Number of Units People per Unit at Completion Date RDP Low Income Medium Income High Income 22 500 12 500 10 000 5 000 6 5 4 4 135 000 62 500 40 000 20 000 Population Increase 30 years after completion 10 501 4 862 3 112 1 556

The study was done assuming that the project will be completed within a period of 15 years with a design life of 30 years thereafter. The growth of the population from the time of the projects completion to the end of the design life was accounted for in the design and therefore all buildings were designed with the capacity for upgrades. The population is estimated to grow at a rate of 0.25% per annum, therefore the design of housing and facilities need to accommodate for the impact of this growth. The residential buildings are therefore designed to allow for another floor at the top of the structure. At the end of the design life the population will have increased by approximately 20 031 people taking the total population that will require housing and facilities to 277 531. The project required a spatial design to be done for all facilities and residential buildings. This information was relayed to the Town Planning group so that a map of the town layout 2

could be produced. The spatial design was done by using the guidelines set out by the CSIR Red Book, however due to the large population that will be designed for on a relatively small area of land; engineering judgements had to be made by the group to facilitate this demand. The structural design was done by analysing three different types of buildings, a steel truss structure, a masonry structure and a multi-storey concrete structure. The results from the structural analysis from these structures were then used in order to make a judgement on the feasibility of all the buildings in the town. Steel Truss The truss dimensions and general layout and purlin placement were initially determined. These dimensions were used to calculate the wind loading on the structure. The wind load that was used for further analysis was the worst case scenario. The worst case general load was calculated by calculating all 6 load cases and selecting the worst loading case. The loading case that was used was 1.2DL + 1.6LL. The truss was analysed in Prokon to select initial sections and obtain the member forces and moments. These member forces and moments were used to check whether the selected sections were adequate. Once the final sections were selected the baseplate, connections and foundations were calculated.

Figure 2.1: Steel Frame

Masonry Structure The RDP units were designed with maximum space, minimum materials and cost in mind, while incorporating environmentally friendly materials and practice as far as economically viable. For example making use of compressed earth blocks is considered to be environmentally friendly. Traditional structural analysis methods such as moment distribution method and other fundamental structural analysis methods were adopted. Software such as Microsoft Excel and Prokon were then used as checking tools. Basic research into masonry and timber design had to be undertaken, while making use of the SABS 0164 code for masonry design. Various design books were followed as are listed in the reference list. Concrete Manufacturer Association manuals were consulted for prestressed hollow core slab use. Multi-storey Concrete Structure The multi-storey concrete structure was analysed by considering a low income multi-storey building and analysing the structural requirements needed for that building. The analysis included determining the loads acting on the building, the sizing and reinforcement design of critical columns, beams and slabs, as well as the design of the foundation for the building. The analysis of the building was done by doing first principle hand calculations. These calculations were then checked using Prokon software. Once all the calculations were completed the feasibility study could be done. The preliminary sizes of all members in the building, obtained from the hand calculations, were then evaluated according to cost. The feasibility study also contained information of the time it would take to construct a project of this nature as well as the practicality of the project.

Deliverables and Persons Responsible

L Larushkan, N Neil, M Mikhail, E Edrie, K Kelly, B Brenden, S - Sunette

COMPLETE

Scoping

Site description Project description and possible alternatives Legal framework Overview of possible green building alternatives Anticipated environmental impacts

[K] [L ,M] [E , B] [ K, E, N ,S] [S]

COMPLETE

Quantitative Analysis

Estimation of housing types and facilities required [L,M,K,S,E,N] Estimation of erf area per building [L,M] Estimation of building dimensions [ALL] CAD drawings of buildings and/or [B,L ,M] floor layout s [ALL] This forms the basis of entire design project as all groups are dependant EstimationsBased on CSIR guidlines, population statistics and logistics

COMPLETE

Design

Detailed structural design of a multistorey concrete building [L,B,M] Detailed Masonary Design of an RDP block [N,K] Detailed Structural design of a steel structure [E,S,N] Foundation designs and recommendations [K.N] All designs were done according to the relevant SANS codes and based on fundemantal structural design and analysis methods covered in the degree (i.e from first principles)
All designs have bene checked

COMPLETE

Feasability

Overview of green aspects (materials, technology etc.) Cost estimates EIA (possible mitigation of impacts)

[ALL] [E,N,L,M] [N,S,B]

3. Site Description
The site that the proposed housing development will take place on is located south west of the Lenasia area at the co-ordinates of 262048S 274725E. It is located on the Syferfontein Farm in Westonaria and the farm can be accessed via dirt roads just off the N12 highway. The site is just under 2000ha in area and there is currently an airfield located on it as well as an old mine dump.

Figure 3.1: Map of Site Area. The Syferfontein Farm lies just east of the South Deep Gold mine one of the deepest mines in the world, and south west of Lenasia. . The Baragwaneth Airport, which is still in operation, lies within the boundaries of the farm and is of heritage importance. African Bricks has used the property to mine clay for brick manufacturing.

3.1 Climate
Warm summers and mild winters characterise this region with a subtropical highland climate (Ward, 2002). The temperature occasionally drops below freezing point in winter but generally a moderate temperature. Afternoon thundershowers can be expected in the summer months and cold fronts in winter bring cold southerly winds.

3.2 Geological Setting

In the past, development of this region has been avoided due to unstable dolomites, flood plains, marshes, unstable alluvium and chert deposits, active clays and collapsible soils. The surrounding area of Lenasia consists of dolomite chert from the Malmani Subgroup. Just west of Lenasia the ground consists of shale and coal of the Ecca Group of the Karoo Super group which overlie dolomite. (Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council, 2000). There is dolomite present on the site and it will be accounted for in the geotechnical evaluation of the project. African Brick manufactures a large amount of bricks from the Syferfontein clay deposit it has a very high quality which is relatively rare in South Africa and is estimated to last until 2018. (African Brick Centre, 2007)

3.3 Topography
The property has a fairly uniform flat terrain with a gentle South to North Slope of less than 5 with a sharp incline to a ridge on the south end.

1590

1750

Figure 3.2: Contour Map of the Site

3.4 Vegetation and Fauna

Fauna and flora for this area are fairly typical for the region with flat Highveld grasslands. A herd of goats were spotted near the low-lying wetland which could signify that the water is not poisonous. Very little to no large bushes or trees were observed except for large shrubs overlying an old farm structure adjacent north of the wetland area.

Figure 3.3: South facing view of the property. (Hall, 2011)

3.5 Water Resources

The farm does appear to have shallow ground water levels identified by some wetland just west of the centre of the property, and two dammed up areas; one in the quarry and one in a marsh where animal droppings appeared around the waters edge (possibly signifying that the water is not highly contaminated). According to locals, mining nearby the site has contaminated water resources in the area with uranium. It would thus not be suitable to use water on site for potable water, however further investigation will be needed to accurately assess contamination levels. There are no large water sources in the immediate vicinity of the site and the annual average rainfall usually just exceeds 700 mm.

Figure 3.4: Quarry (Hall, 2011)

Figure 3.5: Marsh just east of the dirt road on the property. (Hall, 2011)

3.6 Archaeological, cultural and heritage interest.

As yet, no archaeological or cultural points of interest on the farm have been identified. The Baragwaneth Airport, which is currently situated on the proposed site will be demolished, however the demolition will be required to be cleared with the municipal authority. The requirement for building around an air field is a radius of at least 3km. Therefore if the demolition of the airport is not authorised an alternative site will have to be found.

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4. GREEN ALTERNATIVES
4.1. Passive Heating and Cooling
4.1.1 Passive Solar Heating
Introduction During winter months, space heating in homes consumes major quantities of electricity. Using solar power decreases this usage and consequently has favourable effects on the environment. Process Sunlight enters the building through glass windows and objects inside the house either absorbs or reflects the sunlight. If it is reflected, the heat will travel through the room but wont be able to exit through the glass window and so it is contained within the building. At night when the sun has set heat cant be obtained any more. Thus it is necessary to regulate heat gathered during the day so that the house doesnt overheat during the day and so that there is still available heat at night. The heat can be managed by using materials in the house that have a high thermal mass. Materials that have high thermal masses take longer to heat up, thus preventing overheating of the room, but they also hold on to heat for longer. This is beneficial for night time as heat is always transferred from warm to cold areas. As the temperature of the room decreases at night time the objects with high thermal masses will start releasing gathered heat to the cold areas of the room. This ensures that the house stays warm no matter what time of day it is.

Methods of Optimising the Process Orientation

In the southern hemisphere, building should be orientated with their glazing facing north. This must be true north and not magnetic north and efficiency is reported within 30 of true north. However, the closer to true north, the more efficient. (http://www.nmsea.org/Passive_Solar/Passive_Solar_Design.htm)

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Glazing

The building should be designed and situated in such a way that as many of the windows as possible face north. This is called glazing. There should be enough glazing in a building to ensure sufficient heat in winter but not too much as this could cause overheating in summer. Tilted glass is very efficient for heat in winter but is more prone to overheating in summer. (http://www.nmsea.org/Passive_Solar/Passive_Solar_Design.htm)

Sun tempering

Sun tempering involves adding more windows to the north side of a house so that more thermal mass can be exposed to heat from the sun. (http://www.nmsea.org/Passive_Solar/Passive_Solar_Design.htm)

Thermal mass

Materials with high thermal mass are very important in order to have a system with high functionality. These materials can absorb and retain heat making it very useful in ensuring that a house stays warm during the night. Examples include concrete, brick, tile, water etc. The abilities of these materials are because of their high density and specific heat and thermal conductivity properties. These materials are used in the interior of homes as walls, floors, fireplaces, etc. and dont necessarily need to have sunlight directly on them to absorb and store heat. (http://www.nmsea.org/Passive_Solar/Passive_Solar_Design.htm)

Trombe wall

Part of the north wall is built out of a material with high thermal mass and glass is placed a couple of centimetres from the wall. Heat enters through the glass and cant escape, giving the material in the wall time to absorb it. These walls then radiate the heat into the house at night. (http://www.nmsea.org/Passive_Solar/Passive_Solar_Design.htm)

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4.1.2 Passive cooling

Landscaping Placing trees in strategic places can help with cooling of a house. If a tree is planted in front of a north facing window this will block the sunlight during the summer months. The tree wont interfere with winter warming techniques as the leaves will fall off during winter allowing the sunlight through. (http://www.nmsea.org/Passive_Solar/Passive_Solar_Design.htm)

Overhangs Overhangs for north facing windows are designed in such a way so as to prevent sunlight entering the house during summer months. However, they must also allow sun in during the winter months. This is possible since the suns rays are at a lower angle during winter months. Many variables dictate the sizing of the overhang such as climate, roof geometry, latitude, etc. But in South Africa the length should be about 0.5 meters. (http://www.hedon.info/EnergyEfficientHousingtoBenefitSouthAfricanHouseholds?bl=y)

4.2 Solar Geysers

4.2.1 Introduction
More solar energy reaches the earth every day than can be used by the earths inhabitants in 25 years. The power generated by the sun is equivalent to 1 kW/m of area exposed; therefore, utilising this energy can have significant benefits economically as well as environmentally. Both of these benefits are due to a decrease in electricity requirements. Environmentally, this results in a decrease in the consumption of fossil fuels and economically, a household saves on their electricity bill. On a domestic level, the largest portion of electricity usage goes toward water heating by the geyser. Thus using solar power to complete this task ensures benefits to the home owner and the environment. (Solar Heat Exchangers, 2011)

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Figure 4.1: Evacuated tube collectors on a roof. (http://www.sourcerenewable.com/en/pages/services-technologies.aspx)

4.2.2 Benefits
Although the initial installation of a water heater can be expensive, the pros far outweigh the cons. Some of the benefits are: Solar energy is free and unlimited and cannot be taxed. Reduction in electricity usage and also electricity bill. Reduces dependence on the electricity grid. Reduces dependence on fossil fuels. Contributes to the protection of the climate Solar water heaters have a service life of 20 years Between 50-90% of hot water can be supplied by solar power. The energy used to produce a solar water heater is 13 times less than the energy it produces. Energy is always available (the sun comes up every day), and little maintenance is required. (Solar Heat Exchangers, 2011)

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4.2.3 Types of Solar Water Heating Systems

Active and passive systems Passive systems: This system is the most energy efficient since it solely relies on the thermosyphon properties of water. That is, when water heats up it expands and becomes more buoyant. This causes hot water to rise in the solar water heating system and any colder, denser water sinks. This requires the storage tank to be placed above the collector panel at an angle in order for the water to be able to rise to the tank. One problem is that at night time this system reverses due to cold temperatures. The water in the pipes on the collector plate cools and sinks. This pushes the hot water from the storage tank down to the plate where it also cools down. The flow is reversed and the water cools down. This can be avoided through correct placement of the storage tank or using a one way valve. (http://www.solarwaterheating.co.za/)

Figure 4.2: Passive solar water heating system. (http://www.solarwaterheating.co.za/)

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Active systems: These systems use pumps to drive the hot water from the solar collector to the geyser. This means that the geyser doesnt have to be situated above the collector and can be hidden. This system thus has aesthetic benefits and is more efficient; however, it is less energy efficient since the pump uses electricity. (http://www.solarwaterheating.co.za/)

Direct and Indirect Systems Direct systems: These systems allow water to run directly through the pipes situated on the collector plate and then into the storage tank. Thus the water that runs through the copper pipes is the hot water that is eventually used. This system holds certain problems for extreme temperatures; for example, when temperatures reach freeze point the water will freeze and possibly crack the pipes. Similarly these systems are problematic in high temperatures as they dont provide protection against overheating. (Solar Heat Exchangers, 2011)

Indirect systems: In indirect systems, the pipes consist of a closed off system containing propylene glycol (antifreeze). Branches of small diameter pipes containing antifreeze run through the storage tank. The heated antifreeze from the collector plate rises and the copper pipes conduct the heat from the antifreeze to the water after which the cooled antifreeze moves back down the system. (Solar Heat Exchangers, 2011)

4.2.4 Types of Collector Plates

Flat plate collectors: This is considered the most durable collector and also the most suitable for domestic use as the temperatures reached are adequate for bathing or showering. The collector consists of an oven like glass covered box. The glass is of high quality and can withstand hail. It contains a black plate which absorbs heat from the sun and this heat is then transferred to the fluid containing copper pipes welded to the plate. There are two horizontal pipes (headers) at the top and the bottom of the pipe and many vertical pipes (risers) in between. The top horizontal pipe leads the fluid which has heated up into the storage tank and the cold fluid that leaves the storage tank sinks into the bottom horizontal pipe. Thus the process is repeated. (Solar Heat Exchangers, 2011)

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Evacuated tube collectors: This collector consists of many vertical tubes instead of risers that connect to the horizontal pipes. There are two tubes, one placed within the other with a vacuum between the two. The inner tube is covered with a black paint which attracts sunlight and the water is contained within this tube. The outer tube is clear glass allowing sunlight to reach the inner tube while the vacuum prohibits heat from exiting the system. These collectors are less durable due to the decreased quality of the rounded glass but they reach higher temperatures since heat cannot leave the system. (Solar Heat Exchangers, 2011)

4.2.5 Eskom Rebate

In response to recently announced electricity increases Eskom has created a rebate system for solar water heaters. The initiative is aimed at decreasing electricity usage by encouraging home owners to implement green alternatives. Buyers are required to purchase their solar water heater at an Eskom accredited supplier. The full amount must be paid and the rebate forms must all be completed and sent to the facilitating auditors. The rebate will be paid within 8 weeks from the date of the auditors receiving the forms. This initiative makes solar water heaters more affordable for high and middle income homes since prices are greatly reduced. For instance when purchasing a R33 000 (300 litre) solar water heater, the price can be reduced by as much as R12 000. (http://www.iolproperty.co.za/roller/news/entry/eskom_raises_solar_geyser_subsidy)

4.3 Lighting
4.3.1 LED globes
Instead of the conventional 70W globes 9W LEDs will be used. A 9W LED emits the same light strength as a 70W globe. An LED globe is considerably more expensive but lasts for 60 000 hours where the conventional incandescent bulb only provides 1 500 hours. Not only does it last longer but will save an immense amount of electricity in the long run.

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4.3.2 Sunlighting
Sunlighting is a method that is used to collect the sunlight from outside and channelling it through buildings to provide a natural light source. For Sunlighting to be used, a concentration panel that collects the sunlight is required. This concentration panel is placed on the outside of a buildings walls. The system is made up of a series of reflective guides that sends the sunlight inside the building. (www.cfmd.com) Throughout the day, the suns movement is tracked by the optics, and the concentration of sunlight is factored by ten. The light is then transmitted through glazed windows. The light guides are thin narrow reflective film coated corridors. Despite the fact that electricity is greatly saved windows can now be treated to minimise glare and only function for the view which they provide. (www.cfmd.com)

Figure 4.3: Illustration of how Sunlighting works (www.cfmd.com)

4.3.3 Solar LED Garden and Landscaping Lights

Green roofs and gardens can use the Solar LED Garden and Landscaping Lights to provide light during the evening. It works on the same concept as the Sun Jar. The LED lights are wrapped around objects or plants as shown in the figure below. The solar cell must however

18

receive a maximum amount of sunlight during the day hence it should be placed in manner that prevents it from falling in the shade of any plants or walls.

Figure 4.4: Solar LED Garden and Landscaping Lights (www.mantality.co.za)

4.3.4 Day/Night Sensor

Day/Night sensor globes are placed outside and switch on at night automatically. They are used to save electricity and act as a security measure.

4.3.5 Motion Sensors

Motion sensors are sensors that are attached to light globes. The light bulbs will only be on when the sensors detect motion. This technology is advantageous for corporate buildings and apartment corridors. It reduces the electricity usage.

4.4 Insulation
4.4.1 Roofs
Roofs should be treated with a layer of cellulose fibres. It consists of recycled newspapers with non toxic chemicals added in order to make it rodent and fire resistant. In summer it prevents heat from entering the building through the roof. In winter it prevents heat from leaving the building through the roof. Using this form of insulation is easy to apply and relatively cheap, it is therefore recommended for use in all income brackets. (www.thermguard.co.za) 19

Figure 4.5: Thermguard sprayed on the ceiling. (www.thermguard.co.za)

4.4.2 Walls
A layer of Rigifoam in a cavity wall will provide insulation and soundproof qualities to any building. The Rigifoam is able to insulate the cavity due to its closed cell nature. Rigifoam is the same as polystyrene except that it is environmentally friendly and contains no CFCs or HCFCs.

4.4.3 Floors
Thermguard is sprayed below the floor covering to prevent heat from escaping through the floors, and cold from entering your home in winter. During winter the cold tends to enter a building mainly through the floors. It is therefore vital for any building to have proper floor insulation.

Figure 4.6: Cellulose fibre used for floor insulation (www.thermguard.co.za)

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4.4.4 Windows and sliding doors

Double glazed glass will be used for its insulating properties. These are window panes that are separated by a spacer, usually air or gas. Air or a gas occupies the area between the window panes. The spacer seals the space and prevents the gas from leaking out. This method is used to reduce the transfer of heat across the building. The areas temperature does not drop below zero in winter therefore a glass thickness of 3mm will be adequate. In addition, double glazed panes can prevent outside noise from entering the building.

4.5 Green Building Materials

Embodied energy The embodied energy of a building material can be understood as the total primary energy consumed (or carbon released over its life cycle). This would include extraction, manufacturing and transportation. (Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) v1.6a, 2008).

Recycled Aluminium Although the embodied energy of aluminium is one of the highest, it would be incorrect to assume that there are no green aspects related to its use. Aluminium is inherently durable and corrosion resistant which reduces life cycle costs as well as easy to mould reducing product manufacturing costs. Transport costs are also reduced due to its lightweight and modular assembly capability. Aluminium has a high thermal conductivity which for insulation purposes is not ideal, but it does however provide reflective insulation which retains energy (Paterson, 2010). One of the most important aspects of aluminium use is that it is easily recyclable, and facilities for this have been established for over 100 years (ibid). Re-melting aluminium requires less than 5% of the energy to produce primary aluminium and it can be recycled indefinitely without loss of properties with up to 95% of building material being recoverable (75% of all aluminium ever smelted is still in use today) (AFSA 2010)

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Advantages Durable / Corrosion resistant Lightweight Easy to work with Readily recyclable Reflective insulation

Disadvantages Expensive High thermal conductivity Very high virgin embodied energy Not generally used for structural purposes

Aluminium Virgin Recycled (Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) v1.6a, 2008) Uses for aluminium: Finishes Window frames Roof sheeting Fenestration systems Drainage systems

Embodied Energy (MJ/Kg) 218 28.8

Life expectancy: 60+ Years

Recycled Steel Steel has significantly lower embodied energies than aluminium. Steel is 100% recyclable and can be recycled indefinitely without loss of properties. Steel is easily available, can be relatively lightweight and corrosion resistant if galvanised. Advantages Durable / Corrosion resistant Cheaper than aluminium Easy to work with Easily recyclable Disadvantages High thermal conductivity low embodied energy for metal

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Steel Virgin Recycled Virgin Galvanised Sheet Engineering Steel (recycled)

Embodied Energy (MJ/Kg) 35.3 9.5 39 13.1

(Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) v1.6a, 2008) Uses for aluminium: Finishes Window frames Roof sheeting Fenestration systems Drainage systems Doors Structural

Life expectancy: 60+ Years

Green Concrete Concrete is the most commonly used construction material in the world and, because of its extensive use, generates a relatively large carbon footprint. The major contributing factor towards concretes large carbon footprint is the production of cement; it is a rule of thumb that for every ton of cement clinker produced a ton of carbon is released into the atmosphere. The embodied energy of concrete is very low as concrete is a composite material, of which the bulk is aggregate with embodied minimal embodied energies as low as 0.01 (Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) v1.6a, 2008). In a push towards sustainable development and reducing environmental degradation, the minimisation of the carbon emissions generated from concrete is of great importance. Hence greener concrete designs are becoming favourable. With the use cement replacement extenders formed as by-products from industrial processes the embodied energy of concrete can be further reduced. The appropriate use of admixtures, for example, to reduce water and thus cement content can also contribute to a more environmentally friendly green concrete. 23

Advantages Can be designed for Durability Cheap Easy to work with Low thermal conductivity

Disadvantages Cement has a large carbon footprint Rubble very hard to recycle Unpredictable Susceptible to climate i.e. corrosion of reinforcement

Very low embodied energy

Susceptible to climate i.e. corrosion of reinforcement

Can be designed green Readily available

Steel Reinforcement has high embodied energy

Concrete General Prefabricated Blocks (13Mpa) 50% Blast furnace slag (30Mpa) (Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) v1.6a, 2008) Uses for concrete: Flooring, paving etc. Drainage systems Structural

Embodied Energy (MJ/Kg) 0.95 2.00 0.81 0.82

Life expectancy: Design based: usually 50 years +

Timber Wood is environmentally friendly as long as it is forested for future sustainability. Wood has great versatility, excellent insulation properties and is aesthetically pleasing. The embodied energy is due to harvesting and preparation.

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Advantages Low cost Sustainable Versatile Light Weight Recyclable Reusable Durable

Disadvantages Window frames are high maintenance Wood expands and contracts depending on the temperature Becomes brittle once weathered Wood floors needs to be cleaned with special chemicals Window frames shows larger air leakage than aluminium

Timber General Plywood

Embodied Energy (MJ/Kg) 8.5 15

(Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) v1.6a, 2008)

Uses of wood: Finishes Window frames Doors low load bearing Structures e.g. roof trusses

Compressed Stabilised Earth Blocks (CSEB) CSEBs are a relatively new technology and are manufactured using the available natural soil in the area and a CSEB press. The soil is moistened and then poured into a press to form blocks. Stabilisation is achieved using small amounts of cement or lime, if necessary. Advantages include: Giving employment to locals and uplifting the community with the high labour intensity required. Minimisation of transportation and CO emissions. Minimal time and money used by utilising local materials.

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Energy savings, with an energy consumption of 110 MJ (compare to kiln fired blocks using 539 MJ), 16 kg/m2 CO2 emissions compared to concrete blocks at 26 kg/m2. Depending on the quantity of cement, CSEB blocks are almost always cheaper than kiln fired blocks. Deforestation is minimised as wood is not needed to burn the blocks as is required with kiln fired. Another important aspect of CSEB blocks is that they are biodegradable, unlike many other construction materials.

(Auroville Earth Institute, Circa)

Limitations include: Proper soil identification is required Low technical performances compared to concrete. Untrained teams can produce low quality products. Over-stabilization through fear or ignorance causes increased costs Under-stabilization results in low quality products.

Uses for CESB: Masonry

4.6 Green roofs

A green roof involves growing vegetation on top of a roof with a waterproofing layer (and other optional layers). They not only provide good insulation for buildings, but also keep them cool during hot summer months. The roofs plants shade the building from solar radiation and reduce net heat gain in summer, while in winter the soil decreases the amount of energy required to heat the building. They are aesthetically pleasing and have good storm water retention properties.

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Figure 4.7: Sublayers for a green roof. (http://www.toronto.ca/greenroofs/what.htm)

Extensive Green Roofs

Thin layer of soil Low plant diversity Little or no irrigation required

Intensive Green Roofs

Deep Soil Irrigation system required High plant diversity

Challenges
Motivation and education to sustain green roofs. Intensive roofs impose a greater weight loading on roofs, have high capital cost, and expertise required.

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Selling the concept to the client.

(Kuhn M. & Peck S. Circa.)

Table 4.2: Green roof characteristics (www.igra-world.com) SemiExtensive Maintenance Irrigation Plant Communities Low No Moss, grass intensive Periodically Periodically Grass, Shrubs Intensive High Regularly Shrubs, trees 150 - 400 mm 180 - 500 kg/m High Park like garden

System Build up height

60 - 200 mm

120 - 250 mm

Weight

60 - 150 kg/m

120 - 200 kg/m Middle Designed Green roof

Costs

Low Ecological protection layer

Use

4.7 Rain water harvesting

4.7.1. Introduction
Rain water harvesting would be a very effective green alternative for the proposed project. Considering that the MAR (mean annual rainfall) of the area is 0.5m and roof area for the proposed town is roughly 3 000 000 m2 (20 000 000 m2 * 25% of area for buildings * 60% of this is roof area), approximately 1.5 million cubic metres of rain water can be harvested per year. Rain water harvesting collects the water from a catchment area and then diverts the water to wherever needed. 28

4.7.2 Uses of harvested rain water

Storing the rain water The rain water is collected from a catchment area, and then stored in a surface or underground water tank for later use. The untreated water could then be used for irrigation, cleaning, flushing toilets, etc.

Discharging rain water underground Due to the dense population in urban areas, rain has difficulty reaching the ground and thus, infiltration is reduced. As a result, plants without water irrigation die from inadequate water supply. In addition to this, urban areas are becoming more prone to flooding due to the decreased infiltration of storm water. Removing storm water through rain water harvesting eases the demands placed on storm water management systems and so, reduces the likelihood of flooding. This would have significant positive effects as the storm water level over urban areas can be four times as high as that over natural areas. (Wypych & Bokwa, 2003) Rain is typically relatively clean, good quality water, and requires little filtration for it to be a good source of drinking water. Due to pollution of groundwater and surface water and the increased demand for water, rainwater harvesting could be considered as an additional water source. (Worm & van Hattum, 2006)

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Rain catchment area

Light filtration (e.g. Leaves)

Light filtration

Required cleaning to make water drinkable

Tank

Surface storage (With greywater)

Sub-surface storage (With greywater)

Discharged into ground (e.g. soakaway pit)

Surface storage

Sub-surface storage

Used for simple tasks such as washing and irrigation

Can be used for washing, irrigation, toilet discharges e.t.c

Can be used for washing, irrigation, toilet discharges e.t.c

Used as regular clean water

Used as regular clean water

Figure 4.8: Rain water harvesting alternatives

The figure above shows the possible alternatives that rain water harvesting could be used for. It moves from low cost on left to high cost rain water harvesting on right. One of the largest costs for rain water harvesting is storage of the water. What has to be determined is if storage should be on the surface or underground. Surface storage is cheaper than underground storage because necessary soil removal is reduced. It is also easier to repair if something goes wrong but lack of space means underground storage is a more realistic option.

4.7.2 Proposed water harvesting systems

Low Cost Housing The figure below shows how rain water harvesting could be done for low cost housing.

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Figure 4.9: Rainwater Harvest system (http://savingh20.blogspot.com/2010/12/we-are-still-here.html

High rise buildings For the high rise buildings, water can be collected on the roof and then transported to the ground floor by gravity. There was a study done in Singapore were it was determined an effective saving of 4% of water used. This water then didnt have to be pumped from the ground floor. This saved the amount of water to be used, as well as electricity and capital. (Srinivas, 2007)

Rain catchment area Typically what is used as a rain catchment area is an impervious surface such as a roof. But there have been attempts at deviations from this such as a concept by an Australian designer called Chris Buerckner, called The Watree. Watree is something like an upside down umbrella that is designed to be placed in parks and playgrounds as a rain shelter for people, as well as to collect rain water to be stored in tanks. An example of one of the designs is shown in the figure below.

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Figure 4.10: Watree design. (Jolly, 2008)

4.7.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

Table 4.3: Advantages and disadvantages of rainwater harvesting

Advantages Disadvantages

Simple construction: Construction of RWH High investment costs: The cost of rainwater systems is simple and local people can easily be catchment systems is almost fully incurred during trained to build these themselves. This reduces initial construction. Costs can be reduced by costs and encourages more participation, simple construction and use of local materials.

ownership and sustainability at community level. Good maintenance: Operation and maintenance Usage and maintenance: Proper operation and of a household catchment system is controlled regular maintenance is a very important factor solely by the tank owners family. As such, this is that is often neglected. Regular inspection, a good alternative to poor maintenance and cleaning and occasional repairs are essential for monitoring of a centralised pipe water supply. success of the system.

Relatively good water quality: Rainwater is of Water quality is vulnerable: Rainwater quality better quality than other available or traditional may be affected by air pollution, animal or bird sources (groundwater may be unusable due to droppings, insects, dirt and organic matter. fluoride, salinity or arsenic).

(Worm & van Hattum, 2006)

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4.8 Heat Pumps

Introduction Heat pumps work on the simple principle of transferring heat from one space to another. Electricity is used to do this however, since heat is only being transferred and not generated, electricity usage is minimal. This makes heat pumps energy efficient and in addition to space heating, they can also be used to heat water making them a viable alternative to solar geysers. Their setup costs are less than that of solar geysers however, their energy efficiency is not as good. (www.heatpumps.org.uk)

How it works Heat pumps work in a similar manner to refrigerators. There are two heat exchangers, one that absorbs heat and the other that rejects it. This system is sealed so that no heat is lost and is connected to a piping system which is filled with refrigerant. A refrigerant is a fluid with a low boiling point and it is circulated by the compressor. The compressor exploits the fluids ability to evaporate when heated and then condensate, returning to liquid form. This ensures a continuous system of heat transfer. (www.heatpumps.org.uk) At a domestic level, heat pumps use the air outside as a heat source. Even during winter, heat is present in the air and can be used for space heating. During the summer months the process reverses and air inside of a house is used as the heat source. Thus, heat inside the house is expelled and the space is cooled. Geothermal heat pumps are also possible with the ground used as the heat source. (www.heatpumps.org.uk)

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Figure 4.11: Heat pump outside a house. (http://www.sourcerenewable.com/en/pages/services-technologies.aspx)

Pros and Cons Pros Savings on electricity Dehumidifies the air in humid areas Low capital cost

Cons Ineffective in areas where temperatures reach below 0C Heat produced isnt as intense as that of a heater Backup heating and cooling means are required Dehumidifies the air in dry areas
(www.heatpumps.org.uk)

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5. Design Results
5.1. Spatial Design
These values were based on data from the latest CSIR Summary Guidelines and standards for the Planning of Social Facilities and Recreational Spaces in Metropolitan Areas 2010, population statistics and engineering judgements. The allocated land use for housing and facilities by town planning was a maximum of 40%. Therefore this requirement governed the spatial design considerations.

5.1.1. Housing
Table 5.1.1: Summary of Housing

SINGLESTAND

Housing type RDP Low income Medium income High Income

Description 4 block single 300 sqm single 700 sqm single 1100 sqm

Storeys (floors) 1 1 1 1

Units/ floor 4 1 1 1

Units / stand 4 1 1 1

Number of Stands 5625 500 1120 1250

Stand size (ha) 0.0315 0.03 0.07 0.11

Total required Area (ha) 178 15 78.4 137.5 409

Total

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MULTISTOREY

Housing type Low income Medium income High Income

floor area/ Unit 80 sqm 150 sqm 300 sqm

Storeys (floors) 10 8 13

Units/ floor 20 60 18

Units / Building 200 480 234

Number of Buildings 60 18 15

Stand size / building(ha) 2 per 5 building grouping 4.5 4.5

Total required Area (ha) 24 81 67.5 173 Total required Area (ha) 21 21

Total floor areas/ Unit 400 sqm 800 sqm Storeys (floors) 1 1 Units/ floor 1 1 Units / Complex 8 8 Number of complexes 30

COMPLEX COMBINED Total

Housing type Medium income High Income

Plot size (ha) 0.7

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5.1.2. Facilities
Table 5.1.2: Summary of Facilities Facility Education High School and Primary School + Crche (High) High School and Primary School + Crche (Medium) High School and Primary School + Crche (Low) High School and Primary School + Crche (RDP) Special needs Health Primary Health Centre Community Health centre Churches Religious institute - Mega Religious institute- large Religious institute-medium Community Local Market Community Centre Municipal Office Thusong service centre 1 Thusong service centre 2 Thusong service centre 3 Thusong service centre 4 Fire station Police station Shopping centre Garages Taxi Rank Quantity Land Use (ha) Total Land Use (ha)

1 3 6 12 2

5.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 1.5

5.00 13.50 24.00 48.00 3.00

4 1

1.0 1.5

4.00 1.50

8 4 5

1.5 1.0 0.5

12.00 4.00 2.50

4 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 2 14 1

1.00 0.50 0.50 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 1.00 0.14 5.00 0.24 25.00

4.00 1.00 0.50 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 3.00 0.56 10.00 3.36 25.00

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5.1.3. Summary of Facilities

Community Facilities Community Centre General Information The community centre is a facility that is used by the community for any meetings, cultural events etc. The community centres aim is to uplift the community.

Technical Information Two community centres will be built on 0.5 ha sites. Each community centre will be single story with a 2.7m height and occupy an area of 0.1 ha. 1200m will be used to accommodate for parking bays. An area of 2800m will be used to cultivate vegetables for the consumption and education of the community. This will form part of the community upliftment incentive. The rainwater that will be harvested will be used to water the crops. Shopping Centre The shopping centre is a facility used for the storage and distribution of goods to the general public; these can range from electronic goods to edible goods. Other facilities which may within the shopping centre are entertainment centres which include Cinemas, Arcades, Bookshops and many more. Technical Data

No. of Buildings = 1 Stand Area = 5 ha Stand Dimensions = 165m X 230m Total Floor area = 11.925 ha Building Height = 3 Floors plus basement at 3.2 m each

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Local Market General Research In South Africa, informal trade plays a large role in the economy, which is mainly due to a long township history.

Figure 5.1.6: Market share of fresh produce markets in South Africa (Et. Al, 2008) From the figure above, it can be seen that the Market Share of Markets in Johannesburg has been on a general incline over recent years, taking 38.84% in 2008. The products predominantly sold at these markets are carrots, green peas, cabbage, beetroot, green beans, potatoes, tomatoes, onions, cauliflower, pumpkins, mealies, sweet potatoes, citrus fruit, subtropical fruit and deciduous fruit, besides other general items. (et. Al, 2008) Many of the fresh produce can be grown in Johannesburgs Sub Tropical climate.

Figure 5.1.7: Roof Top farming (Shafer Lt. J, 2011)

39

According to the Water Requirements and Irrigation most intensive vegetable crops require 10 15 mm per week per 1 summer. in winter months and 40 -50mm per 1 per week in

Layout and Internal Design 4 markets are of 1 Hectare each. The markets will predominantly be used for locals to sell their own produce as well as other entrepreneurial activities. The ground cover covers 100m by 100 m. 8 Separate trapezoid structures surrounding a circular public toilet structure will form the market. The trapezoidal structures will not only serve as roofing, but also as agricultural space for locals to grow certain fresh produce to sell in the market place taking full advantage of the area. The shape of this design has been chosen to create a social environment for sellers and shoppers, with toilets in the centre for easy access. Each Roof section covers an area of 543.25 with a green space of 442.32 to allow an

approximate 1m walking space around the green space for easy access. (Height 4 m)

Figure 5.1.8: Top view of market 40

Irrigation required for the design gives the quantity or water required per market ranging between 35.38 and 176.93 . After a consultation with water services, an agreement

has been made to deliver this quantity. However, unlike traditional vegetation, the water can be captured some time after irrigation. This range of water captured is usually between 30 40 % for intensive vegetation ranging between 150 500 mm of soil depth, deducing the amount of water lost in an area. (Livingroofs.org Ltd, Circa) The Ablution facilities cover a 78.54 floor area, including washing and ablution facilities.

Figure 5.1.9: Newtown Precinct Public Toilets (Unknown, 2008) A similar design will be adopted for ablution facilities in the centre of the market.

Thusong Centres Building Description Community care centres provide services to the public; these services are generally administrative services such as department of home affairs, licensing departments, municipal enquiries etc. The town will have four of these community care centres and the services they offer will be similar in nature so that an individual can minimize travel between different centres.

41

Technical Data:

No. of Buildings = Stand Area = Stand Dimensions = Building Footing area = Building Footing Dimensions = Building Height =

4 0.2 ha 50m x 40m Varied Varied 3.2 m

Centre 1 Office (m) size 42 42 42 100 42 500 1000 232 2000

Facility department of health Social welfare department of labour Post office GCIS office Parking + Gardens Retail Private Offices

Centre 2 Office (m) size 40 1700 60 100 100 2000

Facility Police Services Licensing and testing (+ traffic department)

Department of Home Affairs

Post Office Parking + Gardens

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Centre 3 Office (m) size 42 42 42 50 100 524 1200 2000

Facility
municipal enquiries + services department of housing development planning Office municipal revenue collection Post Office

Parking + Gardens
Retail

Centre 4 Office (m) size 60 60 100 700 100 700 280 2000

Facility Computer Centre Youth leadership programme

Heritage Arts & Culture Forum

Library Post office Retail Parking + Gardens

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Religious Institute Actual religious institutions will not be designed; however it is important to provide area for these facilities to be constructed in future. Table 5.1.3: Religion in SA No of % of People population 35 750 641 79.80% Christianity 654 064 1.50% Islam 551 668 1.20% Hinduism 75 549 0.20% Judaism 283 815 0.60% Other beliefs 6 767 165 15.00% No religion 610 974 1.40% Undetermined 44 819 774 100.00% Total (STATSSA, 2001) For 56% religions attendance in RSA (Nation Master 2011), the following has been adopted, keeping with the amount and size of stands received from the Town Planning group:

Table 5.1.4 : Religious institution distribution Facilities 8 Mega Churches 2 Large Churches 1 Large Church 1 Large Church 1 Medium Church No. Of People Religion 12329 Christianity 8219 Christianity 2163 Islam 1730 Hinduism 288 Judaism

Layout Religious institutions are not normally multi-storey buildings as services generally require attendees to be on one floor. For that reason they will be designed to accommodate ground parking on ground floor, with worship areas above (except in the case where very specific designs requirements. (For example mosques)

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Petrol Stations Petrol stations are typically privately owned by companies who would go through their own design procedures and surveys for the design of the petrol station. However for the design of the area in question a basic idea of what they would require along with the quantity had to be considered. To get an idea of the area that would be required for the petrol station Google earth photos were used to estimate the sizes of typical petrol stations. The general layout of the petrol stations was obtained through this exercise. General guidelines were used for the design requirements of petrol stations in terms of minimum areas, bay sizes etc.

Table 5.1.5: Summary of values: General Minimum area Min size Max building coverage Min landscaping Underground Storage Tanks(UST) Minimum volumes Min distance UST and the dispensing pumps All vehicles not allowed between outer edge of the UST 5m3 10m (Except for modular construction) 2m 1100m2 35m * 35m 60% 10%

Rules for petrol stations: When canopies or supports over pumps are located less than 6m from interior residential lot lines, then this would have to be constructed out of non-combustible material. Petrol pumps must be 30m away from any residential building. Each tank must be vented not less than 3.6m or 0.6m on top of the nearest adjacent building.(RURA,2011)

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Methodology To determine the maximum number of cars a petrol station could service in an hour the typical number of dual dispensing pumps at the petrol station (which is about 4 8) along with the typical time that people stop at the petrol station (5-10 minutes) are estimated. Taking 6 dual dispensing pumps provides 12 bays for cars to use. 5min: 12*12 = 144 cars/ hour 10min: 12*6 = 72 cars/ hour Therefore a petrol station can serve between 72 and 144 cars in an hour. Assuming most customers would take closer to 5 minutes, a number close to 110-130 could be taken for safety. Therefore an estimate of 120 cars/hour was tested. An estimation of the number of people using private transport was determined: Table 5.1.6: Number of users Income group RDP Low income Medium income High income Number of users 15390 16672 17640 12960

The assumption that customers will refuel about once a week day (1 in 5 days) which makes it 20% of the private car owners will be filling up on one day. There are two main time frames when private car owners would refuel, in the morning or afternoon. This produced a period of 12%. The length of rush hour was assumed to be 1.5 hours which means 180 cars could be refuelled during rush hour per petrol station. An assumption had to be made about the number of people that travel in private vehicles to work. A study in Scotland showed an average of about 1.58 for journeys (Scottish

Household Survey Travel Diary Results, 2011). An assumption was made that South Africa is a poorer country on average and the high density of the area makes it more likely that people will commute together. So it was assumed that 2 people travel in a car and RDPs 46

about 2.5 people in each car. Using these numbers together gives the number of petrol stations required. Table 5.1.7: Cars per income bracket and number of petrol stations required
Income Bracket RDP Low Medium High Number of Cars 739 1000 1058 778 Number of Petrol Stations 4 6 6 4

The final number of petrol stations required was 14. One of the main variables in the calculation that the number is dependent on is the duration of time over which people are in transit to go to work or home. The number was taken as 1.5 hours to account as a safety factor for the unknowns. Some of the unknown factors include people from outside of the settlement making use of the petrol stations. The following had to be taken in consideration:

Vehicle dimensions: on average 2m x 3m for a car Vehicle turning radius Construction methods: A relatively recent innovation in the construction of petrol stations is called modular construction. This has the fuel reservoirs directly under the umbrella roof and prefabricated components of the petrol station such as foundations and the reservoir that fit together. The advantages of using this construction method is the reduction of work duration, less specialists are required on site, easy maintenance, economical and financial gain and compact underground equipment requiring less excavation (PetroFast,2008)

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Community Facilities Schools

Demographics

Early Childhood Development Centres (Crches)

The CSIR gives no indication of what percentage of the population should be considered for these centres. Thus demographics were used to estimate the amount of children aged 0 4. This age bracket is used since children are expected to attend grade R from an age of 5 years old and this is combined with primary schools. According to Statistics South Africa (2011), 9.046263% of Gautengs population is aged 0 4 years. Thus the number of children in our town in this age bracket is 23 294.13 (rounding only done on final values). Statistics South Africa (2010) specifies that 42.6% of children attend an early childhood development centre. In addition to this, The Department of Basic Education (2010) determined that 9.6% of children who attend schools go to private schools and it is assumed that approximately 50% of these children will be from high income homes and 50% will be from medium income homes. This leaves 8970.661 children who attend crches in the proposed town. This is divided as follows:

High Income: Medium Income: Low Income: RDP:

294.424 1065.167 2408.583 5202.487

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Primary Schools Primary school children are considered to be children aged 5 12 which means that they attend grade R to 7. According to the CSIR (2010), 14% of the population falls in this age bracket. This means that the proposed town contains 36 050 children from this age bracket. However, 0.9% of children of school going age dont attend school according to SSA: Survey of Activities of Young People (2010). This leaves 35 725.55 children aged 5 12 who attend school. Of these children 9.6% will attend private schools (Department of Basic Education, 2010) and it is assumed that approximately 50% of these children will be from high income homes and 50% will be from medium income homes. This leaves 32 295.8972 children who attend primary schools in our town. This is distributed as:

High Income: Medium Income: Low Income: RDP:

1059.98 3834.78 8671.31 18729.83

Secondary Schools Children of secondary school going age are 13 17 years old and attend grade 8 12. According to the CSIR (2010), 8% of the population are of these ages and attend school which results in 20 600 children of these ages in the proposed town. Once again 9.6% of these children will attend private schools (Department of Basic Education, 2010) and it is assumed that approximately 50% of these children will be from high income homes and 50% will be from medium income homes. This leaves 18 622.4 children who attend secondary schools in the proposed town. This is distributed as follows:

High Income: Medium Income: Low Income: RDP:

611.202 2211.204 5000.032 10 799.962

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Table 5.1.8: Division of pupils within economic groups. Nr. Of Pupils Nr. Of Schools Size per School Pupils (ha) High Income Medium Income Low Income RDP 16 080 34 733 6 12 4 4 2680 2894.42 1 966 7 112 1 3 5 4.5 School 1966 2370.67 per

Crche Design Guidelines According to the CSIR (2000), the following minimum requirements are specified: 50 m2 per 45 children; Play lot area of 20 30 m2; One third of the area must be allocated for circulation, admin, etc. A minimum site size of 130 m2

Primary School Design Guidelines According to the CSIR (2000), the following minimum requirements are specified: Maximum of 40 pupils per classroom Minimum area of 50 m2 per classroom One third of the area must be allocated for circulation, admin, etc. A minimum site size of 1.4 ha A minimum area of 1 ha for recreational needs such as sports grounds If two schools share sports grounds, the minimum size is 2 4 ha.

Secondary School Design Guidelines According to the CSIR (2000), the following minimum requirements are specified: Maximum of 40 pupils per classroom Minimum area of 50 m2 per classroom One third of the area must be allocated for circulation, admin, etc. A minimum site size of 2.6 ha A minimum area of 2 ha for recreational needs such as sports grounds If two schools share sports grounds, the minimum size is 2 4 ha. 50

HIGH INCOME SCHOOLS DESIGN

Table 5.1.9: Division of areas for high income schools Aspect of school Shared sports fields Parking Gardens/Additional play areas School buildings with individual playgrounds for crche, primary school and high school Total Area Size (m2) 30 000 1 600 3 400 15 000 50 000

Details of calculations for school sizes Crche 12 Classrooms at 100 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 500 m2 200 m2 700 m2 400 m2 2500 m2

Primary School 34 Classrooms at 100 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 3400 m2 1000 m2 2200 m2 1400 m2 8000 m2

Secondary School 20 Classrooms at 100 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 2000 m2 500 m2 1000 m2 1000 m2 4500 m2

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Areas of ground floor buildings without individual playgrounds Crche: L=48m B=48m H=3.2m Area= 2300m

Primary: H)

L=70m

(There are two buildings each of the specified L, B and

B=50m H=3.2m Area= 7000m (This area is for two buildings not one)

Secondary:

L=80m B=50m H=3.2m Area= 4000m

MEDIUM INCOME SCHOOLS DESIGN

Table 5.1.10: Division of areas for medium income schools Aspect of school Shared sports fields Parking Gardens/Additional play areas School buildings with individual playgrounds for crche, primary school and high school Total Area Size (m2) 28 000 2 000 3 300 11 700 45 000

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Details of calculations for school sizes Crche 10 Classrooms at 80 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 800 m2 150 m2 475 m2 275 m2 1700 m2

Primary School 35 Classrooms at 80 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 2800 m2 700 m2 1300 m2 1200 m2 6000 m2

Secondary School 22 Classrooms at 80 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 1760 m2 340 m2 1050 m2 850 m2 4000 m2

Areas of ground floor buildings without individual playgrounds Crche: L=62m B=25m H=3.2m Area= 1550m

Primary: H)

L=66.25m

(There are two buildings each of the specified L, B and

B=40m H=3.2m Area=5300m (This area is for two buildings not one) 53

Secondary:

L=91.5m B=40m H=3.2m Area=3660m

LOW INCOME SCHOOLS DESIGN

Table 5.1.11: Division of areas for low income schools Aspect of school Shared sports fields Parking Gardens/Additional play areas School buildings with individual playgrounds for crche, primary school and high school Total Area Size (m2) 25 000 2 000 3 000 10 000 40 000

Details of calculations for school sizes Crche 12 Classrooms at 60 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 720 m2 130 m2 425 m2 225 m2 1500 m2

Primary School 40 Classrooms at 60 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 2400 m2 600 m2 1000 m2 1000 m2 5000 m2

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Secondary School 25 Classrooms at 60 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 1500 m2 500 m2 1000 m2 500 m2 3500 m2

Areas of ground floor buildings without individual playgrounds Crche: L=40m B=34.25m H=2.9m Area=1370m

Primary: H)

L=73.33m

(There are two buildings each of the specified L, B and

B=30m H=2.9m Area=4400m (This area is for two buildings not one)

Secondary:

L=75m B=40m H=2.9m Area=3000m

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RDP SCHOOLS DESIGN

Table 5.1.12: Division of areas for RDP schools Aspect of school Shared sports fields Parking Gardens/Additional play areas School buildings with individual playgrounds for crche, primary school and high school Total Area Size (m2) 25 000 1 500 3 500 10 000 40 000

Details of calculations for school sizes Crche 12 Classrooms at 60 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 720 m2 130 m2 425 m2 125 m2 1400 m2

Primary School 44 Classrooms at 60 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 2640 m2 860 m2 1500 m2 500 m2 5500 m2

Secondary School 26 Classrooms at 60 m2: Total area of classrooms = Play lot size = Area for circulation, admin, etc. = Bathrooms, storage, cafeteria, etc. = Total size = 1560 m2 440 m2 700 m2 400 m2 3100 m2

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Areas of ground floor buildings without individual playgrounds Crche: L=50m B=25.4m H=2.9m Area= 1270m

Primary: H)

L=77.33m

(There are two buildings each of the specified L, B and

B=30m H=2.9m Area= 4640m (This area is for two buildings not one)

Secondary:

L=88.67m B=30m H=2.9m Area= 2660m

Special needs school General Information The facility will provide education opportunities for the mentally and physically disabled. According to Statistics South Africa the settlement will have 2278 disabled children between the ages of 0-19 years as shown in the table below. Table 5.1.13: Number of disabled children by gender % Males/ Age 0-9 10-19 257500 24098 21724 Males disabled 2.2% 3.2% No. of males disabled 530 695 Females/ 257500 23221 21094 % Females disabled 1.9% 2.9% No. of females disabled 441 612

Total number of disabled children: 2278 57

According to the Statistics South Africa (2010) 0.9% of children do not attend school and 9.6% of children will be placed in a private institution according to the Department of Basic Education (2010). Therefore the total amount of disabled children to be catered for in the settlement is 2041.

Technical Information There will be two special needs facilities catering for the settlement. Each facility will be built on a 1.5 ha stand. The facility itself will be single story and occupy a floor area of 8000m. This area will include the classrooms, staff offices, nurse facility, toilets, kitchen, school hall, and foyer and administration offices. Five classrooms will be used for the 0 4 years age group and from there on every age from 5 18 years will have five classrooms each. Each classroom will be 60 m. The walls will be 3.2m high to accommodate a central aircon unit.

Services Community Health Centre Health care is in both the public and private sectors in South Africa. South Africa stats show that R66 billion is spent on 7 million people meanwhile R59 billion is spent on the rest through public services. This shows that the public sector is stretched and under resourced (Media Club South Africa, 2011). Therefore it would be better to have some focus on the private industry to provide health care for the high income bracket. Therefore the primary health care clinics would best to be a combination of public and private sectors. The ultimate goal of primary health care is better health for all. In other words it is to provide quality health care at an affordable price for all (Who, 2011). Or in other words it is to provide basic health care while promoting health, early diagnosis and prevention of diseases through programs (Mosbys Medical dictionary, 2009). To get an estimate of the size of each Primary health Clinic the typical total area to roof area was used which is somewhere between 40 60% of the total area of 1 hectare. Space is 58

limited in the project and a large number of people will be going to each primary health clinic thus a multi-storey structure is required. The foot print of the building was chosen as 0.5 ha. Using the table standards below the number of beds required at the clinic in conjunction with the location of each clinic in the city was estimated. Table 5.1.14: Hospital Beds (Source: Who. 2011)
Population Served Large Clinic (RDP) Small Clinic (High) Small Clinic (Medium) Small Clinic (Low) 135000 20000 40000 62500 No of Beds 378 200 120 250

The clinics were labelled starting from 1 which was in the most western region and increased the number for clinics to the east. A bed area was given for each income bracket, namely RDP and low has an area of 30m2 and medium to high has an area of 40m2. This was increased by 70% to account for walls, walkways and various types of rooms. The results are shown in the table below: Table 5.1.15: Number of floors for each clinic
Number of beds Clinic 1 Clinic 2 Clinic 3 Clinic 4 230 270 334 334 Calculated number of floors 2.07 2.41 3.32 3.32 Number of floors 3 3 4 4

Clinic 1 was increased to three floors because the amount of clinics in that area is considerable less the other areas. The number of beds required shows that the clinic would require an underground parking due to limited space in the area. On site incinerators are provide on each of the clinics.

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Fire Station Fire stations consist mainly of four different areas (http://www.wbdg.org/design/firestation.php). These include: Administrative and training areas Residential areas Apparatus Bays Apparatus bay support and maintenance

Administrative and training areas This will mainly consist of offices spaces. The fire chief will have a personal office which falls under this sector and an area will be required for training courses for current and future firefighters.

Residential areas Professional firefighters will need dorm rooms for the periods of time that they stay at the fire station. This will require the following: Bedrooms Bathrooms Kitchens Recreational areas

Volunteer firefighters dont need as many facilities as professional firefighters as they wont stay at the fire station, however they will still require bathrooms.

Apparatus bays Bays are required for the fire trucks and ideally these will be drive through bays. This makes maneuvering the trucks much easier. The entrance to the bays must be large enough to accommodate the fire stations largest truck. Ideally the bays will be far away from the accommodation.

Apparatus bay support and maintenance This area must be closely situated to the bays so that they are close to the bays to ease repairs.

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TECHNICAL DETAILS: Ground floor building sizes L= 60m B= 20m H= 3.2m Area= 1200m Parking bays: 40*12 m2

Figure 5.1.5: Example of efficient layout for fire station (http://www.wbdg.org/design/firestation.php)

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Police Station

General Research The cells in the police stations will be used for arrests and not long term imprisonment. Sufficient area needs to be designed for suspects and detainees. This would include a room for interviews, some cells, and a comfortable working environment for policemen and women, a small kitchen for refreshment, toilets for employees and visitors. Parking bays will also be required for detainees and visitors. The SAPS divides the shift work into 4 different shifts, with police workers requiring shower facilities and locker rooms as many police men and women travel to work in normal clothing for safety reasons (Hoffman). In South Africa, history has proven to show that police forces are more military-like with stations being built to protect officials from external threats and should be designed with security in mind.

Layout and Specifications Town planning has placed the police stations in such a way that each police station will be servicing approximately 64375 people. To adhere to SAPS standards and high density of area: 3 Male cells with ablution 40 m (8 m x 5 m ) 2 Female cells with ablution 25 m (5 m x 5 m ) Security Passage to Cells : 1,5 m wide 3 offices (2 admin) 1 kitchen 1 male, 1 female toilet with sink 10 visitor parking bays

1 Holding Cell: 10 m

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According to the Specification of police cells (SAPS 2006): All brickwork to be 230 mm brick walls. A high tensile steel mesh of 100 mm x 200 mm x 5 mm thick is to be built in cells. Walls have to be painted to specification in heavy-duty, light coloured oil base coating. The floor is to be finished with a wooden trowel grano finish. The height of the walls of the passage to be 3m high. Three of the police stations will have green roofs to incorporate a more environmentally friendly environment as well as creating an open and inviting environment. 1 of the police stations will have a helicopter landing pad. Table 5.1.16: Officer to citizen ratio Nationally Eastern Cape Free State Gauteng Kwazulu/Natal Limpopo Mpumalanga Northern Cape North West Western Cape 1 : 310 (1 police official for every 310 citizens) 1 : 378 (1 police official for every 378 citizens) 1 : 270 (1 police official for every 270 citizens) 1 : 277 (1 police official for every 277 citizens) 1 : 435 (1 police official for every 435 citizens) 1 : 468 (1 police official for every 468 citizens) 1 : 374 (1 police official for every 374 citizens) 1 : 172 (1 police official for every 172 citizens) 1 : 375 (1 police official for every 375 citizens) 1 : 242 (1 police official for every 242 citizens)

Using Gautengs statistics, seeing as it the most densely populated region of South Africa, and Syferfontein is within Gauteng. We will use Gautengs police officer per person statistics to estimate what will be required for Syferfontein. This calculation gives us 930 police officers for 257 500 people. To be more conservative we can round this number up to 1000 police officers, further increase is not necessary as the perimeter being covered does not require far distance travel. Therefore there will be 250 police officers allocated to each station rotating 4 times a day gives 63 police officers on duty at a time. If we compare this to a paper published by Sven Hoffman Service or Dominion: Designing a Police Station for Albert Park, we can use results obtained to draw similar conclusion regarding facilities regarded. 37 police officers were required per shift; a factor of 1.67 will be applied to certain facility requirements.

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Layout

Figure 10.1.6: 1st Floor

Figure 5.1.7: 2nd Floor 64

Figure 5.1.8: 3rd Floor

Figure 5.1.9: 4th Floor

65

Figure 5.1.10: Fifth Floor

Figure 5.1.11: Roof

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Roof The Roof will be predominantly covered with extensive vegetation for employees to enjoy during their breaks, as well as to promote a green atmosphere in the building and some insulation.

Figure 5.1.12: Green roof This will be similar to the green roof implemented on the police station roofs. With a more intensive approach, for insulation properties and an aesthetically pleasing place for those to refresh from the office place and distress. With area dedicated for solar geysers for showers. The top floors outer walls will be predominantly glass so that sunlight can penetrate the inside of the building easier and to create a more open atmosphere and appear more inviting to the public. The building will be a concrete frame structure with brick infill.

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Building Materials According to The Crime Situation in South Africa report, serious crime is on the decrease, thus the facilities do not need to facilitate for drastic future increases. In South Africa, In Lenasia between January and June 2011, 11 police officers were shot by criminals and crime levels are extremely high in certain districts, thus a certain amount of overflow crime will be expected. The South African Prevention of Torture and Treatment of Persons in Custody Document states that:

all police cells must have adequate light and ventilation, cells should be equipped with reasonable means of rest, such as a chair or bench, if a person is kept overnight in custody, a mattress and blankets of reasonable standard shall be provided,

a person in custody shall be allowed to use toilet facilities and be offered adequate washing facilities,

(Dissel & Ngubeni. 2000)

Municipal Office, City Hall, Town Hall and Civic Centre Uses: Chief administrative building of a city Deals with daily operational issues and needs. Community functions such as art shows, festivals, stage performances, and exhibits to bring the community together Magistrates court could be provided General information could be provided Characteristics: Has distinctive architecture for people to easily spot

In the CSIR red book for town planning, the municipality is recommended to be used for a population of 500 000 people, but since the planned development would have 257500 and rising to under 300 000, as well as surrounding communities it was decided to be added to the 68

list of required buildings. The area recommended is between 0.3 and 1 hectare and 0.5 hectares was chosen since the population is smaller than 500 000 and that space is limited in the town. Due to the density of the settlement the city hall building could be combined with the municipal office to make one complex in order to save space and resources (CSIR, 2010) No guidelines could be found for the sizing of the municipal offices or the number of people required. An investigation into the area and number of floors for the municipal office of Pretoria was used to get an estimate of what would be required. Total area: 3 Ha Building area: 0.4 Ha Number of floors: 3 Technical Using an area of 20 m2 for each office area (estimate for old buildings working area requirements) and taking away the first floor to account for reception, hall ways and other sub-facilities, gives an estimate of about 400 people working in offices. This is a reasonable estimate compared to the city hall located in United Kingdom which has roughly 600 people (Greater London authority, 2011). Using this estimate and an area of about 0.25 Ha for the building and 15 m 2 for each office area gives about 5 floors required. With reception and so on this would rise to about 7 that are required. Underground parking would be created to provide parking for staff members, visitors and decrease the amount of parking outside for vegetation to make it aesthetically pleasing.

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Taxi Rank

General Information The taxi rank will be used as a terminal for people to gain access to a taxi. Only one large terminal will be built as specified by the Transportation group. The terminal is placed on the outskirts of the town to decrease the traffic in the town.

Technical Information The estimated taxi usage is 660 taxis/ day as stipulated by the Transportation group. The taxi rank will be built on a 25ha site. There will be 24 bays of 1ha each. 1 bay consists of 6 double lanes with 4m wide footpaths that separate the double lanes. A double lane is 12m wide to allow for easy parking and lane entrance.

A double lane will look as follows:

4m 12m 4m

Foot path

Foot path

Figure 5.1.13: One double lane separated by foot paths

The whole taxi rank will be paved and the bays will be covered with steel clad structures. The traffic inside the rank will be regulated by destination specific bays.

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5.2. Structural Design

5.2.1. Steel Truss 5.2.1.a. Specifications 5.2.1.a.i. Overall Dimensions
The dimensions of the steel truss are as follows:

18 x 30m in plan, 5.59m high from the ground to the apex.

Figure 5.2.1: Steel truss

5.2.1.a.ii. Loading Conditions

The truss dimensions and general layout and purlin placement were initially determined. The purlins were placed every 1.306m. These dimensions were used to calculate the wind loading on the structure. The wind load that was used for further analysis was the worst case scenario as calculated per the SABS 0160-1989 guidelines. The worst load case was obtained by calculating all 6 load cases and selecting the highest load. The loading case that was used was 1.2DL + 1.6LL.

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Figure 5.2.2: Loading on the truss

5.2.1.a.iii. Bending Moment and Axial Force

The truss was analysed in Prokon to select initial sections and obtain the member forces and moments. These member forces and moments were used to check whether the selected sections were adequate as per the SANS 10162-1: 2005 guidelines. Once the final sections were selected the baseplate, connections and foundations were calculated.

Figure 5.2.3: The axial force diagram

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Figure 5.2.4: The bending moment diagram

5.2.1.b. Sections
Table 5.2.1: Truss sections Section Column Internal Truss Members Rafter Bottom Chord IPE 180 50 x 50 x 5 150 x 75 x 12 151 x 75 x 12 Section type I Equal Angle Unequal Angle Unequal Angle

The tension members were tested by first selecting an appropriate connection for the joint. The rafter, bottom chord and columns were bolted to the various joints. The internal truss members were welded to the joints. Materials - All the steel sections are grade 350W. - The bolts that were used are grade 8.8.

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5.2.1.c. Connections
Eaves Connection A gusset plate was used in the connection at the eaves.

Figure 5.2.5: Front view of the eaves connection

Figure 5.2.6: Angled view of the eaves connection

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Apex Connection

Figure 5.2.7: Front view of apex connection

Figure 5.2.8: Angled view of apex connection

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5.2.1.d. Base Plate

Overall Dimensions 50 kPa (Worst Case Scenario) Length = 340 mm Width = 310 mm Thickness = 80 mm 4 x 20 mm high strength bolts (Pretensioned to 200 N/mm) In this design, the base plate needs to be placed and fixed onto the footing before the columns can be attached.

Figure 5.2.9: Dimensions of base plate

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5.2.2. Masonry Structure 5.2.2.a. Layout

Figure 5.2.10: Illustration of RDP conceptual design

Figure 5.2.11 : Layout of RDP Units The layout of the RDP units is designed to take maximum advantage of the space available, as well as to save on materials and costs.

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Each RDP Structure comprises of: 2 ablution blocks each with: o 3 Toilets o 2 urinals o 1 tap with basin o 1 hot and cold water tap without basin o 1 hot and cold water shower 4 ground floor living units 4 first floor living units Stairs with walkway

5.2.2.b. Analysis and Design Methodology

Identified Needs Drafted conceptual idea Drew basic layout of structure Decided on type of roof main material and sheeting Decided on most appropriate and cost effective materials Determined maximum pressures exerted by wind loads Calculated number and spacing of purlins The structures joints were evaluated as both pin and fixed due to the uncertainty of the interaction between masonry and prestressed concrete slab. Logic points towards an interaction somewhere between a pin and fixed. Worst case scenarios were used The cantilever method was used in the analysis of imposed loads from wind The design sequence proceeded from the roof down to the foundations

5.2.2.c Design 5.2.2.c.i. Roof

A timber queen post truss was chosen with rafter that would be sufficient as a 6m span Timber was chosen because of its characteristic high strength compared in relation to weight, it would also cause a lower burden on the structural elements below Purlins are spaced at 0.93m The burden on the purlins from the IBR sheeting was calculated and a 38mm by 152mm section was chosen for the purlin using tension grade 4 timber A distance of 1m between rafters was chosen to adhere to SABS0163 specifications which require a maximum of 1.4m spacing

78

Figure 5.2.12: Roof truss dimensions The self weight of the timber was used to determine the axial load onto the masonry using tributary areas. The maximum of these reactions was taken as the vertical load imposed on the masonry with 2.65kN at ultimate limit state

Figure 5.2.13: Imposed axial loads from roof truss

5.2.2.c.ii. Slabs
Assuming a slip joint connection, a prestressed slab was chosen with hollow cores for the floor slabs Finishes were taken as 1.5 KN/m2 The split slab and has a 1.2m walkway (for walk space and railing) with masonry supports assumed as simply supported. Appropriate wiring patterns were chosen from CMA guides

79

1st Floor Slab A 120 mm pre-stressed hollow core slab is to be used for the 1st floor with a wiring pattern of C with 9 by 5mm + 3 by 9,53mm strands. The prestressed slab for the bathroom however requires pattern A which is 8 by 5mm strands. As the maximum moment is only 8.3 kNm.

Figure 5.2.14: 120 mm prestressed 1st floor slab (Concrete Manufactures Association. 2008) The cantilevered slab section for the walkway will be subject to large loading, a solution therefore needed to be found Two options existed: o The slab would be reinforced above the support o Tendon/wire profile would be changed The extra reinforcement would require Y25 @150mm centres which is uneconomical. Therefore the design tendon profile for the slab as shown below:

Figure 5.2.15: Tendon Profile The slab will require grouting inside the hollow cores at the required sections where the cover to the tendons is less than 30mm 80

Figure 5.2.16: Floor Slab Profile

Ground Slab A 200 mm prestressed hollow core slabs to be used on the ground floor. This type of slab will use wiring pattern D with 7 by 5mm + 5 by 9.53mm strands. The wiring is placed at the top of the slab to counteract the moment generated by the soil.

Figure 5.2.17: 200 mm pre-stressed ground floor slab (Concrete Manufactures Association. 2008)

81

5.2.2.d. Masonry Design

The main structural element in the RDP building is Compressed Stabilised Earth Blocks (CSEB), these are to be used as the masonry units.

Figure 5.2.18: Typical Masonry block to be used Proper care should be taken to use the appropriate soil to reach at least a dry compressive strength of 5 MPa 1 hydraulic press machine will be used per 40 units, with an approximate output of 7000 blocks per day

Loads will be resisted with the following grouting and laying pattern on the outer walls (1 in 4 cavities to be filled with Y12 bar for reinforcement):

Figure 5.2.19: Outer block wall

This pattern uses the minimum grouting material required, with the width of the block playing a large role in the moment of resistance The centre wall is detailed with 1 in 6 cavities grouted and Y 8 steel bars spaced at 1200 mm centres.

82

Figure 5.2.20: Centre wall block and grouting pattern

Figure 5.2.21: First floor slab minimum width

83

Table 5.2.2: Shear and Moment capacity checks Moment Resistance Capacity (kN/m) 37.83 90.89 1.76 11.7 11.7 Shear Resistance Capacity (kN) 101.95 163.61

Maximum Moment (kN/m) 1st Floor Slab Ground Floor Slab Roof Truss Centre Walls Outer Walls 35.15 86.3 1.20 5 11.5

Maximum Shear (kN) 34.36 83.2

5.2.2.e. Stairs
Stairs joining the ground and 1st floor are designed as followed.

Figure 5.2.22: Stair slabs

84

5.2.2.f. Foundation
The structure imposes a pressure of 26 kN/m which is less than the safe bearing capacity of the clay (55 kN/m). The ground slab is thus sufficient to act as the foundation for the structure, counteracting differential settlement.

Fig 5.2.23: Ground Floor Slab

85

5.2.3. Concrete Multi-Storey Structure 5.2.3.a. Specifications 5.2.3.a.i. Overall Dimensions

The dimensions of the building are as follows: 96 x 29m in plan, 42m high from the ground level.

As the building is extremely long, to account for differential settlement an isolation joint will be placed in the centre. Therefore the building will be designed as two mirrored half buildings placed next to each other with a sufficient gap for thermal expansion to occur safely (see figure 5.2.25). The design dimensions for each half of the building are thus: Length: 6 bays @ 8m each. Total 48m. Breadth: 5 bays @ 5m each, plus a 2m balcony at each side. Total 29m. Height: 12 storeys @ 3.5m each. Total 42m. Basement height: 5m below ground surface.

5.2.3.a.ii. Roof and Floors

The roof and floors are designed as two way spanning solid slabs. Each slab is 275mm thick, supported by monolithically cast effective T beams.

Figure 5.2.24: Two-way spanning slab and monolithically cast T beam

5.2.3.a.iii. Stability
Stability is provided by the shear walls at the lift shafts and staircases as well as at the corners of the building as shown in the figure below.

86

(a)

(b)

(c) Figure 5.2.25: (a) Overall plan dimensions; (b) Half building design plan; (c) End elevation 87

5.2.3.a.iv. Fire Resistance

All elements are to have fire resistance of at least 2 hours.

5.2.3.a.v. Loading Conditions

Table 5.2.3: Imposed Loads
Building floor use Roof Nominal Load category used
(SANS 10160 Table 4)

imposed load (kN/m ) 0.3

2

Comment

n/a

Inaccessible for safety reasons As apartments have not subdivided

Apartment

category 5 was used as conservative case throughout Deemed to be adequate by assuming

Corridor

1.5

corridor was filled with people of average weight 60kg

Balcony

11

Cantilever (conservative)

Table 5.2.4: Dead Loads

Description Load General Slab (275mm thick) Brick (120mm) Safety glass (11mm thick) 6.6 6.5 0.25 Roof Extensive green roof (IGRA, 2011) 1.5 kN/m2 Apartment Services 3 kN/m2 Corridor Services 0.1 kN/ m2 No heavy partitions High because of partition walls, lighting, cladding etc. Used for runoff reduction purposes only kN/m2 kN/m kN/m All slabs Between apartments At end of corridor Units Comment

88

5.2.3.a.vi. Exposure Conditions

External Moderate (see section - 3.1 climate) Internal Mild (Interior used as living space only) Specified cover = (SANS 0100-2: table 5 Normal density concrete) + 10mm

5.2.3.a.vii. Materials
Concrete grade 40 Reinforcement Grade 460

5.2.3.a.viii. Foundations
The basement is to be designed as a raft foundation, making use of a flat slab to exert an evenly distributed load over the soil. In this scenario the structure is essentially floating on top of the soil. Cantilever walls have been design to resist lateral pressures exerted by the soil.

5.2.3.a.ix. Scope of design

The work carried out covers analysis, sizing and design for:
The general slab to be used throughout the building The beams to be used throughout the building The worst case internal column to be used for all internal columns The worst case edge column to be used for all columns at the edge of the building The foundation

As well as:
Investigation of lateral loading Green design considerations Plan and layout of the building

89

5.2.3.a.x. Design Process Followed

Figure 5.2.26: Design algorithm

90

5.2.3.b. Sizes of Members 5.2.3.b.i. Slab

The worst case loading on the slab is occurs in the apartment. At ultimate limit state the equivalent distributed load (n) is 16.32 kN/m2 Panel dimensions: Ly = 8m; Lx = 5m, thickness = 275mm

5.2.3.b.ii. Beam
Effective flange width (SANS 0100-1 clause 4.3.1.5) = 1470 mm for beams running in the Y-direction = 1050 mm for beams running in the X-direction

Figure 5.2.27: Cross-section of beams

5.2.3.b.iii. Column (EDGE & INTERNAL)

All columns have been designed with a square cross-section and are sized as follows; 350x350 : floor 6 to roof 450x450 : floor 3 to floor 6 600x600 : Basement to floor 3

91

5.2.3.c. Vertical Design Loads

Figure 5.2.28: Load cases - critical columns for axial loading

Figure 5.2.29: Axial loading for internal columns

92

Figure 5.2.30: Axial loading for edge columns

Figure 5.2.31: Floor loading and critical frames for bending

To accurately model the loads for the critical frames; the slab distribution was modelled as a series of point loads and then added to the line loads of the beams self-weight and brick wall (if necessary). This was done for dead and imposed loads separately for load case factoring.

93

Figure 5.2.32: Point load simplification for slab to beam load distribution

Figure 5.2.33: Load case factors for moment determination (SANS 0100 1: 4.2.2.2)

94

5.2.3.d. Design Moments 5.2.3.d.i. Beam Moments

Beam moments were determined using the moment distribution method and the following results were obtained for each load case: Table 5.2.5: Beam Moments for Y-direction; bending about X-axis Load Case 1 kN.m 240.0587 -186.935 266.8871 385.8812 -287.954 394.5709 391.8742 -286.404 391.6776 391.7431 -286.442 391.7335 391.5404 -286.331 392.1582 400.6191 -291.193 373.3543 Load Case 2 kN.m 185.5964 -144.35 212.4186 385.7918 -289.941 390.6866 282.8233 -201.312 282.7126 389.0944 -289.089 389.0869 282.6034 -201.254 283.0493 395.5004 -292.519 375.8214 Load Case 2 kN.m 242.5258 -188.26 261.7684 276.7723 -202.877 285.634 389.2282 -289.052 389.0277 282.75 -201.335 282.7407 388.8931 -288.98 389.5067 291.5661 -206.054 264.4856

Position AB MID BA BC MID CB CD MID DC DE MID ED EF MID FE FG MID GF

m 0 4 8 8 12 16 16 20 24 24 28 32 32 36 40 40 44 48

m 0 4 8 8 12 16 16 20 24 24 28 32 32 36 40 40 44 48

m 0 4 8 8 12 16 16 20 24 24 28 32 32 36 40 40 44 48

From the data obtained in the moment distribution bending moment diagrams were generated for each load case.

95

800 600 400 200 0 0 -200 -400 -600 8 16 24 32 40 48

Figure 5.2.34: Load Case 1 Bending Moment Diagram (Y-direction)

800 600 400 200 0

0
-200 -400 -600

16

24

32

40

48

Figure 5.2.35: Load case 2 Bending Moment Diagram (Y-direction)

96

800 600 400 200 0 0 -200 -400 -600 8 16 24 32 40 48

Figure 5.2.36: Load case 3 Bending Moment Diagram (Y-direction)

Table 5.2.6: Beam Moments for X-direction; bending about Y-axis Load Case 1 m kN.m -2 0 0 23.65 0 122.5912 4 -132.374 8 136.9116 8 134.1049 12 -130.635 16 128.8758 16 87.94367 20 -68.0563 24 87.94367 24 128.8758 28 -130.635 32 134.1049 32 136.9116 36 -132.374 40 122.5912 40 23.65 42 0 Load Case 2 m kN.m -2 0 0 23.65 0 86.59711 4 -93.475 8 100.7029 8 132.0951 12 -131.674 16 128.8068 16 69.90959 20 -62.8404 24 69.90959 24 128.8068 28 -131.674 32 132.0951 32 100.7029 36 -93.475 40 86.59711 40 23.65 42 0 Load Case 2 m kN.m -2 0 0 10.56 0 123.8306 4 -133.067 8 134.2847 8 97.89874 12 -91.7744 16 92.80253 16 86.56085 20 -69.4386 24 86.56201 24 92.81344 28 -91.7804 32 97.87575 32 133.9685 36 -132.892 40 124.4981 40 10.56 42 0

Position Bal A-Balcony AB MID BA BC MID CB CD MID DC DE MID ED EF MID FE F-Balcony Bal

97

From the data obtained in the moment distribution bending moment diagrams were generated for each load case.
800 600 400 200 0 -8 -200 0 8 16 24 32 40 48

-400
-600

Figure 5.2.37: Load Case 1 Bending Moment Diagram

800 600 400 200 0 -8 -200 -400 0 8 16 24 32 40 48

-600

Figure 5.2.38: Load Case 2 Bending Moment Diagram

98

800 600 400 200 0 -8 -200 -400 -600 0 8 16 24 32 40 48

Figure 5.2.39: Load Case 3 Bending Moment Diagram

99

5.2.3.d.ii. Column Moments

8m Span (Y direction; Bending about X) - Edge Column Moments Case 1 kN.m Case 2 kN.m Case 3 kN.m

kN.m 227.23 1

kN.m 227.67 3

kN.m 227.67 3

Roof

11th Floor

186.67 7

187.91 1

132.24 3

Middle Floor

186.67 7

187.91 1

132.24 3

Middle Floor

186.67 7

187.91 1

132.24 3

1st Floor

186.67 7

187.91 1

132.24 3

Ground Floor

233.34 6

234.88 9

165.30 4

Ground Floor

140.00 8

140.93 3

99.182

Basement

70.004

70.467

49.591

100

8m Span (Y direction; Bending about X) - Internal Column Moments Case 1 kN.m Roof Case 2 kN.m Case 3 kN.m

kN.m 9.455

kN.m 19.203

kN.m 19.203

11th Floor

59.497

86.687

53.139

Middle Floor

59.497

86.687

53.139

Middle Floor

59.497

86.687

53.139

1st Floor

59.497

86.687

53.139

Ground Floor 74.371

108.358

66.424

Ground Floor

44.623

65.016

39.854

Basement

22.312

32.508

19.927

101

5m Span (X direction; Bending about Y) - Edge Column Moments Case 1 kN.m Roof Case 2 kN.m Case 3 kN.m

kN.m 11.455

kN.m 25.203

kN.m 11.455

11th Floor

61.296

43.299

61.915

Middle Floor

61.296

43.299

61.915

Middle Floor

61.296

43.299

61.915

1st Floor

61.296

43.299

61.915

Ground Floor 76.619

54.123

77.394

Ground Floor

45.973

32.475

46.436

Basement

22.987

16.238

23.218

102

5m Span (X direction; Bending about Y) - Internal Column Moments Case 1 kN.m Roof Case 2 kN.m Case 3 kN.m

kN.m 11.455

kN.m 25.203

kN.m 11.455

11th Floor

20.467

29.449

18.193

Middle Floor

20.467

29.449

18.193

Middle Floor

20.467

29.449

18.193

1st Floor

20.467

29.449

18.193

Ground Floor 25.583

36.811

22.741

Ground Floor

15.351

22.087

13.645

Basement

7.676

11.044

6.823

103

5.2.3.e Lateral Loading

Figure 5.2.40: Wind load and induced lateral floor loads

From this model, the moment and shear in the beams and columns were calculated using the cantilever method. These were found to be much smaller than those due to vertical loading. Thus it is assumed that the lateral loads will be carried by the shear walls located at the ends of the building.

104

5.2.3.f. Reinforcement 5.2.3.f.i. Slab

Slab thickness = 275mm, d1 = 245mm, d2 = 233mm Cover = Max {30mm (exposure); 25mm (2hrs fire resistance)} = 30mm (SANS 0100-2)

Figure 5.2.41: Slab reinforcement

105

5.2.3.f.ii. Beam

4Y20 5Y20

4Y20 2Y20

Figure 5.2.42: Bending reinforcement in Y-Direction All bending steel is tied to R10 links @ 125 Spacing which is sufficient to resist the shear.

1Y20 3Y16

2Y16 2Y16

Figure 5.2.43: Bending reinforcement in X-Direction All bending steel is tied to R8 links @ 300 Spacing which is sufficient to resist the shear.

106

5.2.3.f.iii. Column (EDGE & INTERNAL)

The columns were designed using an M-N interaction diagram by determining the load case which required the highest percentage of steel. The resulting reinforcement is as follows: Internal columns Cover = 30 mm; dimensions > 300x300mm for 2hr fire resistance Worst case: Load case 1 axial; Load case 1 bending about x-axis

Figure 5.2.44: Internal column reinforcement

107

Edge columns Cover = 40 mm; dimensions > 300x300mm for 2hr fire resistance Worst case: Load case 1 axial; Load case 1 bending about x-axis

Figure 5.2.45: Edge column reinforcement

5.2.3.g. Foundation Design 5.2.3.g.i. Multi Story Basement

The basement is to be designed as a raft foundation, making use of a flat slab to exert an evenly distributed load over the soil. Cantilever walls have been design to resist lateral pressures exerted by the soil. Usually basement construction should be avoided when a water table has not been accurately determined, as well as when adequate space around the building is not provided. However, although these restrictions have been imposed, the construction must proceed. The walls are to be designed as retaining walls, with a cantilever wall being the most economical approach. The retaining walls around the basement could have either been brick or concrete, with Derbigum waterproofing behind. (Snowden, 2011) For this design, concrete will be used to keep uniformity.

108

5.2.3.g.ii. Methodology
Research into basement foundation requirements Research into soil and other environmental factors Consultation with practising Geotechnical Engineers as well as lecturers. Adhere to SANS10100 and SANS10140 specifications. Adapted various textbook examples and applied classical structural analysis and design procedures.

5.2.3.g.iii. Raft foundation

4 experts in the field were consulted as to what foundation might be best suited when constructing the proposed basement. The majority concluded that pad footings would be adequate for the base, with the possibility of piles beneath the column loads. However, it was found that as the pad footings on the shortest span would be only be distance at just over 1 m edge to edge, and so a strip footing was considered. A flat slab was finally adopted to act as a raft foundation due to the following reasons: The bearing capacity would have been more critically impacted upon, and bearing capacities of the soil are not guaranteed. An inverted flat slab was more economical The structure will be able to hand any differential settlement with greater capacity.

Raft Specifications: Inverted flat slab to act as raft 1.5 m overall slab depth Drop Panels 2.5 m by 2.5 m, depth of 0.3m Column centres are at 8m and 5m centres

109

Figure 5.2.46: Basement Raft

5.2.3.g.iv. Reinforcement for Raft foundation

Figure 5.2.47: 8m span middle strip

Figure 5.2.48: 8m span column strip

110

Figure 5.2.49: 5m span middle strip

Figure 5.2.50: 5m span column strip Moments transferred from the columns are neglected as they are rather insignificant in relation the moment capacity of the slab.

5.2.3.g.v. Cantilever retaining wall

A height of 5m was allowed for the basement, with a cantilever wall resisting lateral soil pressures specified as in the figure below.

Figure 5.2.51: Retaining wall 111

5.2.3.g.vi. Reinforcement for Cantilever wall

Table 5.2.7: Cantilever Reinforcement Bar Diameter (mm) Primary Wall Steel Secondary 20 12 20 12 12 Spacing (mm) 100 250 175 300 175 Details Stop Bars at 3 m from top Anchorage length 780 mm

Inner Footing Outer Footing Key

It is important to only backfill after the suspended slab (prop) has been constructed.

5.2.3.g.vii Piles (Option)

If the geotechnical team are not able to treat soil and provide adequate bearing capacity, HPiles will used under the pad footings, as these are appropriate for tall buildings requiring deep foundations. (Sky Line Steel, 2011).

5.2.3.h. Isolation Joint Sizing

This was determined using thermal expansion of the slab over the length of the building in the Y-direction; such that the slabs at the end of each half building cannot touch. Size of gap = 20 mm; to be filled with elastic sealant.

5.2.3.i. Green Design Considerations

The following are the green design aspects of the building design: The recommended aggregate for the concrete would be excavated dolomite from the area. The recommended cement would have high extender content.

112

Light pipes will channel light from the exterior into the corridor; reducing required 24 hr lighting by 60 % if 100% efficient. These will be placed on the unobstructed faces of the building. The angle of the buildings allows for light to reach all apartments. Glass on either end of the corridor allows for light penetration into the building Windows will be double glazed for insulation Waste management chutes will be situated at the ends of the buildings near the basement entrance to allow for collection trucks to back in for pick up A green-roof will be employed for runoff reduction and temperature control purposes CSEB bricks will be used as walling LED lights will be used Day/night sensors for outdoor lighting will be installed

Figure 5.2.52: Sun-lighting system for building assuming maximum channelling distance of 20m

Figure 5.2.53: Low income High-rise 2ha plot 113

5.2.3.j Roof Drainage

Rain (m) Cumulative Max (m/480m) Cumulative Min (m/480m)

Start Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 0 149.5 129.4 110.3 47.6 24.4 6.4 10.4 10.0 25.4 65.0 126.3 141.2 77.3 14.9 106.5 135.8 165.0 194.3 223.6 252.8 282.1 311.3 340.6 369.9 399.1 44.1 73.4 102.6 131.9 161.2 190.4 219.7 248.9 278.2 307.5 336.7

Figure 5.2.54: Water Volumes prediction for green roof sections on Syferfontein Farm. A maximum of 40.24 m of water will accumulate per week per 480 m (green roof area). There are 2 such designated areas on each high-rise low income roof. To accommodate for storm conditions, a gutter transferring the flow to a pipe diameter of 200mm needs be adopted on each side of the building. This water will then be used by water services or preferably be used within the building as grey water for uses such as toilet flushing.

114

6. Costing
Table 6.1: Costing for Complete Town Total Cost ( R ) / facility Facilities Education High School and Primary School + Crche (High) High School and Primary School + Crche (Medium) High School and Primary School + Crche (Low) High School and Primary School + Crche (RDP) Special needs Health Primary Health Centre Community Health centre Churches Religious institute - Mega Religious institute- large Religious institute-medium Community Local Market Community Centre Municipal Office Thusong service centre 1 Thusong service centre 2 Thusong service centre 3 Thusong service centre 4 Fire station Police station Shopping centre Garages Taxi Rank R 75,130,000.00 R 61,503,000.00 R 52,281,000.00 R 49,771,000.00 R 45,880,000.00 1 3 6 12 2 R 75,130,000.00 R 184,509,000.00 R 313,686,000.00 R 597,252,000.00 R 91,760,000.00 Facility Quantity

Total Cost ( R )

R 198,420,000.00 R 169,220,000.00

4 1

R 793,680,000.00 R 169,220,000.00

R 44,650,000.00 R 31,120,000.00 R 15,734,000.00

8 4 5

R 357,200,000.00 R 124,480,000.00 R 78,670,000.00

R 36,870,000.00 R 8,980,000.00 R 70,540,000.00 R 12,700,000.00 R 12,589,600.00 R 14,540,000.00 R 13,712,000.00 R 5,832,000.00 R 11,340,000.00 R 999,775,000.00 R 2,828,500.00 R 792,000,000.00

4 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 2 14 1

R 147,480,000.00 R 17,960,000.00 R 70,540,000.00 R 12,700,000.00 R 12,589,600.00 R 14,540,000.00 R 13,712,000.00 R 17,496,000.00 R 45,360,000.00 R 1,999,550,000.00 R 39,599,000.00 R 792,000,000.00

115

Total Cost ( R ) / facility Housing High Income High Rise Medium Income High Rise Low Income High Rise Townhouse Single stand-high income Single stand-medium income Single stand-low income RDP R 745,020,000.00 R 640,800,000.00 R 543,600,000.00 R 9,257,600.00 R 6,930,000.00 R 3,080,000.00 R 1,170,000.00 R 1,134,000.00

Facility Quantity 15 18 12 240 1080 1120 500 5625

Total Cost ( R ) R 11,175,300,000.00 R 11,534,400,000.00 R 6,523,200,000.00 R 2,221,824,000.00 R 7,484,400,000.00 R 3,449,600,000.00 R 585,000,000.00 R 6,378,750,000.00 R 55,321,587,600.00 R 63,066,609,864.00 R 696,740,000.00 R 63,763,349,864.00

Facilities and housing cost with added VAT at 14%: The engineering services should add up to a value of: Projects total cost including VAT:

The total cost for the town with regards to the housing and facilities will total approximately R 63.8 bn.

116

7. Environmental Impact Assessment

This report serves to describe the proposed plan for the Syferfontein development. It serves to further assess the current environment, the proposed works and its impact on the environment. The report has assessed the potential impacts and has addressed both the positive impacts of the project as well as the negative. The negative impacts have been few and mitigate measures, which if followed, will serve to reduce or avoid those identified.

The proposed site is located in an area known as Syferfontein, The development is earmarked for residential development. It is comprised of 2000 hectares (4942 acres) and is located approximately 40km west of the University of Johannesburg. It is adjacent to the small community of Lenasia situated on its north-eastern boundary

The site ranges from flat to gently sloping and is interrupted by various drainage features, which give rise to gullies and erosion channels. The site does not contain any significant vegetation and has subsequently been used for creating clay bricks and small subsistence farming. The soil type varies from silt to clay soil to limestone cobbles and boulder size material including a dolomitic soil profile.

The proposed development will serve a number of functions, such as provision of employment during and after construction, provision of homes, etc. As with all developments there will be some potential negative impacts, most of which can be reduced and/or avoided if proper actions are followed. Through the greening of areas and reintroduction of trees, this project will impact positively by increasing the biodiversity in the area.

7.1. Legal Framework

The two most important pieces of South African legislation, namely the constitution of South Africa and the national environmental management act, aims to ensure that the environment is protected and that the development of a project is undertaken in an environmentally responsible manner. These form the focus of this assessment.

117

7.1.1. The constitution of South Africa

Section 24 of the Constitution of South Africa (No. 108 of 1996) states everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well being, and to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations through reasonable legislative and other means that secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development. The protection of this act helps to prevent pollution, promote conservation and environmentally sustainable development. All the main principles and clauses are found within the National Environmental Management Act (No. 107 of 1998).

7.1.2. The National Environmental Management Act

The National Environmental Management Act (No. 107 of 1998) is South Africas legislation which provides governance over the environment and incorporates rules and principles in helping with decision making regarding matters which affect the environment. The principles of the Act are as Follows: People and their needs are placed at the forefront when concerned with Environmental Management. All Development must be socially, environmentally and economically sustainable. All elements are interrelated, linked and integrated within Environmental Management. Environmental justice must ensure that there are no major environmental impacts and that these impacts are not distributed in such a manner to unfairly discriminate against any person. All Environmental resources must be equally accessed to help benefit basic human needs and to ensure that human well-being is pursued at all times. Environmental education and environmental awareness will help promote the communities well-being. Responsibility for the environmental health and safety consequences of a policy, program, project or activity exists through its life-cycle. The participation of all those involved or affected must be promoted and all decision making of the proposed project must take into account the affected parties.

118

7.1.3. Legal Requirements in terms of Other Acts

The following Acts including the National Environmental Management Act and The South African Constitution may have some bearing on the proposed activities;

7.1.3.a. National Water Act (Act No. 36 of 1998)

The National Water Act (NWA) provides fundamental legislation with reference to water resources and use of water. The purpose of the National Water Act is: To ensure that efficient, sustainable and beneficial use of the water is promoted within the public interest. Facilitating social and economic development. Protect aquatic ecosystems as well as their biological diversity. Reduce and prevent pollution and degradation of water resources. Meet international standards and obligations.

The Act above helps provide protection of water resources and helps regulate the use of water catchment management agencies. Section 19 of the National Water Act makes provision for the prevention of pollution of the water resources due to activities on the land in question. If the person(s) responsible fails to comply with the Act, the catchment agencies may take legal action against the responsible person(s) to help recover the costs for the damaged incurred.

7.1.3.b. Conservation of Agriculture Resources Act (Act No. 57of 1983)

This Act aims in providing control over the utilization of natural agricultural resources in order to help promote the conservation of the land, soil, water resources and vegetation. Section 6 of the Conservation of Agriculture Resources Act ensures that there are control measures in place. These measures relate to; Cultivation of virgin soils. Protection and the utilization of wetlands, marshes and water courses. Regulation of the flow of run-off. 119

The protection of the lands vegetation and how it may be utilized. The number and types of animals which may be grazing within these fields. The restoration or reclamation of eroded land.

7.1.3.c. White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management for South
Africa Integration of pollution and waste management is a holistic an integrated system. This process is aimed in dealing with the minimization of pollution within the area affected by the development. This includes the management of pollution of waste and the impacts in which it may have on the environment. The White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste management for South Africa represents a paradigm shift from dealing with waste only after it is generated to: Pollution prevention. Waste minimization. Cross media integration. Institution integration, both horizontal and vertical, of departments and spheres of government. Involvement of all sectors of society in pollution and waste management. The Government believes that minimizing pollution is one way of protecting the environment and the persons which reside in South Africa.

7.1.3.d. National Environmental Biodiversity Act (Act No. 10 of 2004)

This Act helps regulate South Africas laws relating to biodiversity. The purpose of this act is: To manage and conserve all the components linked to South Africas biodiversity. To warrant national protection. Help protect species and ecosystems. To help control and sustain the use of any indigenous biological resources. To ensure equal sharing of benefits which may arise from bio-prospecting this also may include indigenous biological resources. 120

7.1.4. National Environmental Management Biodiversity Act (Act No.10 of 2004)

The act provides for the provision of management and conservation of everything stated within the National Environmental Management Act of 1998 that warrants protection. The act applies to the project of biodiversity in the following manner: All alien plant species must be removed All animals that are listed as endangered must be protected The natural ecological system must be preserved as far as possible Indigenous resources must be used in a manner that allows for their preservation

7.1.5. National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act (Act No.57 of 2003)
The act aims to provide a system that assists in the protection of any ecologically sensitive areas as well as to protect the integrity of the ecological system. The act applies to the project in the following respects: No construction or development may occur on the wetland The groundwaters quality may not be compromised in any manner during the construction process The natural landscape must be protected The interdependent relationship between the environment, economic development and the human settlement must be managed Degraded ecological systems and endangered species must be rehabilitated

7.1.6. National Veld and Forest Fire Act (Act No.101 of 1998)
The act was established to prevent the destruction of ecological environments by veld and forest fires. For the proposed project only veld fires are of concern. The development will have to join a fire protection associated in the area.

121

7.1.7. National Heritages Resources Act (Act No.25 of 1999)

The purpose of the act is to preserve any structures or areas that are considered a heritage site. Any structure that is older than 60 years is considered to be a heritage site. The act applies to the project in the following respects: The airstrip and farmhouse are older than 60 years and is therefore considered heritage according to the act.

7.1.8. National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (Act No.39 0f 2003)
The act regulates air quality with the objective of preserving the natural diverse ecological environment. The act applies to the project in the following respects: The amount of harmful gases released from the houses, facilities and power station must be at a minimum Pollution must be prevented The ecological system must be preserved

7.1.9. Sustainable Development

Sustainable Development must be incorporated in the project for it is one of the most important aspects in South Africa. It was initially established in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act No. 108 of 1996) and further adopted by The National Environmental Management Act (Act No.107 of 1998). This must be taken into account when the development is designed to ensure that future generations will also benefit from the development in terms of social, environmental and economic means.

122

7.1.10. National Building Regulations and Buildings Standards Act (Act No.103 of 1997)
The act aims to promote uniformity in the laws that are applicable to any building construction within the jurisdiction of the local authorities. The act prescribes the building standards that must be adhered to. The act must be obided by to obtain authorisation to complete the proposed development.

7.2 Impact Assessment Methodology

A typical approach by EIA specialists to access the potential impacts and significance of the impact of the project is shown below. It incorporates two aspects for assessing the significance of the impacts, namely occurrence and severity which are further sub-divided. Table 7.1: Impact assessment (Source : G.Venter, 2011,pg 83) Occurrence Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude (severity) of impact Scale/extent of impact

Scale used for each impact 5-Definite/dont know 4-High probable 3-Medium probability 2-Low probability 4-Long term 3-Medium term (8-15 years) 2-Short term (0-7 years) 1-Improbable 0-None 1-Immediate 2-Minor 1-Site only 0-None 4-Low 2-Local 5-Permanent 10-Very high/dont know 8-High 6-Moderate 4-National 3-Regional 5-International

123

Below is description of the terms mentioned in Table 7.1. Probability: The chance/likelihood of a event/impact occurring Duration: The length of time that the impact will occur over. Short term is taken over the project life Magnitude: environment. Extent: The area that is by the impact. This can range from site only to an international level. Thereafter the Significance points (SP) is calculated using the formula below: SP = (magnitude + duration + scale) * probability The SP value determines the overall effect the impact will have on the environment. The maximum value of SP is 100 points. The table below show the significance determined by the SP value: Table 7.2: SP Value Definitions SP > 75 High environmental impact An impact which could influence the whether the project can proceed regardless of any possible mitigation. SP 30-75 Medium environmental impact An impact or benefit of sufficient importance that would require management and could have an influence on the decision unless mitigated. SP<30 Low environmental impact Impacts with little real effect and should not influence or require modification on the project design. The expected magnitude/severity that the impact would have on the

The results in the table are based on speculation and personal perspective (It depends on the individual doing the assessment); it would require a specialist to re-evaluate the factors in the table when the project goes more in depth.

124

7.3. Impacts and Mitigation

7.3.1. Impacts during Construction Phase
Table 7.3: Anticipated Biophysical Impacts during Construction Phase

Anticipated biophysical impacts during construction phase

Occurrence Anticipated impact The local geology will be changed by the addition of stabilising agents and various building materials needed for foundations. Topography and geology Earthmoving works will result in an altered distribution of the geology than was initially present. Topography will change as a result of earthmoving and foundations. Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ Scale/ severity of extent of impact impact SP value Mitigation measures

Negative

60

Choice of stabilising agents and building materials

Negative

65

Limit earth moving activities as much as possible

Negative

65

125

Anticipated biophysical impacts during construction phase

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ Scale/ severity of extent of impact impact SP value Mitigation measures Re-use the soil for gardens if possible. Wet soil at regular intervals. Limit earth moving activities as much as possible Limit earth moving activities as much as possible Use barriers to prevent soil erosion during storms and wind Wet soil at regular intervals

Loss of top soils from construction activities Compaction of soil from construction activities therefore changing soil structure.

Negative

35

Soils

Negative

50

Loss of the initial structure of the soil due to the change in the water table level as a Negative result of construction activities.

48

Erosion

The risk of erosion is increased by construction activities.

Negative

40

126

Anticipated biophysical impacts during construction phase

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ Scale/ severity of extent of impact impact SP value Mitigation measures The vegetation could be planted somewhere else then some vegetation could be replanted on the site. Create a boundary around wetlands to prevent construction workers entering. Monitor water levels and other related data

Vegetation

Natural vegetation will have to be removed for construction purposes.

Negative

25

Wetlands damaged Wetlands Changes in the water table levels might affect the wetlands. There is enough land to house the required amount of people with the required necessities as well as agricultural land to be created. There are no existing agricultural activities that can be disturbed.

Negative

70

Negative

27

Negative

Agricultural

Negative

127

Anticipated biophysical impacts during construction phase

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ Scale/ severity of extent of impact impact SP value Mitigation measures Limit the amount of water pumped from the surface water and use other water sources also. Use surface water for wetting soil to decrease erosion and the water will enter soil groundwater. Have teams clean the water at regular intervals of say a day or a week. Have a boundary around the surface water to prevent entry.

Surface and Groundwater

Surface water will be used during construction phase for various tasks. Could cause accelerated settlement (Flow of underground water to surface could increase)

Negative

30

Possible contamination of surface water during construction

Negative

48

128

Anticipated biophysical impacts during construction phase

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ Scale/ severity of extent of impact impact SP value Mitigation measures Building on the ground would increase the level of the water and pumping from the surface water would decrease the level. So they cancel each other out but monitoring the ground water level could help Choice of vehicles/equipment/m achinery As mentioned previously water sprayers could be used to prevent erosion and hence dust clouds as well Time of day for construction to reduce impact on neighbouring

Possible alteration of ground water levels during construction

Negative

27

Air quality will deteriorate due to construction vehicle emissions. Air Quality Clouds of dust present during construction

Negative

55

Negative

60

Noise

The originally unoccupied site will be filled with labourers who will increase noise levels.

Negative

50

129

Anticipated biophysical impacts during construction phase

Occurrence Anticipated impact Construction vehicles will add to the noise levels. Construction works will add to the noise levels. General waste will be produced by construction workers on site. Waste Construction waste will be produced. Sewage will be produced. Odour Possible odours will result from the chemical toilets and waste. Spillage of fuel, cement or hazardous materials is possible. Positive/ Negative Impact Negative Negative Probability of occurrence 5 5 Duration of occurrence 2 2 Severity Magnitude/ Scale/ severity of extent of impact impact 8 8 2 2 SP value 60 60 Mitigation measures residents. Choice of vehicles/equipment/m achinery Have dustbins in appropriate places for workers. Recycle Recycle what can be recycled and move solid waste to a appropriate place Diverted to an appropriate place Locations of the chemical toilets and waste collection Observation by appropriate persons to observe and handle activities to prevent casualties.

Negative

50

Negative

50

Negative Negative

5 3

2 2

6 6

2 1

50 27

Spillage and Incidents

Negative

32

130

Anticipated biophysical impacts during construction phase

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ Scale/ severity of extent of impact impact SP value Mitigation measures Observation by appropriate persons to observe and handle activities to prevent casualties. Have people to direct traffic flow and build extra roads.

Incidents pertaining to health and safety issues could occur on the site. The previously uninhabited area will experience traffic due to construction works. This will increase with employees commuting as well There will be increased employment. Theft of construction materials can be anticipated.

Negative

40

Traffic

Negative

45

Employment

Positive

50 Regular inspection of materials and countermeasures to be taken to prevent this.

Crime

Negative

40

131

Table 7.4: Anticipated Socio-Economic Impacts during Construction Phase

Anticipated socio-economic impacts during construction phase

Occurrence Positive/ Anticipated impact Negative Impact Temporary employment will Employment be created by construction works. Positive
5 2 6 2

Severity Magnitude/ severity of impact

Probability of Duration of occurrence occurrence

Scale/ extent SP of impact value

Mitigation measures

Some basic facilities 50 will be required to cater for the workers

An influx of construction workers can be expected. Population Changes Some construction workers can be expected to stay on the site permanently while others will commute every day.

Negative

50

Boarding facilities Negative

4 2 6 1

36

would have to be built to accommodate workers

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Anticipated socio-economic impacts during construction phase

Occurrence Positive/ Anticipated impact Negative Impact Severity Magnitude/ severity of impact

Probability of Duration of occurrence occurrence

Scale/ extent SP of impact value

Mitigation measures

Roads would have to be Construction vehicles will cause increased traffic. Negative
5 2 6 2

50

made to accommodate the increased traffic as well as heavy trucks.

Workers who commute will Traffic increase traffic around the site. Negative
4 2 6 2

40

Construction of roads and public transport will create a means of transport for future residents and hence traffic. Negative
5 2 8 2

60

133

Anticipated socio-economic impacts during construction phase

Occurrence Positive/ Anticipated impact Negative Impact Safety concerns will arise Safety unless the adequate health and safety regulations specified in the OHS Act are followed. A significant change will occur visually since the area will go from largely undeveloped to a serious Visual construction site. Negative
5 2 2 2

Severity Magnitude/ severity of impact

Probability of Duration of occurrence occurrence

Scale/ extent SP of impact value

Mitigation measures

Have group leaders to Negative

4 2 6 2

40

make sure safety protocol is followed.

30

Vegetation will no longer be visible as it is removed for construction. Negative

5 2 2 1

25

134

7.3.2. Impacts during Operational Phase

Table 7.5: Anticipated Biophysical Impacts during Operational Phase

Anticipated biophysical impacts during the operational phase.

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ severity of impact Scale/ extent of impact SP value Mitigation measures

Topography will have been permanently changed in some instances due to earth moving. Topography and Geology

Negative

21

Limit earth moving activities as much as possible

Lower lying geology will remain intact.

Positive

24

135

Anticipated biophysical impacts during the operational phase.

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ severity of impact Scale/ extent of impact SP value Mitigation measures Have large amounts of vegetation to reduce soil erosion (aesthetically pleasing as well). Larger amount of building reducing erosion as well. Choice of vegetation that can grow in the area. The wetlands will remained undeveloped and will be considered a nature reserve. The wetlands will be enclosed and there will be limited access so as to allow preservation of the area.

Soils

Soils will possibly be subjected to erosion.

Negative

36

Vegetation

New and structured vegetation will be planted in the form of gardens for homes.

Negative

45

Wetlands

Negative

33

136

Anticipated biophysical impacts during the operational phase.

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ severity of impact Scale/ extent of impact SP value Mitigation measures

Surface water will be used for consumption.

Negative

48

Surface and Groundwater

Possible contamination of surface water by detergents as a result of Negative people washing clothing in the natural streams.

18

Adequate filtering to help reduce contaminants in drinking water.

137

Anticipated biophysical impacts during the operational phase.

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ severity of impact Scale/ extent of impact SP value Mitigation measures

Air quality will be reduced especially during the winter when fires are made to generate heat. Air Quality

Negative

18

Use green style housing to make homes warm in winter to reduce fires.

Pollution from vehicle omissions.

Negative

55

Promote and provide public transport.

Noise

Noise levels will increase due to increased population, traffic, etc.

Negative

60

Promote and provide public transport.

138

Anticipated biophysical impacts during the operational phase.

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ severity of impact Scale/ extent of impact SP value Mitigation measures

General waste will be produced by the population, hence a landfill may be required if existing landfills are too far away. Waste Sewage will be produced by the population, hence a sewage treatment plant may be necessary if existing plants are too far away If a landfill or sewage treatment plant is required odours will be produced.

Negative

36

Negative

55

Odour

Negative

55

Daily covers protocol measure for the landfill and location of the landfill and sewage plant are important.

139

Anticipated biophysical impacts during the operational phase.

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ severity of impact Scale/ extent of impact SP value Mitigation measures

Employment

Many permanent employment opportunities will arise for skilled and unskilled labourers as the communitys needs become evident.

Positive

70

Crime

Crime will inevitably increase as the community develops since there will be families of many different economic levels.

Negative

60

Provide metro police facilities

140

Table 7.6: Anticipated Socio-Economic Impacts during Operational Phase

Anticipated socio-economic impacts during the operational phase

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ severity of impact Scale/ extent of impact SP value Mitigation measures

Employment

Many employment opportunities will arise for both skilled and unskilled labour as the communitys needs become evident.

Positive

70

Population Changes

Population size will increase significantly as permanent residents move into the area.

Negative

40

Control the inflow of people into the area

Traffic

There will be traffic due to privately owned vehicles.

Negative

60

Promote and provide public transport.

141

Anticipated socio-economic impacts during the operational phase

Occurrence Anticipated impact Positive/ Negative Impact Probability of occurrence Duration of occurrence Severity Magnitude/ severity of impact Scale/ extent of impact SP value Mitigation measures

Housing

The development aims to provide as many housing units as possible. The area is small compared to the population is required to be housed. Therefore the residential area is relatively compact i.e. dense residential area

Negative

55

Build multi-storey building to save space.

Housing quality will vary according to economic status

Negative

45

Provide residents with at least the essentials Follow red book protocol and engineering judgement to determine number of facilities required.

Community Facilities

For a community of this size facilities will have to be developed such as schools, churches, clinics, etc thus decreasing area to use for residential

Negative

55

142

7.4. Conclusion
The tables SP values show that a there are a large amount of impacts that require mitigation measures to alleviate the impact on the environment. This gives an insight into what requires a more in depth investigation and which aspects of the project requires more attention. The reason that a more thorough investigation is required is that the project is a very large, multidisciplinary project requiring a large variety of specialists. In general the majority of the impacts can be mitigated.

143

8. Green Alternative Recommendations

8.1. Housing
High Housing Income Medium Low RDP Town Single Income High Income

High Rise Rise Lighting: - 9W LED bulbs - Sun lighting - Motion sensors - Day/Night sensors for outside lights - Solar garden LED

High Rise Housing Houses Stands

Insulation: - Ceiling - Walls - Floors - Double glazed windows

Geysers: - Heat pump

- Solar geysers

144

High Housing Income

Medium

Low RDP Town Single

Income High Income

High Rise Rise

High Rise Housing Houses Stands

Main structural material: - Concrete - Steel - Masonry - Timber

Green roofs: - Intensive - Extensive

Rainwater Harvesting

Water management

Waste separation

Passive solar heating and cooling

145

8.2. Community Related Facilities

Community Community Shopping Local Centre Centre Thusong Religious Institutes Garages Market Centres

Lighting: - 9W LED bulbs - Sun lighting - Motion sensors - Day/Night sensors for outside lights - Solar garden LED

Insulation: - Ceiling - Walls - Floors - Double glazed windows

Geysers:

- Heat pump

- Solar geysers

146

Community

Community Shopping Local Centre Centre

Thusong Religious Institutes Garages

Market Centres

Main structural material: - Concrete - Steel - Masonry - Timber

Green roofs: - Intensive - Extensive

Rainwater Harvesting

Water management

Waste separation

Passive solar heating and cooling

147

8.3. Educational Facilities

Education Facilities Low RDP Income Medium Income High Income Special Needs

Lighting: - 9W LED bulbs - Sun lighting - Motion sensors - Day/Night sensors for outside lights - Solar garden LED

Insulation: - Ceiling - Walls - Floors

- Double glazed windows

Geysers:

- Heat pump

- Solar geysers

148

Education Facilities

Low RDP Income

Medium Income

High Income

Special Needs

Main structural material: - Concrete - Steel - Masonry - Timber

Green roofs: - Intensive - Extensive

Rainwater Harvesting

Water management

Waste separation

Passive solar heating and cooling

149

8.4. Public Service Facilities

Primary Services Community Health Centre Lighting: - 9W LED bulbs - Sun lighting - Motion sensors Day/Night sensors for Health Centre Fire Police Municipal Office

Station Station

outside lights - Solar garden LED

Insulation: - Ceiling - Walls - Floors

- Double glazed windows

Geysers:

- Heat pump

- Solar geysers

150

Primary Services Community Health Centre Health Centre Fire Police Municipal Office

Station Station

Main structural material: - Concrete - Steel - Masonry - Timber

Green roofs: - Intensive - Extensive

Rainwater Harvesting

Water management

Waste separation

Passive solar heating and cooling

151

9. Conclusion
With an estimated total project cost of approximately R 63.8 Billion for normal construction conditions, the housing and facilities development would be feasible in these circumstances. However because of the enormity of the proposed development and very short project time span requested by the client, these costs are expected to escalate exponentially. The reasons for this expectation are due to the high amount of labour required and massive amount of materials needed in a short space of time. These requirements could lead to stock shortages in the local region where materials would need to be imported from other regions. Rigorous and precise planning would be required for the trafficking of equipment and materials and coordination of construction which would also cause higher cost in time delay. All SABS standards were adhered to in the design process of this project to ensure the highest quality, while incorporating green construction practise and keeping to realistic economic constraints.

152

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