Name: Julian Gordon

Question # 2: Carefully analyse dualism and idealism as theories of mind and body. State clearly which of these theories would be more effective in explaining life and immortality in the twenty- first century. The mind- body problem has been in existence since the days of the traditional philosophers. Many people wonder how the mind and the body can interact if they are two different entities with exclusive characteristics. Overtime, they have come up with different theories addressing the solution to the mind body problem. Among these theories are dualism and idealism, both of which will be discussed in this essay. The two theories will also be analysed to find out which is more applicable to the 21st century with respect to life and immortality. Arguments for and against the theories will be examined as well. Dualism

MIND

BODY

Above is a chart simplifying what dualism is about. It states that we are made of two entities; mind and body. The body is physical, spatial and mechanical while the mind is non- physical, non- spatial and undergoes thinking. There are different editions of dualism such as epiphenomenalism and parallelism. These sub theories differ based on the interaction between the two entities. Modern philosopher Rene Descartes was of this view and believed so based on the following arguments: The argument from religion- All religions believe that there is life after death. When the body decays into its physical components, the mind or soul continues to live on. The soul can then take up form of another body. This can only be purported by a dualistic view in which mind and body are separate entities. The argument of religion explains metaphysical accounts such as possession and out of body experiences. The argument from introspection- We have the ability to think, a property attributed to the mind. When we reflect on ourselves, we dont think about the brain or any physical entity for that matter. We have thoughts. These non- physical things must have come from the mind which is immaterial as well.

Name: Julian Gordon

The argument from conceivability- Descartes purported this theory by first doubting everything including that he had a body. The thing he noticed was that the mere fact that he doubted something supported that he had a mind as a doubt comes from a thought and thoughts come only from the mind As long as I even think I exist, I must exist, for in order to think, I must exist. (Gray Matters, An Introduction to the Philosophy of the Mind) If it is that you can doubt the existence of the body but not the mind, it simply means that they are two different things, thus supporting the theory of dualism. The argument from inexplicability- There are certain mental aspects that an epistemological approach cant solve. This being true, refutes physicalism which states that everything is physical and the mental has physical origins. It would approve of both mental and physical being two different entities. These arguments demonstrate that there are two entities but they cant be clarified completely. With respect to argument for religion, a belief is not necessarily true. There are many false things today which were held as beliefs in earlier times. There is no way to know that the mind lives on after one dies because there is no way to test it. All we know is that the body rots and its components go back to the Earth. What about persons in a vegetative state? This does not prove that the mind and body are separate from each other but rather one thing. In terms of argument for introspection, one must remember that introspection involves perception. Our perception of the world may not always match up with what is observed or what is true. Take for example a leaf. We perceive that it has the colour green but in truth, it is a result of vibrating particles. It is the same way that we may perceive thoughts and physical entities as different things when they might not be different. On the issue of conceivability, mind and body may be one entity clothed differently. Consider a movie star. He plays different roles in various movies. Viewers may conceive the same person as another one of the roles that he has played. With regards to the argument for inexplicability, disproving physicalism does not approve of the mental differing from the physical. Consider artificial intelligence. Computers can accomplish the same tasks (including perception and understanding) that we humans can do but they have no minds. It could mean that what we perceive as the mind is actually an aspect of the body. This would explain why physical objects can do the same things that we can do.

Name: Julian Gordon

Idealism

MIND

Above is a chart demonstrating idealism. Firstly, idealism is a monistic theory. Monism states that the world is as a result of one substance either physical or mental. Other sub theories of monism are materialism and neutral monism. Idealism states that only the mind or mental aspects exist and the physical can be reduced to the mental. There are also different forms of idealism: classical, subjective and transcendental idealism. This sub theory was supported by philosophers such as Anaxagoras, George Berkley and Immanuel Kant. Kants theory of transcendental idealism states that the mind denotes our perceptions in space and time. Take for example a person looking at a tree. Like subjective idealism, the tree is as a result of the persons perception of the sense data. However, if the subject is moved to a different location in time, the tree ceases to exist. Berkleys subjective idealism is based on perception. A person perceives sense data in order to identify phenomena. If one stops perceiving this sense data then it ceases to exist with respect to that person and there is no way that he/she can test the existence of that object or event. Perception is a mental characteristic. Therefore, we can assume that the physical entities exist because of the mind. This is summed up in his key statement esse is percipi which means to be is to be perceived. In the instance that no one perceives phenomena, it still continues to exist because the earth is a permanent idea in the mind of God and He perceives things on our behalf. What we perceive is Gods thoughts (Gen chap 1, The Holy Bible). Classical idealism suggests that consciousness makes up the world and not matter. It is of the basis that everything came into existence because of thought. When one makes an invention such as a car, he/she first has to conceive the invention and its purpose in his mind before he makes it. The primary argument for idealism is the contradiction of external objects. According to Berkley, features that we attribute to physical objects are due to our perception. Perception is of the mind. This would mean that the object has a mental characteristic and therefore is of the mind. Take for instance a white paper. A. The whiteness is a property of the paper.
B. The whiteness is a property of an idea (in my mind) of the paper.

Name: Julian Gordon

C. Therefore, since the whiteness is a property of one thing, the paper must be just an idea (in my mind). (http://parablemania.ektopos.com/archives/2005/08/berkeleys_ideal.html )

In critiquing this theory, philosopher Bertrand Russell comments on the meaning of the term idea. An idea is a concept i.e. a mental thing. The object that you perceive is not the idea but your perception of the object is. What we perceive is not always the true thing. Just as in the argument for introspection in dualism, when we perceive a leaf, we see the colour green. We do not see the vibrations of certain molecules giving us that colour. Russell also points out unconscious equivocation in the arguments for idealism. He explains that idealists refer to being aware of something and apprehending something both as an idea. Apprehension is a mental process but if awareness is mental as well, how does one apprehend what is already in the mind? Idealism also refutes the pursuit of knowledge. Gaining knowledge involves a relationship between the mind and the object of study. If objects are ideas then this relationship cannot work. In seeing how the two theories apply to life and immortality in the 21st century, we must first show the changes that have taken place in the last century. There has been a shift in religion holding the reigns over society to science and reason. Though the religious aspect still exists, it isnt dominant. Persons within the society believe things more on reason. However there are some things which the scientific method has not explained. Dualism and idealism both attempt to explain the mind which cannot be epistemologically proven. The concept of life after death which is still accepted today is supported by dualism. It also can explain out of body experiences which people still claim to have. The World Health Organization (W.H.O.) defines health as A state of complete physical, mental and social well- being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. (Constitution, World Health Organization, adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19-22 June, 1946) This goes to show that focus needs to be put on both the physical and mental for a productive life. Idealism does not wholeheartedly agree with religious perspective in that it wouldnt support life after death. With idealism, there is no answer as to what becomes of the mind after death. However, it supports religion with respect to sin beginning in the mind and then manifesting in the physical realm. Idealism tends to play a role in the education sector. This theory also impacts the way children are educated. Children are told by their parents and teachers that if they conceive, believe then they will achieve. This emphasises the power of ideas in making a reality. In my view, dualism does not truly prove the existence of the soul or mind but believes that it exists through religion. Dualists define the mind as non-dimensional. How do you prove that it exists? What proof is there in place to prove that the mind still exists after the death of the body? This makes the theory not falsifiable. On the other hand, it may be true as there are physically healthy persons with mental conditions. This makes the theory more applicable to immortality. I believe however that idealism applies better to this present era with respect to inventions that were made in the last century and the technologically savvy life that we live. Every invention was once a thought before it became a

Name: Julian Gordon

reality. There had to be a concept firstly before anything could be made. With a shift from believing religion to thinking and reasoning, more ideas are being put forward.