Municipal Solid Waste Conversion DONALD K. WALTER 1.

INTROD CTION The purpose of this chapter is to present data me productive use of municipal solid waste (MSW). The unique characteristics of MSW at both encourage and hinder attempts to use it further before the ultimate disposal of 1conomic components will be discussed. The terms waste and refuse will be used interchangeabl! to signif! an!thing that is normall! thrown awa! as having no value !et en passed through an energ!" or materials ver! s!stem# it can be put to use economicall!. $nerg!"related uses will be emphasi%ed# although other uses will also be considered. &o material is li'el! to be rec!cled unless s either required in a specific process or is the economical to use than virgin materials. ( e)ample of the former are certain steel production processes that require scrap# the latter is e)emplified b! the rec!cling of aluminum cans# thus conserving *+, of the energ! required to ma'e the cans from raw material. -s the term is used in this chapter# MSW is limited to the waste normall! discarded in a sanitar! landfill without special controls. This definition e)cludes( ha%ardous wastes. wastes are normall! rec!cled at home. and prompt or intermediate industrial scrap. 1.1 !istor" The /it! of /hicago operated rendering plants in the 10+1s and used the resulting grease and oil to lubricate the municipal cable" car s!stem. 2! 100+ the first incinerator had been constructed# and b! 1*1+ the logical step of adding a boiler to an incinerator to produce steam had been underta'en in &ew 3or' /it! and in 4amburg# 5erman!. 6uring the two World Wars# source separation and rec!cling of strategic materials for war efforts were commonl! practiced. 7ollowing the Second World War combustion technolog! continued to develop in $urope# where energ! costs were

high# land was scarce# and where environmental concerns emerged son# what earlier than in the 8S-. 4igher population densities and municipal district"heating s!stems provided an e)cellent mar'et for the steam generated. The tendenc! was to construct refractor!" walled incinerators with waste heat boilers to simplif! pollution control and recover energ!. 2! the 1*+1s# the $uropean industr! began to develop the more efficient integrated water"walled boiler. The 8nited States# with cheaper energ! and more available land# relied primaril! on the use of landfills. 9n the more populous regions on the east coast# the tendenc! was to construct incinerators as a means of reducing the volume of waste requiring disposal. 7requentl!# these incinerators were constructed without proper pollution control devices and were overloaded. -s result the! frequentl! belched blac' smo'e# smelled bad# and were mar'ed b! litter. :ec!cling was limited to the use of garbage as animal feed or as compost. The environmental legislation of the 1*;1s# with its requirements for air pollution control# led to the closing of most 8S incinerators. Solid waste legislation in the 1*<1s led to e)perimentation with p!rol!sis and use of refuse"derived fuel (:67) in the 8S. The $uropean and =apanese e)perience tended towards the boiler s!stem# with somewhat greater emphasis on the efficienc! of energ! recover!. Where the plants of the l*;>swou9d have an e)tra combustion unit and be designed to have ;1, of capacit! in operation# the plant of the late 1*<1s would be designed to have <+, to 01, of capacit! in operation. 2! the 1*01s# the 8nited States seems to nave rediscovered the combustion s!stem. meanwhile# in $urope and =apan the trend now seems to be towards the development of :67 and prol!sis s!stems. # T!E RESO RCE #. 1 Co$position 6iscarded from residences# commercial establishments# institutions# and industries# MSW is a most heterogeneous substance. with the quantit! of an! particular constituent var!ing widel! with location. 6uring 1*<0# the 8S 6epartment

of $nerg! (6>$) sponsored a number of feasibilit! studies of waste"to energ! facilities. Those studies produced a total of 1? different estimates of the constituents of MSW. Some of the significant results are that estimates of paper content varied from ?1, to ++.;, of the waste. aluminum# from 1.@, to ?.@, (paper and aluminum are the largest materials components# respectivel!)

/onstituent Baper and paper products Blastic :ubber and leather Te)tiles Wood 7ood wastes 3ard wastes 5lass and ceramics Metals Miscellaneous ?<.0 @.; C.C ?.? ?.1 1@.C 1@.; *.1 0.C ?.1

Weight t#,)

4eating value (M=A'g

111.1 The moisture content averages about C+,. The 9norganics average about C1, The ash in the organics average about +,. /ompiled from a series of 6epartment of $nerg! reports published between D*<+ and 1*0C b! the author. and moisture (albeit not consistentl! reported)# from 1<.@, to @<.@,. Table 1 shows the average constituents compiled from a series of 6epartment f $nerg! reports. Table C shows the classification of wastes adopted b! the 9ncinerator

9nstitute of -merica (now the Solid W Brocessing 6ivision# -merican Socie1 Mechanical $ngineers (SWB6)). #.# Solid %aste $ana&e$ent 9n addition to ph!sical characteristics# institutional matters are of great significance i productive use of MSW. Waste is man through a solid waste management which ma! be thought of in terms of t components " collection# transportation. disposal. #.#. 1 Collection /ollection s!stems are not considered in d in this chapter. Waste collection constitutes necessar! public function# whatever the mate disposal mechanism. -s a result# no accrues to the energ!" or materials" recover! s!stem (shortened to energ! s!stem herearter) /ontents 4ighl! waste composition combustible (paper# wood# moisture (M=A'g)

plastic# etc.)( commercial and industrial sources /ombustible waste (paper# rags# wood# floor sweepings# domestic# etc.)( commercial#

and industrial Sources :ubbish and garbage( residential sources -nimal and vegetable matter( restaurant# hotel# mar'et# dub# and other sources -nimal solids /arcasses# organs# solid

and organic a organic wastes( hospital. wastes 5aseous# liquid# or requiring laborator!# .abattoir# and other sources 9ndustrial process wastes

semi liquid Semi"solid or /ombustibles solid

hearth retort or grate burning equipment

unless the collection s!stem has to be ;adified for that s!stem. -s an e)ample# if a s!stem requires residents to separate specific elements for separate collection (source separation)# then an! added collection costs should be charged in an economic evaluation the source separation s!stem. The appropriate formula would include the additional of vehicle amorti%ation and operating# including both collection and deliver!# pressing costs# etc.# and subtract savings reduction in other collection costs# reduced vehicle maintenance# etc.). >ne of man! publications that describes collection s!stems is that of 6ia% eraD. (1*0C). #.#.# Transportation The second component# transportation# also not considered here in an! detail# because is a necessar! service function of local government agencies. 4owever# transportation is li'el! to affect the overall cost of solid waste management# so it should be considered in overall refuse s!stem economics. 7requentl!# the site of the MSW refuse plant is not at an e)isting landfill# but close to the energ! user( the change in costs# between moving the collection or transfer vehicle from the centre of the collection site to the plant rather than to the e)isting landfill should be included in s!stem economics. 2ecause the energ! user is generall! closer to the municipalit! than is the landfill# this cost is normall! negative.

- second transportation cost to be considered is that of vehicle maintenance. -n MSW plant alwa!s includes a hardstand tipping floor# so vehicle maintenance is significantl! reduced when compared with that incurred as a result of operations in the harsh environment of the landfill. This maintenance The last component# disposal# is of great significance for an energ! from municipal waste ($MW) s!stem. Municipalities presentl! pa! a disposal or tipping fee to discard their waste in a landfill. -n alternative s!stem that uses the waste to recoup a product(s) for sale should earn an identical disposal fee. Thus# MSW is the onl! energ! source that is collected at a %ero or negative cost and delivered to the site of use at a %ero or negative cost. (-nd then the plant is paid to accept itD) 9n the northeastern section of the 8nited States in 1*0@# the average tipping fee was EC+ per ton. #.' (u)lic versus private perspectives -long with the positive economic aspects of using MSW as an energ! or materials source# one must note a number of liabilities. These liabilities are associated with institutional issues concerning the political# economic# and business aspects involved in the operation of an MSW facilit!. Such issues are often considered from the viewpoint of either the service or the business aspects of $MW facilities. The service aspect refers to the mun'ipalit! s view. The local agenc! wants all of the waste to disappear all of the time# with the least political liabilit! and the least perceived ris'# using as few facilities as possible. 9n contrast# the business aspect is shaped primaril! b! the desire that profit be ma)imi%ed (i.e. all the product is sold at the ma)imum price# with the minimum operating and construction costs). &ot surprisingl!# there two viewpoints can occasionall! be in stri'ing conflict. The siting of facilities is one maFor battleground. 7rom the service agenc! s point of view# the ideal s!stem site is out of sight responding to the public s &9M23 (not in m! bac' !ard) stance. frequentl!# the e)isting landfill is chosen. 9n contrast# the ideal site from the business point of view is at the desired mar'et.

The current optimum mar'et is a steam operating on oil# and the optimum business is at a factor!. #.* +inancin& -nother maFor institutional issue concerns economics and financing of $MW s!stem the 8nited States# there are methods used to finance $MW facilities (1) 5eneral obligation (5>) bonds. (C) :evenue bonds (162). (?) - combination of public and financing. (@) Brivate financing. 5> bonds offer the least e)pensive r of financing. The! are based on the G strength of the municipalit! issuing and are a pledge of the ta) income Gi municipalit!. The! are ta)"e)empt( obligations. 5enerall! the interest that during construction is paid from funds and is not accounted for in the economics of the s!stem. The disadvantage of 5> bonds is that the total amount that ma! be issued is limited b! law. the# the municipalit! must be willing to hi other uses of 5>"bond funds. 6espite disadvantages# the 5> bond is the most popular investment mechanism for the small scale s!stem. The 162 offers ta)"e)empt obligation are repaid from proFect revenues. bonds required that debt"reserve and wor'ing capital funds he developed and that during construction be amorti%ed. Theo the si%e of the bond issue ma! be twice large as the construction cost of the proFect. Brivate financing has the highest interest rates. however# the s!stem can be cons with less bac'"up and can be matched energ! mar'et. 7ew s!stems have been using private financing alone# because return on investment is marginal. The combination of public and private financing is the most popular form of financing for a large plant. - business invests appro)imatel! C+, of the required capital and assumes much of the ris'. 9n return# it acquires ownership and the full ta) benefits. The net present 8S law# the net present value the ta) benefits can be as

much as @1, of thee capital cost of the plant. The municipalit! sponsors ta)"e)empt 962s for the rest of the ital. 9n return# it avoids much of the ris'. addition# the capital requirements are reduced# and the initial tipping fee is lower. further details can be found in -non (1*01) -rgonne &ational Gaborator! (1*0?). TEC!NOLO,IES +OR RECO-ER. /D CON-ERSION O+ RD+ Municipal solid waste contains recoverable it"al# glass# plastic# and paper# useful for the manufacture of new metal# glass# paper# or products. 9n addition# the remaining and organic materials ma'e a better fuel than the original MSW# because some of i" combustible components have been d and the material has a more uniform si%e. The fuel portion is called refuse"derived :67) in the 8nited States and waste derived fuel (W67) in the 8nited Hingdom. - variet! of technologies for the productive use MSW and :67 are now or soon will be available# and can be classified into three broad categories( 1. Mechanical processing. These technologies include source separation and the mechanical manipulation of as received MSW to produce a solid fuel called refuse"derived fuel (:67) and materials for rec!cling. Goose (fluff)# densified (d:67)# and powdered p:67) forms of :67 are produced. The! ma! be used as a solid fuel or as a feedstoc' for other conversion processes. -ll source separation s!stems to date "have recovered materials for rec!cling which is a form of energ! conservation# since the value of the s!stem products is almost entirel! determined b! the cost of the energ! required to produce the same items from virgin materials. C. Thermochemical conversion. These technologies convert MSW or :67 to a more useful product b! the application of heat derived from MSW and :67. The end product ma! be steam# electricit!# or another fuel. 6iscounting source separation# the oldest of the $MW technologies is combustion. 4owever# p!rol!sis and gasification s!stems are emerging for these biomass materials (see this volume /hapter 11 and 11).

?. 2iochemical conversion. These technologies use organisms or their b!"product en%!mes to convert MSW to liquid or gaseous fuels or more stable solids. -naerobic digestion converts the natural organic matter in MSW to a mi)ture of methane and carbon dio)ide (see /hapter 1?). in addition# certain organisms selectivel! convert cellulose to glucose# which ma! then be fermented to produce alcohol. The organic fraction of MSW can be stabili%ed b! either aerobic or anaerobic bacteria to produce compost. /ompost is useful as a soil conditioner and a wea' fertili%er# and it has also been used as a base for ma'ing other fertili%ers. '.1 Source separation 9n the conte)t of source separation# mechanical processing is arguabl! the oldest of the s!stems for rec!cling of wastes. Source separation has occurred in times of emergenc!# to recover food wastes as feed for domestic livestoc'# and rec!cling of scrap has occurred in industr!# but the source separation of rec!clable material from MSW for materials began in the late 1*;1s. The prime rec!clable materials are aluminum# paper# iron and steel# and glass. >ther potentiall! rec!clable materials include plastics# food wastes# t!res# and other metals (Martin# 1*0C). The value of a recoverable material is# in part# related to the energ! conserved in its remanufacture to new materials. Table ? lists certain recoverable materials for which recover! and energ! conserv*ton estimates have been made. Berhaps the best 8S e)ample of a source separation programme with home collection is in Madison# Wisconsin. Special rac's have been added to Madison s trash collection vehicles. 2undled. newsprint separated and placed at the curbside b! residents is placed in the special rac' b! the collector at the same time as other (mi)ed) waste is being collected. -t the landfill# before the vehicle is emptied of its normal load# mechanical trips on the rac's facilitate dumping the newspaper. Thus# collection occurs at virtuall! no cost to the citi%ens or their local government.

Source separation is practiced in other countries# as well as in the 8nited States. 9n certain parts of $urope where the local brewer! is a fi)ture# beer is delivered to the door# and empt! bottles are collected and returned to the brewer! to be used again. - frequent argument is the compatibilit! of source separation and energ! recover!. 9n fact the argument can he reduced to the compatibilit! of paper and plastic rec!cling# versus their use as a fuel. 9n the 8S# the argument stems from the 1*<1s when plant si%e was based upon an average available waste rather than the weight of the waste available for the recover! plant. -s a result several plants were constructed that were grossl! oversi%ed. 7or e)ample# a 1111 ton per da! plant was structured in an area that controlled onl! tons per da!. 9n fact# removal of as much the rec!clable paper and plastic as feasible will onl! remove +, of the energ! content the waste# while removal of the inorganics (particularl! the aluminum with its lowing point) will improve the efficienc! reduce maintenance costs of the s!stem. Tm there is no conflict so long as the en s!stem is not oversi%ed and the combustible components should be allowed to see' the most economic mar'et. - further discussion of source separation and rec!cling is available in Iesilind :imer (1*01). '.# Mec0anical separation s"ste$s Mechanical s!stems# designed to separate waste into specific components to be revered and used again# represent a !oung technolog!. !et when development started in earl! 1*<1s# combustion technologies alread! mature. So wh! was there a push something newJ The most li'el! reasons a twofold. 7irst# technolog! development initiated in the 8S# where various environmental acts had resulted in the closing of a large number of incinerators because of the uncontrolled stac' emissions. 8ndoubtedl!# this wave of closings created a basic concern about an! direct combustion technolog!.

Second# the principal concern " then as now " was that MSW should disappear. - s!stem that would produce a solid fuel that could be burned in e)isting boilers as a partial replacement for coal should be less e)pensive# because the cost of the combustion chamber and boiler would be eliminated and utilit! boilers e)isted in or near ever! large cit!. Mechanical s!stems perform two basic functions " homogeni%ation (or si%e reduction) and separation. 4omogeni%ation is 'nown b! a variet! of names# including shredding# hammer milling# and grinding. 6ia% et aD. (1*0C) suggest that the most descriptive term is shredding# because no than C+, of the waste stream is brittle. Shredding results in smaller and more uniform particles for subsequent separation operations# and since the principal value of the separated components is their fuel value# the small particles enhance combustion characteristics. 7igure 1 shows t!pical si%e distributions aw (as"received) and shredded MSW components. -n!thing that is not wanted ma! be found MSW. Therefore# used paint cans# spra! cans# old gasoline cans# old or unwanted ammunition# powdered resins# solvents# and other potentiall! flammable or e)plosive materials will be found on occasion. These constituents can e)plode in a hot# confined# and spar'"filled space " such as a shredder ($:6-# 1*<+). -fter the raw waste has been shredded to a more easil! handled si%e# it ma! be separated a number of components. 9f the prime interest is in the production of fuel# then a maFor goal is to remove the non"combustible matter. 9f the aim is to recover specific components for rec!cling# then rec!cled purit! of covered product becomes ver! important. The nature of the separation equipment depends on the ph!sical and chemical proper of the material to he recovered. - binar! device divides the material stream into two products# and a ternar! device into three or more streams (-lter# 1*0?). Sometimes separation can be effected b! means of the electrical properties of the recovered materials. Magnetic separators for ferrous metals# edd! current

deflectors for non" magnetic metals such as aluminum# and possibl! electrostatic separators# for dielectrics such as paper and plastics (Iesilind and :imer 1*01). Screens separate waste based on its ph!sical dimensions. There are man! t!pes of screens. The desired characteristics " be!ond the si%e of the opening " include the abilit! to agitate the shredded waste to e)pose fresh material to the screen and the abilit! to clear material that blinds screen openings. Three t!pes of screens are in use at MSW mechanical processing plants " flat# trommel or rotar!# and disc screens. The most frequentl! used screen is the rotar! screen which can simultaneousl! be used to open bags# smash glass and remove undersi%ed material before it reaches a primar! shredder. 6ensit! separation b! means of air classifiers and flotation is also being utili%ed. -ir classification can be used in a ternar! s!stem separating light combustibles from aluminum and heav! materials through the use of baffles and air 'nives . The principal product of the mechanical processing s!stem is :67. 9n its original shredded and separated form# it is fluff :67 having a low bul' densit! and relativel! high moisture content# so it is difficult to store and transport. There are cases on record where as much as C111 tons of shredded waste stored for a wee' solidified into a papier mKchL"li'e mass. To improve the characteristics of fluff :67# research was underta'en to adapt the various pelleti%ers# cubetters# and briquetters that had been developed principall! for the agriculture and charcoal industries. Their operation depends upon either forcing shredded and separated waste through a die (pelleti%er and cubetter) or squee%ing it between two wheels. -ll function reasonabl! well# although in the 8S# the devices do not reach their rated capacities. The 8H has been ver! successful in producing d:67 for industrial boilers. (The 8H produces <1, of its steam for industr! in coal fired boilers with grates.) -nother effort to improve the characteristics of :67 involves treating the natural organic with acid. The acid embrittles the organic material# which is then ground in a d ball mill. The resultant p:67 is ver! uniform and quite dr!. 8nfortunatel!# the full"scale plant

encountered a large number of difficulties. 2efore these could be resolved and the plant made commerciall! operational# the developer went ban'rupt. >n a positive note# however# the fuel produced b! this plant was burned successfull! in a c!clone utilit! furnace at up to +1, p:67. The s!stems that have been built to date have been designed for three purposes( the recover! of specific materials for rec!cling. the recover! of :67 to be used in an e)isting boiler( and the production of fuel for a special boiler designed for the :67. 9n the 8S# the original intent of mechanical processing was to provide fuel to large suspension# coal fired boilers. >f the CC processing plants built in the 8S# onl! two have been designed b! the same engineer for the same purpose (i.e. as integrated# :67"dedicated boiler plants). $ven these two are not identical. one is twice the si%e of the other and is designed accept coal as an alternative feedstoc'. the! were also designed at the same time so that neither could gain e)perience from the other. The remaining C1 plants are of separate designs and were essentiall! designed at the same time. thus# their designers were unable to draw upon each other s e)perience. This provides some e)planation for the relativel! poor e)perience with these s!stems in the 8S. >f the CC 8S plants# two were designed to recover materials# and both are closed# neither was able to develop acceptable mar'ets for the product and both had technical problems that were not full! resolved. $leven plants have been constructed to recover :67 and onl! secondaril! to recover materials( four are operational and sell :67 to e)isting utilit! boilers. The plants which are closed had a combination of technical and institutional problems. &ine plants have been built to provide fuel to a dedicated boiler. Si) are operational while the boiler for a seventh is in construction. 9n the 8H a slower more orderl! research program has been developed. it is considered that the collection of sufficient waste in one place to ma'e a significant impact on the fuel consumption of a large utilit! boiler would not be economic in the situation. Sevent! percent of industrial steam generation is b! means of small coal fired boilers with grates and MSW and :67 s!stems have been developed to fit.

$arl! wor' developed fluff :67 as feed for these boilers plus cement 'ilns. -fter success with these efforts# the 8H began developing pelleti%ers to e)tend the utilit! and enhance the fuel value of :67. /urrentl!# there are two :67 plants in operation and two d:67 pilot plants gathering data. :esearch and full scale or test scale facilities are also underwa! in the rest of $urope and =apan. These units and tests are meeting with var!ing degrees of success. Most are reporting some difficult!. '.' T0er$oc0e$ical conversion s"ste$ Thermochemical s!stems are designed to change MSW " either as"received MSW or :67 " into such energ! forms as hot water# steam# or electricit! or into a more valuable fuel form. More than +11 s!stems worldwide are burning waste to produce steam# but there are few commercial"scale s!stems producing gaseous fuel from waste. The distinguishing characteristic among thermal s!stems is the amount of o)!gen made available. 9f sufficient o)!gen is available to complete the o)idation of the components# then the s!stem is an incinerator. -s the o)!gen suppl! is restricted# the o)idation is less complete. the resulting products comprise a range of combustible gases# liquids# and solids. '.'.1 Co$)ustion

9f the heat produced b! an incinerator is used for a productive purpose# then the s!stem is better defined as a combustor or boiler. -ll MSW combustion s!stems have the following components in common ( (1) (C) (?) (@) (+) receiving area. storage area. preparation s!stem. feed s!stem (to feed to combustor). combustion chamber(s).

(;) (<) (0)

boiler. pollution control equipment. and ash removal equipment. The feeding s!stem depends on the design of the combustor. Most large mass

Some of these individual components ma! be combined. burning s!stems use a crane with clam"shell or orange"peel buc'et to transfer the charge of waste into a feed hopper. The :67 dedicated boiler usuall! is fed b! a series of conve!ers and an air"swept spreader"sto'er. The metering device can be variable speed screw or belt conve!ers# simple flappers# or some other device. alternativel!# the metering ma! not be controlled at this point. 7irst and foremost# the combustion chamber " the heart of the thermal s!stem " provides a surface upon which the waste can burn. The t!pical small combustor"has a heat" resistant surface and a series of h!draulic rams to move the smoldering waste through the furnace# while the mass burning furnace generall! has a proprietar! grate that supports# transports and admits air underneath (under"fire air) the burning refuse. (6epartment of /ommerce# 1*<0 and Turner# 1*0? include schematic drawings of different grate s!stems.) The dedicated boiler usuall! has a traveling grate to perform the same functions as the grate of the mass burner. The second function of the combustion chamber is to provide combustion air to the burning waste. 9n addition to the underline air# the combustion chamber admits over fire air to mi) the combustion products and ensure their complete burnout. The t!pical small

often mechanicall! conve!ed to the water pit be combined with the bottom ash and tings for ultimate disposal( Some dr! ash s!stems are being constructed especiall! when ash disposal site is distant from the plant. More than @11 field"erected mass burning plants worldwide are currentl! operating and recovering energ!. >f these# 1; are operating n the 8S. 9n addition# seven :67"dedicated boiler plants are operating (si) in the 8S and one in /anada)# and there are over +1 factor!"crected small modular combustors (?1 of them the 8S). 7igure C shows a t!pical mass burning waste"to"energ! plant. 9t shows the Saugus# Massachusetts# plant which produces superheated steam (@.< MBa# @;;* M/) for sale to a nearb! industr!. - steam turbine generator set is being installed to broaden the mar'et for energ! from the plant. The plant s technical details include a pit for storage of the waste# a crane"and"buc'et feed s!stem# a proprietar! $uropean grate s!stem# and n $SB. &ot shown are the over fire air# inFected at the throat on the water wall section# and the h!draulic ram# which pushes waste into the combustion chamber. The t!pical mass burning MSW combustion s!stem controls steam production b! cooling the speed of the feed ram and grates and the amount and location of the over fire air. /ontrol within +, of"a et point is common. The principal operating problems are erosion and corrosion of the tube surfaces These problems are thought to be functions of the temperature of the tube surface and to be caused b! a comple) iron"sulphur"chlorine reaction# - classic curve of the corrosion relation in a municipal waste combustor shows a sharp increase over a ++ M/ range centered at about 1<1 M/. The corrosion rate then becomes low up to about @<1 M/# at which point the corrosion proceeds rapidl!. 7igure ? is a graph of this corrosion mechanism. The corrosion appears to be worse in the vicinit! of steam soot blowers# because soot blowers tend to dislodge an! protective coating on the tubes. The solutions lie in boiler design# control of steam temperatures# tube metallurg!# and mechanical rapping s!stems. /orrosion and erosion also occur in the vicinit! of changing o)idi%ing and reducing atmospheres. Broper design of over fire

air s!stems and coating of refractor! surfaces in e)posed %ones can overcome the problem in such areas. 9n addition to corrosion and erosion problems# the walls and tubes can become fouled with slag if temperatures are not controlled and provisions are not made for cleaning of the walls. 9n one new plant# slag build"up was sufficient essentiall! to prevent the walls from removing beat from the combustion gas. The temperatures were to drop 1<1 M/ but onl! dropped 1+ M/. -s a result the temperature was too high at the super heater tubes and some tube failure was e)perienced. - t!pical dedicated :67 combustion s!stem is shown schematicall! in 7igure @. &ot shown is the :67 preparation plant# which delivers :67 pneumaticall! from a storage device to the hopper (on the upper left). The :67 falls b! gravit! to the air swept spreader"sto'er above and to the right of the person shown in 7igure @. The :67 is blown into the boiler# where half of it burns in suspension and half falls on the rear of traveling grate. -s the grate moves forward (towards the figure) the :67 complete burn out and ash falls into an ash pit. The principal operating problems include the corrosion and erosion problems described for the mass burning s!stem. 9n addition# if the temperature on the grate is not carefull! controlled# aluminum and glass ma! melt and resolidif! on moving parts. the correction of this problem does not seem to be well in hand although limiting grate temperature will help. 6edicated :67 units are also susceptible to slagging and development of deposits on the rear wall of the boiler. this problem can be corrected b! controlling the air"swept feeder and b! adding coatings and soot blowers on the rear wall. - variation on the dedicated :67 boiler burns :67 normall! as a partial replacement for coal in an e)isting spreader"sto'er boiler. Test burns at up to 111, :67 b! energ! content have been successful. however# the boiler must be derated up to 1+, of output in order to accommodate the higher moisture and ash contents of :67. 6ensified :67 has been burned successfull! with coal. Broblems include the somewhat higher particulate matter rating on the pollution control equipment (offset

b! lower sulphur emissions)# the boiler derating and where the percentage of :67 is high# overheating on the grate surfaces. The suspension fired boiler# designed to burn coal# constitutes a third maFor variet! of boiler for MSW"based fuels. T!picall!# utilit! boilers have been used because of their availabilit!. a good grade of :67 fuel must be produced# and the ratio of B67 to coal is limited to 11, b! energ! content. The basic design includes an :67 plant located at the utilit! boiler site. -t the utilit! plant# some t!pe of storage and reclamation facilit! (supplied b! truc' or conve!er) is provided. The :67 is reclaimed b! a metering device# pneumaticall! transported# and blown into the boiler (usuall! through coal no%%les that have been repiped and converted for :67). 5enerall!# onl! half the :67 burns in suspension. the remainder falls to the bottom of the furnace. 9t is common practice for dump grates to be retrofitted in the furnace to hold the :67 until it completes combustion. The dump grates also tend to retain coal clin'ers# which cool and are no longer brittle after the! pass through the ash pit. This adversel! affects the operation of the clin'er grinders. Some success has been achieved# although the maForit! of the plants that have been closed in the 8S have been designed to provide :67 to e)isting boilers. These s!stems have e)perienced several problems. The dump grate has permitted completion of burn out. however# :67 ash has formed clin'ers on the grate that required manual rodding for removal# and as noted above# the coal ash has changed its characteristics in a wa! that adversel! affects the ash grinders. -nother problem is strictl! institutional. Most utilities operate on the principle of economic dispatch (i.e. the! obtain electricit! from the cheapest source even if the! must bu! rather than internall! produce the electricit!). The plants converted to burn :67 are t!picall! the older units. These units are operated for pea'ing power# so the! are frequentl! off line. Meanwhile# MSW is made to :67 ever! da! and is not easil! stored. The last t!pe of commerciall! operational MSW combustion unit is the modular combustor. Modular combustors have man! names and are made b! a large

number of manufacturers. The! are characteri%ed b! assembl! line construct on in a factor! and b! possession of one or more secondar! chambers to allow for complete burnout of combustion gases. The t!pical unit (with energ! recover!) has a capacit! range of C+ " 11+ tAd. The receiving area is usuall! a flat floor. Small s'id"steer tractors mi) and push the MSW into a small# single charge point. - door closes off the pit and a h!draulic ram pushes the waste through an interloc'ed door into the prime combustion chamber operates under start air conditions. The gases produced trave through a throat into a secondar! combustion chamber# where e)cess air is added to complete combustion. The secondar! chamber has an au)iliar! gas or oil burner for start and has a pilot light to ensure combustion. &ormall!# this burner operates onl! during start"up. The waste is transported through primar! chamber b! a series of h!draulic ram operating on a stepped hearth. The original units (man! of which operation as incinerators) were allowed to burn out each evening. 9n the morning# the bac' of chamber was opened and the ash manual removed before the da! s processing begin. The modern units have automatic ash remove s!stems that permit continuous operation 7igure + is a schematic of a modular combustor. 9n principle the low velocit! in the prime chamber and the fire in the second chamber should combine to decrease o)idi%e the particulate matters so that pollutant control equipment would be unnecessar! practice# the units are on the borderline meeting 8S particulate control standards# at man! small plants include pollution control. /orrosion is not a problem in the present modular combustors# because steam conditions have been limited to saturation conditions. -s the steam temperature is allowed to rise# some corrosion will occur (as in larger combustion units). 7ouling can be problem in these modular units# particularl! the boilers have obstruction. >ther problems include refractor! wear and combustion control. -nother thermal s!stem nearl! commercial status is the fluidi%ed bed combustion (72/) s!stem. 9t has a bed of sand or other fine material that is 'ept fluid

b! a ris' current of air. 2ecause of the large mass of bed material and the inherent mi)ing of the air# :67 burns uniforml! and rapidl!. 2ed temperature can be controlled precisel! if this temperature is limited to 01+ o/ agglomeration of the bed is no problem because the glass does not soften. The amount of air necessar! for combustion is controlled as much b! the need to fluidi%e the bed as b! the need to provide sufficient combustion air. $)cess air can be limited to @+, to +1,# in comparison with 111, in conventional burners. 9n addition# the bed material can be varied and used to capture chlorine and sulphur compounds (Tre%a'# 1*0?). The first large"scale fluidi%ed bed combustor built at 6uluth# Michigan has encountered fuel preparation and fuel feeding problems. The fuel preparation and fluid bed configuration has been modified and the s!stem is in operation again. Table @ lists some operating facilities in the 8S and /anada. This list is not meant to be complete and the inclusion or omission of an! specific plant is not to be construed meaningful. '.'.# ("rol"sers and &asi1iers

- number of commercial scale MSW gasification s!stems have been constructed (Huester# 1*0?). Si) -&6/>"Torra) s!stems were built( four in $urope and one each in =apan arid the 8S. >f these si) s!stems# two are operating as of the preparation of this document (=ul! 1*0+)# three are operational# and one has been dismantled. The -&6/>"Torra) s!stem uses as"received MSW stored in a pit. crane loads a loc' hopper which in turn drops the MSW into a c!lindrical chamber. -s the waste falls# it is successfull! dried and gasified. -t the bottom of the chamber the ungasified carbon char is burned with high temperature air to provide a rising current of hot gas. The combustion %one temperatures are hot enough to slag the metals# glass# and ash which flow from the unit through a slag tap. The hot gas produced# which has an energ! content of +.; M=Am ? without including the sensible heat# is immediatel! burned in a secondar! combustion chamber. Bart of the hot gas is e)hausted through regenerative towers# which heat the combustion air to *01 M/. The

remainder of the gas then passes through a boiler and Foins the gas from the regenerative tower before being e)hausted through a pollution control device. &ipon Steel has constructed a direct heat s!stem that uses preheated air enriched heat o)!gen. The facilit!# with a capacit! of @11 tAd has been constructed at 9baragi /it!# =apan. 9t uses :67"C# co'e# and limestone. The end product# a fuel gas# probabl! has an energ! content between that of the -&6/>"Torrra) s!stem and a Buro) s!stem. The Buro) s!stem was developed b! 8nion /arbide /orporation. - unit is operating at /ichibu /it!# =apan. This s!stem uses uses essentiall! pure o)!gen to gasif! :67"C. The design is similar to the -&6/>"Torra) unit. :67"C is introduced through twin ram feeders. -s the waste settles it is successivel! dried and gasified. -t the bottom the char is combusted with pure o)!gen. The slag from the bottom of the reactor is an obsidian li'e glass that is stable and hard. - number of indirect heat s!stems have also reached reasonable large scale. -t :edwood /it!# /alifornia# a @+ tAd unit produces a gaseous product from automobile shredder organic materials. The s!stem uses a loo' hopper feeding a vibrating conve!er in a long radiant heated hori%ontal chamber. Bart of the gaseous product is used for the radiant heaters. the rest is burned to produce steam in a conventional boiler. The >ccidental :esearch s!stem at $l /aFon. /alifornia# was designed to use an :67"@ fuel in an entrained reactor to produce a liquid. The char was separated in a c!clone and burned to provide hot gas for the process. The liquid product was condensed from the gas stream from the reactor. The remaining gas stream (after the liquid product was condensed) was also used for s!stem energ!. The product liquid was highl! o)!genated and viscous# and it deteriorated in storage. This s!stem was shut down until some research questions were answered. 9n =apan# two companies are developing indirectl! heated fluidi%ed bed gasifiers. :67 is fed to a bed of hot sand# which is fluidi%ed with product gas. the :67 gasifies. The bed velocit! is high to elutriate the char# which is removed in a c!clone

and burned in second fluidi%ed bed to provide hot sand for the first bed. - similar s!stem# using dual"media beds# is under development in the 8S use with wood. 8&9/9B-G S>G96 W-ST$ />&I$:S9>& Table @. Selected MSW thermal facilities 7acilit! t!pe and location +ield2erected $ass )urnin& plants Westchester /ount!# &3 Saugus# Mass Montreal# Nuebec 4ampton# Ia 5allatin# Tenn RD+2dedicated )oilers 6ade /ount!# 7la &iagara 7alls# &3 -'ron# >hio -lban!# &3 4amilton# >ntario Modular co$)ustors Bittsfield# Mass -uburn# M$ Bascagoula# Miss Susanville# /alif :ed Wing# Minn 1*01 1*01 1*0@ 1*0+ 1*0C ?;1 Steam for industr! C11 Steam for industr! 1+1 Steam for industr! *; /ogeneration <C 6istrict heat 1*0C 1*01 1*<0 1*0C 1*<C 1*0@ 1*<+ 1*<1 1*01 1*01 CC+1 $lectricit! 1+11 Steam for industr! 1C11 6istrict heat C11 Steam for government C11 Steam for industr! . ?111 $lectricit! and materials C111 /ogeneration 1111 6istrict heat <+1 6istrict heat +11 $lectric (1*0C) 3ear operational 6esign capacit! (tAd) Broduct

>sceola# -r' 5roveton# &4 RD+ 1or e3istin& )oilers 2altimore /ount!# M6 -mes# 9owa Madison# Wis '.*. 4ioc0e$ical s"ste$s

1*01 1*<C

+1 Steam for industr! C@ Steam for industr!

1*<0 1*<+ 1*<*

1C11 /!clone utilit! boiler @11 Suspension utilit! boiler @11 9ndustrial boiler

2iochemical s!stems use organisms or the products of organisms to change MSW into fuel. 9n controlled reactors# t!picall! the MSW must be processed into a :67# while uncontrolled reactors t!picall! use the MSW in its as"received form. -n e)ample of the former is a reactor converting MSW to sugars for fermentation to ethanol and of the latter a sanitar! landfill naturall! degrading organics to methane and carbon dio)ide. There are a number of distinguishing characteristics of biochemical s!stems# >ne is the availabilit! of o)!gen to the s!stem. >rganisms are either aerobic# anaerobic# or facultative (living with or without o)!gen). -nother maFor distinguishing characteristic is whether the organism performs the conversion function as a part of its life c!cle or produces an en%!me that catal!ses the conversion reaction. When compared to thermo"chemical s!stems# biochemical s!stems are slow (reaction times of hours or da!s) but operate at mild conditions (near atmospheric pressure and below 111M/ and produce specific products. There are three maFor biochemical s!stems at an advanced research state. anaerobic digestion to produce methane"rich gas# fermentation of cellulose to glucose for further conversion to ethanol# and composting. 7urther there are two subsets of anaerobic digestion. controlled and landfill. '.*.1 4io&as

- large fraction of MSW is biodegradable (see Table 1). 4owever# certain organic molecules resist brea'down. These include the lignins that form C+, of wood# and the maForit! of the man"made plastics and fibres. -n appropriate feedstoc' preparation s!stem must remove as much of this material as possible along with the in organics which are not biodegradable. The measure of the organic material in a substance is volatile solid (IS). IS is determined b! heating a sample to a controlled temperature for a controlled period of time. The loss in weight of the sample is the IS. &ormall!# the sample is then heated until the weight is stable. The remainder is ash. Thus the non"biodegradable portions of the sample contribute to the volatile solids. >ther tests are in use which subFect a sample to a controlled set of biological conditions. The loss of weight is the biodegradable solids. The most modern t!pe reactor being developed uses some form of a solid bed on which the organisms can be immobili%ed. 2ed designs var!. - facilit! operating on distiller! waste in Buerto :ico has plastic egg crate pac'ing with the substrate flowing upwards through it. - 1*1 m ? sludge digester (-&7G>W) tested b! the 8S 6epartment of $nerg! had plastic rings with the substrate flowing upwards. >ther schemes in development use hori%ontal or %ig%ag flow with plastic baffles and e)panded or fluidi%ed beds of sand. These units all have the same characteristics# ver! short h!draulic retention time (4:T) (0 hours of less) and ver! long retention time (S:T) (a !ear or more). The short 4:T adversel! affects the energ! recover! since as much as half of the methane can remain dissolved in the effluent but the long S:T decreases the sludge disposal problems common with waste water treatment plants. There are no commercial MSW anaerobic digestion s!stems in operation in the world. although there are numerous digesters operating on sewage sludge primaril! for stabili%ation. 9n addition# there are a large number of digesters operating on manures particularl! in /hina and 9ndia. There are research. programs on MSW digestion in the 8S# 9tal! and Spain. The initial 8S research (Bfeffer# 1*0+) and economic studies established the viabilit! of the technolog!. St Gouis# Missouri# :67 was used in laborator! digesters.

1.?< m?A'% of volatile solids were fed at thermophilic temperatures up to ;1 M/. Table S presents the results as related to volatile solids destruction. 2ased on studies b! 6!natech /orp (Wise et al.# 1*<@)# the 6epartment of $nerg! issued a competitive solicitation of construct a proof"of"concept scale MSW anaerobic digestion s!stem. Waste Management 9nc was selected to construct and operate the s!stem. /onstruction of the +1 to 111 ton per da! facilit! was completed in 1*<0 and has produced gas since. 9nitial operation at mesophilic and subsequent operation at thermophilic temperatures confirmed the laborator! research results. Walter (1*0+) contains a complete list of research data collected since 1*01. The earlier data are flawed since the digester could not be fed consistentl! and the means of collection was not operating properl!. Table contains some data from the -pril 1*0+ period. '.*.#. Land1ill &as - second form of anaerobic digestion is much further advanced. 9t is the uncontrolled digestion that naturall! occurs in e)isting landfills. The origin of this emerging industr! is the requirement to control emissions for safet! reasons. The sanitar! landfill that required dail! cover resulted in gas migration. >n occasion# the gas was trapped# concentrated# and with a spar' would burn or e)plode. Thus biogas was collected on the perimeter of landfill for migration control. 9n 1*<+ &:5 9nc# a predecessor of 5ett! S!nthetic 7uels# recogni%ed the value of the flared gas# developed a molecular sieve based on natural %eolite formations and began the purification of biogas from the Balos Ierdes# /alifornia landfill to a s!nthetic natural gas (essentiall! pure methane) which is sold to a southern /alifornian $dison /orp# gas distribution main. Subsequentl! the -%usa Gand :eclamation /ompan! tapped its landfill at -%usa# /alifornia and sold biogas directl! to :eich"hold /hemical /ompan! as a boiler fuel. The final mar'et development was the installation of engine generator sets to generate electricit!.

The technolog! of the recover! of landfill gas is relativel! simple. - well is drilled verticall! in an e)isting landfill or is created hori%ontall! while the landfill is under construction. T!picall!# slotted plastic pipe with slip Foints is inserted in the centre of the well and pac'ed with gravel. &ear the surface a concrete or cla! cap seals the well against infiltration. The wells are then manifolded together and a slight vacuum applied to draw the biogas to a treatment station. 9f the end use requires medium energ! gas (1+ M=Am?) then the treatment s!stem generall! removes the condensate. Where high energ! gas (essentiall! pure methane) is desired after condensate control# the carbon dio)ide is removed b! a number of processes including molecular sieve# scrubbing with water or a variet! of proprietar! compounds# and membrane filtration (>T-# 1*0C# -share et al.# 1*0C). The electric generation option generall! uses condensate control in front of a reciprocating or gas turbine engine generator set in a few instances the gas is sold to an e)isting utilit! boiler as a supplemental fuel# 7or the purposes of this discussion# that is a'in to the sale of a boiler fuel. The preferred landfill gas s!stem in the 8S is the sale of a medium energ! gas for use a boiler fuel since capital costs are low and the oil or gas displaced is a high value fuel. 4owever# the co"location of a landfill with an appropriate boiler is rare. The choice between producing high energ! gas for the pipeline and electricit! is a matter of economics although the potential for a nearb! electric distribution s!stem is higher than that for a natural gas pipeline# and 8S law requires that electric utilities purchase third part! generated electricit!. - landfill s e)pected to produce between C+1 and *11 m?A(t.!) for at least C1 !ears. 7or at least 11 !ears the gas will be produced in economic quantities# rough formulae for the costs of landfill gas recover! in the 8S are given b! Bfeffer et al. (1*0?). There are e)isting research efforts that are designed to understand the generation and recover! processes. 7or instance# some computer models related to the design of wells and their sphere of influence have been developed. $)isting and planned wor' is designed to understand the boundar! conditions of the landfill and

the microbial populations responsible for biogas production. Table < is a partial list of landfill gas recover! facilities in the 8S. '.*.' Et0anol - second biochemical process converts MSW to ethanol. 7rom an energ! standpoint the ethanol is used as a fuel or automotive fuel additive although there is a wide variet! of chemical uses of the industrial sector. The use of ethanol and other alcohols as fuels is not new. :ecentl!# the use of alcohol as a fuel has become prevalent and some countries such as 2ra%il (see this volume /hapter 1;) have large"scale use or vehicles fuelled with pure ethanol. 8ntil recentl! all industrial grade ethanol was produced b! thermal processes from natural gas. With the increase in oil prices and the availabilit! of e)cess grain in the 8nited States# the interest in the fermentation of ethanol from sugar and starch for fuel purposes was re'indled. /onversion of both wood"band MSW celluloses is in e)perimental development. Some research has been conducted and proposals advanced for pilot and commercial facilities. The maForit! of the research has been based on wood and agricultural wastes. This wor' is e)pected to be applicable to MSW. The MSW conversion s!stem has five distinct steps( the concentration and pretreatment of the cellulosic and carboh!drate components. the conversion of those components to sugars. the fermentation of sugars to ethanol. and the distillation of the ethanolAwater mi)ture. 9n essence# the concentration step has described in the feedstoc' preparation s!stems above. - potential complicating factor is the removal of plastics. - source separation s!stem concentrating the food components might be particularl! advantageous in a MSW to alcohol s!stem since these tend to be higher in starch and sugars. The conversion of the cellulosic components ma! be accomplished b! two techniques# acid and en%!matic h!drol!sis. The former was described in patents in 1001 and used in the 7irst World War to h!drol!%e cellulose to sugar mostl! for

animal fodder. 9t is relativel! quic' with reaction times in the range of seconds to minutes. 8nfortunatel!# the acids then h!drol!%e the sugars to undesireable products from an energ! standpoint with reaction times of the same order of magnitude. &either of these techniques is used commerciall!# although research and development is being conducted on both. Much of the current acid h!drol!sis research is being accomplished in /anada and =apan on wood and agricultural feed"stoc's. The principal research on MSW was done b! 6r :ugg at the &ew 3or' 8niversit!# under the sponsorship of the 8S $nvironmental protection -dministration. The basic process is an e)trusion s!stem based upon twin screw machines such as those used in industrial plastic e)truders. :ugg s wor' was based upon the h!drol!sis of newsprint. Subsequentl! wor'ing on wood as a feedstoc'# he found t!pical reaction times were ;.; seconds C@1 M/ while the acid concentrations varied from 1, to @, (:ugg# 1*0C). -t the higher concentrations the product was almost free of unreacted cellulose# although the overall glucose !ield dropped from +@, to ?;,. The concentrations of other sugars such as )!lose and mannose were high. -t this time neither at these five"carbon sugars is commerciall! converted to ethanol although research has identified some !easts which do ferment )!lose to alcohol. - relativel! short increase a reaction time resulted in a further conversion of the sugars to undesirable energ! products such as furfural. 6irect fermentation of the h!drol!sates was carried out with **, of the glucose being consumed in C0 hours. The en%!matic h!drol!sis process was initiall! researched b! the 8S -rm!# principall! at its &atic' laboratories as part of a materialsApreservation program. Subsequentl!# the research turned to use of the process first as food source and subsequentl! as a fuel source (:eese# 1*<;). Subsequentl! a number of researches began efforts to develop further en%!matic h!drol!sis of MSW feedstoc'. This wor' continues. >ne e)ample is the wor' b! 6r $mert which began in 1*<1 for the 5ulf >il /hemicals /orp# and subsequentl! transferred to the 8niversit! of -r'ansas 7oundation where he conducted research that included a one ton per da! prepilot

plant at Bittsburg# Hansas. MSW# pulp mill# agricultural and saw mill wastes were all tested as substrates for the production of cellulose en%!mes and the subsequent conversion of those substrates to ethanol. The overall s!stem used the en%!me in a simultaneous saccharification fermentation step. The development of the process continues with a +1 ton per da! facilit! reported as the ne)t logical scale"up step. >ne of the maFor requirements to advance en%!matic h!drol!sis of MSW is the development of a viable pretreatment process that will improve the digestibilit! of the cellulose fibre. '.*.* Co$postin& - unique MSW biochemical s!stem is composting. /omposting stabili%es the putrescible fraction of MSW and sewage solids (SS) to humus. 9t is an ancient natural process that man has to learn to control. Scientific e)amination of the process began in the middle of this centur! under the auspices of governmental agencies and universities. The state of the art has advanced to the point that commercial facilities are offered toda!. The basic process uses micro"organisms to o)idativel! brea' down the organics to stable compounds# carbon dio)ide# and heat. /orn" posting can be either aerobic or anaerobic and ma! operate at mesophilic or thermophilic temperatures to sterili%e the final product. The resulting compost is currentl! used as a soil conditioner# low grade fertili%er or carrier for chemical fertili%ers. Since the heat generated drives off much of the moisture# particularl! from the normal wet feedstoc's such as SS and manures# the compost ma! also be a viable solid fuel although it is not in commercial use for this purpose at this time. Most composting operations have four steps ( (1) preparation (and mi)ing) of the feed"stoc'(s). (C) decomposition. (?) curing. (@) finishing or product preparation.

7or MSW the preparation step is some form of a mechanical s!stem designed to concentrate the organics and to remove the glass and metals that are undesirable in the finished product. The preparation step for wood and other bul'ing agents provides appropriate si%e materials. 7or sewage sludge and manures the preparation involves mechanical dewatering. 9f there are more than two feeds"toc's the! are then mi)ed in commercial equipment such as a pug mill. The decomposition step generall! is mechanicall! assisted. The simplest form is a flat floor with provision for forcing air through the pile and including special mobile or other equipment to mi) the composting material on a regular basis. More comple) s!stems use structures to initiate and control the composting process. 7or instance# the 6ano s!stem uses a long rotating compartmented 'iln with a residence time of about three da!s. -s the material proceeds through the 'iln# it is mi)ed# air and temperature are controlled the decomposition is initiated. -n installation in Sao Baulo# 2ra%il# uses MSW. 9t has a receiving bin and hand pic'ing of rec!clable materials preceding the 6ano reactor. The compost# after three da!s in the reactor is cured in open windrows for ?1 da!s before screening into various grades for sale. The curing stage allows time for the stabili%ation of the compost. 5enerall!# it ta'es place outside (with possible protection from the weather) on a gravel or concrete slab. -fter completion of the curing process# the finished compost is screened to provide a uniform product si%e# to recover bul'ing agent particularl! if wood chips are used# andAor to grade the end product. -nother s!stem beginning operation at Ma!# &ew =erse! uses the -2IABurac s!stem. The unit is a vertical plug flow digester operating with sewage sludge and sawdust. The mi)ture (optimum moisture content from ?1, to ?+,) is spread on top of a 29> reactor where it remains for 1@ da!s. This material is discharged from the bottom and moved to the top a cure reactor with a residence time of 1@ da!s. The finished compost is removed from the bottom of the cure reactor. -ir is introduced into the bottom of the reactor and e)hausted through a scrubber for odour and pollution control (/athcart# 1*0+).

Most of the commercial compost s!stems operating are in $urope with some facilities in 2ra%il and other South -merican countries. The $uropean success# in large measure# is based upon careful matching of product to the available mar'et# and the availabilit! of vine!ards where the use of compost as a mulch# soil conditioner and low grade slow release fertili%er is particularl! advantageous. The e)perience in the 8S has been limited although the number of installations is e)panding# especiall! for the stabili%ation of SS since alternative disposal means are energ! intensive. The principal deterrent to compost processes is the lac' of large mar'ets for the product. *. ECONOMICS -n energ! from municipal waste ($MW) ant has two sources of income. The sale energ! andAor materials produced b! the proFect and the disposal or tipping fee. The disposal fee should not e)ceed the fee for the current or least cost s!stem to dispose of waste. 5enerall! the competing s!stem of disposal is a landfill. 7rom the cit! perspective e tipping fee increases annuall! with the increase in the cost of living. 9n an $MW s!stem the tipping fee tends to stabili%e or decrease since the debt service is not subFect to inflation. 7igure ; graphicall! shows this effect across a time period. The economics of an! waste to energ! s!stem is ver! site specific. 4owever# some generali%ations are possible. -n! well designed and operated s!stem though profitable over its life c!cle is not economic in first cost# that is# the s!stem will have a negative cash flow in its first few !ears (brea'even seems to occur between !ears three and seven). This presents a serious barrier to implementation particularl! in the 8S since municipal funding decisions tend to be made on a first cost basis. 5enerall!# source separation s!stems are not economic unless some of the costs are transferred to others. 7or instance# volunteer labor or the transfer of collection costs to individuals can result in economic s!stems from the viewpoint of municipal cash flow. >ne means to reduce the initial cash shortfall of an $MW s!stem is through the financing mechanism. 9n the 8S if 5> bonds are used to finance the proFect# then

t!picall! the interest on the bond while the plant is under construction is paid from general revenue funds and reserves for debt service and startup are not created. >ne of the most economicall! successful 8S plants (4ampton# Iirginia) used 5> bonds and a C+, federal grant to reali%e a %ero tipping fee in its full !ear of operation. 9n this case the federal government is the energ! customer and the grant is being repaid through reduced energ! costs. >n ver! large plants where 5> bonds are not practical# industr! is providing C+, of the capital as an equit! contribution. That equit! is then recovered during the first live !ears of plant operation through favorable ta) laws. This serves to reduce the earl! !ear cash flow. >ther cit!"related means come negative cash flows including disposal fees or acquisition of waste from other areas. 6isposal fees are the municipalit!# thus the discussion above ta'es the viewpoint of the cit!. The disposal fee in the $MW plant actuall! has two elements the fee that would otherwise be paid to a landfill and an! modification that ma! occur in the solid waste management s!stem such as a change in travel distance or maintenance costs. 7requentl! these costs are not well defined. - stud! in the mid"1*<1s to define the reasons for $uropean success in waste"to"energ! plants quic'l! showed that man! cit! financial records were not sufficientl! detailed to define what specific cit! functions cost. The $MW# district heat# solid waste management functions# and electric suppl! s!stem were intermingled and the actual costs of each could not be separated from the other. - similar standard of record 'eeping is also common in the 8S. $nerg! and materials sales must be acceptable to the mar'etplace. 9n the case of the sale of steam to industr! the sales price is usuall! tied to another fuel (i.e. a shadow price# commonl! oil) and generall! discounted from that fuel price. -n e)ception is the 4ampton plant mentioned above. There the sale of steam is discounted from the cost for a local militar! base to produce steam internall!. 9n the 8S# in 1*0+ a discount from fuel oil price equates to a sale price of energ! of E@.11 to E@.+1A5= while discount from steam price equates to E0.11 to E0.+1. -s regards the

sale of electricit!# 8S law (B8:B- requires that utilities purchase electricit! from an! qualif!ing source ($MW# industrial cogeneration# windmill# etc) at the full avoided cost to the utilit! of generating that same amount of electricit!. 7ull avoided cost in this conte)t includes the fuel# operating and capital costs associated with generation practice the avoided cost is subFect to local interpretation and definition. $nerg! and materials sales have also been used to modi+ the earl! !ear cash shortfall. $nerg! purchasers have provided a higher initial energ! purchase price in return for a decrease future energ! costs. - t!pical contract would reduce the future escalation of the price energ! sold from the plant. $nerg! sales the concern of the energ! purchaser# a private part! who operates the plant and the municipalit! to the e)tent that energ! price affects the tipping fee. -s noted an! $MW s!stem is ver! sensitive to the local development conditions. Therefore specific e)amples of economics are difficult develop. 7igure ; is a proFection of the tipping fee versus time of the Binellas /ount!# 7lorida facilit!. The facilit! was financed with a E1;1 million revenue bond sold in 1*01 with var!ing interest rates that depend upon the purpose of the funds. The funds raised b! the bond issue were applied as follows( construction plus escalation# E0; million. site wor' and transfer station# E11 million. fees# utilities# ta)es# contingenc!# etc E1? million. capitali%ed interest during construction# E@1 million. debt fund reserve# E1< million and bond discount# insurance# etc E+ million. The E11* million construction fund was invested during construction and E1? million to provide the balance of construction fund requirement. The proFect include funds to amorti%e the entire E1;1 million debt against proFect revenues. The proFections are based on the simplified data from the official statement for the bond issue. - number of items have been lumped under energ! sales and operating costs and uniform inflation factors (<.0, on energ! sales and operating costs# ;.1, on materials sales) have been applied. The inflation factors are based on the official statement. The proFect was completed ahead of schedule and the start"up period was si) months shorter than e)pected. These changes not reflected in the s'etch.