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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(physics)
Stress (mechanics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Stress (physics)) In continuum mechanics, stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that neighbouring particles of a continuous material exert on each other. For example, when a solid vertical bar is supporting a weight, each particle in the bar pulls on the particles immediately above and below it. When a liquid is under pressure, each particle gets pushed inwards by all the surrounding particles, and, in reaction, pushes them outwards. These macroscopic forces are actually the average of a very large number of intermolecular forces and collisions between the particles in those molecules.
Built-in stress inside a plastic protractor, revealed by its effect on polarized light.
Stress inside a body may arise by various mechanisms, such as reaction to external forces applied to the bulk material (like gravity) or to its surface (like contact forces, external pressure, or friction). Any strain (deformation) of a solid material generates an internal elastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of a spring, that tends to restore the material to its original undeformed state. In liquids and gases, only deformations that change the volume generate persistent elastic stress. However, if the deformation is gradually changing with time, even in fluids there will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change. Elastic and viscous stresses are usually combined under the name mechanical stress. Significant stress may exist even when deformation is negligible or non-existent (a common assumption when modeling the flow of water). Stress may exist in the absence of external forces; such built-in stress is important, for example, in prestressed concrete and tempered glass. Stress may also be imposed on a material without the application of net forces, for example by changes in temperature or chemical composition, or by external electromagnetic fields (as in piezoelectric and magnetostrictive materials). The relation between mechanical stress, deformation, and the rate of change of deformation can be quite complicated, although a linear approximation may be adequate in practice if the quantities are small enough. Stress that exceeds certain strength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation (such as plastic flow, fracture, cavitation) or even change its crystal structure and chemical composition. In some branches of engineering, the term stress is occasionally used in a looser sense as a synonym of "internal force". For example, in the analysis of trusses, it may refer to the total traction or compression force acting on a beam, rather than the force divided by the area of its cross-section.
Contents
1 History 2 Overview
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3 Simple stresses 4 General stress 5 Stress analysis 6 Theoretical background 7 Alternative measures of stress 8 See also 9 Further reading 10 References
History
Since ancient times humans have been consciously aware of stress inside materials. Until the 17th century the understanding of stress was largely intuitive and empirical; and yet it resulted in some surprisingly sophisticated technology, like the composite bow and glass blowing. Over several millennia, architects and builders, in particular, learned how to put together carefully shaped wood beams and stone blocks to withstand, transmit, and distribute stress in the most effective manner, with ingenious devices such as the capitals, arches, cupolas, trusses and the flying buttresses of Gothic cathedrals. Ancient and medieval architects did develop some geometrical methods and simple formulas to compute Inca bridge on the Apurimac River the proper sizes of pillars and beams, but the scientific understanding of stress became possible only after the necessary tools were invented in the 17th and 18th centuries: Galileo's rigorous experimental method, Descartes's coordinates and analytic geometry, and Newton's laws of motion and equilibrium and calculus of infinitesimals. With those tools, Cauchy was able to give the first rigorous and general mathematical model for stress in a homogeneous medium. Cauchy observed that the force across an imaginary surface was a linear function of its normal vector; and, moreover, that it must be a symmetric function (with zero total momentum). The understanding of stress in liquids started with Newton himself, who provided a differential formula for friction forces (shear stress) in parallel laminar flow.
Overview
Definition
Stress is defined as the average force per unit area that some particle of a body exerts on an adjacent particle, across an imaginary surface that separates them.[1]:p.46 71
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Being derived from a fundamental physical quantity (force) and a purely geometrical quantity (area), stress is also a fundamental quantity, like velocity, torque or energy, that can be quantified and analyzed without explicit consideration of the nature of the material or of its physical causes. Following the basic premises of continuum mechanics, stress is a macroscopic concept. Namely, the particles considered in its definition and analysis should be just small enough to be treated as homogeneous in composition and state, but still large enough to ignore quantum effects and the detailed motions of molecules. Thus, the force between two particles is actually the average of a very large number of atomic forces between their molecules; and physical quantities like mass, velocity, and forces that act through the bulk of three-dimensional bodies, like gravity, are assumed to be smoothly distributed over them.[2]:p.90 106 Depending on the context, one may also assume that the particles are large enough to allow the averaging out of other microscopic features, like the grains of a metal rod or the fibers of a piece of wood. Quantitatively, the stress is expressed by the Cauchy traction vector T defined as the traction force F between adjacent parts of the material across an imaginary separating surface S, divided by the area of S.[3]:p.41 50 In a fluid at rest the force is perpendicular to the surface, and is the familiar pressure. In a solid, or in a flow of viscous liquid, the force F may not be perpendicular to S; hence the stress across a surface must be regarded a vector quantity, not a scalar. Moreover, the direction and magnitude generally depend on the orientation of S. Thus the stress state of the material must be described by a tensor, called the (Cauchy) stress tensor; which is a linear function that relates the normal vector n of a surface S to the stress T across S. With respect to any chosen coordinate system, the Cauchy stress tensor can be represented as a symmetric matrix of 3x3 real numbers. Even within a homogeneous body, the stress tensor may vary from place to place, and may change over time; therefore, the stress within a material is, in general, a time-varying tensor field.
The stress across a surface element (yellow disk) is the force that the material on one side (top ball) exerts on the material on the other side (bottom ball), divided by the area of the surface.
Further information: compression (physical) and Shear stress In general, the stress T that a particle P applies on another particle Q across a surface S can have any direction relative to S. The vector T may be regarded as the sum of two components: the normal stress (Compression or Tension) perpendicular to the surface, and the shear stress that is parallel to the surface. If the normal unit vector n of the surface (pointing from Q towards P) is assumed fixed, the normal component can be expressed by a single number, the dot product Tn. This number will be positive if P is "pulling" on Q (tensile stress), and negative if P is "pushing" against Q (compressive stress) The shear component is then the vector T - (Tn)n.
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Units
The dimension of stress is that of pressure, and therefore its coordinates are commonly measured in the same units as pressure: namely, pascals (Pa, that is, newtons per square metre) in the International System, or pounds per square inch (psi) in the Imperial system.
Simple stresses
In some situations, the stress within a body may adequately be described by a single number, or by a single vector (a number and a direction). Three such simple stress situations, that are often encountered in engineering design, are the uniaxial normal stress, the simple shear stress, and the isotropic normal stress.[5]
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material and cross section, is subjected to tension by opposite forces of magnitude along its axis. If the system is in equilibrium and not changing with time, and the weight of the bar can be neglected, then through each transversal section of the bar the top part must pull on the bottom part with the same force F. Therefore the stress throughout the bar, across any horizontal surface, can be described by the number = F/A, where A is the area of the cross-section. On the other hand, if one imagines the bar being cut along its length, parallel to the axis, there will be no force (hence no stress) between the two halves across the cut.
Idealized stress in a straight bar with uniform cross-section.
This type of stress may be called (simple) normal stress or uniaxial stress; specifically, (uniaxial, simple, etc.) tensile stress.[5] If the load is compression on the bar, rather than stretching it, the analysis is the same except that the force F and the stress change sign, and the stress is called compressive stress. This analysis assumes the stress is evenly distributed over the entire cross-section. In practice, depending on how the bar is attached at the ends and how it was manufactured, this assumption may not be valid. In that case, the value = F/A will be only the average stress, called engineering stress or nominal stress. However, if the bar's length L is many times its diameter D, and it has no gross defects or built-in stress, then the stress can be assumed to be uniformly distributed over any crosssection that is more than a few times D from both ends. (This observation is known as the SaintVenant's principle).
The ratio
may be only an
Normal stress occurs in many other situations besides axial tension and compression. If an elastic bar with uniform and symmetric cross-section is bent in one of its planes of symmetry, the resulting bending stress will still be normal (perpendicular to the cross-section), but will vary over the cross section: the outer part will be under tensile stress, while the inner part will be compressed. Another variant of normal stress is the hoop stress that occurs on the walls of a cylindrical pipe or vessel filled with pressurized fluid.
average stress. The stress may be unevenly distributed over the cross section (m m), especially near the attachment points (n n).
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scissors-like tool. Let F be the magnitude of those forces, and M be the midplane of that layer. Just as in the normal stress case, the part of the layer on one side of M must pull the other part with the same force F. Assuming that the direction of the forces is known, the stress across M can be expressed by the single number = F/A, where F is the magnitude of those forces and A is the area of the layer.
However, unlike normal stress, this simple shear stress is directed parallel to the cross-section considered, rather than perpendicular to it.[5] For any plane S that is perpendicular to the layer, the net internal force across S, and hence the stress, will be zero. As in the case of an axially loaded bar, in practice the shear stress may not be uniformly distributed over the layer; so, as before, the ratio F/A will only be an average ("nominal", "engineering") stress. However, that average is often sufficient for practical purposes. [6]:p.292 Shear stress is observed also when a cylindrical bar such as a shaft is subjected to opposite torques at its ends. In that case, the shear stress on each cross-section is parallel to the cross-section, but oriented tangentially relative to the axis, and increases with distance from the axis. Significant shear stress occurs in the middle plate (the "web") of I-beams under bending loads, due to the web constraining the end plates ("flanges").
Isotropic stress
Another simple type of stress occurs when the material body is under equal compression or tension in all directions. This is the case, for example, in a portion of liquid or gas at rest, whether enclosed in some container or as part of a larger mass of fluid; or inside a cube of elastic material that is being pressed or pulled on all six faces by equal perpendicular forces ! provided, in both cases, that the material is homogeneous, without built-in stress, and that the effect of gravity and other external forces can be neglected. In these situations, the stress across any imaginary internal surface turns out to be equal in magnitude and always directed perpendicularly to the surface independently of the surface's orientation. This type of stress may be called isotropic normal or just isotropic; if it is compressive, it is called hydrostatic pressure or just pressure. Gases by definition cannot withstand tensile stresses, but liquids may withstand very small amounts of isotropic tensile stress.
Cylinder stresses
Parts with rotational symmetry, such as wheels, axles, pipes, and pillars, are very common in engineering. Often the stress patterns that occur in such parts have rotational or even cylindrical symmetry. The analysis of such cylinder stresses can take advantage of the symmetry to reduce the dimension of the domain and/or of the stress tensor.
General stress
Often, mechanical bodies experience more than one type of stress at the same time; this is
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called combined stress. In normal and shear stress, the magnitude of the stress is maximum for surfaces that are perpendicular to a certain direction , and zero across any surfaces that are parallel to . When the stress is zero only across surfaces that are perpendicular to one particular direction, the stress is called biaxial, and can be viewed as the sum of two normal or shear stresses. In the most general case, called triaxial stress, the stress is nonzero across every surface element.
throughout the volume of the body, the stress across any imaginary surface will depend on the orientation of that surface, in a non-trivial way. However, Cauchy observed that the stress vector across a surface will always be a linear function of the surface's normal vector , the unit-length vector that is perpendicular to it. That is, , where the function satisfies
for any vectors and any real numbers . The function , now called the (Cauchy) stress tensor, completely describes the stress state of a uniformly stressed body. (Today, any linear connection between two physical vector quantities is called a tensor, reflecting Cauchy's original use to describe the "tensions" (stresses) in a material.) In tensor calculus, is classified as second-order tensor of type (0,2). Like any linear map between vectors, the stress tensor can be represented in any chosen Cartesian coordinate system by a 3"3 matrix of real numbers. Depending on whether the coordinates are numbered or named , the matrix may be written as
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or
The stress vector across a surface with normal vector with coordinates is then a matrix product , that is
The linear relation between and follows from Illustration of typical stresses the fundamental laws of conservation of linear (arrows) across various surface momentum and static equilibrium of forces, and is elements on the boundary of a therefore mathematically exact, for any material and particle (sphere), in a homogeneous any stress situation. The components of the Cauchy material under uniform (but not stress tensor at every point in a material satisfy the isotropic) triaxial stress. The normal equilibrium equations (Cauchy$s equations of motion stresses on the principal axes are +5, for zero acceleration). Moreover, the principle of +2, and #3 units. conservation of angular momentum implies that the stress tensor is symmetric, that is , , and . Therefore, the stress state of the medium at any point and instant can be specified by only six independent parameters, rather than nine. These may be written
where the elements are called the orthogonal normal stresses (relative to the chosen coordinate system), and the orthogonal shear stresses.
Change of coordinates
The Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law under a change in the system of coordinates. A graphical representation of this transformation law is the Mohr's circle of stress distribution. As a symmetric 3"3 real matrix, the stress tensor has three mutually orthogonal unit-length eigenvectors and three real eigenvalues , such that . Therefore, in a coordinate system with axes , the stress tensor is a diagonal matrix, and has only the three normal components the principal stresses. If the three eigenvalues are equal, the stress is an isotropic compression or tension, always perpendicular to any surface; there is no shear stress, and the tensor is a diagonal matrix in any coordinate frame.
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In general, stress is not uniformly distributed over a material body, and may vary with time. Therefore the stress tensor must be defined for each point and each moment, by considering an infinitesimal particle of the medium surrounding that point, and taking the average stresses in that particle as being the stresses at the point.
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pressure). Solids can support both shear and normal stress, with ductile materials failing under shear and brittle materials failing under normal stress. All materials have temperature dependent variations in stress-related properties, and non-Newtonian materials have rate-dependent variations.
Stress analysis
Stress analysis is a branch of applied physics that covers the determination of the internal distribution of stresses in solid objects. It is an essential tool in engineering for the study and design of structures such as tunnels, dams, mechanical parts, and structural frames, under prescribed or expected loads. It is also important in many other disciplines; for example, in geology, to study phenomena like plate tectonics, vulcanism and avalanches; and in biology, to understand the anatomy of living beings.
Stress analysis is generally concerned with objects and structures that can be assumed to be in macroscopic static equilibrium. By Newton's laws of motion, any external forces are being applied to such a system must be balanced by internal reaction forces,[7]:p.97 which are almost always surface contact forces between adjacent particles ! that is, as stress.[3] Since every particle needs to be in equilibrium, this reaction stress will generally propagate from particle, creating a stress distribution throughout the body. The typical problem in stress analysis is to determine these internal stresses, given the external forces that are acting on the system. The latter may be body forces (such as gravity or magnetic attraction), that act throughout the volume of a material;[8]:p.42 81 or concentrated loads (such as friction between an axle and a bearing, or the weight of a train wheel on a rail), that are imagined to act over a two-dimensional area, or along a line, or at single point. In stress analysis one normally disregards the physical causes of the forces or the precise nature of the materials. Instead, one assumes that the stresses are related to deformation (and, in non-static problems, to the rate of deformation) of the material by known constitutive equations.[9]
Methods
Stress analysis may be carried out experimentally, by applying loads to the actual artifact or to scale model, and measuring the resulting stresses, by any of several available methods. This approach is often used for safety certification and monitoring. However, most stress analysis is done by mathematical methods, especially during design. The basic stress analysis problem can be formulated by Euler's equations of motion for continuous bodies (which are consequences of Newton's laws for conservation of linear momentum and angular momentum) and the Euler-Cauchy stress principle, together with
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the appropriate constitutive equations. Thus one obtains a system of partial differential equations involving the stress tensor field and the strain tensor field, as unknown functions to be determined. The external body forces appear as the independent ("right-hand side") term in the differential equations, while the concentrated forces appear as boundary conditions. The basic stress analysis problem is therefore a boundary-value problem. Stress analysis for elastic structures is based on the theory of elasticity and infinitesimal strain theory. When the applied loads cause permanent deformation, one must use more complicated constitutive equations, that can account for the physical processes involved (plastic flow, fracture, phase change, etc.). However, engineered structures are usually designed so that the maximum expected stresses are well within the range of linear elasticity (the generalization of Hooke$s law for continuous media); that is, the deformations caused by internal stresses are linearly related to them. In this case the differential equations that define the stress tensor are linear, and the problem becomes much easier. For one thing, the stress at any point will be a linear function of the loads, too. For small enough stresses, even non-linear systems can usually be assumed to be linear. Stress analysis is simplified when the physical dimensions and the distribution of loads allow the structure to be treated as one- or two-dimensional. In the analysis of trusses, for example, the stress field may be assumed to be uniform and uniaxial over each member. Then the differential equations reduce to a finite set of equations (usually linear) with finitely many unknowns. In other contexts one may be able to reduce the three-dimensional problem to a two-dimensional one, and/or replace the general stress and strain tensors by simpler models like uniaxial tension/compression, simple shear, etc.
Simplified model of a truss for stress analysis, assuming unidimensional elements under uniform axial tension or compression.
Still, for two- or three-dimensional cases one must solve a partial differential equation problem. Anlytical or closed-form solutions to the differential equations can be obtained when the geometry, constitutive relations, and boundary conditions are simple enough. Otherwise one must generally resort to numerical approximations such as the finite element method, the finite difference method, and the boundary element method.
Theoretical background
The mathematical description of stress is founded on Euler's laws for the motion of continuous bodies. They can be derived from Newton's laws, but may also be taken as axioms describing the motions of such bodies.[10]
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where
In terms of components with respect to an orthonormal basis, the first Piola Kirchhoff stress is given by
Because it relates different coordinate systems, the 1st Piola Kirchhoff stress is a two-point tensor. In general, it is not symmetric. The 1st Piola Kirchhoff stress is the 3D generalization of the 1D concept of engineering stress. If the material rotates without a change in stress state (rigid rotation), the components of the 1st Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor will vary with material orientation. The 1st Piola Kirchhoff stress is energy conjugate to the deformation gradient. 2nd Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor Whereas the 1st Piola Kirchhoff stress relates forces in the current configuration to areas in the reference configuration, the 2nd Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor relates forces in the reference configuration to areas in the reference configuration. The force in the reference configuration is obtained via a mapping that preserves the relative relationship between the force direction and the area normal in the reference configuration.
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This tensor, a one-point tensor, is symmetric. If the material rotates without a change in stress state (rigid rotation), the components of the 2nd Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor remain constant, irrespective of material orientation. The 2nd Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor is energy conjugate to the Green Lagrange finite strain tensor.
See also
Bending Kelvin probe force microscope Mohr's circle Residual stress Shot peening Strain Strain tensor Strain rate tensor Stress energy tensor Stress strain curve Stress concentration Transient friction loading Virial stress Yield stress Yield surface Virial theorem
Further reading
Chakrabarty, J. (2006). Theory of plasticity (http://books.google.ca /books?id=9CZsqgsfwEAC&lpg=PP1&dq=related%3AISBN0486435946&rview=1& pg=PA17#v=onepage&q=&f=false) (3 ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 17 32. ISBN 0-7506-6638-2. Beer, Ferdinand Pierre; Elwood Russell Johnston, John T. DeWolf (1992). Mechanics of Materials. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-112939-1. Brady, B.H.G.; E.T. Brown (1993). Rock Mechanics For Underground Mining (http://books.google.ca/books?id=s0BaKxL11KsC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA18#v=onepage& q=&f=false) (Third ed.). Kluwer Academic Publisher. pp. 17 29. ISBN 0-412-47550-2. Chen, Wai-Fah; Baladi, G.Y. (1985). Soil Plasticity, Theory and Implementation. ISBN 0-444-42455-5. Chou, Pei Chi; Pagano, N.J. (1992). Elasticity: tensor, dyadic, and engineering approaches (http://books.google.com/books?id=9-pJ7Kg5XmAC&lpg=PP1& pg=PA1#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Dover books on engineering. Dover Publications. pp. 1 33. ISBN 0-486-66958-0. Davis, R. O.; Selvadurai. A. P. S. (1996). Elasticity and geomechanics (http://books.google.ca/books?id=4Z11rZaUn1UC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA16#v=onepage& q=&f=false). Cambridge University Press. pp. 16 26. ISBN 0-521-49827-9. Dieter, G. E. (3 ed.). (1989). Mechanical Metallurgy. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-100406-8. Holtz, Robert D.; Kovacs, William D. (1981). An introduction to geotechnical engineering (http://books.google.ca/books?id=yYkYAQAAIAAJ& dq=inauthor:%22William+D.+Kovacs%22&cd=1). Prentice-Hall civil engineering and
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engineering mechanics series. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-484394-0. Jones, Robert Millard (2008). Deformation Theory of Plasticity (http://books.google.ca /books?id=kiCVc3AJhVwC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA95#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Bull Ridge Corporation. pp. 95 112. ISBN 0-9787223-1-0. Jumikis, Alfreds R. (1969). Theoretical soil mechanics: with practical applications to soil mechanics and foundation engineering (http://books.google.ca /books?id=NPZRAAAAMAAJ). Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. ISBN 0-442-04199-3. Landau, L.D. and E.M.Lifshitz. (1959). Theory of Elasticity. Love, A. E. H. (4 ed.). (1944). Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-60174-9. Marsden, J. E.; Hughes, T. J. R. (1994). Mathematical Foundations of Elasticity (http://books.google.ca/books?id=RjzhDL5rLSoC&lpg=PR1&pg=PA133#v=onepage& q&f=false). Dover Publications. pp. 132 142. ISBN 0-486-67865-2. Parry, Richard Hawley Grey (2004). Mohr circles, stress paths and geotechnics (http://books.google.ca/books?id=u_rec9uQnLcC&lpg=PP1&dq=mohr%20circles %2C%20sterss%20paths%20and%20geotechnics&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q=&f=false) (2 ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. 1 30. ISBN 0-415-27297-1. Rees, David (2006). Basic Engineering Plasticity An Introduction with Engineering and Manufacturing Applications (http://books.google.ca/books?id=4KWbmn_1hcYC& lpg=PP1&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 1 32. ISBN 0-7506-8025-3. Timoshenko, Stephen P.; James Norman Goodier (1970). Theory of Elasticity (Third ed.). McGraw-Hill International Editions. ISBN 0-07-085805-5. Timoshenko, Stephen P. (1983). History of strength of materials: with a brief account of the history of theory of elasticity and theory of structures. Dover Books on Physics. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-61187-6.
References
1. ^ Wai-Fah Chen and Da-Jian Han (2007), "Plasticity for Structural Engineers" (http://books.google.com/books?id=E8jptvNgADYC&pg=PA46). J. Ross Publishing ISBN 1-932159-75-4 2. ^ Peter Chadwick (1999), "Continuum Mechanics: Concise Theory and Problems" (http://books.google.ca/books?id=QSXIHQsus6UC&pg=PA95). Dover Publications, series "Books on Physics". ISBN 0-486-40180-4. pages 3. ^ a b I-Shih Liu (2002), "Continuum Mechanics" (http://books.google.com /books?id=-gWqM4uMV6wC&pg=PA43). Springer ISBN 3-540-43019-9 4. ^ (2009) The art of making glass. (http://www.lamberts.de/fileadmin/user_upload/service /downloads/lamberts_broschuere_englisch.pdf) Lamberts Glashtte (LambertsGlas) product brochure. Accessed on 2013-02-08. 5. ^ a b c Ronald L. Huston and Harold Josephs (2009), "Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design". 3rd edition, CRC Press, 634 pages. ISBN 9781574447132 6. ^ Walter D. Pilkey, Orrin H. Pilkey (1974), "Mechanics of solids" (http://books.google.com /books?id=d7I8AAAAIAAJ) (book) 7. ^ Donald Ray Smith and Clifford Truesdell (1993) "An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics after Truesdell and Noll". Springer. ISBN 0-7923-2454-4 (http://books.google.com /books?id=ZcWC7YVdb4wC&pg=PA97) 8. ^ Fridtjov Irgens (2008), "Continuum Mechanics" (http://books.google.com /books?id=q5dB7Gf4bIoC&pg=PA46). Springer. ISBN 3-540-74297-2 9. ^ Slaughter 10. ^ Jacob Lubliner (2008). "Plasticity Theory" (http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~coby/plas/pdf /book.pdf) (revised edition). Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-46290-0
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