Hydraulic fracturing and mineralization

WILLIAM JOHN PHILLIPS

CONTENTS Introduction . . . . . . . . The importance of pore water pressure during fracturing . The mineralized normal faults of Cardiganshire and Montgomeryshire . The critical stress conditions during the formation of the normal faults The mechanical effect of the hydrothermal solution The relative rates of flow and fracturing Hydraulic fracturing during decreasing differential stress . The deposition of the common minerals on the normal faults and breccia zones in Cardiganshire 9 Conclusions Io References x 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

337 338 341 343 345 348 35 352 353 354

SUMMARY The factors relevant to the mechanism of the bursting apart of the rock into which the normal faulting and brecciation are discussed. hydrothermal solution has permeated under Normal faults develop as the consequence of high pressure, thus forming angular breccias. The fracture may be extended by hydraulic an increase in the magnitude of the differential stress above the critical limit under the pre- fracturing even though the differential stress vailing pore water conditions. The accumula- decreases, provided the pressure of the hydrotion of a body of hydrothermal solution on the thermal solution on the fracture plane exceeds fault zones under pressures greater than the the pore water pressure by increasing amounts. pore water pressure, results in the extension Under these conditions the dip of each extenof the faults by hydraulic fracturing. The sion of the normal fault increases, and eventually abrupt drop in the pressure of the hydrother- the fracture develops as a vertical breccia zone. real solution when fracturing occurs, causes

I.

Introduction

MANY HYDROTHERMAL MINERAL DEPOSITS are associated with normal faults, and frequently there are extensive signs of brecciation. It has been assumed t h a t these b r e c c i a s w e r e f o r m e d by t h e f r a c t u r i n g o f t h e rock during m o v e m e n t ,
a n d t h a t t h e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n h a s o c c u r r e d at these sites b e c a u s e o f t h e i n c r e a s e d p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e b r e c c i a t e d rock. H o w e v e r , t h e a m o u n t o f b r e c c i a t i o n a n d t h e size o f t h e m i n e r a l d e p o s i t is n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to t h e a m o u n t o f d i s p l a c e m e n t o n t h e f a u l t zone. M a n y faults w i t h l a r g e d i s p l a c e m e n t s s h o w little b r e c c i a t i o n , yet i n o t h e r places, v e r y w i d e zones o f b r e c c i a t i o n h a v e n o t p r o d u c e d a n y m a r k e d d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e rocks. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e b r e c c i a s a r e often c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y e x t r e m e l y a n g u l a r f r a g m e n t s w h i c h a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t i n c o n t a c t , a n d t h e y d o n o t a p p e a r to h a v e f o r m e d b y g r i n d i n g . I n o r d e r to e x p l a i n these f e a t u r e s it is n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r t h e m e c h a n i c a l effect o f t h e f l u i d i n a d i f f e r e n t i a l stress field.
Jl geol. Soc. Lond. vol. xa8, I972, pp. 337-359, 8 figs. Printed in Northern Ireland.

338

IV. 3.. Phillips

2. The importance of pore water pressure during fracturing

During the formation of normal faults, the maximum principal stress is nearly vertical and equivalent to the lithostatic pressure, which can be estimated from the relationship P = p.g.d., where p is the average saturated bulk density of the rock, g is the gravitational acceleration and d is the depth. The lithostatic pressure at any particular depth can be regarded as a constant. Deformation leading to the initiation of normal faults results from the reduction in the magnitude of the horizontal principal stresses. The differential stresses thus set up, give rise to shear stresses on planes inclined to the maximum principal stress. It can be shown that the effective stress normal to any plane is the difference between the normal stress on the plane and the fluid pressure, (Price 1966, p. 88). Fracturing is controlled by critical effective normal stresses, and is only indirectly related to the total stress or the fluid pressure. The external normal stress tends to keep a fracture closed, while the pressure of the fluid on the plane tends to open the fracture. The shear stresses are unaffected by the fluid pressure. The concept of effective stress was introduced in the study of soils by Terzaghi (i943), and its importance with regard to the fracturing of rocks is now well established, (Hubbert & Willis I957, Hubbert & Rubey I959). If the normal stresses are regarded as effective stresses, an indication of the relative values of the differential stress and the pore water pressure during the formation of the normal faults and breccia zones, can be obtained from the position of various Mohr's stress circles in relation to a composite failure envelope, Fig. IA, (Phillips 197o). The conditions of fracture in the tensile region are best represented by the failure envelope predicted by the Griffiths crack theory. The envelope is parabolic and intersects the normal stress axis at - - T , where T is the tensile strength of the rock. The envelope intersects the shear stress axis at 2 T, so that according to this theory the cohesive strength is double the tensile strength, and this is in good agreement with experimental data. However, experimental work shows that in the compressive region, the Griffith theory predicts fracture stresses which are too low. A modification of the Griffith theory by McClintock & Walsh (I962), to include the effect of frictional forces along the cracks closed in compression, has shown that the failure envelope in the compressive region would be a straight line with an equation similar in form to the Coulomb criterion. Consequently a composite failure envelope which is parabolic in the tensile region and a straight line in the compressive region, will be used here. It is convenient to join the two envelopes where they have the same slope, (Secor i965). If the slope of the straight line portion is assumed to be 3 0 , which is the most commonly observed angle of internal friction in the experimental deformation of rocks, then the junction of the two failure envelopes occurs at a point where a = 2 T and r = 2V'3 T. The equation for the straight line portion of the envelope is ~- -- (4T/V'3) + (I/V~) a Fig. IA. It is usual to show on the stress diagram, the angle between the complementary shear planes which are bisected by the maximum principal stress. In Figs. I and 2, the supplementary angle is shown since this is double the dip of the normal faults which are discussed here.

Hydraulic fracturing and mineralization

339

T h e relative values of the effective m a x i m u m and m i n i m u m principal stresses and the pore water pressure can be obtained in terms of the tensile strength of the rock. T h e conditions of fracturing are indicated w h e n the stress circle is in contact with the failure envelope. I t can be seen t h a t a n o r m a l fault could be initiated, either by an increase in the diameter of the stress circle, Fig. I ~ or by an increase in the pore water pressure, Fig. I c. A n increase in the pore water pressure results

7T Shear S t r e s s ~' J

6T

,,,, ......

1 ~- 4Tcr- 4T2=
Tens.. ' / T 1 I I \

0
Pressure

3T

4T

5T

6T
= o~x-p

7T

8T

9T

\ E f f e c t i v e Normal S t r e s s olOT 11~r 12T 13T 14T 1.~T I 16T

Principol Stress. = (~z-

IPrJncipol

Stress

5T

4T
3T 21

........

'- ~". . . . . ..
""".,

Failure due to a n i n c r e a s e in the D i f f e r e n t i a l S t r e s s

c:r" -

~--<

7'T

8'T

Differential

Stress

c Failure due t o an i n c r e a s e in t h e .Pore Fluid P r e s s u r e

/.l/ /
_T /

27.4//

\
3T ; "k~ 4T 5LT 6T 7T

',

",, \
)T ~ C I "E----I

OI 'f; T { . 2T ~.--4

FIO. Ia. A composite failure envelope, (B & C) diagrammatic representations of changes in the differential stress and pore water pressure which would result in fracture of the rock.

34

IV. J. Phillips

in a reduction of the effective stresses and this can be represented by a displacement of the stress circle towards the failure envelope. It can be seen from Fig. 2 that the stress circle with the smallest stress difference which is in contact with the straight line portion of the failure envelope, intersects the abscissa at the origin and 8 T. This suggests that a normal fault dipping at 60 could form when the stress difference is about equivalent to eight times the tensile strength provided the pore water pressure is equivalent to the minimum principal stress. If the pore water pressure is smaller than the minimum principal stress, then a greater stress difference would be required to initiate a normal fault dipping at 6o . Fracturing could occur when the differential stress is smaller than 8 7', provided the pore water pressure exceeds the minimum principal stress. Under these conditions the stress circle would come in contact with the parabolic portion of failure envelope, and more steeply inclined faults would form. When the differential stress is equal to, or less than 4 T, the stress circle would come in contact with the failure envelope on the abscissa, if the pore water pressure exceeds the minimum principal stress by an amount equal to the tensile strength of the rocks. Under these conditions, the failure criteria for crack growth and for macroscopic tension fracturing are identical, and vertical, fluid-filled tension fractures could develop by hydraulic
ST.

7T.

6T,

ST'

4T.

3T.

I i
I
i

2,
'

3,TT

95

!
16.ssT "
18.1. I
18.64T

T O-

i
Differential Stress

ho.6T
h2-56T

FIG, ft. Stress circles representing the effective principal stresses and differential stresses required to bring about the formation of normal faults dipping at 60 or steeper angles.

Hydraulic fracturing and mineralization

341

fracturing (Hubbert & Willis i957). The growth of macroscopic tension fractures consists of short periods of extension of the crack by fracture, separated by longer periods during which the pore fluid flows into the crack. Consequently the rate of crack propagation under constant differential stress, depends on the porosity and permeability of the rock (Secor i969). The mechanism of the formation of mineralized normal faults will be discussed by reference to the post-Caledonian mineralized faults of the western part of mid-Wales. Here the lithologies and structures of the sedimentary host rocks are relatively simple, and the area provides a model of the structural features associated with mineralization.

3" The mineralized normal faults of Cardiganshire and Montgomeryshire

Strata of upper Ordovician and Silurian age outcrop in mid-Wales. The distribution of the rocks is shown on Fig. 3, which is based on the map produced by O. T. Jones (I9~2). The general structure of the area is illustrated by the west-east section (Fig. 4) which has been drawn on the basis of the estimated thicknesses of the systems given by O. T. Jones (I955). In the I922 memoir, O. T. Jones grouped the rocks into a number of formations which he named after a well known mine situated within the formation. This simple stratigraphic classification is given below with the oldest at the bottom. Cwmystwyth formation (4,ooo')(i23o m) Frongoch formation (2,800')(870 m) Gwestyn formation (35o-i 300 ') (i 07-400 m) (9oo ) (276 m) Van formation (Ordovician) (I,5oo') (46o m) dark greywackes and shales. grey shales, mudstones and thin greywackes. dark pyritous mudstones. blue mudstones rarely containing pyrite. massive greywackes with interbedded mudstones.

The Ordovician rocks are exposed in a number of dome structures. Periclinal folds of Caledonian age, with wavelengths of about one mile are characteristic of the area. A number of thrust faults which strike approximately parallel to the fold axial planes, and the Llyfnant fault which has a dextral movement of 98o m, and a northward downthrow of I85 m, developed during the later stages of the Caledonian compressive deformation. Mineralization has occurred along E N E - W S W trending normal faults and breccia zones which cut across the folds and strike faults. Where they are best developed, the normal faults dip to the south, or less commonly to the north, at 55 to 65 , and exhibit a downthrow of up to 200 metres. The foot wall is always well defined and the faults can often be traced for considerable distances. The maximum displacement on the normal faults occurs in the centre, and the amount of displacement decreases towards the ends of the faults. The characteristic feature of the fault zones is the presence of breccia consisting of angular fragments of slightly

342

W. J. Phillips

recrystallized country rock set in a matrix of finely crystalline quartz, siderite, sphalerite or galena. The breccia is usually 5 to xo m wide but in places it is 4o m in width. The hanging wall is usually ill-defined and consists of brecciated wall rock. Vertical or steeply dipping breccia zones are characterized by the absence of well defined wails and by little or no displacement. The breccia zones are often impersistent laterally, and their width varies from a few centimetres to about three metres. Many structures show characteristics which are intermediate between the extreme types just described, and there are many instances where a normal fault grades into a number of thinner breccia zones when traced laterally. In some mines the inclination of the lode decreased with depth, and near-vertical breccia zones also occur as offshoots extending upwards from the fault plane. In places the mineralized zone consists of soft clay size material impregnated with a small amount of sulphide minerals. More commonly the zones consist of brecciated, slightly recrystallized wall rock, in which the fragments are angular and occur in groups showing only slight displacement and no signs of abrasion. The common minerals associated with the faults and breccia zones are quartz, sphalerite, galena, siderite, chalcopyrite, pyrite and barytes. Quartz usually coats the rock fragments but in many breccias, the finely crystalline quartz is overlain by coarsely intergrown sphalerite which in turn is covered by galena, Fig. 6A. In many breccias sphalerite or galena has crystallized on the rock fragments without intervening quartz, Fig. 6B. Several lodes, such as Mitchell's lode at Cwmystwyth, showed a well developed zoning extending over a depth of about 250 metres. At the bottom, this lode consisted of sphalerite with a few veins of galena in places. In the middle section it was composed of veins of galena with some sphalerite, while at the top it contained galena in vugs. When chalcopyrite is abundant, it most commonly occurs within or just above the Gwestyn shales. It appears to

,~.

mm."

"

"

[3.

cm*

Fxo. 6A. Finely brecciated siltstone fragments (stippled), enclosed in quartz which forms very small radiating crystals that increase in size outwards. Sphalerite (black) has crystallized on the quartz and is overlain by galena (lined). B. Brecciated siltstone imbedded in an intergrown mass of sphalerite (black). Galena (lined) occurs as well formed crystals on the sphalerite, and in turn is covered with crystals of quartz that have grown into the remaining spaces.

Hydraulic fracturing and mineralization

343

have crystallized before sphalerite and galena, and it is often associated with siderite. Barytes has been found in the highest parts of some lodes. Secondary minerals are not common. In many areas the brecciation of the minerals indicates that more than one episode of brecciation and mineralization occurred. Moorbath (1962) has determined the lead isotope abundances in galena from four Cardiganshire mines. The mean model age was found to be 430 4- 4 million years, which suggests that the mineralization is Silurian in age. The mineralization was produced by the precipitation of the minerals from hydrothermal solutions which originated at greater depths and were channelled along the normal faults and breccia zones sometime after their formation. The N N E - S S W trending structures remained closed during the mineralization. The fault and breccia zones are not uniformly mineralized and long sections are sometimes barren of all gangue and sulphide minerals. The most extensive mineralization probably occurred where the largest volume of hydrothermal solution flowed, and these channels may have been located at changes in the strike of the normal fault, or where the fault was deflected by an older structure. There is no simple relation between the location of large lodes and the intersection of fold axes as suggested by Hughes (i959) , but the position of some channels may have been determined by the location of anticlinal folds in impermeable layers at depth. The lithology of the country rock seems to have had a considerable influence on the location of the lodes. The most conspicuous feature is the almost complete absence of any large deposits in the Gwestyn shales. The mineral deposits are most common in the interbedded greywackes, siltstones and shales forming the lower part of the Frongoch formation overlying the Gwestyn shales. One very important exception occurred below the Gwestyn shales, and the Van mine developed on it, produced the largest output of the area. At the Van mine the crystallization of galena in numerous, almost vertical fractures in gently dipping greywackes underlying the soft mudstones, resulted in the development of a rich area of mineralization IOO m long and 30 m wide. This deposit was known as the 'flats' since it extended approximately parallel to the bedding. The main deformation processes associated with this kind of mineralization, which will be discussed here are listed below: x. The stress conditions which gave rise to the development of the normal faults. 2. The mechanical effect of the hydrothermal solution which gained access to the normal faults. 3. The brecciation. 4. The development of the normal faults into vertical breccia zones.

4. The critical stress conditions during the formation of the normal faults
In the cross section, Fig. 5, the Ystwyth fault which has a downthrow of 830 m, is drawn as if it originated in the basement. It seems unlikely that the numerous mineralized normal faults initiated in the basement, since this would have required an exceedingly complex series of fault blocks.

344

W. J. Phillips

It is more likely that the critical effective stresses necessary for the formation of normal faults dipping at about 6o , might have been reached first in the rocks near the top of the Ordovician succession, and at a depth of 6 to 8 kilometres below the surface. The normal faults may have been extended upwards into the Cwmystwyth formation to a depth of about 3 km, and downwards to depths of about 8 km. The lower Palaeozoic sediments consist essentially of muds, and mixed sediments which form greywackes and siltstones. The mud consisted of small, thin flexible clay minerals surrounded by films of water, but during consolidation the load was gradually transferred from the water to the mineral grains as water flowed out until equilibrium was attained. The excess pressure on the water is termed the hydrostatic excess pressure. Darcy demonstrated that in saturated porous media, the rate of fluid flow is directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient and the permeability of the rock, and is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid. After compaction, mudstones may have a permeability of a few millidarcys only. In contrast, in the more sandy sediments the load was carried by the mineral grains and gave rise to the lithostatic pressure, while the water occupying the pore spaces gave rise to a hydrostatic pressure. Near the surface in unconsolidated sediments, the pore water pressure is unmodified, and if the density of water is taken to be slightly greater than unity, then the increase in the water pressure with depth would be approximately Ioo bars per km. It is common practice to describe the pore water pressure as a ratio of the lithostatic pressure. The ratio is denoted by I, and in near surface conditions where the density of water is unity and the bulk saturated density of the sediment is about 2.5, 3. = o.4, approximately. During burial the porosity of sandy sediments is reduced slightly, partly by compaction if mud is present, but mainly by recrystallization at grain contacts. If the pore water is unable to escape because of the presence of thick impermeable mudstone units, the pressure of the pore water increases and approaches the lithostatic pressure. In deep wells measurements have shown that t sometimes exceeds o.8. The processes involved in the formation of a set of normal faults in a succession of folded and faulted sedimentary rocks, must be exceedingly complex, but a clearer understanding of the processes involved can be obtained if several simplifying assumptions are made. It is first assumed that the formations which consist largely of massive greywackes or interbedded greywackes and siltstones, deformed in a more brittle manner and underwent a certain amount of elastic deformation before failing abruptly by the formation of fractures. In contrast the thick mudstone units probably deformed in a more ductile manner and failed by flow before being traversed by the fracture planes extending from the more brittle rocks. The experimentally determined cohesive strengths of sedimentary rocks are of the order of 25 to 2oo bars, (Handin i966 ). It is reasonable to assume, for the purposes of the present discussion, that the cohesive strengths of the more siliceous rocks would be in the range 25 to zoo bars. Estimates of the pore water pressures required to initiate normal faults dipping at 6o at varying depths and for rocks with different tensile strengths, can be obtained from the stress circle which is in contact with the end of the straight line portion of the failure envelope, Fig. 2. In this particular case the maximum effective principal stress is 8T, so the pore water pressure would be less than the lithostatic pressure by an amount

Hydraulicfracturing and mineralization

345

approximately equal to eight times the tensile strength. Estimates of the critical pore water pressures at different depths, for rocks with tensile strengths of 25, 5 and Ioo bars, u n d e r a constant differential stress of 8 T, are given in Table i. At lower pore water pressures t h a n those shown on the table, a greater differential stress would be required to initiate a fault dipping at 60 , while at greater water pressures the fault would have a dip greater t h a n 60 . These estimates suggest that normal faults dipping at 60 could form u n d e r a differential stress of about 8 T, if the tensile strengths of the rocks varied from about 25 bars at 2 k m depth to about 50 bars at 8 k m depth, and if ;t varied from about 0.6 at 2 k m to about 0.8 at 8 km. It is assumed that the pore water pressure reached a value i n this range, and remained constant during the formation of the normal faults. T h e deformation sequence is of particular importance and consists of the following essential stages: x. Slow build up of the differential stress until the critical stress conditions are reached u n d e r the prevailing pore water pressure. 2. A b r u p t fracturing resulting in: (a) T h e release of elastic strain energy in the form of compressional and distortional waves. (b) a t e m p o r a r y reduction in fluid pressure on the leading edge of the fracture, due to an increase in volume, and (c) a small reduction in the differential stress in the region of the fracture. 3. Permeation of the pore water into the fracture to restore the pore water pressure. R e p e a t of the cycle.

5. The mechanical effect of the hydrothermal solution

Sometime after the formation of the normal faults, h y d r o t h e r m a l solutions rising from below accumulated to form a sheet of fluid on the fault planes. Since the density of this aqueous solution would be less t h a n one half the density of the
TABLE I

Depth km

Lithostafic Pressure 250 bars/km

Hydrostatic Pressure ioo bars/kin

Pore Water Pressure = Lithostatic Pressure -- 8 T T=25bars p.w.p. 2 T=5obars p.w.p. ~ . . . 35 0"45 600 0.6 85 0.68 Iioo 0"73 I35o 0"77
16oo 0.8

T=xooba~ p.w.p. . ---7oo 950

I2OO

I.

2.

2 50 500

IO0

200

345"

75 xooo
I250

300 400
500

6. 78.

i5oo I75o
2000

600 700
800

300 550 800 xo5o I3oo I55o

x8oo

0-6 0"7 0.8 0.84 0.86 0"87

0-88

0"47 0"54
0.6

346

W. J. Phillips

rocks, the liquid would be forced upwards, and at the top of the fracture it could generate a pressure in excess of the stresses in the adjacent rocks. The pressure of the solution would tend to force the fracture apart and extend it, while the stress normal to the fracture plane and the tensile strength of the rock at the end of the fracture would tend to prevent its extension. The build up of the pressure of the hydrothermal solution at the top of the fault would set up a pressure gradient between the hydrothermal solution at the top of the fault and the pore water in the adjacent rocks. Hydrothermal solution would permeate into the pore spaces of the adjacent rock, and since the low density solution would tend to rise, the permeation zone would be more extensive in the hanging wall. The stress diagram can be used to describe the stress situation in the rocks immediately above the fracture, with the origin representing the pressure of the hydrothermal solution at the top of the fault, Fig. 7A. It is necessary to consider first, the consequences of the hydrothermal solution accumulating at the top of the fault plane while the differential stress was high, but of a smaller magnitude than that required to cause an extension of the fault. The increase in the pressure of the hydrothermal solution would result in a decrease of the effective principal stresses in the rocks above the fault plane, and this can be represented by a displacement of the stress circle towards the failure envelope until fracturing occurred and the fault was extended. If the differential stress was near the value required to cause fracturing, then hydrothermal solution at a pressure only slightly in excess of the prevailing pore water pressure would cause an extension of the fault, Fig. 7A. The largest stress circle in Fig. 8 represents a maximum effective principal stress of io T with a differential stress of 9 T. Under these conditions fracturing could occur if the pressure of the hydrothermal solution exceeded the pore water pressure by about = 0.46 T. The sequence of deformation is as follows: i. Flow of the hydrothermal solution to the top of the fracture, resulting in permeation into the adjacent rocks and in the decrease of the effective stresses in the rocks at the top of the fracture. 2. Abrupt fracturing resulting in: (a) a release of elastic strain energy. (b) a decrease in the solution pressure on the fracture immediately in front of the advancing solution. This results in the bursting apart of the rocks into which the solution had permeated at high pressure, thus forming the angular breccias, and (c) a small decrease in the differential stress in the region of the fracture. Repeat of the cycle Fig. 7A & 8B. Since the fracture is extended as the result of the increase in the pressure of the body of fluid occupying the fracture, this process can be described as hydraulic fracturing, even though initially under high differential stresses, only a small excess fluid pressure is required to cause the extension of an inclined shear fracture.

Hydraulic fracturing and mineralization

5T
..: : ......:. ...... ..

347

Zone of permeation of the Hydrothermal solution

4T

3T

~~l~ f

. . . . . . . . . . . .

,,

7 :..: :.

5T]
T

T
Solution p r e s s u r e ~O~,6T

~-=-Increose in the H y d r o t h e r m o l

~ - - -

: -.:..:::

..

3T Zone of hydraulic ~!)!

fracturing and brecciation - ~ .

-:i)!::ii/)?i:+

-{'1" J (': ~~:D;TreQ;T'n T t;T Dif;Tent;"Tstr7; 8T 9T :IO~T

Decrease in the Hydrothermal Solution pressure--),

-iC,i;h,!iiih?
i-!i ! 5T 4T hydraulic fracturing occurs when the differential stress <4T and Pmin-P = -T
Vertical

3T

T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T 7T 8T gT lOT
Hydrothermol Solution pressure

~G~len~ .-~!alerit e

5T
4T

~Chotca~rite of m
~eservolr
'OT

~
.... :':~?:'.!.~i~::-:"

2"1;, :":.~ 5T 6T 7T 8T gT lOT

< Hydrothermol Solution pressure

hydrothermal solution

FIG. 7A.B.C. Diagrammatic representations of the changes in the relative values of the effective principal stress and the hydrothermal solution pressure during the formation of the normal faults and breccia zones. The pore water pressure is assumed to remain constant. D. The possible effect of the relatively impervious mudstone units.

34 8

IV. J. Phillips

6. The relative rates of flow and fracturing

Differential stresses develop in the crustal rocks as a result of the extension or contraction of deeper layers in the mantle. The mean rate of displacement of major transcurrent faults such as the San Andreas fault complex, indicates that the average strain rate is of the order of I o-X4/sec (Whitten i956 ). This very slow strain rate relates to movement in the mantle, and is associated with the relative movement of plates which has been calculated to reach rates of 8 cm/year. These estimates indicate that the differential stress builds up at a very slow rate. The driving force causing the hydrothermal solution to rise along the fault plane is the difference between the lithostatic and hydrostatic pressure gradients. An indication of the influences of some of the factors involved in the laminar flow of the hydrothermal solution up the fault plane may be obtained from the relation:

(Pa Vb) W ~ x2 . L . r 1
-

where v is the average rate of laminar flow, L is the distance between the levels of pressure Pa and Pb, W is the channel width and ~ is the viscosity. This relationship refers to laminar flow in a dyke-like fracture in which the other two dimensions are very much larger than the width, (McAdams x954, Shaw I965). The limiting velocity for laminar flow is given by the relation v = Rn/4prn where R is the Reynolds number and is taken to be 2000, p is the density, and rn is a factor known as the hydraulic radius which is given by sls2/(2s 1 + 2sz) in which sl is the width and s 2 the horizontal length of the fracture. In a fracture o.I cm wide and xooo cm long, the estimated limiting velocity of laminar flow is 20 cm/sec, but in a fracture

Differential Stress 9T

~ _ _ ~ _

Dip of t h e Fracture 6#

I f /

_0,-.

3-~
2T T 0 < <
<

~7T ~BT d9"1" ~oT

90" 9 o" 90* oo

411 T Excess pressure of the HydrothermGl Solution

FIO.

8. A diagrammatic representation of the pressure of the hydrothermal solution in excess of the pore water pressure, which would result in fracturing at decreasing values of the differential stress.

Hydraulic fracturing and mineralization

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I cm wide the limiting flow rate is only 2 cm/sec. The irregular surfaces of the fractures would probably produce turbulence at flow rates even lower than these estimates. Although there is considerable uncertainty in the greatly simplified estimates of the rates of flow, it indicates clearly that the flow rates of aqueous solutions along fault zones would be very great when compared with the rate of build up of the differential stresses. The rate of permeation of the hydrothermal solution into the adjacent pore spaces is directly proportional to the permeability of the rock and to the pressure gradient. The greater the excess pressure of the hydrothermal solution, the more extensive the permeation into the adjacent rocks. Experimental work by Brace has shown that at very low strain rates or in rocks of high permeability, the pore pressures could be constantly restored by migration of the fluid from an external source. It has been established that the pore fluid pressure is restored by an amount which is proportional to the rock permeability, but inversely proportional to the fluid viscosity and to the square of the distance from the reservoir of fluid at constant pressure, (Brace 1968). In tests done rapidly, rocks become dilatant; the porosity increases and the pore water pressure tends to decrease. Since the strength of the rock increases with effective confining pressure, rocks deformed rapidly appear to be stronger. This effect has been termed dilatancy hardening by Frank (i 965). Brace has found that the critical strain rate at which the migration of pore fluid can just keep pace with the generation of new pore space, is of the order of i o-7/sec for three igneous rocks. At slower strain rates the principle of effective stress holds even for relatively impervious rocks. It would appear from the estimates of the upward rate of flow of the hydrothermal solution, that the fast rate of build up of the fluid pressure at the top of the fracture could result in the development of a zone of dilatancy above the end of the fracture. However, since a body of hydrothermal solution is present on the fracture plane, the increased porosity would increase the rate of permeation of the high pressure hydrothermal solution into the adjacent rocks. The rates of permeation of the hydrothermal solution into the rocks immediately adjacent to the fracture would be lower than the rate of flow along the fault p l a n e by one to three orders of magnitude, depending on the permeability of the rocks. However, this rate of permeability would be far greater than the rate of build up of the regional differential stress. Fracturing occurs abruptly, and the fracture extends at a rate which is greater than the velocity of entry of fluid and may in some cases approach one fifth of the speed of sound, (Price i968 ). The formation of the fracture results in a sudden drop in the pressure at the leading edge of the sheet of fluid which consequently rushes into the newly forming fracture. It can be seen from the equation of the mean rate of laminar flow, that the velocity of the hydrothermal solution would be extremely high when the distance between the points of different pressure is small, but the rate of flow would decrease as the fluid moved into the fracture and the pressure difference decreased. The initial kinetic energy of the fluid moving into the fracture at high velocity, might maintain the pressure on the walls above the combined minimum principal stress and tensile strengh of the rock, so that the fracture may extend much farther that it might have done under static conditions of pore fluid pressure.

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The temporary drop in fluid pressure as the fracture extends ahead of the advancing sheet of fluid, would cause the adjacent rock into which the hydrothermal solution had permeated at high pressure, to burst apart to form an angular breccia. Initially, the velocity of the solution entering the brecciated zone would be so high that the fragments would be carried upwards, rounded by abrasion, and eventually deposited as intrusion breccias. At a lower velocity the brecciated area might become a fluidized sheet, with the angular fragments completely separated from each other but remaining more or less at the same level. The minimum fluidization velocity would be at least an order of magnitude less than the rate of flow required to support an isolated fragment in approximately the same position. Consequently, it would appear that the build up of excess pressures at the top of a reservoir of fluid of low viscosity, may lead to the extension of the fracture by periodic episodes of explosive hydraulic fracturing and brecciation. The extent of the fracturing is likely to be far greater than that produced if failure occurred under static pore water pressures. The high rates of flow of the solution into the fracture would decrease as soon as the excess fluid pressure was insufficient to maintain the extension of the fracture. The solution would fill the fractures and the rate of inflow would be relatively slow as the excess pressure gradually built up again and the rate of permeation of the solution into the adjacent rocks increased.

7- Hydraulic fracturing during decreasing differential stress

Each extension of the fracture would result in a small reduction in the differential stress in the region of the fault. If a sheet of hydrothermal solution was available its rate of rise along the fault and permeation into the adjacent rocks, would be very much greater than the build up of the differential stress as a result of the continued movement of the basement. Consequently periodic hydraulic fracturing could continue with decreasing differential stress provided the pressure of the hydrothermal solution increased, Fig. 8. When the differential stress had decreased below 8 T the stress circle would come into contact with the parabolic portion of the failure envelope and the faults would be extended upwards and laterally at steeper dips. When the differential stress had decreased below 4 T, the faults would be extended as vertical tension fractures or breccia zones showing dilation with no lateral displacement, Fig. 7c, provided the excess hydrothermal solution pressure exceeded the combined minimum principal stress and the tensile strength of the rock. Vertical offshoots might also extend upwards from the fault plane. In a material with a very small tensile strength, a migrating fluid could develop a hydraulic tension fracture continuously until equilibrium was attained. A rock has an appreciable tensile strength, and hydraulic fracturing occurs as a series of rapid extensions of the fracture, separated by periods during which the fluid pressure in the new fracture builds up and exceeds the stress normal to the fracture and the tensile strength of the rock at the end of the fracture. When the differential stress was high, the strike and dip of the fault plane is not greatly modified by variations in the lithology and structure of the rocks, and the fracture is extended more or less parallel to the intermediate principal stress axis.

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However, when the fracture is extended by high hydrothermal solution pressures under low differential stresses, the anisotropy of the folded rocks may result in a modification of the trend of the fracture. In mid Wales the Caledonian folds trend NNE-S SW and they are crossed by prominent vertical or steeply inclined (ac) joints. In many places the ENE trending mineralized faults pass laterally into vertical breccia zones or mineralized vertical joints arranged in echelon, which strike ESE parallel to the (ac) joints. It would appear that the difference between the tensile strength in the direction perpendicular to the (ac) joints and the tensile strength in the direction of the minimum principal stress, was greater than the difference between the minimum principal stress and the stress normal to the (ac) joints. Consequently, the hydrothermal solutions opened the (ac) joints rather than extend the fracture in an ENE direction. I f the differential stress decreased to zero so that all normal stresses acting at a point were equal to the lithostatic pressure, fracturing could occur if the pressure of the hydrothermal solution exceeded the lithostatic pressure by an amount equivalent to the tensile strength of the rock. However, under these conditions, old fracture planes with any orientation, including the NNE-SSW trending early thrust faults, might have been forced open. Since this has not occurred generally in Cardiganshire, it is concluded that the mineralization associated with the migration of bodies of hydrothermal solution was completed during the period of NNW-SSE tensile stresses. During the early stages of the period of tensile differential stresses, numerous normal faults formed. These faults were initiated in more porous and brittle rocks where the pore water pressure was relatively high, and such areas probably occurred below thick impermeable rocks units, particularly in anticlinal zones. The extension of these faults by hydraulic fracturing required the accumulation of a body of hydrothermal solution. This could have occurred as the result of permeation of pore waters into the developing fracture plane, but it is possible that the accumulation was greatly assisted by the presence of thick impermeable units. The preceding discussion has been concerned with the failure characteristics of brittle rocks. It seems likely that thick mudstone units deformed in a more ductile manner even after folding and partial lithification. If the upward extension of a fault was temporarily restricted by the presence of a more ductile and impermeable rock unit, the solutions would accumulate below under pressures which exceeded the fluid pressures required to produce hydraulic fracturing in the more permeable and brittle rocks, while the overlying mudstones deformed by flow. This may be the explanation of the 'flats' at the Van mine, since these consisted of numerous almost vertical fractures in the massive greywackes below the thick mudstone unit which forms the Gwestyn shales and the top of the Van formation, Fig. 7D. It is possible that the most important effect of the impermeable barrier is that it assists the accumulation of a reservoir of hydrothermal solution, so that when the more ductile and impermeable unit is eventually penetrated by the upward extension of the fault, a body of fluid is available to extend the fracture upwards rapidly by repeated episodes of hydraulic fracturing and brecciation of the more brittle rocks. Most of the mineralized zones consist of two or more almost parallel fractures or breccias within a zone up to 60 m wide. These parallel fracture zones could

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have formed simultaneously due to the rise of a number of more or less separate sheets of hydrothermal solution. The Ystwyth fault is a large normal fault with a northward downthrow of about 830 m. The southward dipping mineralized faults at Cwmystwyth are truncated by the Ystwyth fault, but it is likely that they are represented by the Logaulas fault on the south side. Movement on the Ystwyth fault probably continued long after the formation of the numerous mineralized faults. It seems likely that for some time after the migration of sheets of hydrothermal solution, the region was affected differential tensile stresses generated by movements in the basement. During this later stage, the pore water pressure may have been generally lower due to the loss of water along the normal faults, and the regional differential stresses were released by periodic displacements on a few major normal faults such as the Ystwyth fault.

8. The deposition of the common minerals on the normal faults and breccia zones in Cardiganshire
The mineral deposits occur on certain parts of fractures which cut greywackes and siltstones, and extend through about 1,5oo metres of the succession. It is appropriate, therefore, to consider briefly the changes in temperature and pressure of the hydrothermal solution which might have resulted in the deposition of the minerals. The rate of upward flow of the hydrothermal solution along a fault is likely to be very fast, so that only slight cooling would occur during emplacement. However, the slight drop in temperature and also the reduction in pressure could result in the continuous crystallization of some quartz on the walls if the solution was saturated in silica (Holland 1967). If the solution is prevented from rising upwards, it would cool to the temperature of the enclosing rocks and crystallization might occur. The decrease in temperature and in the lithostatic pressure as the solution ascended, is unlikely to have resulted in the deposition of calcite at the probable temperatures ( 2 5 o C - i5o(]), and pressures ( 1 2 5 o - 75 bars) at which crystallization occurred (Ellis 1963). During the build up of the hydrothermal solution pressure in the fault, quartz may have continued to crystallize due to cooling, but the rate of crystallization may have been reduced due to the increase in pressure. When the rock fractured, there would be an abrupt drop in the pressure due to the opening of the fracture and to the increased velocity of the solution as it rushed into the opening. After the occurrence of hydraulic fracturing, minerals sometimes crystallized rapidly on the separated rock fragments presumably due to the fall in pressure, since irreversible adiabatic expansion, known as Joule-Thompson expansion or 'throttling', would have produced no appreciable cooling at temperatures below 4ooC (Barton & Toulmin 196 I). Where the solution was saturated with hydrogen sulphide, the sudden drop in pressure accompanying fracturing, may have caused vesiculation and the sudden release of bubbles rich in hydrogen sulphide. This abrupt fall in the partial pressure of H~S may have resulted in the rapid precipitation of sphalerite and later galena from the solution, if these base metals were present in solution as bisulphide complexes, (Barnes 1967). Since the bisulphide complex of galena is more stable

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than that of sphalerite, the galena would be precipitated on the sphalerite, or may have been carried to higher levels in the breccia, producing a broad zoning as the solution moved upwards into the brecciated zone. The zoning may have been produced by the gradual change in the composition of the solution during a series of episodes of hydraulic fracturing as the breccia zone was extended upwards. The episodes of hydraulic fracturing may have succeeded each other within minutes depending on the rate of upward flow of new hydrothermal solution. Crystallization of sphalerite and later galena may also have occurred within minutes on some occasions, since aqueous solutions attain equilibrium very rapidly. The well formed crystals of quartz which have grown on sphalerite or galena in the remaining pockets of liquid, formed as a result of the final cooling of the solution, Fig. 6B. The rapid rise of the hydrothermal solution through the more brittle Frongoch formation, after the fault have penetrated the Gwestyn shales, would result in a relatively rapid reduction in the pressure of about 2oo bars. This process involves decompression and is somewhat similar to the throttling effect proposed by Ken. nedy (I 95o), though here it is suggested that the deposition of the sulphide minerals was caused by the reduction in the partial pressures of the dissolved gases as the result of a series of relatively small drops in the pressure, rather than to the effect of a decrease in the density of the solution. Chalcopyrite and siderite are most abundant within and just above the pyritous mudstone units. It is possible that the carbonate is more sensitive to pressure changes than the sulphides and quartz, and consequently was precipitated early. The close association of chalcopyrite with the pyrite rich mudstone units may indicate the influence of a chemical control of deposition. The epigenetic dispersion patterns described by Khan (I97o) on the stratigraphically lower part of the Camdwr fault, show gradually decreasing amounts of lead and zinc, outwards from the zones of maximum concentration which are about 3 m from the fault breccia. Low concentrations of these elements were found along the fault zone. This pattern suggests that the pressure along the fault zone was sufficiently high to retain these elements in solution, but that at some distance outwards in the permeation zone the pressure had decreased to a critical value and precipitation commenced. It seems likely that the main body of hydrothermal solution moved to higher levels before the main mineralization occurred. To the west the Camdwr fault passes into vertical breccia zones in higher stratigraphical levels, and the mine records show that this was the heavily mineralized part of the fault zone. Where mineralization has occurred the dispersion patterns show a continuous decrease of the base metals away from the fault zone.

9" Conclusions
The occurrence of actively developing normal faults is extremely important in that they provide channels for the upward migration and accumulation of pore waters or other aqueous fluids to form bodies of hydrothermal solution. The process of accumulation is aided by the presence of thick impermeable rock units.

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T h e sheets of h y d r o t h e r m a l solution h a v e a v e r y i m p o r t a n t m e c h a n i c a l effect after t h e y have exceeded a critical size, so t h a t the pressures t r a n s m i t t e d from below result in h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a n d brecciation at the u p p e r edge of the fracture zone. T h e differential stress system has a p r o n o u n c e d effect on the m i g r a t i o n p a t h s of the fluids, a n d bodies of fluid have p r o n o u n c e d effects on the local differential stress field. This applies to p e n e t r a t i v e fluids such as h y d r o t h e r m a l solutions, gas or oil, a n d also to the m o v e m e n t s of n o n - p e n e t r a t i v e fluids such as m a g m a s , (Phillips i97 i). T h e m e c h a n i s m proposed here for the origin of m i n e r a l i z e d norm a l faults a n d breccias, links the f o r m a t i o n of the breccias a n d possibly also t h e s u b s e q u e n t deposition o f the ore minerals, w i t h the m e c h a n i c a l effect of the b o d y of ascending h y d r o t h e r m a l solution.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

The author has benefited greatly from many long discussions with Dr. N. J. Price, and is indebted to Professor David Williams for carefully reading the original manuscript and making many valuable suggestions.

IO. References
BAm~ES,H. L. & CZAMANSKE,G. F. I967. Solubilites and transport of ore minerals. In, Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 334-38I. B~a~TON, P. B. & TOULOn% P. i96i. Some mechanisms for cooling hydrothermal solutions: U.S., Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper. 4241) 348--352. BRACE, W. F. 1968. The mechanical effects of pore water pressure on the fracturing of rocks. Proc. Research in Tectonics. Geol. Surv. Can. Paper 68-52, x13-I 24. ELLIS, A. J. & GOLDRrNG,R. M. 1963. The solubility of carbon dioxide above I ooC in water and in sodium chloride solutions. Am. J. Sci., 26x, 47-6o. F ~ x , F. C. 1965. On dilatancy in relation to seismic sources; Rev. Geophysics, 3, 484-5o3 I-L~IN, J. i966. Strength and ductility. Handbook of physical Constants. Mere. geol. Soc. Am. 9 / , 223-29oHOLt~'~D, H. D. 1967. Gangue minerals in hydrothermal deposits. In, Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 382-436 . HUBBERT, M. K. & RuB~Y, W. W. I959. Role of fluid pressure in the mechanics of overthrust faulting. Bull. geol. Soc. Am. 70, 1I5-I66. - & W I L L I S , D. G. 1957. Mechanics of hydraulic fracturing. Trans. Am. Inst. Mech. Engrs. n~xo, 153-I68. HuoH~s, W. L. x959. The non-ferrons mining possibilities of Central Wales. In, The future of nonferrous mining in Great Britain and Ireland. A Symposium. Inst. Mining & Metallurgy. 277-294. JoN~.s, O. T. i922. Lead and zinc. The mining district of North Cardiganshire and West Montgomeryshire. Mem. geol. Surv. spec. Rep. Miner. Resour. Gt Br. 2o. I955. The geological evolution of Wales and the adjoining regions. Q. Jl geol. Lond., xxx, 323-35 I. KENNEDY, G. C. I95O. A portion of the system silica-water. Econ. Geol., 45, 629-653. KHAN, S. K. I97o. Some aspects of the geochemistry of the lead-zinc mineralization of Cardiganshire. In, Mineral Exploitation. Proceedings of the University of Wales Colloquium. Cardiff, 25-29. McAvAm, W. H. 1954. Heat transmission. New York, McGraw-Hill. McCLn~TOCK, F. A. & WALSH, J. B. i962. Friction on Griffith cracks in rocks under pressure. Proc. U.S. hath. Congr. appl. Mech. Ioi5-1o2I. MOOR~ATH, S. I962. Lead-isotope abundance studies on mineral occurrences in the British Isles and their geological significance. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A254, 295-36o.

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PHILLIPS,W. J. ~97o. The mechanical effect of hydrothermal solutions with reference to the formation of the mineralized normal faults and breccia zones in Cardiganshire. In, Mineral Exploitation, Proceedings of the University of Wales, Colloquium. Cardiff, I8-24. x97I. Dynamic models of oceanic volcanic activity. Geology. 3". Ass. Teach. Geol. 3, I5-4o. PRICE, N. J. 1966. Fault and joint development. Pergamon Press. t968. A dynamic mechanism for the development of second-order faults and related structures. Geol. Surv. Can. Paper 68-52 , 49-78. S~COR, D. T. 1965. Role of fluid pressure in jointing. Am. 3". Sci. 263, 633-646. x969. Mechanics of natural extension of fracturing at depth in the earth's crust. Geol. Surv. Canada. Paper 68-52. Research in Tectonics, 3-48 . SHARP,W. E. x965. The deposition of hydrothermal quartz and calcite. Econ. Geol. 60, 1635-I 964. SHAW, H. R. 1965. Comments on the Viscosity, Crystal settling and convection in granitic magmas, Am. J. Sci. 263, x2o-I52. TERZAGm, K. VAN X 943. Theoretical soil mechanics. New York (Wiley). WHrrTEN, C. A. x956. Crustal movements in California and Nevada. Trans. Am. geophys. Un. 37. Received 9 September i97o; revised manuscript received 8 February I972; read a4 November i97I. W. J. Phillips, PH.D., D.I.C., F.O.S., M.I.M.M.Department of Geology, University College of Wales, Llandinam Building, Aberystwyth.

DISCUSSION

Professor D. WILLIAMS expressed surprise that one of the author's illustrations depicted a lode traversing the Gywestyn Shales and overlying Frongoch Formation in which the mineralization was shown as being confined to an u p w a r d succession of copper, zinc and lead zones within the Frongoch Formation. Geological mapping and production statistics indicated, however, that in the Cardiganshire mining field copper was largely restricted to lodes within the Gwestyn Shales. Clarification of this apparent discrepancy, and an explanation of copper localization within the Cardiganshire lodes, would be welcomed. The AUTHOR replied that the greatly simplified diagrammatic representation of the relationship of the mineral zoning to the structure, had been modified to show that where chalcopyrite is a b u n d a n t it was closely associated with the pyritous Gwestyn mudstones as stated by Professor Williams. This early deposition of chalcopyrite might be a mass action effect, since where only a small a m o u n t of chalcopyrite was present, it had crystallized after the sphalerite and was closely associated with galena. Dr. J. L. KNILL commented on the extremely lucid m a n n e r in which Dr. Phillips had presented the principle of effective stress. His own interest in the subject arose from the deliberate generation of hydraulic fracture in the grouting of rock and soils in dam foundations. I n such cases, the pressure drop which followed fracture was not always of a significant magnitude and excavation through grouted zones did not disclose the intense brecciation described by the author. Clearly, a large back pressure in the hanging wall rocks was essential to the author's argument to

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allow for the downward collapse and consequent brecciation effects following a rapid drop in pressure in the vein itself. Such a drop in pressure implied that there was not a ready supply of fluid from the reservoir below and might suggest some form of blockage developing within the vein. An alternative possibility was that a phase change took place from liquid to gas or vapour, or that the whole process was developed by gases under pressure rather than liquids. It seemed possible that gases or gas with liquid could result in more effective fragmentation of the rock than if liquid was the sole medium. Could Dr. Phillips comment on this ? A further point made in the paper was that the Mohr circle defining the state of stress might be induced to intersect the failure envelope if the differential stress increased by reduction in a3. Bearing in mind the work by Hast and others on a world-wide basis which has demonstrated the occurrence of high horizontal residual stresses in both deformed and undeformed rocks, could Dr. Phillips give figures for the depth of the process he is postulating, in situ stresses and pore water pressures both before and during hydraulic fracture ? Dr. R. MnsoN said that since the stresses leading to faulting were regarded externally determined, the vertical stress by loading, and the differential horizontal stresses by tectonic processes, it seemed that the stresses on either side of the developing fracture should be symmetrical. If this was the case, why was there such a strong contrast in the brecciation and mineralisation between the hanging wall and foot wall of the mineral veins ? In a written communication Dr. J. B. AUD~.Nsuggested that phenomena associated with the disposal of chemical waste down a well in Colorado were relevant to the subject of hydraulic fracturing. Reference should be made to a paper by L. J. Scopel entitled 'Pressure Injection Disposal Well, Rocky Mountain Arsenal, Denver, Colorado' (Engineering Geology Case Histories No. 8, Engineering Seismology: The works of Man: Geol. Soc. Am. p. 25, 197o ). Products of chemical warfare had been pumped down a well 12,o45 ft or 3671 m in depth, into a section of Precambrian gneiss 74 ft (23 m) located at the bottom of the well. The pressure varied from 500 to lO5O p.s.i, and pumping rates from 200 to 300 US g.p.m (roughly 75o-11oo 1.p.m.). The first earthquakes observed during the present century with epicentres in the Denver area were recorded during the month following the initiation of the injection programme in March i962. Between 1962 and October I965 some 15o million gallons of waste were injected into this well, and 71o tremors have been recorded, the majority within 8 km of the well. A correlation had been established between the fluid injected and the seismic frequency, and Scopel concludes that movement is taking place in the fracture reservoir, where frictional resistance along fracture planes is reduced. The AUTHOR thanked Dr. Knill for his kind remarks and for drawing attention to the mechanism of brecciation. The main feature of the proposed explanation of the brecciation was that permeable rocks underwent a gradually increasing amount of elastic strain until fracturing occurred abruptly, and resulted in a decrease in the magnitude of the differential stress in the region of the fracture.

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During the later stages, when the differential stress was small, the permeation of the hydrothermal solution into rocks above the end of the fracture continued until the solution pressure exceeded the minimum principal stress by an amount greater than the tensile strength of the rock. The fracture took the form of a more or less vertical zone of brecciation, since this was perpendicular to the minimum principal stress direction, and was also the direction of greatest permeation if the rocks were nearly homogeneous. Prior to the fracture, the build up of the fluid pressure would inhibit the release of a gas phase. However, immediately fracturing occurred, the drop in the fluid pressure might have resulted in the separation of a gas phase consisting of water vapour and possibly hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide released from solution. It was possible that the release of this gas phase assisted in the brecciation of the fragments as suggested by Dr. Knill. The breccias in the hanging wall were formed during the extension of the normal faults. Once a body of aqueous solution had accumulated on the fault the higher fluid pressure transmitted from greater depths, resulted in the permeation of the solution into the rocks above, thus reducing the effective normal stresses in this zone. The effective stresses in the rocks above the end of the normal fault were not likely to be symmetrical about the plane along which the fracture might be extended, as suggested by Dr. Mason, since the zone of the permeation was not symmetrical about this plane. Consequently, the breccias were more likely to form in the rocks above the fracture extension since, this was the region of greatest fluid pressure. Furthermore, during fracturing the rocks of the hanging wall were displaced downdip relative to the foot-wall by an amount which increased from zero at the leading edge of the new extension, to a maximum at the position from which the extension started, (Fig. 7b). The downdip displacement of the hanging wall resulted in a dilation of the rocks parallel to the fault plane, and this would assist brecciation, or the opening of vertical fractures in the hanging wall, while the foot-wall remained intact. This explanation of the development of brecciated normal faults and breccia zones, implied abrupt episodes of hydraulic fracturing separated by longer periods during which the fluid pressure at the top of the fracture increased. Dr. Auden had drawn attention to the recent seismic activity at Denver, which was associated with the remobilization of faults due to the disposal of fluid waste under pressure. The observations of earthquakes which precede volcanic eruptions also indicated the intermittent nature of hydraulic fracturing at loci which decrease in depth as the magma rises to the surface. Dr. Knill had pointed out that rocks frequently show high residual stresses due to loading or additional horizontal stresses. Estimates of the differential stresses and fluid pressures at the depths of formation of the fractures were given in the paper, and it was assumed that the drop in fluid pressure accompanying brecciation would be related to the tensile strength of the rock. Residual stresses are due to distortions in the crystal structures, and these might be retained during the tensile phase of deformation, though it was likely that they would be largely released in the brecciated rocks. Dr. N. J. PRICE referred to the low solubility of quartz in hydrothermal solutions, and taking reasonable estimates of the abundance of quartz veins and of the

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decrease in temperature, he drew attention to the very large volumes of water that must have travelled along the normal fault planes. It was interesting to study this subject in another way. If the porosity of the saturated rocks occupying one cubic kilometre (i 016 cc), was reduced by 1%, then 10l litres of water would be expelled and might travel upwards along a normal fault. I f this water contained only o. I grams of zinc sulphide per litre, then the zinc content of the source rock would be reduced by about I p.p.m., while i ooo metric tons of sphalerite could be concentrated in a relatively small area if conditions were favourable for deposition as the solution flowed through. The mineral deposits of Cardiganshire which produced over i o ooo tons of concentrates are more than two kilometres apart, so that the volume of the source rocks extending through a depth of about 5 km might have exceeded 20 cubic kilometres. Consequently these mineral deposits could be explained by assuming a very low solubility of base metals and a small reduction in the porosity of the possible source rocks. In a written contribution Dr. W. R. FITc~IES said Dr. Phillips had considered the processes of faulting and mineralization in Cardiganshire essentially from the viewpoint of the mechanism and it was important now to view these processes within the total geological context of the region. In doing so several questions arose. Several mineralized faults, e.g. the Cwm Ystwyth Fault, clearly cut NNE/SSW folds and the regional axial planar slaty cleavage which belong to the earliest generation of structures, of end-Silurian age, so far known in the region. By the time that faulting and mineralization took place, therefore, the Lower Palaeozoic rocks had already been folded and cleaved and the fabric compacted at least once so that the porosity, permeability and pore-fluid content, which play an allimportant role according to Dr. Phillips, must have been substantially reduced from the values obtaining in undeformed rocks. Did Dr. Phillips consider this reduction in porosity and permeability a serious hazard to his hypothesis ? There was a question concerning the age of the faults and the mineralization. James and James had suggested, mainly on sedimentological grounds, that several faults in Central Wales, which were previously regarded as end-Silurian or younger and of which some are mineralized, were already active in Bala times. Also, the writer had found in late Ordovician conglomerates of the Van Dome quartz pebbles containing galena and chalcopyrite. It was likely, although not certain, that these sulphides were detrital, having been deposited with, and enclosed in, the pebbles rather than having been introduced into the pebbles during the endSilurian mineralization. Had Dr. Phillips any comments on the possibilities of episodes of faulting and mineralization in Central Wales in Ordovician times or earlier ? He (Dr. Fitches) had found recently that the strain sequence in Central Wales was broadly similar to that elsewhere in the paratectonic Caledonides: early upright folds on Caledonoid trends, accompanied by the regional axial plane slaty cleavage, developed in a vertical extension regime and were then refolded on flat-lying axial planes during vertical flattening The early folds and the recumbent folds were then locally refolded on steep NW/SE axial planes in what

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may be regarded as a wrench-fault regime. Where would Dr. Phillips suggest the mineralized faults fit into this sequence, if anywhere ? In reply to Dr. Fitches the AUTI~ORwrites: During the compressive phase of deformation, vertical channelways tend to be closed, so that it was likely that some pore water would be retained in the rocks. The pressure of this fluid might rise and recrystallizafion might be inhibited. Subsequently during the tensile phase of deformation, steeply inclined normal faults might allow the upward passage and accumulation of the aqueous solutions. The hypothesis depended on the relative values of the fluid pressure and stresses, and not on an absolute value, and it had been pointed out above that the structures and mineral deposits could be explained by assuming only a small change in the porosity of the rocks during the tensile phas e Mineralization could have occurred at several stages during the earlier compressive phase of deformation, provided the hydraulic gradient resulted in the channelling of metal bearing solutions through sites favourable for deposition and crystal growth. The commonly observed sequence of structures indicated that deformation occurs in cycles which include compressive, relaxation and tensile phases. Consequently in rocks of the same lithology, a similar sequence of folds of different styles is likely to be formed during the compressive and relaxation phases of deformation. The normal faults formed during the tensile phase of deformation, and it was during this period that the hydrothermal solutions were most likely to find an easy access to higher levels.