Journal of Sport History, Vol. 15, No.

2 (Summer, 1988)

Wrestling in n!ient Nu"ia

Scott T. Carroll Assistant Professor Dept. of History, Gordon College

The history of ancient sports traditionally begins and ends in the classical arena. Perhaps this is because of the plethora of extant sources about Greek and o!an sports. "ehind this narro# focus is the nai$e assu!ption that Greek sports #ere #ithout antecedents in their %editerranean en$iron!ent. &n the field of Sport History, se$eral ancient historians, in recent years, ha$e !ade substantial contributions ai!ed at correcting the existing Greco' o!an insularity.()* The !ost popular athletic contest in the classical #orld #as #restling. The literary and !aterial culture is replete #ith e$idence illustrating the pre$alence of #restling and the #restling !otif. This study #ill atte!pt to de!onstrate that #restling en+oyed a pro!inence in ancient ,ubia, e$idenced se$eral centuries before Ho!er-s #restling accounts. Ancient iconographic and literary e$idence, co!bined #ith ethnographical studies, #ill be used to elucidate the popularity of #restling a!ong the ,ubian people. #$i%en!e for Wrestling in n!ient Nu"ia .restling #as extre!ely popular #ith the ancient /gyptians, +udging by the fre0uency #ith #hich the sport appears in /gyptian art.(1* There are a host of #restling scenes #hich first appear in the 2ld 3ingdo! to!b of Ptahhotep (1455 ".C.* through the ti!e of the ,e# 3ingdo! (1555')567 ".C.*. So!e of the !ost interesting scenes sho# foreigners #restling against the /gyptians. ,ubian #restlers appear at least fi$e ti!es in /gyptian art. 2ur infor!ation about ancient ,ubian #restling is dependent on these gli!pses in /gyptian iconography together #ith a late description found in Heliodorus- Aithiopica. This section #ill analy8e the ancient e$idence and atte!pt to reconstruct an ancient ,ubian #restling tradition. The history of /gypt supplies an ongoing story of econo!ic interaction #ith ,ubia #hich began in the 2ld 3ingdo! and lasted through the Persian Con0uest of /gypt in 717 ".C.(4* &nitially, the li!its of interaction constituted ,ubian trade of exotic goods through their o#n !iddle!en into the hands of /gyptian !erchants. Apparently, the trade #as not reciprocal.

/gyptian goods are scarce in ,ubia throughout the 2ld 3ingdo!. There is also e$idence that suggests that se$eral of the 2ld 3ingdo! Pharaohs sent !ilitary expeditions into ,ubia. These expeditions increase during the 9irst &nter!ediate Period (1175'1555 ".C.*, as does e$idence of /gyptian #ares in ,ubia. &t is not until the %iddle 3ingdo! (1555'):65 ".C.* that there #as a concerted Pharaohnic effort to protect /gyptian econo!ic interests to the south. The fre0uency of puniti$e ca!paigns increased during the ,e# 3ingdo! ()7;<')567 ".C.*. /gypt sent expeditions deep into ,ubia #ith the hope of circu!$enting tribal chiefs, the traditional !iddle!en in /gypto',ubian trade. /$entually, the ,ubian !iddle!en #ere eli!inated. The /gyptians di$ided and controlled ,ubia. The ,e# 3ingdo! Pharaohs de!anded the ite!s that they for!erly purchased fro! the ,ubians as tribute. /xotic goods, ani!als, !inerals and sla$es #ere presented as tribute to the Pharaoh. The ,e# 3ingdo! conducted a policy of for!al i!perial exploitation in ,ubia. All of the ,ubian #restling relief=s are fro! the height of this process of /gyptian i!periali8ation during the ,e# 3ingdo!.

9igure ). Courtesy of Dr. Artur "rack

The earliest portrayal of ,ubian #restlers is found on a #all painting fro! the to!b of Tyanen, an /gyptian officer (d. );)5 ".C.*(;* (See 9igure )*. The picture sho#s fi$e !en !arching together, #ith the last !an carrying a standard #hich has t#o #restlers on it. All but one of the !en ha$e ,ubian physical characteristics. The contrast bet#een the ,ubian #restlersgirth and the tri! /gyptian, is pronounced. Perhaps the ,ubians #ere a detach!ent of #restlers. The sticks that the first four ,ubians brandished #ere used in a dueling co!petition. Depictions of stick fighting and #restling co!petitions often appear together, i!plying that the sa!e people participated in both e$ents.(7* Certainly these co!bati$e sports

#ere used for !ilitary training. .hile it is kno#n that the /gyptians recruited ,ubian archers into their ar!y, perhaps this picture i!plies that ,ubian #restlers #ere also highly estee!ed .by the /gyptians

&e%'ay Nu"ian r!(ers The to!b of %esehti in Asyut, fro! the %iddle 3ingdo!, had t#o detailed !odels of soldiers. %esehti #as the pro$incial go$ernor in the ))th Dynasty Asyut and these !odels ha$e pro$ided !uch of the details about /gyptian soldiers. This is a painted #ooden !odel of ,ubian archers. They are sho#n #earing a bright red and green loin'cloth, possibly leather not linen. They are carrying three arro#s in their right hand and a recur$ed bo# in their left. Chronologically, the second illustration of #restling in ancient ,ubia is fro! a relief in the rock to!b of %eryre (&&* (d. )477 ".C.*(<* (See 9igure 1*. %eryre (&&* #as interred at /l'A!arna,

the city built by the fa!ed heretic Pharaoh Akhenaton(:* %eryre (&&* #as the palace ste#ard for the beautiful >ueen ,efertity. The picture on the to!b #all sho#s 3ing Akhenaton seated at his throne, a#aiting tribute fro! ,ubia. The presentation of tribute #as celebrated #ith festi$ities #hich included sports co!petition.(6* The co!petition took place before the Pharaoh, his court, nobles, soldiers and a!bassadors fro! foreign lands. The ?tribute ga!es@ dra!ati8ed /gyptian superiority o$er their sub+ugated ene!ies. &n %eryre (&&*As to!b, Akhenaton is fittingly entertained by a #restling !atch bet#een a ,ubian and an /gyptian. The !atch bet#een the /gyptian and the ,ubian is illustrated fro! right to left in four ?fra!es.@ The /gyptian is #earing the dress of a soldier. &n the second fra!e, the /gyptian has his left ar! o$er and around the ,ubian-s head. Penetrating on one knee under his African opponent, the /gyptian si!ultaneously lifts bet#een the ,ubian-s legs #hile prying in a do#n#ard !otion on his head. The ,ubian is spilled to the ground and lays on his back in the final fra!e. The /gyptian #restler stands o$er his opponent #ith raised ar!s in a traditional $ictory pose before the Pharaoh.

9igure 1. ,. de G. Da$ies, ?The ock To!bs of /l A!arnahB Colu!e &&,@ Archaeological Sur$ey of /gypt ); (Dondon, )E57*, pl. 46 The third piece of e$idence of ,ubian #restling #as recently disco$ered dating also fro! the A!arna period ()475 ".C.*.(E* Fnlike the other scenes, t#o ,ubians #restled each other as a ,ubian #o!an and a dog looked on, rather than the Pharaoh. Stick fighters are also depicted on the sa!e sandstone car$ing. This is the only ancient ,ubian #restling scene infor!ally set in the countryside. Gourds dangling fro! the #restlers- loin cloths and a bull in the foreground are of particular interest. The significance of this e$idence as it relates to ethnographical data is discussed belo#. The last t#o archaeological indications of ,ubian #restling are fro! the te!ple of a!ses &&& at %edinet Habu()5*. The elaborate frie8e is based on a prototype constructed at the a!sesseu! by a!ses &&. .hen it beca!e necessary to repair the center section of the frie8e at %edinet Habu, blocks #ere taken fro! the a!sesseu!. Artisans skillfully patched the relief, although the difference in the color of the stone used, !akes the patch#ork clear. The artisans neglected to a!end the text on the blocks used to !end the frie8e. &n the !iddle of the elaborate relief, dedicated to a!ses &&&, there are so!e praises offered to a!ses &&. 2ne block fro! the a!sesseu! #as discarded next to the #all after it had been partially used for repairs. The portion discarded gi$es an exa!ple of a ,ubian'/gyptian #restling !atch fro! the days of a!ses &&. &t is also identical to the depiction on the %edinet Habu frie8e (See 9igure 4*.

.9igure 4. Courtesy of the 2riental &nstitute of the Fni$ersity of Chicago The frie8e at %edinet Habu is belo# Pharaoh a!ses &&&-s ?.indo# of oyal Appearance.@ The Pharaoh #ould appear in this #indo# to recei$e the spoils of #ar and tribute. &t is fro! this $antage point that the Pharaoh #ould $ie# the ?tribute ga!es@ conducted in the courtyard before hi!. The #indo# itself is a $isual expression of the ancient notion of ?putting lands under one-s feet@ or ?!aking an ene!y one-s footstool.G())* ealistically fashioned heads of traditional /gyptian ene!ies are lined up underneath the oyal .indo#. As !any as ele$en of the t#enty heads ha$e distinct ,ubian characteristics. The tribute ga!es are a dra!ati8ation of the sub+ugation of the tribute lands by /gypt. The %edinet Habu frie8e displays a #restling !atch bet#een a ,ubian and an /gyptian. An international court #atches the athletic festi$ities #ith enthusias!. The spectators include a ,ubian, bedecked #ith a custo!ary plu!e and earring. Apparently, the foreign spectators are e!issaries, being entertained, rather than capti$es forced to #itness a display of Pharaohnic o!nipotence. &t is i!possible to tell #hether or not the ,ubian diplo!at desired his ethnic co!patriot to defeat his /gyptian opponentH but the co!petition $i$idly re!inded the ,ubian diplo!at of /gypt-s su8erainty o$er his people. A literary parallel to this panoply is contained in a letter fro! an /gyptian official to a ,ubian prince #hich states, "e !indful of the day #hen tribute is brought #hen thou passest before the king beneath the #indo#, and the counselors are ranged on either side in front of his !a+esty, and the chiefs and en$oys of all lands stand there !ar$eling and $ie#ing the tribute.()1*

The artist depicts the cro#d pressing upon the action and calling out ?Iou are like %ontu, 2 Pharaoh, Dife, Prosperity, Health, our good DordJ A!un o$erthro#s for you the foreigners #ho ca!e to set the!sel$es up against you.G()4* The ,ubian'/gyptian #restling !atch on the %edinet Habu relief contains three separate seg!ents, progressing fro! left to right, #ith a corresponding text. &n the first section (the group to the right of the stick fighters*, the /gyptian #restler has his ,ubian ad$ersary in a choke'hold. A referee #ith tru!pet in hand, stands nearby the grapplers and #arns the /gyptian about the illegal !o$e, saying ?Take careJ Iou are in the presence of the PharaohB Dife, Prosperity and HealthJ Iour Dord.G();* .hile the ga!es #ere intended to be a portrayal of /gyptian po#er o$er their ene!ies, this strikingly illustrates that the contests #ere conducted in fair play (or at least under the illusion of fair play*. &n the second seg!ent, the /gyptian is in the process of forcing his ,ubian opponent to the ground. The /gyptian grappler taunts his opponent, boasting ?.oe to you, 2 ,egro ene!yJ & #ill !ake you take a helpless fall in the presence of the Pharaoh.?()7* &n the corresponding scene on the block fro! the a!sesseu!, the /gyptian #restler +eers ?Alas for you 2 ,egro, #ho boasted #ith his !outh. Fser!are Setepnere is #ith !e against you. Iou Kprobably follo#ed by a threatL . . .?()<* The ,ubian appears defenseless. &t is unlikely that the /gyptian-s offensi$e attack could realistically toss anyone to the ground. The /gyptian pries the ,ubian-s left ar! #hile holding his opponent tightly, dri$ing off of his back right leg. ,or!ally the /gyptian #ould t#ist his opponent-s left ar! so that the ,ubian-s thu!b #ould face do#n#ard, this #ould straighten out the bent ar! and locali8e !axi!u! pressure against the back of the ,ubian-s ar!. Perhaps this is an o$ersight by the artist or !aybe the historian-s inability to properly en$ision the ancient techni0ue. The leaner /gyptian holds the husky ,ubian so tightly that his grip is hunching the ,ubian-s shoulder. The ,ubian !akes a feeble atte!pt to counter the !o$e by #rapping his left leg around the /gyptian-s right leg. "ut the ,ubian is being forced #ith so !uch strength that both of his feet lea$e the ground (!o!ents before he lands face'first in the sand*. The final seg!ent in the %edinet Habu frie8e sho#s a $ictorious /gyptian #restler standing o$er his ,ubian opponent. The $ictor-s hands are raised in the traditional #inner-s pose. The /gyptian recites a co!!on $ictory chant before the Pharaoh, and the dignitaries exclai!ing GA!un is the god #ho decreed the protection against e$ery land to the ruler, 2 great troop of Fser!are. . . .G():* The defeated ,ubian is forced to ackno#ledge his loss by kissing the ground before the Pharaoh. Fnfortunately, the /gyptian iconographic e$idence does not pro$ide substanti$e depictions of ,ubian #restling techni0ues. /gyptian art is highly ethnocentric and particularly derogatory to#ard the black #restlers.()6* The artistic e$idence focuses on the the!e of /gyptian pro#ess. A&bis !otif is !ost $i$idly depicted in the ?tribute ga!es.@ The ,ubian contestants for! a regi!ent, exclusi$ely dedicated for Pharoahnic co!petition. A!idst the /gyptian propaganda, infla!!atory boasts, spectacular !o$es and $ictory paeans, there is a hint of realis!B a referee.()E* The referee assures obser$ance of the rules. 2ther e$idence #ill gi$e substance to #hat the /gyptian iconography suggestsB that ancient ,ubians had a #restling culture. There is a later illusion to ,ubian #restling in Heliodorus Aithiopica K"ook )5L. Heliodorus, a nati$e of Syria, probably li$ed in the third century A.D.(15* /!phasi8ing the i!aginati$e no$elistic character of the #ork, classicists routinely disregard the possible historical di!ension of Aithiopica. Ho#e$er, in "ook )5, Heliodorus describes a #restling !atch bet#een a Greek by the na!e of Theagenes and a black #restling cha!pion. &t is reasonable to grant that Heliodorus- description of an African #restling cha!pion is grounded in i!ages of historical fact rather than i!aginati$e fancy.(1)* Aithiopica see!s to confir! an ancient African tradition of #restling that persisted at least fro! the days of the ,e# 3ingdo! until the late o!an /!pire.

Sear!( for t(e n!ient Nu"ian Wrestlers &n order to locate the source of the ancient ,ubian #restlers, one !ust be able to differentiate bet#een the $arious types of ,ubians. Fnfortunately, the classical and /gyptian sources #ere inattenti$e to descripti$e ethnographies of the ancient ,ubians. .hile the #ritten sources neglect to include descripti$e accounts of ,ubians, the artists portray the foreigners #ith elaborate detail. &t is difficult to kno# #hether or not the /gyptian artists concei$ed ,ubia to be ethnically co!part!entali8ed. The search for the source of the ancient ,ubian #restlers is for!idable using only ancient /gyptian e$idence. A critical co!bination of ancient records #ith archaeological and !ode! anthropological data #ill help narro# the search. The /gyptians consistently use the ter! ?,ubian@ in a collecti$e sense, referring to all bro#n or black'skinned peoples to their south. There is e$idence, ho#e$er, that de!onstrates that the black'skinned ,ubians ca!e fro! belo# the third cataract. After a series of ,ubian uprisings during the %iddle 3ingdo!, Sesostris &&& led an ar!y into the Sudan and defeated the rebels. He set up a co!!e!orati$e stela at Se!na (4: !iles south of Halfa*. The fa!ous stela #arns ,egroes not to pass beyond that point, unless they are on their #ay to !arket. (11* There are no acco!panying descriptions of the ,egroes gi$en. /gyptian sources are !ute about the southern ,egroes during the ti!e period of uphea$al called the Second &nter!ediate Period, ():65')77) ".C.*. There is reason to belie$e that Sesostris &&&-s ,egro ene!y is the sa!e foe faced by Thut!ose & during the ,e# 3ingdo!. Thut!ose & erected a $ictory stela celebrating his triu!ph o$er a certain people #ho li$ed belo# the third cataract. The inscription boasts, ?He has o$erthro#n the chief of the ,ubiansH the ,egro is helpless. . . . There is not a re!nant a!ong the kinky'haired #ho ca!e to attack hi!.G(14* The /gyptian #ord translated kinky'haired is acco!panied by a lock of hair as a deter!inati$e. The epithet ?kinky'haired@ is used synony!ously #ith the na!e ?,egro.@ The parallel construction i!plies that the distincti$e feature about the southern ,ubians, or ,egroes, is their kinky'hair. This literary e$idence suggests that ,ubian physical types $aried regionally. /gyptian art also depicts a regional distinction in ,ubian physical types.(1;* During the 2ld and %iddle 3ingdo!s, /gyptian rule extended to around the third cataract. ,ubians are portrayed #ith skin of $arying shades of darkness, distincti$e dress and the facial features of an /gyptian. .hen the ,e# 3ingdo! extended its rule south beyond the fourth cataract, there #as a corresponding change in the artist-s portrayal of the ,ubian. The Southerners are sho#n #ith distinct ,egroid featuresMdark skin, e$erted lips, prognathous +a#s and kinkyhair (See 9igure ;*. All of the ancient ,ubian #restlers share a physiogno!ic si!ilarity to the south',ubian ,egroes alluded to in the /gyptian sources.

.9igure ;. Courtesy of the %useo Ci$ico Archeologico.

elief ,u!ber )66:

9ro! the %e!phite to!b of General Hore!heb, about )44; "C ' )6th Dynasty The suggestion that the ancient ,ubian #restlers ca!e fro! regions to the south of the fourth cataract see!s to be confir!ed by anthropological e$idence.(17* Archaeologists exa!ined a burial site at Gebel %oya and other hills in the Ge8ira of Sudan #here re!ains date back to earlier than the t#enty'fifth dynasty in /gypt. According to one of the archaeologists, ?the ce!eteries of this site ha$e yielded the re!ains of a tall coarsely built ,egro or ,egroid race #ith extraordinarily !assi$e skulls and +a#s.G(1<* There is a strong possibility that the southern ,ubians portrayed in the #restling scenes ca!e fro! this part of the Sudan. Anthropologists further suggest that the ,egro type of the Ge8ira hills i!!igrated to the ,uba hills of southern 3ordofan. The i!age of the tall, dark and extre!ely !uscular ,ubian is strikingly re!iniscent of the ,uba of southern 3ordofan in the Sudan. These people ha$e re!ained sheltered in the re!ote hill country fro! outside influences and are surrounded by people that are physically and linguistically different fro! the!.(1:* &ndeed, of the $arious people in the Sudan, none #ould see! better fit to be the descendants of the ancient ,ubian #restlers than those of the ,uba hill tribes of southern 3ordofan. #t(nograp(i! #$i%en!e for Nu"a Wrestling /thnographic studies furnish a!ple e$idence that de!onstrates cultural continuity bet#een the ancient southern ,ubians and the ,uba people of southern 3ordofan. The !ost interesting si!ilarity is the i!portance placed on #restling by the ,uba. A recent anthropological sur$ey of the ,uba noted their lo$e for this sport, #riting, ?#restling is to the ,uba #hat cricket is to the /nglish. &t is the one sport in #hich e$ery fit !an and boy takes part.G(16* Due to &sla!i8ation, !any Sudanese people abandoned their pre'&sla!ic cultural traditions, #hich !ay ha$e included #restling. Apart fro! the ,uba hill people in the Sudan, the only other peoples to practice organi8ed tribal #restling are the ,ilotic Dotuko and Dinka. (1E* Clustered in their re!ote southern 3ordofanian hill country, a half !illion ,uba ha$e practiced their tribal traditions, $irtually uninterrupted for !illenia. The ethnographic e$idence on ,uba #restling #ill underscore its cultural i!portance a!ong the people and also, #hen used cautiously, !ay reflect the significance of #restling a!ong their ancient predecessors. (45*

(.restling !atch at Sha#ia $illage. PhotoB Da$id Ste#art'S!ith ()EE7

According to an oral tradition, the ,uba began #restling in order to i!itate certain species of !onkeys #hich #ere abundant in the hill country. The young !onkeys played by trying to o$erthro# each other.(4)* The ,uba #restlers i!itate certain ani!al and insect characteristics #hile #restling. Dike a baboon or !onkey threatening its foe, the ,uba #ill rub his hands on the groundH (and it helps his grip*. He sta!ps his feet and roars like a bull. 9licking his tongue and !o$ing his fingers like a large flying insect, the ,uba dances into the ring, not as a !an, but representing the spirit of his cattle herd.(41* The ,uba #restling !atches are 0uite thrilling. The spectators enthusiastically cheer for their $illage heroes. 2skar and Horst Du8, #hile studying the ,uba, #rote an exciting description of ho# the !atches #ere foughtB GA #restler dances into the ring, looks challengingly around, assu!es a fighting stance, elbo#s on his knees'and #aits. .hoe$er accepts the su!!ons enters the ring. . . . ,o# the t#o !en take !easure of each other, crouching, #ary, flexing bulging biceps. To o$er a#e the opponent, they #hirl #ith springy steps, shake ar!s and shoulders, li!ber up, and ripple their !uscles. 2ne #restler darts for#ard, taps his head, feints probingly, backs a#ay, flicks his tongue in and out, ad$ances again. The easy graceful !o$e!ents rese!ble ad$ance. The ad$ersary springs for#ard, reaches do#n, tries to sei8e his opponent-s legs. The t#o grapple, ar!s coiled around each other. 2ne lifts his opponent and atte!pts to thro# hi! to the ground, but the other, catlike, lands on his feet. &t is only a !o!entary reprie$e. A 0uick fake, a rush, another clinch, another lift'and this $icti! is sla!!ed on his buttocks to the ground. ,ext !atchJG(44* /$ery ,uba boy has the drea! of one day representing his $illage in a #restling !atch. 9ro! a young age, he co!petes #ith other $illage boys in his peer group.(4;* The i!!ediate goal is to sho# the necessary intelligence, character and skill to be chosen to li$e in the cattle ca!p outside of to#n. .hile exceptional boys are taken to the ca!p at young ages, all the boys of the $illage e$entually go to the cattle ca!p by age thirteen. At the ca!p, the boys care for and gra8e the herd. "ut, !ore i!portantly they go to be trained daily in the techni0ues of #restling by the $illage cha!pion. Their training table consists of the best food that the $illage can offer.(47* The cattle'#restling ca!p is the ,uba school for young !en. .hile at the ca!p, they beco!e part of a cultic fraternity. Daily, ti!e is spent in reflecti$e !editation. The #restlers take ash fro! burnt trees (#hich represents to the! life-s essence* and they dust their naked bodies #ith it, gi$ing the! po#er and cultic identity.(4<* "y #restling, the young !en are initiated into a !anhood cult. The boys learn to #ork hard, be courageous and endure pain.(4:* The #restlers are allo#ed to !arry under co!plicated stipulations. The ,uba belie$e that sexual intercourse #eakens the #restler and, therefore, it is socially and psychologically $ery difficult for !en in their late t#enties to lea$e the cattle ca!p and start fa!ilies.(46* The #restlers represent their $illage, not the!sel$es, at tourna!ents. Cain glory is o$ershado#ed by the #restler-s desire to #in on behalf of their $illage-s ancestral cult. /ach indi$idual #restles se$eral rando!ly chosen !atches at a tourna!ent. .restlers are free to refuse to co!pete against an opponent if they #ish. The athlete that is first to take his opponent to the ground, #ins the !atch.(4E* So!e #restlers #ear gourds around their #aist. Fnbroken gourds testify that the #restler has not lost. "ut, if they are taken do#n, it is both e!barrassing to the! and painful #hen these gourds break against their bare buttocks. The laurel cro#n for a ,uba $ictor is a t#ig, an ani!al hide or a fur tail. .inners are carried +ubilantly on their friends- shoulders, but indi$idual $ictors are forgotten 0uickly. /$ery $illage has its pre!ier #restler #ho is experienced and consistently successful.(;5* 2ften the cha!pion-s reputation spreads and girls co!pose songs about his pro#ess. The follo#ing is a typical song about a cha!pion #restler-s $ictories follo#ed by his declineB GIou are strong. Iou can thro# ten !en. "ut so!e ti!e ago you #eakened. Iou thre# 1 !en only, or you #ere sitting idle. Iour cattle are strong and gi$e plenty of !ilk. Iou ha$e great strength. "ut no# you dress up, you go to the $illage to be #ith the girls. Thus you can no

longer thro# ten !en. Iou thro# only three or sit idle. 9or!erly, #hen 3obane #as here, he #as stronger than you allJG(;)* .hen a fa!ous cha!pion dies, he is co!!e!orated #ith annual tourna!ents, si!ilar to the Greek funerary ga!es.(;1* A!idst the laud and honor directed to#ard a hero, ho#e$er, his glory is ne$er allo#ed to supersede the i!portance of the tea! unit and the $illage that his tea! represents.(;4* .restling tourna!ents are held bet#een ,uba $illages. The co!petition is conducted around so#ing and har$est seasons. There are ob$ious fertility rites connected #ith the #restling tourna!ents.(;;* The challenge to co!petition is issued by the 3ud+ur (the leader of the $illage cult* and is contingent on surplus grain and beer in the host $illage. The #restling is follo#ed by ban0ueting and festi$ities. Har$est tourna!ents are designed for the !utual consu!ption of the surplus grain by the participating $illages. The surplus consu!ption is like an offering in gratitude to the spirit'#orld for the plentiful har$est.(;7* .restlers #ill tra$el as far as 15 !iles to participate in a tourna!ent.(;<* Cillagers fill +ars #ith beer and set out on a +ourney behind their cha!pions. The #restling tourna!ent is the !ost significant cultic and social e$ent for the ,uba people. .restling is the !ediu! that coherently ties together the $arious aspects of ,uba life. The sport is i!portant to the ,uba for both social and religious reasons. .restling is the ,uba #ay to prepare a boy for !anhood #hile pro$iding an opportunity for all young !en to achie$e. Successful #restlers !arry !ore ad$antageously and en+oy a status that #ill follo# the! to the gra$e. The religious i!plications of ,uba #restling are !ore co!plex, containing at least three interrelated ideas. 9irst, #restling is closely related to ancestral #orship. Second, #restling is closely connected #ith fertility rites. 9inally, #restling is the channel through #hich the participants dra!ati8e their ani!istic beliefs. .restling has continued to unify an other#ise dislocated and isolated people. The i!portance of this sport to the ,uba cannot be o$eresti!ated. )on!lusion Concrete connections can be !ade bet#een the ancient ,ubians and the !ode! ,uba. The !ost conclusi$e e$idence for a cultural continuity is deri$ed fro! a co!parison of the ancient archaeological e$idence #ith !ode! anthropological data. /ach ha$e anthropo!orphical and cultural features in co!!on. 9our striking si!ilarities can be noted #ith co!paring the cultural traits of the ancient ,ubian #restlers #ith those of the !ode! ,uba people. The first si!ilarity is that both the ancient ,ubians and !ode! ,uba participated in #restling and stick fighting. The ,uba play a dangerous ga!e #ith spears during their #restling festi$als #hich ha$e been, increasingly, banned by !any tribes. Second, it has been argued that the ball'like figures dangling fro! the he!s of the ,ubian #restlers- gar!ents in the A!arna block are si!ilar to the gourds that are #orn around the #aists of the ,uba #restlers.(;:* Third, the ,ubian #restling battalion ha$e tail like protusions co!ing fro! near their buttocks and ani!al tails bound to their legs, +ust under their knees. This is also si!ilar to a !ode! ,uba practice of #earing bounded, #eighted tails and leggings #hile they #restle. The tails are only #orn by the !ost superior athletes, de!onstrate the #restler-s ani!istic beliefs and their superior skill and balance during a bout. 9inally, the head of the co# in the countryside A!arna scene !ay suggest that the ancient #restlers #ere cattle!an, like their !odern descendants. /$idence regarding ancient ,ubian #restling is deri$ed for! /gyptian archaeological sources and a literary reference in Heliodorus Aithiopica. A careful anthropological in$estigation of the !ode! Sudanese tribes re$eals a #restling culture thri$ing a!ong the ,uba of southern 3ordofan. &t is reasonable to think that the /gyptians sub+ugated #restling tribes like the ,uba. African #restling cha!pions #ere taken fro! their $illages and organi8ed into a regi!ent to #restle in the Pharoah-s tribute ga!es. The ancient ,ubian tradition is still practiced fer$ently by the ,uba, thousands of years after the glory of the Pharaohs.

*eferen!es+ ). See Dabib "outros, Phoenician SportB &ts &nfluence on the 2rigin of the 2ly!pic Ga!es (A!sterda!B N. C. Gieben, )E6)*H .olfgang Decker, Die physische Deistung Pharaos (3OlnB Historisches lnstitut der Deutschen Sporthochschule 3Oln, )E:)*H Carl Die!, .eltgeschichte des Sports und der Deibeser8iehung (StuttgartB N. G. Cotta-sche "uchhandlung, )E<5*H A. D. Touny and S. .enig, Der Sport i! alten Agypten (Deip8igB Cerlag fPr 3unst und .issenschaft, )E<E*H and &ngo!ar .eiler !it Christoph Flf, Der Sport bei den alten .elt (Dar!stadtB .issenschafliche "uchgeselleschaft, )E6)*. 1. 9or other studies, see .. Decker, Die physische Deistung Pbaraos. pp. <<':5H Die!, .eltgeschichte des SportsB C. 2&i$o$Q. Sports and Ga!es in the Ancient .orld (,e# IorkB St. %artin-s Press, )E6;*H Touny and .enig, Der Sport, pp. )7'1)H H. .ilsdorf, ingka!pf i! alten Agypten (.Pt8burg, )E4E*H Nohn A. .ilson, ?Cere!onial Ga!es of the ,e# 3ingdo!,@ Nournal of /gyptian Archaeology 1: ()E4)*B 1))'15H .. Decker, >uellentexte 8u Sport und 3Orperkultur i! alten Rgypten (Sankt AugustinB Cerlag Hans ichar8, )E:S*, pp. 6)'6;H lde!, ?,eue Doku!ente 8u! ingka!pf i! alten Agypten,@ 3Olner "eitrSge 8ur Sport#isse!chaft, Schorndorf 7 ()E:<*B :'1;H &de!, ? ingen,@ in Dexikon der Agyptologie C, 1<7f.H &de!, Sport und Spiel i! alten Rgypten (%onacoB "eck, )E6:*, pp. 65'E5H and %. Poliakoff, Co!bat Sports in the Ancient .orld (,e# Ha$enB Iale Fni$ersity Press, )E6:*. 4. 9or /gypto',ubian relations, see ". Trigger, ,ubia Fnder the Pharaohs (DondonB Tha!es and Hudson, )E:<*. 9or general historical and archaeological co$erage of ancient ,ubia, consult The Ca!bridge History of AfricaH c. 755 ".C.'A.D. )575, Col. 1,ed. N. D. 9age (DondonB Ca!bridge Fni$ersity Press, )E:6*HG. %okhtar, ed., F,/SC2 General History of Africa, Col. 1 ("erkeleyB Fni$ersity of California Press, )E6)*H oland 2li$er and "rian %. 9agan, Africa in the &ron AgeB c. 755 ".C. to A.D. );55 (DondonB Ca!bridge Fni$ersity Press, )E:7*H Anthony N. Arkell, A History of the Sudan 9ro! the /arliest Ti!es to )61), 1nd ed. (,e# IorkB 2xford Fni$ersity, )E<)*H .. I. Ada!s, ,ubiaB Corridor to Africa (PrincetonB Princeton Fni$ersity Press, )E::*H and H. A. %ac%ichael, A History of the Arabs in the Sudan. 1 $olu!es (DondonB Ca!bridge Fni$ersity Press, )E11*H S. .enig, ?,ubien,@ in Dexikon der Agyptologie, &CB 71<'41. ;. See A. and A. "rack, Das Grab des T+anuni'Theban ,r. :;, (ArchSologische CerOffentlichungen )E* (%ain8B Philipp $an Tabern, )E::*, p. ;), Pls. 6, 16, 41. .hile the to!b paintings of #restlers fro! "eni Hasan depict dark and light participants, it is generally belie$ed that the darker color is not intended to illustrate a different cultural stock. See Decker, Die physische Deistung Pharaos, p. <6. 7. %. Poliakoff, Co!bat Sports, pp. <;'<:. ,ote also N. Candier d- Abbadie, ?Deux nou$eaux ostraca figures,@ Annales du Ser$ice des Anti0uitUs de l-/gypt ;5 ()E;5*B ;<:'6:. <. ,. de G. Da$ies, ?The ock To!bs of /l A!arnahB Colu!e &&.@ Archaeological Sur$ey of /gypt ); (Dondon, )E57*, plate 46. :. The !ost recent account of Akhenaten and A!arna is Donald ". edford, AkhenatenB The Heretic 3ing (PrincetonB Princeton Fni$ersity Press, )E6;*. 6. .ilson, ?Cere!onial Ga!es of the ,e# 3ingdo!,@ 1))'15. E. Dabib Habacbi, The Second Stela 2f 3a!ose and His Struggle Against the Hykros uler and His Capital, Abhandlungen des Deutschen Archaeologischen &nstituts 3airo, Agyptologische eihe, 6 (GlPckstadt, )E:1*, fig. )1. See also %. Poliakoff, Co!bat Sports, p. <<, &ll. <<. )5. 9or copies of the text and a description, seeB Fni$ersity of Chicago 2riental &nstitute Publications, ?%edinet Habu,@ Dater Historical ecords of a!ses &&&. Col. && (ChicagoB

Fni$ersity of Chicago Press, )E41*H F$o HOlscher, GThe %ortuary Te!ple of a!ses &&&,G The Fni$ersity of Chicago 2riental &nstitute Publication. Part &, Col. 7; ()E;)*H F$o HOlscher and Harold H. ,elson, ?%edinet Habu eports@ 2riental &nstitute Co!!unications, Col. )7 (ChicagoB Fni$ersity of Chicago Press, )E41*. )). HOlscher and ,elson, ? eports@ p. 4<. )1. A. /r!an, The Diterature of the Ancient /gypt, trans., A. %. "lack!an, (Dondon, )E1:*. &nsert ?#restling@ for Gtribute@ in the 0uotation and one has an exact description of the %edinet Habu frie8e. )4. The copies of the inscriptions in footnotes )4'): ha$e been taken fro! N. A. .ilson-s ?Cere!onial Ga!es of the ,e# 3ingdo!,@ P&. 46 no. )<. );. &bid., Pl. 46, no. )4. )7. &bid., P&. 46, no. ;. )<. &bid., P&. 46, no. 1. ):. &bid., P&. 46, no. E. )6. See . Drenkhahn,?Darstellungen $on ,egern in Rgypten@ (Ph.D. Diss., Ha!burg. )E<:*H Nean Cercouttcr et. al., The &!age of the "lack in .estern Art, &B 9ro! the Pharoahs to the 9all of the o!an /!pire (,e# Iork .illia! %orro#, )E:<*H and 9rank %. Sno#den, "lacks in Anti0uity (Ca!bridgeB Har$ard Fni$ersity Press, )E:5*. )E. &f the !atches #ere nothing !ore than staged nationalistic propaganda, then they #ould not be altogether re!o$ed fro! ?Professional .restling@ in t#entieth'century A!erica. Dike the /gyptian',ubian contests, A!ericans are continually co!peting against So$iets in the !ode! rendition of the ringed farce. 15. Heliodorus, Aethiopica )5. 9or critical co!!entaries on Aithiopica, see N. . %organ-s ?A Co!!entary on the ,inth and Tenth "ooks of the Aithiopica of Heliodorus@ (Ph.D. Diss.,. 2xford Fni$ersity. )E:6*H and Gerald ,. Sandy, Heliodorus ("ostonB T#ayne Publishers, )E61*. The text fro! Aithiopica )5 is also included in . S. obinson-s Sources 9or the History of Greek Athletics (ChicagoB Ares. )E6;*. 9or a !ore general discussion of Africa and classical literature, consult Noseph /. Harris, ed., Africa and Africans as Seen by Classical .riters, Col. && of The .illia! Deo Hansberry African History ,otebook (.ashingtonB Ho#ard Fni$ersity Press, )E::*H and D. A. Tho!pson, Africa in Classical Anti0uity (lbadan, )E<E*. 1). S. Carroll, ?A ,ote on Heliodorus Chapter Ten,@ (Fnpublished !anuscript*. 11. N. H. "reasted, Ancient )B<71. 14. &bid., 1B:). 1;. See Syl$ia Hochfield and /li8abeth iefstahl, eds., Africa in Anti0uityB The Arts of Ancient ,ubia and the Sudan (,e# Iork "rooklyn %useu! Publ., )E:6*. 17. See S. Ada!, ?The &!portance of ,ubiaB A Dink "et#een Central Africa and the %editerranean,@ in %okhtar, ed., F,/SC2 General History of Africa, 1B1;1H and H. A. %ac%ichael, A. History of the Arabs in the Sudan, Col. ) ()E11H reprint ed., DondonB 9rank Cass, )E<:*, pp. 15'1). ecords of /gypt (ChicagoB Fni$ersity of Chicago Press, )E5<*,

1<. C. G. Selig!an, ?Address to the Anthropological Section of the "ritish Association for the Ad$ance!ent of Science.@ eport (%anchester, )E)7*, p. E. See also C. G. Selig!an, ?The Physical Characters of the ,uba of 3ordofan,@ Nournal of the oyal Anthropological &nstitute ;5 ()E)5*H and ?So!e Aspects of the Ha!itic Proble! in the Anglo'/gyptian Sudan,@ ibid., ;4 ()E)4*B <17. 1:. %ost of the ,uba speak languages in the Congo'3ordofanian language stock of African languages, and are the only people in the Sudan #hose languages are in this fa!ily. There are a fe# ,uba people li$ing to the north#est of the ,uba bills that speak languages assigned to the /astern Sudanic subdi$ision of the Chari',ile fa!ily #hich is related to the 2ld ,ubian of the ,ile $alley (although the earliest textual e$idence of ,ubian is 6 c. A.D.*. ,ote N. Greenberg, Danguages of Africa, 4rd ed. ("loo!ington, &,B Fni$ersity of &ndiana Press, )E:5* and oland 2li$er, ?The Proble! of the "antu /xpansion,@ Noural of African History : ()E<<*B 6<)':<. ,ote specifically the !any #orks on the ,uba languages included in the bibliography. A recent su!!ary is %. Posnansky, ?&ntroduction to the Dater Prehistory of Sub'Saharan Africa,@ in %okhtar, ed., F,/SC2 General History of Africa, 1B74<. 16. C. S#eeney, Nebels by %oonlight (DondonB Chatto V .indus, )E<E*, p. )<). 1E. See. G. .. ". Huntingford, AThe ,orthern ,ilo'Ha!itesB /ast Central Africa part C&,@ /thnogrophic Sur$ey of Africa, ed. D. 9orde (DondonB &nternational African &nstitute, )E74*, p. E5. A!ong the Dotuko, both sexes #restle separately. This practice see!s si!ilar to puberty #restling a!ong the young girls of the Talodi and Dafofa in C. G. Selig!an and ". T. Selig!an, Pagan Tribes of the ,ilotic Sudan (DondonB G. outledge and Sons, )E41*, pp. 4E)'E1. 9or #restling a!ong other non',uba Sudanese peoples, note 9. S. Deng, The Dinka of the Sudan (,.I.B Holt, inehart and .inston, )E:1*, pp. <;'<7H and N. .. Cro#foot, ?Custo!s of the ubatab,@ Sudan ,otes and ecords )B1 ()E)6*B)1) (hereafter S, *. 45. 9or ethnographic accounts of ,uba #restling, see 2skar and Horst Du8, ?Proud Pri!iti$es, the ,uba People,@ ,ational Geographic )45.7 ()E<<*B <:4'EEH S. 9. ,adel, The ,uba (DondonB 2xford Press, )E;:*H Deni iefenstahl, The Dast of the ,uba (,.I.B Harper and o#, )E:4*H George odger, De Cillage des ,ouba ParisB obert Delpire, )E77*H N. Sagar, ?,otes on the History, eligion and Custo!s of the ,uba,@ S, 7.) ()E11*B )4:'7<H Selig!an and Selig!an, Pagan TribesH and C. S#eeney, Nebels. 4). C. S#eeney, Nebels, pp. )<)'<1. 41. D. iefenstahl, Dast ,uba. p. )41.

44. 2. Du8 and H. Du8, ?Proud Pri!iti$es.@ p. <E6. 4;. The ?age'grade@ co!petition is attested to by S. 9. ,adel, ,uba, pp. )4;, )4<, 14)'41, 1E:'E6, ;5< 1E:'E6. ;l5')). 47. D. iefenstahl, Dast ,uba, p. )5). Co#-s !ilk, the largest 0uantities of dura, peanuts, sesa!e and honey are reser$ed for #restlers. Children, pregnant #o!en and those #ho are nursing #e gi$en goat-s !ilk. &ronically, at the !atches all but the #restlers drink beerH and, apparently, the #restlers also abstain fro! tobaccoJ (&bid., p. ::*. 4<. &bid., p. )5). 4:. .ith !any ancient cultures, #restling #as part of !ilitary training. The ,uba, ho#e$er, are peace'lo$ing people. S. 9. ,adel, ,uba, p. 455H D. iefenstahl, Dast ,uba, p. 15. See D. iefenstahl, The People of the 3au, (,e# IorkB Harper, )E:<*H and 9. D. 3ingdo!, ?"racelet 9ighting in the ,uba %ountains,@ S, 1). ) ()E46*B )E:'EE.

46. See D.

iefenstahl, Dast ,uba, pp. )E, 1;, )54')5;H and S. 9. ,adel, ,uba. pp. 1EE'455.

4E. S. 9. ,adel, ,uba, p. 141. ;5. The Cha!pion co!es for! a group selected and dedicated at a young age. See D. iefenstahl, Dast ,uba, pp. )54, )45'4)H 2. and Hort8 Du8, GProud Pri!iti$es,@ pp. <E1'E4. ;). S. 9. ,adel, ,uba, pp. )4<'4:. ;1. D. iefenstahl, Dast ,uba, pp. )5), )<6'155. Apparently, so!e !atches are conducted to placate the dead !an-s spiritH ,ote Selig!an and Selig!an, Pagan, p. ;)5. See also S. 9. ,adel, ,uba, p. 1E:. ;4. S. /. ,adel, ,uba, pp. 14)'41. ;;. See G. .. "ell, ?,uba Agricultural %ethods and "eliefs,@ S, 1).1 ()E46*B 44:';EH D. iefenstahl, Dast ,uba, pp. :7':<, and C. S#eeney, Nebels, p. )<). efer to C. G. Selig!an ? eligion of the ,uba@ in Hasting-s /ncyclopedia of eligion and /thicsH P. D. 3auc8or, ?Afitti ,uba of Nebel Daier,@ S, <.)()E14*B )4. ;7. D. iefenstahl, Dast ,uba, p. )45.

;<. &bid., p. )5;. ;:. This $ery i!portant obser$ation #as !ade by .. Decker in ?,eue Doku!ente 8u! ingka!pf i! alten Rgypten,@ :'1;, Dok. 1, p. )5 s00H and ide!, Sport und Spiel i! alten Rgypten, pp. 65 ff. &ll. ;7 on p. 6;.