Communication Strategies Tarone (1977), further elaborated by Tarone (1983), classified communication strategies as follows:

1. Paraphrase a. Approximation use of a single target language vocabulary item or structure, which the learner knows is not correct, but which shares enough semantic features in common with the desired item to satisfy the speaker (e.g. pipe for water pipe ) b. Word coinage the learner makes up a new word in order to communicate a desired concept (e.g. airball for balloon ) c. Circumlocution the learner describes the characteristics or elements of the objects or action instead of using the appropriate target language item or structure (e.g. She is smoking something. I dont know whats its name. ) 2. Borrowing a. Literal translation the learner translates word for word from the native language b. Language switch the learner uses the native language term without bothering to translate c. Appeal for assistance the learner asks for the correct term (e.g. What is this? What called? ) d. Mime the learner uses non-verbal strategies in place of a lexical item or action 3. Avoidance a. Topic avoidance the learner simply tries not to talk about concepts for which the target language item or structure is not known b. Message abandonment the learner begins to talk about a concept but is unable to continue and stops in mid-utterance

As indicated by Tarones use of the term, the learner, these strategies are used when second-language learners attempt to communicate with speakers of the target language. In conversation, speakers and listeners have to work together to exchange a message. Tarone (1983:65) explains as follows:
I would like to broaden the definition of communication strategies; therefore, to make it clear that the term relates to a mutual attempt of two interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations where requisite meaning structures do not seem to be shared. (Meaning structures here would include both linguistic structures and sociolinguistic rule structure) Communication strategies, viewed from this perspective, may be seen as attempts to bridge interlocutor in real communication situations. Approximation, mime, and circumlocution may be used to bridge this gap. Message abandonment and avoidance may be used where the gap is perceived as unbridgeable.

As Tarone mentions above, there are strategies speakers use in order to convey their message and strategies speakers use to abandon the topic. Avoidance strategies, however, are not necessarily negative as speakers use them to change the topic and pick up another line of conversation in which they are more interested. Tarones categories of communication strategies explained above are not, however, enough. I would like to add some other categories from Celce-Murcia, et al (1995:28). They suggest components of strategic competence as follows:
1. Avoidance or Reduction Strategies message replacement, topic avoidance, message abandonment 2. Achievement or Compensatory Strategies circumlocution (e.g. the thing you open bottles with for corkscrew) approximation (e.g. fish for carp) all-purpose words (e.g. things, thingamajig) non-linguistic means (mime, pointing, gestures, drawing pictures) restructuring (e.g. The bus was very there were a lot of people on it.) word-coinage (e.g. vegetarianist) literal translation from L1 code switching to L1 or L3 Retrieval (e.g. bro bron bronze) 3. Stalling or Time-gaining Strategies fillers, hesitation devices and gambits, (e.g. well, actually, where was I?) self and other-repetition 4. Self-monitoring Strategies self-initiated repair (e.g. I mean ) self-rephrasing (over-elaboration) (e.g. This is for students pupils when youre at school) 5. Interactional Strategies appeal for help direct (e.g. What do you call?) indirect (e.g. I dont know the word in English or puzzled expression) meaning negotiation strategies indicators of non/mis-understanding requests repetition requests (e.g. Pardon? Or Could you say that

again, please?) clarification requests (e.g. What do you mean by?) confirmation requests (e.g. Did you say?) expressions of non-understanding verbal (e.g. Sorry, Im not sure I understand) non-verbal (raised eyebrows, blank look) interpretive summary (e.g. You mean? / So what youre saying is ?) responses repetition, rephrasing, expansion, reduction, confirmation, rejection, repair comprehension checks whether the interlocutor can follow you (e.g. Am I making sense?) whether what you said was correct or grammatical (e.g. Can I/you say that?) whether the interlocutor is listening (e.g. on the phone: Are you still there?) whether the interlocutor can hear you