When heat is applied to a fluid, it generally causes an expansion of the fluid in the region closest to the source of heat.

This region now has a lesser density than its surrounding regions. According to Archimedes' principle (and the force of gravity), the surrounding cooler and denser fluid regions exert a buoyant force on the warmer fluid region as a conse!uence, the latter is pushed upwards whereas the former replaces it. This cooler fluid, in turn, may be warmed and pushed upwards, thus establishing a continuous flow. "imilarly, when a fluid has been cooled, it becomes denser and moves downwards pushing the surrounding warmer region upwards. #n either case, in response to a non$uniform temperature distribution a conversion current is established that travels through the body of the fluid transferring heat and causing a temperature redistribution. #n general, whatever heat energy is transferred by the bul% movement of a fluid, the energy is said to be transferred by convection. An important exception to the principle that warmth creates an upward flow is water. Water that is at or near its free&ing point ('() * +,(-) contracts when heated until it reaches its maximum density at .() (+/(-). Within this range the warmer regions flow downwards. Above .(), water behaves normally. Two %inds of convective processes exist0 one by natural or free convection, the other by forced convection. #n natural convection the fluid density changes resulting from the heat energy exchange cause a natural fluid motion. #n other words, natural convection occurs because of the buoyant forces that arise when a temperature difference causes the density at one place in the fluid to be different from that at another. The smo%e rising above a fire is a visible result of natural convection as the heated air moves upwards only by gravity. "imilar movements of air ta%e place in the atmosphere as the convection currents resulting from the warming of the lower atmospheric layers by the sun$heated ground are pushed upward by the surrounding cooler and denser air. 1epending on the weather conditions, especially the heat energy supplied by the ground, they may cause winds, updrafts (or 2thermals') and tornadoes. Thermals are used by haw%s and sail$planes to gain height or altitude. Thermals result stronger as the temperature difference between ground level and higher altitudes increases and, sometimes, their upward movement becomes longer because air temperature decreases with increasing altitude. This fact constitutes an important mechanism for dispersing industrial pollution that, however, light subse!uently help destroy the o&one$layer. "ometimes, meteorological conditions favour the formation of an inversion layer where the temperature increases with increasing altitude, which arrests the normal upward$moving convection currents, and

therefore, causes a stagnant$air condition in which the concentration of pollutants increases. Another example of natural convection currents occurs in a saucepan of water that is being heated on a gas or electrical stove. The water at the bottom accepts heat energy from the pan by conduction, then undergoes thermal expansion and is buoyed upwards by the surrounding, denser water. The lighter water (or less dense) carries thermal energy throughout the pan by this convection process. -inally, both home base$board heating systems and refrigerators also use convection processes to distribute heat energy although they use opposite locations for the unit that warms or cools the air. 3aseboard heating units are placed near the floor so that the warmed air can move upwards whereas the cooling coils are placed at the top so that the cooled air can move downwards as it was explained before. Were the heating unit placed near the ceiling, the warmed air would remain there, and very little convection current would be generated. "imilarly, if the cooling coils were located at the bottom of the refrigerator, they would produce still, cool air at the bottom and lead to inefficient cooling at the top. All the situations above are examples of natural convection. 4owever, to transfer sufficient amounts of heat energy forced convection is often used, which is caused by an external device such as a fan or a pump. The external agent mixes the warmer and cooler portions of the fluid. The basic rate e!uation for convective heat transfer was first presented by sir #saac 5ewton (67'6). This very simple expression, %nown as 5ewton rate e!uation or 5ewton's law of cooling, is q = hA (Tsurf 8 Tfluid) where q is the rate of convective heat transfer in W, A is the area normal to the direction of heat flow in m ,, Tsurf 8 Tfluid is the temperature driving force in 9, and h is the convective heat transfer coefficient in W:m, ; 9. The temperature difference may be written either as T surf 8 Tfluid or as Tfluid 8 Tsurf $ As convection heat transfer involves energy exchange between a bul% fluid and a surface or interface, the temperature driving force determines whether heat transfer is to or from a given surface. #n addition, the surface orientation, to or from which heat is exchanged with an ad<acent fluid, determines the direction of heat transfer. #t is well %nown that, despite the flow movements involved, the energy transfer to a direct ad<acent surface is performed by conduction. #t is these surface conductive layers of fluid or fluid 2film' that control the heat transfer rate and thus determine a given value for h.